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UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY OF ARTS and S-Cd BNC ES: CASTRAMETATION. fenfe, the art of tracing out and difpofing of, advan- “eqa ten Aare is, in its ftri@ and limited tageoufly and regularly, the different parts of a camp onthe ground. But taken in its more indefinite and unli- - mited acceptation, it extends to and is connected with all the ordinary operations of the campaign, as well as the conduct- ing and management of fieges. Under the firlt of thefe con- fiderations, an able officer, in choofing fituations for the en- campment of his troops, will endeavour to derive advantages from every fituation, of which the variety is almoft endlefs and indefinite, that nature prefents to his view, as plains, moun- tains, pafles, hollow ways, ponds, marfhes, rivers, particularly {uch as are navigable and commodious for the tranfportation of ftores and provilions, rivulets fit for forming inundations, woods convenient for making abattes and furnifhing abun- dance of palifades and fire-wood ; politions advantageoufly fituated for works, for commanding and keeping open his communications with thofe traéts or diftri¢ts of country from which he draws his fupplics of forage and provifions ; for covering and protecting his convoys ; for fecuring a fuf- ficiency of ground commodious for drawing up his troops on in order of battle, if neceflary, and for their facile and ex- peditious performance of all the requifite movements without diforder or confufion even in the face of the enemy; and polts well calculated for bridling the enemy’s operations, and checking his inroads into his country, whilit they facili- tate his incurfions into the enemy’s. He fhoutd not only be capable of difcerning thefe advantages, but fhould alfo be able to turn them immediately to account without fuffering the opportunity of profiting by them to efcape him. And under the lait of thefe confiderations, when the befieging army is unavoidably fo encamped, as is indeed oftenerthe cafe than otkerwife, that the different parts of it are feparated from one another by rivers, great or {mall, ravines, or other obita- cles and ob{trudtions, he fhould know how to open and ella Vou. VII, Strahan and Pre fton,. blith {uch communications between them, in the moft expe- ditious manner, as will render their co operations, in either covering, forwarding, and protecting the different branches of the approaches, or in checking and curbing the jallies of the befieged, as convenient, eafy, and efficient as poffible, He fhould not only be able to difcern, almott immediately, the pofitions in the environs of the place moft advantageoufly fituated for facilitating thefe purpoles, but ought to occupy them whether they be a little too near to or too far from the enemy’s works, taking care to keep the rear of his camp (the form or figure of which he muft change or vary from what is cultomary, but, at the fame time, /ecundum artem to make it {uit his fituation and circumftances) out of the reach of their cannon. He fhould know how to determine without lofs of time the precife diftance from the works of the place he iuvefts, neceflary for the fafety and fecurity of his camp again{t annoyance from them, that he may avoid the unneceflary labour, delay, and trouble of throwing up too extenfive lines of circumvallation. He fhould carefully guard again{t his camp’s being looked into by commanding ground near any part of it in front, on either flank, or in the rear. For it is better to occupy fuch eminences with good redoubts orto make the lines themfelyes communicate with them, than to leave the camp expofed to danger or moleftation. And in the difpofition or arrangement of the line of circum- vallation for its defence, he ought to avail himfelf of heights, riyers, ravines, {teep banks, and flopes, dikes, ditches, pits, walls, buildings, fences, abattes, thickets, &c. and, in fhort, every thing that can be embraced by it, and from which any additional {trength or advantage can be derived to it. In every country its quarter-maiter general ought to be a man of the molt extenfiye military knowledge and informa- tion, as ruinous confequences may refult from his being a perfon of a different defcription. And the officers under him ought alfo to be men of the firft intelligence. They B ought CASTRAMETATION. ° ought not only to underftand how to trace out ground for troops to encamp in the ufual or cuftomary manner, but they ought alfo to be fo far converfant in geometry and in the doctrine of ratios or relations, as to be able without confin- ing themfelves to the rules prefcribed by any writer on caf-~ trametation, none of which are applicable to every fituation, with promptitude and readinefs to vary the form of an en- capment in fach a manner as to make it fuit the circum. ftances they are placed in, preferving, at the fame time, in the different parts of it order, regularity, and due propor- tion. They fhould poffefs knowledge enough to enable them to difcern immediately which of two politions, appa- rently in other refpeéts alike advantageous for an encamp- ment, is capable of being fecured and defended with the leaft trouble and difficulty. They ought to underftand the rinciples of fortification, and particularly of irregular con- RrnGon, without which the coup d’ail itfelf cannot be car- ried to much perfeétion. And they fhould, in fhort, be well acquainted with the doétrine of pofitions and the combina- tions of attack and defence, which, united, form the fublime part of war. Every nation, er tribe of people, even the moft favage and uncivilized, has had a particular mode of encamping. But by whom a regular method of forming an encampment was firft introduced, cannot with certainty be determined. As fome knowledge, however, of geometry, was neceflary for tracing out a. camp regularly, it is more than probable, that regular caftrametation was frit made ufe of in Egypt. The great numbers of people affembled together, and employed in digging the immenfe canals, and on other prodigious pub- lic works in that country, muit have been evcamped, as they could not return home daily. The Tfraclites, before they left Egypt, muft have been often and long encamped, and, of courle, after the manner of the Egyptians. Mofes gives us no account of the way in which they encamped, either in Etham, or near Pi-habiroth, in front of Baal-ze- phon, béfore he carried them acrofs the Red Sea. But in the fecond chapter.of the book of Numbers he delivers a general one of what he was commanded to obferve in regard both to their cattrametation and order of march. They were ordered to pitch their tents, every man by his own camp, and by his own flandard, throughout their feveral hotts. Thofe, who were under the ftandard of Judah, viz. the tribes of Judah, Iffachar, aud Zebulun, to the amount of 185,400 fighting men, formed the ealt fide of the camp, to- wards the rifing of the fun. Thefe, on decamping, were fo Set forth jfirft, or lead the van, and were commanded by Nah- fhon, Nethaneel, and Eliab. Thofe under the ftandard of Reuben, viz. the tribes of Reuben, Simeon, and Gad, amounting to 151,450 warriors, formed the fouth fide of the camp. Thefe, on decamping, fet farth in the fecond rand, and were commanded by Elizur, Shelomiel, and Eliafaph. Thofe under the ftandard of Ephraim, viz. the tribes of Ephraim, Manaffeh, and Benjamin, amounting to 105,109 combatants, formed the welt fide, and were commanded by Elifhama, Gamaliel, and Abidan. Thele, however, ona march, did not follow immediately thofe that formed the fouth fide of the camp, but the Levites, who with the ta- bernacle followed the warriors under the ftandard of Reu- ben. Thofe under the ftandard of Dan, viz. the tribes of Dan, Afher, and Naphtali, to the number of 157,600 fighting men, formed the north fide, and were commanded by Ahiezer, Pagiel, and Ahira. Thefe, on a march, brought up’the rear, In the middle of that immenfe encampment, the Levites, to the number of 22,009, encamped with the tabernacle of the congregation afar off from the fides of the camp, with Mofes and Aaron and his fons in front of it, towards th ealt. : 4 It is probable, nay almoft evident, that this huge camp was a fquare, or nearly fo. For although the number of fighting men that pitched their tents under the ftandard of Judah, on the eaft fide of the camp, amounted to 186,400, exceeding the number of thofe who encamped towards the welt, or on the oppofite fide of the camp, underthe ftandard of Ephraim, by 78,309, yet the number of warriors en- camped on the north fide of it, under the itandard of Dan, amounting to 157,600, exceeded the number of thofe en- camped on the fouth fide, under the ftandard of Reuben, by 6,150 only. Now had they encamped in the fame manner as we mult reafonably fuppofe they did, and with the fame depth in each front or fide, their camp would have been a tra- pezium, having its fides to one another as the numbers 186,400, -157,6c0, 15,459, 108,100. This, however, would have been a very awkward, and inconvenient ffzure for it: but by making the depth of the encampment on the eaft fide to that on the north fide as 18 157, and the depth of it on the welt and fouth fides relly as 108 and 151 to 157, they might eafily have made their camp a fyuare.. And it is more than probable, that it was a perfec fquare when the ground admitted of it, for Mofes was {killed in all the knowledge and learoing of the Egyptians, and they were fufficiently acquainted with geometry to know that of all retilinear figures with the-fame perimeter, the {quare contains the greatelt area. Mofes neither informs us how their tents were arranged, nor whether they furrounded their camp with an intrench- ment. That fanciful French writer, however, M. de Folard, in his Traité de ’Attaque et de la Defenfe des Places des Anciens,’’ article third, roundly afferts, that Mofes always intrenched his camps. In fpeaking of lines of cireum- vallation and countervallation, he ufes the following words : “On ignore que des Egyptiens, des Juifs, des Affyriens, ou des Medes, {’en eft fervi le premier. Je pencherois plutot pour les premiers que pour les autres, parce que je les crois plus anciens. Mozrfe fe retrancha toujours a fes campe~ mens. L’ecriture ne dit pas qu’il été le premier, qui fe foit fervi de ces fortes de precautions; et lorsqu’élle parle de Pinveftiture des villes on ne. voit rien, que puiffe marquer ou faire conjeGurer que c’eit pour la premiere fois.” Mofes tells us that the Ifraelites, on quitting their camp, — moved in four large bodies, of three tribes each, with the Levites and the tabernacle of the congregation between the — fecond and third of thefe divifions. ~ - : The Romans alfo, on quitting their camp, marched in five principal bodies or divilions ; for the extraordinaries led the van; next after them marched the allies of the right wing, who were followed by the baggage of both; after them marched the firft of the two Roman legions, with its own baggage behind it; then followed the fecond legion with both its own baggage bchind it, and that of the allies of the left wing, who clofed the rear, The cavalry marched fometimes in the rear of the refpe€tive bodies to whom they belonged, and fometimes on the flanks of the beaits of burden loaded with the baggage, keeping them to- gether, and covering them from infult. When any attack was expected to be made upon the rear, the extraordinaries of the allies were placed there, inftead of leading the van. The two legions and the two wings of the allies changed their places daily on a march, which the four principal bo- dies of the Ifraclites do not appear to have done, that they ; might CASTRAMETATION, might enjoy by turns the advantage of arriving firft at water and forage. When they were threatened with any imme- diate danger, and were marching through an open country, they advanced in three parallel lines behind one another, with ule bagyage of each line in its front. Before the end.of a march, and the approach of the army to the place of encampment, a tribune, accompanied by fome centurions, advanced to examine and furvey the ground, to determine the fituation of the confular tent, and on which fide of it the legions could be moft conveniently en- camped. As to the caftrametation of the Romans, according to Polybius, and during the commonwealth, fee the article Came. The French Encyclopedifts, following Jultin Lip- fias, chiefly make it nearly an equilateral quadrangle or fquare ; but Polybius makes it a perfect-fquare. As tothe caltrametation of the Greeks, we underftand from Polybius that they had no invariable, fixed, or deter- minate method of encamping. Xenophon, in treating of the Lacedemonian republic, ‘delivers Lycurgus’s fentiments refpeGting caftrametation, and informs us, that that lawgiver regarding the four angles of a quadrangle, or fquare, as ufe- lefs, enjoined the circular form for a camp, unlefs it were fecured by a mountain, or had its rear covered by a wall or river. His words are thefe: “ “Epw de xd i spororedevec4as evouboe xpnvors Auxoupyos Dim piv yore To ros yavlas re TET poywyou AX PNTOVUS Ebvoey “UZAOY exparomedeucato, eb py opos asParzs Un, 4 TeiXos, % ToTap.oy omieGey Ervouev.”? ; Even this mode of caltrametation, delivered by Lycurgus, was not fixed or determinate, but might vary with the cir- cumftances of ground and fituations; and we have the au- thority of Polybius for afferting, that the Greeks in general, when they encamped, confidered chiefly the natural ftrength of the pofition they chofe for that purpofe, and accommo- dated to it the admeafurement and difpofition of the different parts of their camp, partly from anxiety to avoid the labour of throwing up an intrenchment round it, and artly from the perfuafion that works raifed by art are lefs ecure than thofe that are made by nature. In compliance with what the nature of the ground demanded, they were accordingly obliged not only to give their camp occafionally every kind of figure, but alfo to vary the pofitions and di- mentions of its feveral parts, asthe place for each was favour- able or otherwife. Hence, this judicious hiftorian tells us, arofe that great inccnvenience, namely, that the Grecian fol- dier never knew either his own place in the camp, or that of the body to which he belonged. On the other hand, he fays, the Romans willingly fubmitted to the tafl of throwing up an intrenchment, and to other painful labours, for the fake of the advantage they found in employing a method of ca(trametation that was never changed, and which rendered all the-parts of the camp familiar to the army. The Romans alfo, on their marches, cheerfully underwent much greater fatigue for the fecurity of their camps than the Greeks were willing to fubmit to, each foldier frequently carrying three or four palifades for the intrenchment. This was a labour, Polybius tells us, which in the difcipline of the Grecian armies was regarded as impracticable ; whereas the Romans performed it without much difficulty. he Greeks, he fays, on their marches, were hardly able to fup- ort the toil of moving along their own bodies. But the Rebate after flinging their ihields with the leathern braces behind their fhoulders, took their javelins in their hands, and were at the fume time able to carry the palifades. hey alfo difcovered more judgment both in the choice and fhape of their palifades than the Greeks, whofe averfion from labour and fatigue mut have frequently left their camps in a flate of great infecurity. Befides the account given by Polybius of the Roman me- thod of encamping, there is a defeription of their caftrame- tation, given ona mutilated feroll or label by Hyginus, who appears to have been a camp and land meafurer in the time of Trajan and Hadrian, when the empire was in its highett pitch of glory, as Trajan had extended it beyond the. Ti- pris on one fide, and beyond the Danube on the’ other, Hyginus’s fragment was firft publifhed in 1606, but ina form fo defcétive and mutilated, as to be hardly intelligible. In 1665, it was publithed at Amflerdam, with a very curi- ous, learned, and elaborate commentary on it by Rhabodus Hermannus Schelius. In the time of Marius, the military affairs of the Romans without doubt underwent a confiderable change, which pro- bably affeted their ancient fyftem of cafirametation, but to what extent it is impoffible to determine. But the altera- tions then introduced gradually occafioned a great departure from their former rules and regulations. It is no wonder then that their caltrametation, according to Hyginus, dif- fers fo materially as it does from that of Polybius. Though the empire of the Romans was at its utmoft extent, and exifted in full force and vigour, their language was on the decline, and its purity in a great meafure loft. The legions, by refiding long in the conquered countries, adopted by de- grees the barbarifms of the natives, and became familiar to their manners and cuftoms. The attaching of large bodies of mercenaries to them gave rife to a different eftablifhment, both for their national and auxiliary troops; in the latter of whom they could not always place fo much confidence as formerly, and occafioned the creation of many new officers and appointments, which rendered a new method of caftra- metation neceflary. Hence, this writer makes ufe of terms that are not to be found in any other author, and feem to have been unknown in the time of Polybius, The f{eroll or label containing his rules of caftrametation is entitled * Hy- gini Gromatici de Caftrametatione Liber.” He informs us, that a complete army confifted of three legions, with their fupplementa, or auxiliaries, making ufe of this number for the purpofe of exemplifying or illuttrat- ing his caftrametation, and obferving at the fame time that the largeft army was compofed of no more than five or fix fuch le- gions. He tells us, that every camp, as often as circum- {tances will permit, fhould be one half longer than it is broad, or have its length to its breadth in the ratio of three to two. Such a camp he calls caffra tertiata. He accord- ingly makes the length of a camp for three legions equal to 2,400 Roman feet, and its breadth equal to 1,600 fect. General Roy, however, fays that the particular meafures as given by him do not correfpond exaétly with thefe gene- ral dimenfions, and makes the fu of them, as he has col- leé&ted them from the original, give the length of the carnp equal to 2,310 feet only, and the breadth egual to 1,620 feet, the one falling fhort of 2,400 feet by go, and the other exceeding 1,600 by 20. When the camp was longer in proportion to its breadth, than in the ratio of three to two, it was called caffra claffica, becanfe a general founding of all the martial inftruments to- gether became neceflary, as the buccinum or bugle-horn founded in front of the pretorium could not then be dif- tinétly heard at the diftant parts of the camp. Hyginus divides the length of his camp into three unequal! parts, by ftreets extending acrofs the whole breadth of it. The firit of thefe, lying in front of the prztorinm, he calls the pratentura. The fecond, lying between the principal B32 “ftreet CASTRAMETATION. flreet and the quintan ftreet, and in the middle of which {tands the pretorium, he calls the /atera pratorii ; and to the third, fituated beyond the quintan ftreet and behind the pre- torium, he gives the name of retentura. The principal treet, according to him, was 60 feet broad, and had the middle of it before the centre of the prztorium diftinguifhed by the name of groma, from the crofs-{taff, or fome fimilar inftrument, which was ufed for tracing out the right angles of the camp. And thofe employed in this bu- finefs, or in making allotments of lands in the conquered countries for the veterans, were probably called gromatict. The pretorian ftreet, leading from the groma perpendicularly to the principal ftreet, is alfo 60 feet wide. The breadth of the quintan ftreet is 30 feet as well as that of the fagular ftreet, which runs quite along the four fides of the camp, dividing the interior part of it from the exterior, or that which lies be- tween the faid {treet and the iutrenchment. But when an army confifted of five or fix legions, the breadth of each of thefe ftreets was equal to 40 feet. The intervallum between the tents on the outfide of the fagular ftreet, and the intrenchment mak- ing part of the exterior divifion of the camp, is every where Go feet wide. This camp commonly had only four gates, viz. the right and left principal gates, the decuman gate, and the pretorian gate. Hyginus fays, that the decuman gate received its name from the tenth cohort of the legion’s being encamped near it. General Roy, however, places this gate differently from Hyginus, and differs alfo from Schelius in feveral particulars in regard to the interior divi- ions and arrangement of the camp. It was the practice of the Romans during the common- wealth to place their own legions in the centre, both in the camp and when drawn up in order of battle. Hyginus, however, places the moft of the legionary troops in the exte- rior part of the camp without the fagular ftreet, and neareft to the rampart, for the defence of which they were more to be depended on than the mercenaries, in whom they did not confide fo much as they formerly ufed to do in their fo- cii or allies. He alleges that the foreign troeps, by being kept thus within, or furrounded by the Roman legions, were more eafily rendered obedient and attentive to their duty. They certainly had it lefs in their power to defert, or carry intelligence to the enemy, than they would had they been encamped next to the intrenchment. The form of his camp muft in a great meafure have depended on the proportion which the number of the legionary troops bore to that of the mercenaries, or auxiliaries, fince when the laft was but fmall, the Roman cohorts could encamp with a greater depth and lefs extended front, leaving more {pace between the fagular ftreet and the rampart ; and when it was great, with a {maller depth and a more extended front, leaving Icfs fpace between the faid freet and the rampart. Hyginus tells us, that a complete century of foot con- fifted of eighty men, and that one tent held cight men. When all the men of a century then were off duty, they would have required ten tents. But as part of each century was always on duty, they pitched only cight tents, leaving thereby fufficient room for that of the centurion. For every tent a fpace of 12 feet in length was allowed. The length of the ground then occupied by the men of the century and the centurion was equal to 120 feet. The breadth of the fpace allowed for each tent was equal to ro feet. Five feet more were allotted for the arms, and nine for the bat-horfes, or beafts of burden. The whole breadth therefore of the hemiftrigium, or half-ftriga, amounted to 24 feet; and the length of it was what Hyginus terms intadulino, Another hemiftrigium lying contiguous to this, but in an order re- verfed, that the horfes might front thofe in the other, and feed at the fame manger, made a breadth oF 48 feet for one itriga, to which, if a width of 12 feet along the whole length of the {pace occupied by it fora ftreet, between it and the next ftriga be added, we get 60 feet. The whole fpace then, including the faid flrect of 12 feet wide, allotted for one ftriga, or two hemiftrigium, confifting of two cen- turies or 160 men, contained 120 multiplied by 60 feet, or +200 {quare feet. And a cohort, which confifted of fix centu- ries, occupied of courfe 21,600 {quare feet. For the Hyginian camp of a Roman army, compofed of three legions, with their fupplementa or auxiliaries, confifling of 42,626 men, fee Plate of Caftrametation, figs. 1, 2, 3+ It is evident that in the Hyginian camp the fame number- of troops occupied a much {maller fpace than they did in the Polybian camp. ‘The Roman armies under their empe- rors were more impatient of labour and fatigue than they were under the commonwealth, which led to the fhortening of the length of the intrenchment and the crowding of as many men as poffible into a given fpace. They alfo got into the practice of employing a much greater proportion of cavalry to their number of infantry than they did before their go- vernment became imperial. And the cavalry were com- monly exempted from working on the intrenchments. Thefe and other caufes made them depart gradually from their an- cient fyftem of caftrametation, as defcribed by Polybius, and make their camps fometimes reCtangular, fometimes tri- angular, fometimes circular, fometimes oval, and, to avoid. labour, give it different forms to fuit the circumftances of advantageous ground, and the neceflity of:their fituation.. Diftribution CASTRAMETATION, Diftribution of the troops inthe Hyginian camp, containing three legions, with their fupplementa, or auxillaries. eal Total Gene- In the Pretentura, or Front Divifion of the Camp. onary Pe infan- | Horfe. | Total. | ralto- try. tal. Ten legionary cohorts of 480 each, placed without the fagular {treet - . - - | 4,800] hree legionary cohorts of the fame number within that {treet - - 1,440 One firft cohort Gf the legion double in iene to the 4 7,400 7 ordinary cohorts - - - G60 | 25300 f The vexillarti of one legion attached to and encamped with this cohort : - - - 500 J 10,000 Marines of Mifenum - - = Marines of Ravenna - : - - Attached to the hofpital for the mcn, the veterinarium \ for the horfes, including artificers and labourers of all forts - = - = = Exploratores, or fcouts - - - Moorifh horfe - - =i a Pannonian veredaries - - Four ale milliariz, or wings of horfe, of 1000 each, 15,216 from which, deducting 96 fupernumerary horfes be- longing to the officers, there remain go4 for the ef- fetive eftablifhment of each ala - S - In the Pretorian, or Central Divifion of the Camp. Six legionary cohorts of 480 each, without the fagular ftreet - 2,880 Two firlt cohorts eb the feeioue within the fotze ftreet, on the right and left, each confifting of g60 men - 1,920 The vexillarii of thefe two legions, encamped with their refpective firlt cohorts, at 500 each c A 1,000 Four pretorian cohorts, reckoned only at the eftablith- ba ment of the ordinary legionary cohorts, 480 each - 1,920 The primipilarii and pages who encamped with them, might amount to . = I,000 Five quingenarian ale of 500 each, from which deduding 64. fupernumerary horfes, belonging to the officers, and their eftablifhment is reduced to 436 horfemen in each ala - - - - - Pretorian horfe - - . - Singular, or feleét horfe - - - « In the Retentura, or Rear Divifion of the Camp. Eight legionary cohorts of 480 each, without the fagu- | | | lar ftreet - - - - | 3,840 3,840 Three milliarian cohorts of foot of 960 each = = 2,880 } | if 480 Three quingenarian cohorts of foot of 480 each - 1,440 Two milliarian pedeftrian equeftrian cohorts, each con- fifting of 760 and 240 horfe - - - 15520 Four puingenadan pedeftrian equeftrian cohorts, each | confilting of 380 foot and 120 horfe - = Statores . - - - 200 cs pee = . = 500 Daci - - = Auxilia nationum. < Gete - - - goo | Cantabri - 2 “ | Britones - - - 42,626 9,206 | 26,966 17,34 16,080 aaniae: 6 N. B. CASTRAMETATION. N.B. Hyginus does not give the number of the comites imperatoris, or chief attendants on the emperor; neither are we told how many camels there were with their epidates, (ri- ders or drivers), which, when they were to go out againtt the enemy, ufed to encamp in the pretentura near the ma- rines; but when deltined to bring in booty, were placed in the retentura, or rear divifion of the camp. Though general Roy makes ftreets of feparation or dif- tinélion betwéen the different cohorts, Hyginus does not mention any. Hygious places 24 of the 30 cohorts, that compofed three legions, without the fagular ftreet, or in the exterior part of the encampment. General Roy thinks that Hyginus by the /figna meant the front of the cohort, and by tabulinum its depth. In re- gard to the rows of tents he differs from Schelius, who makes them run parallel to the fagular flreet, whereas he places them perpendicularly to it. He fays that the width of the camp within the fagular ftrect was every where equal to 1260 feet ; that the length of the pratentura within the fame {treet was equal to 720 feet ; that the diftance acrofs the pretorian, from the principal to the quintan itreet, was alfo equal to 720 feet; but that the diltance acrols the re- tentura was only equal to 480 feet, or two thirds of the dif- tance of either of the other two parts. See figs. 1, 2, and 3. ' Of modern Caflrametation. The invention of gunpowder and the application of it to military purpofes, have neceflarily rendered modern caftrame- tation very different from that of any nation among the an- cients. The principal objeét of Europeans in forming their encampments Is the convenience or facility of drawing’up their troops at the heads of them. Hence it follows that we fhould encamp them in fuch a manner as to be able with expedition aud without confufion, to aflemble and parade them in the very difpofition which is regarded as the beft for fighting in the fituation we happen tobe in. The order of battle therefore fhould determine and regulate the order of encampment. Confequently, the place of each regiment in the line of battle fhould be at the head of its own encamp- ment, and the extent of the line of battle from the right to the left of the camp fhould be equal to the front.of the troops formed in line of battle, with the fame intervals in the one as in the other. The front or principal line of the camp is commonly direéted or laid out in fuch a manner as to face or look towards the enemy. It being once admitted that troops fhould be encamped in the order in which they ought to fight, it is no difficult matter to deliver general rules for the admeafurement and the tracing of camps. A camp does not always fuppofe a pofition, though a ‘polition occupied neceflarily fuppofes a camp. The difpofitions and the orders of battle unavoidably vary with the nature of the ground and fituations. The arrange- ment of the truops in their camp will of courfe vary,accord- ingly. The order of battle alfo frequently depends on the views and intentions, genius aud capacity of the general, and on his fertility in ftratagems and refources. That won- derful man and extraordinary general, Annibal, the fon of the no lefs celebrated Amilcar Barcas, made ufe of a differ- ent order of battle and arrangement of his troaps in almoft every engagement with the Romans. Whenever the ground and weather admitted of his employing ftratagem againtt his enemies, he was fure to practife it, as at Trebia and the Thrafymene lake. And when he found no circumftances of ground, fituation, or weather, that he could convert to his advantage, he changed the difpofition of his troops and his arder of battle, as at Cannz. Were there but one fixed and determinate order of bat- tle, or method of arranging troops for ation, there need be but one invariable mode of encamping, or method of caftrametation. But nature delights in variety. Ground is indefinitely various and diverfified ; and fire-arms are by no means fuited to all this diverfity, or to the different circum- {tances and incidents of time. Before the difcovery of gun- powder, the Roman arms, order cf battle, and manner of fighting, were adapted to all times and to all forts of ground, and were calculated for combating individually as well as collectively,“and for prefenting a front to the enemy by a fingle movement, from whatever quarter they might be fud- denly attacked. ‘The Macedonian phalanx, on the other hand, from which our manner of forming troops in files is manifeftly derived, was adapted to only one time and place, and to one fixed or determinate manner of aétion. It was fluggifh and tardy in its movements, and its whole firength, like that of our mufquetry, confifted in its remaining an un- broken and entire body, or in the conjoint a¢tion of thafe who compofed it. Whenever they were obliged to en- gage the Romans individually, they were fure to be de- feated and deltroyed. The phalanx could: neither move over uneven and interrupted ground, nor engage on it with- out breaking and leaving intervals or openings fufficicnt for troops engaged with it in clofe aGtion, and fernifhed With arms and armour, alike calculated for fingle and joint com- bat, to ruth in and attack thofe feparated and broken parts, both on their flanks and in the rear. The phalanx, there- fore, never engaged the Romans on ground uneven and ir- regular, without being defeated, and meeting its deftruc- tion, Of this, the battle of Cynofcephale was a remark- able inftance. The phalanx alfo, like our mufquetry, was not well adapted either to defenfive or offenfive operations ia the dark, or during the time of night; whereas, the’ Ro- man arms and mode of fighting were alike fuited both to day and nizht. The Macedonian phalanx, like a modern army in clofe ation, when its fire becomes ufelefs, required ground that was level, plain, naked, and free from every obftacle, fuch as fences, ditchzs, lanes, walls, woods, thick- ets, breaks, obliquities, brows of hills, channels of rivers and rivulets, &c. The troops in it loft all their ftrength and capacity of aGing when they engaged either in feparate companies, or man with man. A Roman foldier, on the other hand, when once armed and ready for fervice, was equally fitted for engaging in any time and in any place, or upon any appearance Of an enémy, however fudden or un- expected, and always preferved the fame power and the famie capability of aGion, “whether he engaged with the whole army, or only with a part of it, whether in a fepa- rate company, or fingly againft another man. Muf{quetry in attempting to penetrate into fo enclofed and interrupted a country as chis, would be conitantly breaking and getting into diforder whenever it met with the leaft embarraffment, refiftance, or oppofition. A few thoufand a&tive men, armed each with the Roman gladius and a light fhield, would find very frequent, nay, almoft conitant opportunities of clofing advantageoufly with the feparated ar-i broken parts of fuch a penetrating body of mufquetry, and of oceafioning a dreadful carnage among them with very'little lofs or injury to themfelves. Were the mufquetry to fire on their clofing with them, the [moke would only increafe their confufion and facilitate their deftruGion. If they attempted to de- fend themfelves either individually or in feparate and {mall bodies they would certainly perifh. They would therefore be reduced to the alternative of either furrendering them- felves prifoners without reliftance, or of throwing away their arms, and running as falt as their legs could carry them; . 6 CASTRAMETATION. them ; for they could not carry their mufquets along with them and retire with half the celerity that troops armed in the other way could follow them. Were there any reafon for apprehending an invafion of this country, ten thoufand ative men armed in this manner would be of more ufe for the purpofes of defence than fixty thoufand of either fharp- fhooters, or common infantry, But cuftom and prejudice, and perhaps ignorance too-of the proper mode of defending it, may poflibly prevent the adoption of fuch a meafure. As to cavalry, itis manifeft that they can be of but little ufe in either attacking or defending it, fince there are but few fituations in it where they could be brought to a& with ad- vantage and effect. As the men in the phalanx had fhields, or bucklers, as well as fpears, the width or breadth of a file in it was equal to three feet. A Roman foldier ftlanding under arms alfo occupied three fect, but in order of battle he neceflarily occupied fix feet, in order to have the free ufe of his large fhield on his left arm, and the gladius in his right hand in action. Though the arrangement of troops in a camp mutt vary with the nature of the ground, it is cuftomary to fuppofe for each corps of an army fuch a fixed or determinate order of battle as can be made nfe of ona plain or level ground. Such an order ferves for forming the tableau, delineation, picture, or defcription of the force of the army, and for re- gulating the order of fervice in regard both to the fuperior officers, and the troops that they command. The number of men that forms a battalion varies in dif- ferent countries of Europe, and has varied’ at different times. The fpace neceflary for conftituting the breadth of a file alfo varies: fome make it equal only to 22 inches, but others, perhaps with better reafon, allow two feet for it, as the three ranks are thereby lefs confined in their firings. Troops are divided not only by battalions and fquadrons, but alfo by regiments and brigades. An army generally confilts of infantry, cavalry, and ar- tillery, and may be called or denominated the union or jun@tion of the battalions, fquadrons, and artillery. The formation or arrangement of thefe three corps confti- tutes the order of battle. And this name or appellation for the {aid arrangement comes from the principal defign or intention of making it, whith is always to give battle. The number of lines, on which an army ought to éngage, ‘is not at all fixed or determined ; for the ground, the dif- pofition of the enemy, the number of troops, &c. may ren- der material changes or alterations neceflary. It isa point, indeed, that no determination can be come to, which will fuit every circumflance of ground or fituation, An army, however, when drawn up in order of battle, is generally ranged in two lines with a corps of referve be- hind them, and confilting like them of battalions and {qued- rons, to fuccour thofe parts that may be hard preffed and in danger of yielding or giving way. This corps is ftronger or weaker as occafion requires. For the moft part the in- fantry is potted in the centres of thefe lines, and the cavalry on the wings. The ground, however, makes it neceflary fometimes to place the cavalry in the centre and the infan- try on the wings, and fometimes part of the infantry on the flanks of the pofition, and the greateft part of the cavalry on one wing with the remainder of it behind the infantry, The common praétice of pofting the cavalry on the wings of the infantry, and ina line with it, feems to be in various refpects improper and injudicious. It cannot advance quicker than the infantry without leaving its flanks of both uncovered and expofed. It cannot in fuch a pofition either protect the infantry or receive protection from it, Difpofed 2 of in this manner it therefore renders the movements of the whole flow and tardy. It is ufually alleged that the cavalry is pofted on the wings of the infantry in order to cover its flanks. This, however, is a very bad reafon, for cavalry cannot form a flank for itfelf, but infantry may. | The ar- rangement of our different fpecies of troops, and the form- ing of them in files after the manner of the phalanx, ex- cludes every idea of quicknefs or celerity, which is the very life and foul of military manceuvres, and alone can render them fuccefsful. : It is generally a maxim in the order of battle to place the fecond line gco feet at leaft, or 1c0o feet behind the firft, to prevent the enemy’s balls or fhot from reaching it, This diftance may, and moit probably will change during the courfe and progrefs of an engagement. Attention, however, fhould be paid to it in placing the troops in order of battle. It is, cuftomary to place fewer battalions and fquadrons in the fecond line than in the firlt, when the firft is full, in order that the firf, if routed or thrown into confufion, may have fufficient intervals to pafs through for the purpofe of recovering from their diforder, and regaining regularity and order. All the infantry of Europe commonly fight en lignes pleines, or in continuous lines, without any intervals between the battalions, but fuch as are neceffary for the guns, for each of which about 20 feet are ufually allowed. When inter- vals are admitted between regiments that confift each of more than one battalion, or between brigades, an additional al- lowance of 40 feet is generally made. Sometimes huffars and dragoons are placed out of the line to cover the flanks of the cavalry. » This, however, is for the molt part a bad and injudicious difpofition ; for cay valry never can be fo difpofed of as to afford an effetual cover and protedtion to the flanks of cavalry, though infan- try may. They are faid to be out of the line, becaule they ought to be polted a little behind the lines. All troops in- deed, or bodies detached for any fervice, are faid to be hors de ligne, or out of the line. In the camp, the fame diftance or interval of 20 feet for each piece of artillery is allowed between the battalions, or ought to be, as in order of battle; and when. the divifions are admitted between regiments, or brigades, 4o feet more are allowed. The fituation of the park of artillery is not precifely fixed or afcertained. It is cultomary, however, to place it for the molt part either behind the centre of the fecond line of infantry at the diftance of about 1090 feet from the fame, and in a line with the referve ; or behind the referve, at the fame diltance of about 1000 feet. On other occafions, as circumftances make it advifable, or neceflary, it is placed towards the centre at a greater or lefs diftance from the firlt line of infantry. Vor the form of a park of artillery, fee Plate, Caflrametation, fig. 4. When an army then encamps in three lines, and the park of artillery is in a line with the referve, the depth of the camp cannot well be lefs than from 2500 to 2750 feet ; and when the park of artillery-is about 1000 feet behind the referve, the depth of the camp mutt be from about 3500 to 3750 feet. : ‘ The depth of the tents of a battalion depends on the manuer in which the companies compofing it are encamped, whether by a whole company, a half-company, or a quarter~ company, in each row of tents perpendicular to the front of the encampment. But, including the tents of the officers, futlers, and fervants, the depth is ufually about 200 feet, and that of a fquadron is about 400 feet. e he CASTRAMETATION. he privies, or neceflary-houfes, of the firlt line, are ufaally about 200 feet beyond the front de bandiere du camp, or in front of the line, which determines the extent or length of the camp, and on which are placed the colours and ftandards of the troops that occupy it: and thofe of the fecond line are commonly about 150 feet behind the officers’ tents. ‘There ought to be nothing, however, in front_of the camp that can in the {maileft refpe& interfere with the movements and the formation of the troops in order of battle. The intervals between Squadrons of cavalry are different in different countries. And their depth, when encamped, will, of courfe, be i-fluenced by that of the camp, which, itfelf, is not regulated but by certain rules and arrange- ments founded on cultom or ufaze. If n be fuppofed to reprefert the number of men in a battalion, d, the number of men in a file, and 4, the breadth or width of the file, the front of the battalion will be gene- nxb rally exprefled by a Thus, if s=2 feet, and d=3, the at ; an 7 front of the battalion in feet will be equal to —, which, . ) . when n=600, gives 400 feet for the front of the battalion ; when n is = 800, or the battalion is 800 ftrong, gives 5334 feet for its front ; and when « is = 900, or the batta- jion is gco ftrong, gives Goo feet for its front ; and fo on. But if thewidth of the file be fuppofed equal only to 22 inches, or 4 feet, and d be equal to 3, the front of the battalion will be expreffed by “ : And if, in this cafe, be = 600, or the battalion 600 ftrong, its front will be 4 6 equal to at feet ee feet = 366 feet 8 inches. If 1 the battalion be 800 flrong, its front, in this cafe, will be a feet = 4884 feet ; and if it be goo ftrong, its front will be = 550 feet ; andfo on. And whatever is the length of its front in order of battle, the fame ought to be the front of its encampment, when the ground and circumitances will permit. If ¢ be fuppofed equal to 2, or the files to be only two men deep, which is.as deep, perhaps, as they ever fhould be, when it is intended that all the men fhould fire without hurting or wounding one another, the length of the front of a battalion in each of the foregoing fuppofed cafes will be jut one-third greater. When the number of men in it is given, the length of its front will be as the breadth of the file direétly, and the depth of the fame in number of men taverfely. When the number of men in it and the breadth of the file are given, the length of its front will be inverfely as d, the depth of the file. And when both the breadth of the file, and its depth in men are given, the length of the front of the battalion will be direétly as the number of men in it. The breadth or width of a file of cavalry is generally equal to three feet. The Macedonians allowed three fect of their meafure for the width of a file in their phalanx, when drawn up in order of battle ; and the Romans allowed alfo three feet of their meafure to a foldier when landing under arms, but fix feet to him when in order of battle. If n then be fuppofed to denote the number of men in a {qua- dron of cavalry, and d, as before, the depth of the file in mea, its front will be expreiicd generally in feet, by feet. equal to ¥ which, when d=3, is fimply equal to n. Hence, then, it appears, that the front of a fquadron, drawn up three deep, is equal to as many feetas'there are men in it, and that its front, when it is drawn up only two deep, is equal to half as many more feet as there are men in it. : The width of the large flrects in a camp depends alfo, in a great meafure, on the mod: of encamping the companies. For, if f denote the front, /, the length of a tent, n, the number of the rows of tents, r, the width of each of the {mall ftreets, m, their number, g, the number of the large fireets, and v, the variable width of one of them, we fhall ETT Pry a eal emis The camp beled moft commonly delivered are the fol- lowing : To give the camp the fame length of front that the troops occupy, when drawn up in order of battle, whatever be the width or depth of the file. To make the troops encamp by battalions and fquadrons, except the royal artillery, who ufually encamp on the right and left of their parts, wherefoever it is placed, with the train horfes in the rear of the fame. To place the bread-waggons in the rear of the camp, and as near as poflible, for the convenience of diftributing the bread eafily. That the commander in chief fhould encamp in the cen- tre of his army, or, at leaft, at fuch & convenient diftance from it, that a fpeedy and eafy communication may be kept up at all times between head-quarters and every part of the camp. To pay particular attention to the convenience of winter fuel and forage, and to cleanliaefs, for the prefervation of health among the troops. The higheft and moit important branch of caftrametation, however, confifts in the choice of fituations proper for encampments and for engagements. ‘The doétrine of pofi- tions, indeed, and the combinations of attack and defence, form the fublime part of war. And in illuftrating this fub- jet, we conceive we cannot do better than adept the con- cife obfervations of marfhall Saxe, who, in point of natural endowments, genius, and talents as a commander, as well as of military information, acquired by experience, ftudy, and reflection, was certainly inferior to no general that has appeared in modern times. ” Of fituations proper for the encampment of armies, and for engagemenis. It is the part of an able general, to derive advan- tages from every different fituation which nature prefents to him; from plains, mountains, hollow -ways, ponds, rivers, woods, and an infinite number of other particulars, all. which are capable of rendering great fervices, when they are converted to proper purpofes: but although they make fo material an alteration, both in fituation and circemitance, wherever they happen to'be, yet,/as fuch ad- vantages are frequently overlooked, till the opportunity of profiting by them is loft, it may not be unfeafonable to enter into dome detail upon the fubject. Let us then, im the firlt place, fuppofe a piece of ground divided by a rivulet, and a chain of ponds. See Plate, Ca/lrame- tation. fig. 5 and 6. AA reprefents the army marching up to attack BB, whofe infantry is at firlt drawn up in one line to cover the ponds: but, as foon as the enemy arrives within reach, my infantry in the front of thefe ponds, (fays the marthall,) marches back by the intervals or banks between them, to form a fecond line ; aud my cavalry is at the fame time advanced upon the right, to keep in awe the enemy’s left wing ; which movement alone is fufficient to difcon- cert him: if he attempts to attack this cavalry, it is to re- _pals.the intervals between the ponds, which are guarded by bodies of infantry, that are polted immediately behind them. This CASTPRAMETATION. ‘This manceuvre will have fo long engaged the enemy’s at- tention upon his left, that he will not have fufficient time to change his difpofition, or to reinforce his right ;_becaufe the moment my cavalry is arrived upon my right, I attack all that part of the enemy’s line that lies between me and the rivulet, which very probably I fhail throw into confu- fion. His right wing being thus defeated, the reft of his army will be affaulted in front and rear by my two wings of cavalry, and in flank by all my infantry. If he inclines in the leaft to the right, in order to prefent a front to my infantry, he will thereby expofe his left flank to the troops which | have pofted upon my right, and upon the intervals ‘between the ponds: under thefe circumitances, therefore, it will be impoffible for him to make any movement, with- out being thrown into confufion. According to this difpofition, I fuppofe the enemy’s army to confift of double the ftrength of mine: and al- though it may be imagined, that the cavalry upon my right is in danger of being cut to pieces, yet the more the atten- tion of the enemy is taken up with an obje¢t in his front, the more he will be entangled in the fnare that is laid be- fore him ; for I thall thereby be furnifhed with a better op- portunity of falling upon his rear ; after which my cavalry mu(ft be more than commonly unfortunate, if it be not able to make good its retreat by the intervals between the ponds, where the enemy will certainly not dare to purfue it. Fig. 7, reprefents the two armies in another fituation, where AA is to attack BB: C,C,C, are three ttrong redoubts thrown up at the diftance of three hundred paces in the front of BB, furnifhed each with two battalions, and every thing elfe that may be neceflary for their defence: D reprefents fome detached cavalry: E, E, are two flanking bat- teries: I, F, two battalions pofted-in two redoubts to cover the batteries. I fuppofe the enemy’s army AA to be twice as powerful in numbers as BB ; neverthelefs, in what manner is he to attack me in this difpofition ? [t is impof- fible for him to march up in line of battle, without being broken and difordered, till he has firlt rendered himfelf mafter of my redoubts; in attempting to do which, he will be expofed to a fevere flanking fire from my two batta- lions ; and to pafs the redoubts, and leave them in his rear, will be impracticable: if then he refolves to attack them by “detachments, I fhall in like manner make others to main- tain them ; in which I mutt have contiderably the advantage, on account of the damage that he will unavoidably fuftain from my cannon: if he advances with his whole army againit them, I give the fignal for my cavalry, which is concealed behind the wood, to move up at full fpeed, and fall upon his rear; at which time I alfo march up, and charge him in front ; being, therefore, at once embarraffed by the redoubts, thrown into fome diforder, and attacked in rear, there is all the appearance of my obtaining an ealy victory. 2 This is an excellent difpofition, where you can be certain that the enemy is either inclined, or obliged to attack you ; for one cannot poffibly be too careful in avoiding every flep ahat may correfpond with any hopes or expectations of his. This is a. maxim in war never to be departed from, but in extraordinary cafes, where no fixed rules can be given. A good opportunity for engaging fhould never be neglected, merely becaufe the fituation may happen not to be ftriétly agreeable to your fancy ; for you mutt form your difpofition according as you find it, and decline the attack altogether,. unlefs you can make it with advantage ; by which I mean, unlefs your flanks are well covered ; unlefs you can engage a {mall part of his army with a large part of yours ; can amufe, or keep a check upon him, by the means of any Vor. VII. {mall river, marth, or other obflacle that may lie between you ; fupported by circumttances of which nature, you can attack him with confidence, although confiderably mferior in numbers, becaufe you will rifk nothing, and may obtain a great deal. Suppofe, for inftance, his army, BB, to be divided bya river, in the manner reprefented in fg. 5, and that I am to attack him with AA in that fituation; I (hall, therefore, make the following difpofition for it. With my right wing [ fhall keep in awe his left, and with my left try ali efforts to defeat his right: according to appearances, I hall be able to pierce him in the part marked C, upon the bank of the river; for it is but reafonable to fuppofe, that the {trong mutt overpower the weak ; in confequence of which advantage, as the communication between the two divifions of his army will be thereby cut off, and the left, in which his principal ttrength confilted, be no longer able to futtain the right, he mutt be rendered iacapable of maintaining his ground ; and, finding himfelf expofed koth in front and flank, will undoubtedly retire——Let us proceed to another example. A is the enemy’s army which I am. to attack with B: the rivulet between us is fuppofed to be every where ford- able ; and the encampment of A to be made upoi its banks, asis ufually the cuftom in fuch fituations, as well on account of the protection which it naturally affords, as for the con- venience of the water: the enemy being in this difpofition, I arrive towards the evening, and encamp with B on the oppofite fide. As he will not be inclined to tru to the uncertain event of an immediate engagement, he will un- doubtedly, therefore, not pafs the rivulet, or quit the ad- vantage of his poft, to attack me in the night-time ; on the other hand, I rather imagine that he will be altogether taken up in providing for the defence of it: on my fide, I fhall only leave one weak line oppofite to him, and marching alt night with the remainder, gain the pofition, C. I have no- thing to fear from the enemy, in making this movement ; for he will certainly not venture to pafs the rivulet, or to leave his poft unguarded, on bare furmife or conjecture only. The dav arriving he difeovers me upon his left flank, as well as in front; atter which it will be impoffible for him to make any difpofition, or to form any order of battle, without being thrown into confufion; for I fhall fall upon him before he can have fufficient time to finih it : but his attention will principally be taken up, in fu‘taining his poft upon the rivulet, which I fhall attack at the fame time, with the troops that were left on the oppofite fide for that purpofe : he will detach fome brigades to oppofe me upon the left, which, arriving en detail, and having to en- gage with a large body, drawn up in good order, will eafily be repulfed ; infomuch that he will be in a manner totally defeated, before he can be even able to perfuade himfelf, that the real attack was made on this fide ; and, after hav- ing thus at length difcovered his miftake, he will ceafe to be in any kind of capacity to remedy it. Fig. 9, reprefents another fituation, in which the enemys army, AAA, is fuppofed to be formed in feparate bodies, and extended to a confiderable diltance all along « large river, in order to cover a province, as is frequently the cafe. AAA is, therefore, to defend the river, and BBD is the offentive army, endeavouring to pafs it; and extended in like manner upon the oppofite borders. Thefe large rivers have generally plains on both fides, bounded by inowntains, out of which iffue {mall ones, or rivulets, that are fometimes of a confiderable fize, and that difcharge themfelves into the greater: by the means, therefore, of fuch a rivulet, one mutt endeavour to build a bridge, a al to the enemy; for > in CAS in this Hes the great difficulty of paffing all rivers; after having then prepared your bridge all along the rivulet, you are to throw it over that part of the river marked C, where you are to force your pafflage; in which, I take it for granted, you will be able to fucceed, efpecially if you make at the fame time two falfe attacks at the places marked D and E; the enemy will not dare to vacate any of his polts, neither will the geneial officers, fituated in different quar- ters, execute any orders they may receive to that eledt ; for as, at this time, they will be engaged themfelves, and as each will fuppofe his to be the real attack, they will from thence be induced, not unreafonably, to fuppofe, that their com- mander in chief had not been informed of it; during ail this time the grand effort is making at the centre between the rvulet and the mountain, marked F. The firlt ttep to be taken after the paflage, is to poffefs yourfelf of the emi- nences ; by which means you divide the enemy, and, having cut off his communications, he can hardly hope to time his arrival afterwards fo well, as to be able to attack you on both fides at once; and although he even does, he will, never- thelefs, be eafily demolifhed: the circumftance of your being pofleffed of thele advantages, without having fuffered any lofs in the obtaining of them, will add to his confufion ; for, notwithftaiding your paflage fhould be difputed, yet the oppofition you meet with can never be confiderable enough to permit it; efpecially when you have ufed proper precau- tions, and made your difpofition with judgmeat. After you have once taken poft, and ereted your bridge, for which four hours are a fufficient {pace of time, and as much more will be required for the paflage of 30,c00 men, you may allow the enemy twenty-four hours to penetrate into your real defign, and twenty-four more to affemble either half of his army, at the place in which he has attacked you : but even this will be rendered impraGicable, becaufe I fup- pole yon to be effectually covered, after you have pafled, by the rivulet onthe one fide, and by the mountain on the other. All’ the large rivers that I have feen produce a great variety of fituations where paflages of this kind may be executed ; and finaller ones afford likewife the fame; but they are feldom quite fo commodious, becaufe the pains and mountains which furround them are ufually not io ad- yantageous, nor the rivulcts fo confiderable. In fhort, by difcernment one may reap advantages from a thouland dif- ferent forts of fituations ; and a commander void of that cannot potlibly be expected to do any great things, even with the mof numerous armies. The marthall concludes thefe remarks on the choice of fitu- ations for encampments and engagements with the following obfervations upon the battle of Malplaquet. If, inftead of pofting the French troops in bad entrenchments, the three woods over-againit the hollow ground had been cnly cut down, and three or four redoubts thrown up in it, fupported by a few bridges, L am of opinion (he fays) that things would have taken a different turn: for, had the allies attacked them, they mult have loft an infinite number of men, with- out ever biivg able to carry them. It is the property of the French nation to attack : but when a general is unwil- ling to depend altogether upon the exact difcipline of troops, and upon that great order which, according to the prefent fyltem, is always neceffary to be obferved in actions, he ought, by throwing up redoubts, to introduce the method of engaging en detai/, and of attacking by brigades ; in which he might certainly fucceed very well. The firft fhock of the French is fearcely to be refifted; never- thelefs it is the part of a general to be able, by the pru- dence of his difpofition, to. renew it: and no means can facilitate this fo much as redoubts; for you can always CAS fend frefh troops to feftain them, and to oppofe the enemy. Nothing can poffbly create tuch difiraétion, or tend to dif pirit him to fo great a degree, becaufe he will be afraid, at every attack, of being cxpofed in flank: while, on the other hand, your own troops become thereby encouraged ; for they are confcious that their retreat is fecure, and that the enemy will not dare to purfue them beyond the redoubts. It is upon fuch an occafion that you might be able to reap the greatelt advantages from their vigour and impctuofity : but to polt them behind entrenchments, 1s, in a manner, te ozcafien their defeat ; or, at leat, to deprive them of the means by which they might have conquered. That would have been the event of the day at Maiplaquet. if mapthall Villars had taken the greate’l part of hisarmy, and attacked the oue half of Uhat of the alhes, which had been fo impru- dent, as to forma difpofition in which it was totally feparated from the other by a wood, without having any communica- tion at the fame time made between them: the flanks and rear, moreover, of the French army would have been under co- ver, as may be {een in the fituation of it, reprefented in fig. 10. There is more addrefs required in making bad difpolitions than may at firlt be imagined, provid-d they be fuch as are intentional, and fo formed as to admit of being inilanta- neoufly converted into goud ones. Nothing can corfound an enemy more, who has perhaps been anticipating a victory, than a ftratagzem of this kind ; for he perccives your weak- nefs, and draws up his:army in the order in which he expeéts to benefit the molt fromit; but the attack is no fooner begun, than he difcovers the impofition. I muft repeat it, therefore, that nothing can pofhibly difconcert an enemy fo much, or plunge him into errors fo dangerous; for, if he does not change his difpstition, he mutt infallibly be de— feated ; and the alternative, in the prefence of his adverfary, will be attended with the fame fatal confequences. If the marfhall had abandoned his entrenchment at the approach of the allies, and made his difpofition in the manner reprefented in fig. 15. it appears ty me that he would have fucceeded much better. CASTRATING a bock, among Boskfellers, is the tah- ing out of fome leaf, fheet, or the like, which renders it im- perfe&, and unfit for fale. ‘The word is aifo applied to the taking away of particular paflages, on account of their ob- {cenity, too great freedom with refpect to government, &a. CastratinG 1s alfo ufed among Gardeners, in {peaking of melons ard cucumbers ; where it fignities the fame with. PRUNING OF PINCHING Of other plants. CASTRATION, in Surgery, from caffro, *¢ quia caftum- facit ;”” the operation of rendering any animal incapable of generating, by the excifion of the tefticles in male fubjeés,. and of the ovaries in females. ‘This operation is commonly named GELDING and spayiNG among farriers, who are in the- conttant praGtice of thus mutilating various brutes for do-- meftic ufes, &c. Even fevers] of the watery tribe of ani-- mals have fometimes been caftrated, for the purpofe of ren-- dering them more fat and lufcicus for the table of epicures:! This operation has been performed by the Turks, Per- fians, Egyptians, and Hebrews, time immemorial, efpe-- cially upon their flaves, from motives of jealoufy: nor was it unknown to the Greeks and Romans, as appears from the writings of certain ancient medical and fatyrical authors.;- and, even to the prefent day, the Italians are fo barbarous. as to caftrate great numbers of male children, with a view: to preferve their fhrill voice for finging! See Eunucn. The effe& on the phyfical conftitution of a man is the- fame, whether the tefticles be injured by contufion, fo as to break down their natural texture ; whether the fpermatic veffels be obliterated, {till leaving the teftes entire; or, whe- ther CAS ther thofe organs be wholly removed by excifion. In any of thefe cafes, the offence was regarded as fo atrocious, by the old laws of England, as to amount to felony ; ¢ et fe- quitur aliqguando poena capitalis, aliquando perpetuum exi- hum, cum omnium bonorum ademptione,’”? (Bra@. fol. 144.); and this, fays judge Blackftone, although the crime of mayhem was committed upon the highelt provocation : (Comment. vol. iv. be iv.c. 15.) See Mayyim. But, we prefume, the law cannot affect reguiar-bred Surgeons who per- form the operation, only with a view to the good of their pa- tients; notwithftarding, a different opinion has been held by certain writers, who affirm, “that it is penal in Phyficians and Surgeons to caftrate even with confent of the party :” {See Encyclop. Brit. vol. v. p. 250, edit. ult.) It becomes, however, a dubious and nice point, on feme oceafions, to decide upon the necefiity and probable advantages of caftrat- ing a man. We fhail here fay nothing of the correfponding more cruel mutilation in woren, as it is very properly exploded from furgical praétice: and although we are told by Athe- neus, Hefychius, Suidas, Galen, Ariftotle, and others, that the female ovaries (formerly called tefticles) have been aGually retrenched by fome barbarians, it is doubtful whe- ther molt of the cafes alluded to did not rather confilt in padlocking, or inFiBuLaTiION; which Cornelius Celfus defcribes, as having been exercifed alfo on boys. But, for a more detailed hittory of the origin and extenfion of this practice, as an aét of policy or refinement, we refer to vol. 1. of M. Dujardin’s Hilt. de la Chirurgie, Introd. pp. 36—44, 4to. Paris, 17743; and to M. Mahon’s pofthu- mous work, entitled ‘ Médecine Légale et Police Médica- le,’ Svo. vol. rfl. Paris, r8o1r, We now hall offer a few remarks on this operation, as it concerns the pra¢tical furgeon. Caltration is advifable in any cafe, where the life of a perfon is confiderably endangered by a change of ftruéture and lofs of funtion in the telticle 5 as well as in many other cafes, where the removal of an indurated and greatly enlarged teflis would materially contribute to the relief or accommo- dation of a patient. It can very rarely be requifite to ex- tirpate a tellicle for the exiltence merely of an abfcefs, or for varicofe veflels of the {fpermatic chord; though this operation has been fometimes reforted to, under fuch cir- eumftances. But, when it has been refolved on as proper ro be done, the following are the molt approved modes of operating : After having fhaved the hair from the affected fide of the {crotum and pubes, the patient is placed upon a table of a proper height, with his head and fhoulders fomewhat ele- vated, his lega and thighs at fome diltance from each other, and his knees a little bent; and in this polture he mutt be fecured by two affiftants. Or, as Mr. Murfinna adviles, the patient may be placed upon a high and ftrong chair, whilit the operator fits upon a low one, or kneels down be- fore him. The fkin of the anterior furface of the ferotum is then drawn into a fold, in fuch a manner, that the inci- fion by which this fold is to be feparated, fhall reach from the top to the bettom of the {crotum. The operator holds this fold at one end with the fingers of his left hand, whillt an affiflant holds it at the other, and cuts it at once com- pletely through with a biftory. Mr. Theden draws the fold of the {crotum, with the aid of an affitlant, as tight as the {kin will admit ; after which he thrufts his biftory through this fold, with its edge turned upwards and the back directed towards the difeafed telticle: he then raifes the knife up- wards, and thus cuts through the whole fold of the fkin in the quickeft manner, whereby he thinks the patient is {pared a great deal of pain. CAS This incifion may be fo long, that its upper “extremity fhall reach above the abdominal ring, whillt the lower extremity terminates an inch higher than the bafe of the {crotum. Should the incifion be found too fmall, it mult immediately be enlarged either at its upper or lower extre- mity, as it ought to extend over the whole tumor, in order that the tunica vaginalis may alfo be cut through in the fame direGtion. Although it is defirable that this incifion fhould be made precifely in the middle of the fold, this is in fome rare cafes impracticable, on account of the diftended blood veflels being fituated there, the divifion of which would produce a violent hemorrhage, when another place muft be chofen for making the incifion. But fhould thefe veffels occupy a very large extent, we are obliged to cut them through, in which cafe the bleeding arteries muft be fecured or comprefled -by an affiftant, whilit the operator is making his fecond incifion. The lips of the wound are now drawn afunder at both fides, to the diftance of fome inches from each other, or the operator diffets them away from the tunica vaginalis, in order that he may gain more room. When there is any fluid contained in the tunica vaginalis, this mult be divided from top to bottom, with the fame knife, as in the hydro- cele. If we now find the difeafed tefticle for the greater part detached, we lay hold of it with the left hand, feparate it here wherever it is attached, and divide its ftronger pof- terior adhefion, with the fcalpel, in fuch a manner as at the fame time to feparate all the difeafed fub{tance that may be found there; after which the fpermatic cord is feparated above from all its adhefions, and the whole of the cellular fubftance diflected away from it. The fpermatic cord being thus laid bare, the operator accurately examines it, and if it be in its natural condition, he immediately ties it very firmly, (with many trong waxed threads, twifted together), an inch above the difeafed part, and then cuts off the telticle half an inch below the ligature. After this, the fpermatic cord will be immediately retra&ed towards the abdominal ring, in which fituation it muft be kept without ftretching it, and confequently the ligature, the end of which is faltened over the offa pubes by means of adhefive platter, muft not be drawn tight, but held loofe, By this means, and by the application of a little lint under the end of the f{permatic cord that has been cut, it is prevented from having too much {trefs laid upon it, as well as from forming its adhefion too low. In moft cafes, however, it might be advifable to detach the fpermatic cord from above down to the place where it is intended to divide it, and not to difengage the tefticle till after the cord has been tied. or the excilion of the tefti- cle is always combined with fome degree of pain and fpafm of the f{permatic cord, which may be avoided by tying and dividing the fpermatic cord, before we cut out the telticle. Mr. Theden having (he fays) obferved various nervous affections, fach as fpafms and ep:leptic fymptoms, to fuper- vene upon the tight application of ligatures, adopted the Tamponade, the advantage of which he maintains upon the following grounds: After fome hours the artery contracts fo ftrongly that no hemorrhage is any longer to be appre- hended ; the pain and irritation of the {permatic cord is avoided ; a {welling of the {permatic cord, and a congeltion of fluids in the cellular fubftance fituated on the outfide of the peritoneum, and at the back, which may frequently give rife to fatal confequences, never take place when this method is adopted, as they do when ligatures are employed. He performs the operation in the following manner: he firlt lays a piece of agaric, equal in fize to the circumference of the {permatic cord, upon its divided extremity, and over C2 that CAS _ that a larger, which he preffes chiefly upon that part where the {pcrmatic artery lies, and then pufhes them, with a very gentle preflure, towards the abdominal ring, fo as not to eccafion the fmalleft pain to the patient. He then applies clofe-to the divided fpermatic cord feveral bunches of fcraped lint, covers all the wounded parts with the fame fubftance, wets the whole with his arquebufade diluted with water, and arain direéts the affiftant to place his finger upon the {ermatic cord. Finally, he covers the whole of the dreffings with comprefles, which are alfo wetted with the arquebufade. Vor fecurity’s fake, he dircéts the fpermatic cord to be kept conftantly gently compreffed, for the {pace of twenty-four hours, by affiftants who relieve each other. Mr. Le Blanc alfo believes, that the fatal confequences, which fo frequently follow caftration, generally depend upon the too great tightnefs with which the fpermatic cord is tied. On this account, he direéts that the ligatures fhould be drawn only moderately tight, and inftead of drawing them tight, to apply agaric, and fecure it upon the part for feveral hours, by a gentle preffure with the hand. Mr. Warner {tops the hemorrhage after caftration, by applying gentle preffure to the vellels, by means of his thumb and fore-finger, with which he lays hold of the veffel for the {pace of feveral minutes ; he has alfo found the ap- plication of a fmall piece of linen to the orifice of the vef- fels, to anfwer his purpofe without occafioning the flightett degree of pain. But though the tamponade has been alfo ufed by other practitioners with fuccefs, it is, however, juftly confidered by the greater part as not perfectly fafe. For reafons, which, though well known, are however very important, Mr. Marfhall condemns it'in the ftrongeft terms, and re- commends tying as the fafeft remedy ; but the method ac- cording to which he performs this operation, has fomething eculiar to itfelf, which will f{carcely come into general ufe. He confiders the prevention of the retraGion of the fper- matic cord into the abdominal ring, as the ee caufe of all the troublefome fymptoms. He therefore always fe- parates the fpermatic cord as high as the abdominal ring, Joofening both it and the telticle from all its adhefions with the neighbouring parts, by means of his finger or a fharp infttrument. He then divides the fpermatic cord, an inch below the abdominal ring, and ties it, applying under the ftring, which confifts of four waxed threads, two {mall compreiles, in order to prevent its cutting the parts; befides which, he confiders it to be very ufeful, to pufh the fper- matic cord into the abdominal ring, which confequently cannot be done without making an incifion into the ring. Mr. Loder concludes from his experience, that the fper- matic cord may be tied, without there being reafon to ap- prehend dangerous confequences, provided we ufe the pre- caution firft to feparate it from the neighbouring parts to which it adheres, and tie it, with a broad ligature, gra- dually, and not tighter than is neceflary. For this purpofe, he ufes a: ligature, confiiting of five or fix flrong threads, which he applies loofe round the fpermatic cord, after hav- ing feparated both that and the tefticle completely from all the furrounding cellular fubftance ; he then draws the fper- matic cord gently forwards, cuts it through with a pair of {ciffars, and gradually tightens the ligature till the hamor- rhage ceafes, upon which he makes a fecond knot, and cuts off the ends of the ligature fo as ftill to leave fome inches of the threads hanging out of the wound. For the fake of greater {ecurity, he applies, befides this ligature, fometimes another narrower one in a fimilar manner. Mr. Murfinna, however, is of a contrary opinion. The ligature, which with him is formed of three ftrong. waxed CAS threads, he introduces at the proper place under the expofed {permatic cord, and faftens it anteriorly, with a double knot, in fuch a manner, as to draw the whole ftring as tight as poffible, in order that all the parts included in the liga- ture may be, in a manner, crufhed. The double knot he further fecures by a fingle one, in order that it may not get loofe. This violent method of tying, he fays, at firlt pro- duces exquifite pain; but that is only momentary, and after- wards nothing of it is felt. By this means almolt all the violent fymptoms, which generally fucceed the operation, may be avoided, and the cure will be greatly accelerated. Only when the ligature has not been drawn fufficiently tight, or when, in confequence of the fpermatic cord being mich loaded with fat, or not fufficiently detached from the cellu- lar fubftance, it again becomes loofe before the nerve has been deftroyed, the pain, and fometimes alfo the hemor- rhage, returns, which is frequently followed by nervous affections. In order to prevent fuch accidents, he always applies a fecond fimilar ligature loofe round the firft, faftening the ends of the ftring, with a pla{ter, upon the patient’s belly, in order that in cafe of neceffity, particularly if a hemor- rhage fliould occur, they may be immediately ufed. When the patient, after the application of the ligatures, flill feels pain in the fpermatic cord, extending to the abdominal ring, the furgeon may conclude, that the ligatures have been applied too loofe, or at leaft that the nerve has not been completely dettroyed. In this cafe, he muft renew the li- gature, by applying a fecond ftring at the fame place, and in order to prevent hemorrhage and all the other fymptoms, he fhould continue to tighten it, till the pain entirely remits. Mr. Richter entirely concurs in this opinion, and appeals to: experience in proof of the affertion, that a ligature drawn perfe@ily tight produces far lefs violent fymptoms, than one which is only moderately tight, and merely irritates, inftead of altogether fupprefling the vital aGions. Mr. Pearfon, of the Lock hofpital, whofe inftructions will be hereafter ad- duced, is of the fame opinion. The method of ftopping the hemorrhage employed by Mr. Sibold, is done without including the nerve in the ligature, whereby he thinks all the dangerous fymptoms may be obviated ; as the ftopping of the hemorrhage is the only purpofe for which the ligature is applied. He draws the {permatic artery forwards, with Bromfeild’s tenaculum, and ties it, without including any other part of the fperma- tic cord in the ligature, and without giving the leaft pain to the patient by the operation. Applying the ligature round the whole {permatic cord, he entirely condemns, and expreffes his furprife that furgeons, notwithftanding all the ee te confequences that have been found to anife from it, {till hefitate to tie the fpermatic artery quite feparate from all the furrounding parts ; an operation, which has not only always fucceeded with him, but has likewife been al- ways performed with great facility. But after the excifion of the tefticle and the application of the ligature, fhould fome other artery, befides the fper- matic, either in the internal or external coats of the ferotum, bleed profufely, it is proper either to draw it forward with. a needle and tie it alfo, or when this cannot be done, te apply preflure and ftyptic remedies. When the ferotum is perfeGly found, or when we are fure that all the indurated parts have been entirely removed from it, we ought, as Mr. Fearon advifes, to endeavour to effect the healing of the wound by the firft intention; for which purpofe the divided parts muft be gently drawn together, in order to bring the lips of the wound in as ace curate contact as poffible, in which fituation they muft be 8 ; fecured. eS CAS fecured by means of adhefive plafter ; or, as Mr. Loder ad- vifes, two futures may be app ied, and between thefe long flips of adhefive platter. In other cafes the wound is to be filled up with dry lint, and the lips of the wound drawn fomewhat nearer together by means of long flips of adhefive plafler, which are covered with a pledgit fpread with ointment; over this is laid, a thick, foft and dry comprefs, and the whole is fecured with the T bandage. After the dieflings have been applied, the patient is put in bed, where he fhould He with his feet con- ftantly ftretched out. Mr. Schmucker direéts us to lay the patient, after the operation, in a horizontal pofture upon mattrefles fluffed with horfe hair, in order that the divided portion of the {permatic cord may always keep the fame polition, and not contra¢ét when the knees have firft becn drawn upwards, and are afterwards extended. This hori- zontal pofition which is adopted by moft practitioners, Mr. Murlinna conceives to be inconvenient, and therefore places the patient on his back, with his head and fhoulders fome- what elevated, and his thighs moderately bent. The lint, that bas been introduced into the wound, mutt be fuffered to remain there, till it {pontaneoufly feparates in cunfequence of fuppuration, which general!y happens on the fourth or fifth day ; till which period the renewal of the dreffings mutt alfo be deferred. After every thing that can ealfily be feparated has been extracted out of the wound, it mult be carefully cleanfed of the blood and matter, again loofely filled up with dry lint, and we mult continue to draw the lips of the wound gently together, by means of adhefive plalter, without however exciting pain. Afterwards the dreffings are to be renewed daily, or, fhould the fuppuration be very copious, twice a day, till a complete cure is obtained. The upper part of the wound, in which the fpermatic cord is fituated, mutt not be fuffered entirely to clofe tiil the- ligature has been drawn out ; however, we mult here alfo endeavour to pre- vent too violent a fuppuration. After the ligature has been drawn out, the fmall wound mutt be cicatrized by the ap- plication of dry dreflings and gentle preffure. Upon this fubjeét Mr. Pearfon has offered fome judicious obfervations. He fays, 1. It is feldom neceffary to re- move any part of the fcrotum when the difeafe has not ar- rived at the ulcerated ftate. 1 have never fren the mere bulk of the part form a valid obje&tion againft leaving the whole of the integuments ; for the fcrotum will generally contra&t within very moderate dimenfions. But where the fin adheres to the tefticle ; where it has undergone a mor- bid alteration ; or when the perfon has formerly been punc- tured feveral times for a hydrocele; the integuments will be found in fuch an indurated ttate, that it will be generally prudent to remove the altered and callous parts. However, the removal even of a confiderable portion of the difeafed {crotum will not neceffarily prevent us from healing the wound by the firlt intention ; for the fkin of this part dilates fo readily, that the lips of the wound can be eafily detained in contact by employing a few ligatures. «« 9. OF all the mcthods that have been devifed for the fuppreflion of hemorrhage, the application of a ligature round the bleeding veffel is the leatt painful, and the mott certain; and in the operation of which we are now {peak- ing, itis the eafielt and molt expeditious method, 10 tie the whole fpermatic cord. It has frequently been delivered as the opinion of very refpeGtable furgeons, that the molt dangerous confequences are to be apprehended, from in- eluding the f{permatic cord in the ligature. Some have for- bidden us to include the cremafter mufcle ; others have ad- viled the feparation of the nerve; and fome have only di- CAS: rected us to avoid the vas deferens. Heifter and other eminent furgeons, have declared the feparation af the nerve from the blood-veffels, to be both unneceflary and imprac- ticable ; and they who advife fuch a pragtice, are charged with being iznorant of anatomy. It is however probable, that in Mr. Bromfeild’s method of feevring the {permatic artery, the nerve may be generally avoided. I think this mode of proceeding is not entirely free from obje&ion: for as the cord is divided at the beginning of the operation, it muft be trulted to the fingers oF an affiftant till the difeafed telticle be removed from the ferotum: but it has more than once happened, that the cord has retraéted, fo as to efcape from the fingers of the affiftant ; and the operator has con- fequently found great difficulty in fecuring the veffels under fuch unfavourable circumitances. Mr. Pott has direéted us to tie the fpermatic cord, after the operator has feparated the vas deferens from the blood-veffels with his finger and thumb. When the fpermatic cord is in a natural ftate, there will be little difficulty, or Icfs of time, in complying with this direétion ; but where it has been for fome time difeafed, the cellular membrane Jofes its mobility, fo that the feveral: parts are not eafily feparable: in fuch cafes, it is of confe-- quence to know whether the feparation of the vas deferens be a part of the operation, which cannot be omitted with- out danger to the patient. It is the refult of my experience hitherto, that no danger nor inconvenience whatever will enfue from including the vas deferens in the ligature: I am farther of opinion, that by following a contrary rule, the operation is made more comp!ex, without being rendered) either lefs painful or hazardous: and in this opinion I am fupported by the authority of the molt refpetable writers on furgery. “« Some pratitioners have thonght it advifable to interpofe a piece of lint, or fome other foft fubitance between the li- gature and the fpermatic cord; and this was probably de- vifed, either to prevent the waxed filk from cutting the vef- fels; or by thus increafing the lateral preffure, to render it unneceffary to draw the ligature fo tight as to give much pain. When the fpermatic artery is perfectly free from difeafe, and the cord is fmall and flexible, a very fmall de— gree of preffure, thus applicd, will no doubt be fufficient to prevent a hemorrhage. But where the fpermatic artery is much enlarged, and the cord has become unnaturally denfe and elaftic, a very gentle preffure will be infufficient to clofe the bleeding veffels : and if the ligature be drawn very tight, we fhall in a great meafure forego the advantages that were propofed. Among the reafons that have been offered again{t including the whole {permatic cord in the ligature, it has been urged: 1ft. That the patient always fuffers ex~- quifite pain when the cord is tied; and 2dly. That fevere inflammation, great diforder of the contents of the abdomen, and even alarming convulfions, are among the fymptoms that fupervene to this mode of treatment. I do not pretend. to deny, that violent pain, and fometimes dangerous confe-- quences have attended the ufual way of tying the fpermatic cord; but I would beg leave to fuggeft, that thefe confe- quences may probably depend lefs upon including the whole cord in the ligature, than upon tying it too gently. If we merely propofed to reftrain the hemorrhage from the divided {permatic artery, a very moderate degree of preffure would be fufficient ; but asa nerve, a mufcle, &c. are alfo to be included, there ought to be the farther intention of. inter. cepting all communication between the brain and the part below the ligature: if a fufficient force be exerted to pro-- duce this effect, the vitality, and confequently the fenfibility of that portion of the cord will be quickly deftroyed. I therefore always draw the knot as tight as poffible; and al- though CvArs though the patient may complain at the moment, yet the pain very foon goes off; fo that in no one inftance where this method was followed, have I ever known the leaft fub- fequent inconvenience. All imper‘eét and partial preflure mutt neceflarily be followed by the alarming tymptoms which different practitioners have recorded. It would therefore be much better not to tie the cord at all, than to fail of drawing the ligature to fuch a degree of tightnefs, as im- mediately to kill the included part ; and this additional rea- {on for the obfervation may likewife be fubjoined, that when the knox is left comparatively loofe, the feparation will not be completed as foon, as when the life of the parts that are compreffed by it is inftantly deftroyed. When the cord is found at any time fo denfe and elattic, that the ligature ap- plied in the ufual way, proves infufficient to reftrain the hemorrhage, we are advifed to carry a needle with a double ligature through the middle of the cord, and tie it on both fides ; this method will certainly be effectual, but the ope- rator ought to be careful left he punéture the artery, when he paffes the needle into the {permatic cord.”? See Pearfon on Cancerous Complaints, p. 71. &c. : In molt cafes that require caftration, the tefticle is not only entirely difeafed, but alfo fo large as to fill the whole tunica vaginalis, which is itfelf either partly, or entirely difeafed, or has only formed clofe adhefions with the tefticle in various parts. ‘This may generally be difcovered before the operation, both by the eye and the touch, from the fize, the weight, and efpecially the hardnefs of this part. When the tumor has befides a rugged furface, and occa- fions pain, we are enabled to diftinguifh the nature of the difeafe with fill greater certainty ; namely, that there is little or no water contained in the tunica vaginalis, and that this is for the greater part adhering to the tellicle, and dif- eafed. In this cafe, after having divided the external inte- guments, and fufficiently laid bare the tumor, an incifion, feyeral inches in length, thould be made into the tunica va- ginalis, below the abdominal ring and over the fpermatic cord, the fluid that may be contained in it difcharged, the fpermatic cord detached as much as poffible from all its con- neGtion with the furrounding parts, and if it be free from difeafe, ticd in the manner above-mentiqned. The whole tunica vaginalis, with the difeafed tefticle, is then to be cut out of the cellular fubftance of the ferotum, after which the whole mafs under the ligature is cut away with the fcalpel. _ ; ; p 2 Only it is neceffary, in performing this operation, that qe fhould take care not to injure either the feptum fcroti or the fcrotum itfelf. In order that this accident may be avoided, we muft draw the tunica vaginalis ight, by means of a double tenaculum, and dire& the affiftant to draw tight the external fkin, in order that we may be able to cut as much as poffible within the cellular fubftance. When, as happens in fome rare cafes, the tumor has formed adhefions with the fcrotum, we mutt feparate it with the fealpel, but not cut through the fcrotum, as the indurated parts of the {kin may be healed and preferved during the fuppuration. In the Aull rarer cafe, when the tunica vaginalis adheres not only to the tefticle, but alfo to the external fin, on its whole anterior fide, in {uch a manner as to render it impoffi- ble to draw the fkin into a fold; we mutt divide the exter- nal fkin, by a perpendicular incifion, lay bare the tunica vaginalis, and then perform its excifion, as well as that of the telticle, after the manner above defcribed. Should the fpermatic cord be indurated or difeafed, which may readily be difcovered by the fight and touch, it mutt be tied an inch above the difeafed part. But fhould the cord be difeafed as high up as the abdominal ring, it mutt CAS alfo be laid bare higher, the abdominal ring itfelf enlarged, the fpermatic cord drawn tight, feparated from"all its con- neétion with the parts in the abdominal ring, and tied as tight as-poffible above the difeafed part in order to prevent the fubfequent renewal of the difeafe, and effe& a radical cure. As it is not to be expected that the difeafe will cx- tend higher than the abdominal ring, we may alfo tie the cord, with hopes of a fuccefsful event, even rhough it fhould be difeafed as high up as the abdominal ring. This indurated and difeafed {tate of the fpermatic cord may alfo probably be difcovered before we undertake the operation, as the larger fize of the tumor, the manner in which it has been produced, and the length of time during which it has continued, will direé our attention to It. When therefore we find the tumor to extend into the ab- dominal ring, and that it is preternaturally hard and painful to the touch, without the patient’s having previoufly beca affeSed either with an omental or inteltinal hernia; the {permatic cord is in all probability difeafed. As even ia this cafe the operation has fometimes been fuccefsfully per- formed, and the patient’s Jife preferved, by widening the abdominal ring, feparating the fpermatic cord, and then tying it; the furgeon ought alfo in fuch a cafe, provided the other circumftances be favourable, to perform that operation. Castration, in Rural Economy. Spayinc. Castration is a term which has been fometimes ufed by the older phyficians to fignify the corre€ting of violent me- dicines, efpecially purgatives. See Correction and Cor- RECTORS. Cast.ation alfo denotes the art of retrenching, or cut- ting away any part of a thing from its whole. CASTRATO, Jtal. a male finger, with a foprano or female voice, occafioned by a crucl aé&, which needs no further explanation than what is given under the article Castration, which fee. It is a delicate and difficult fabjec&t to difeufs. The cultom ‘in the Ealt has pre- vailed from the hizheft antiquity. The chamberlains of the Egyptian kings, in the time of the Pharaohs, were eunuchs 5 and in the Ealt the practice of emafculation has long been general on the guardians of females in the harems of the great. Italy is the only country, perhaps, on the globe where the inhuman cufom has prevailed of gratifving the auricular fenfe at the expence of humanity. The Italians pretend to have very fevere laws againit this inhuman prac- tice; but eviratt have been employed in the pontifical chapel to fing the foprano, or treble parts, ever fince the eltablifhment of the opera, in the beginning of the 17th cen- tury; till which period the treble parts were fung by Spaniards in falfet, which fee. The favour and fortune which fome of the caftrati have obtained by their voice, tafte, and talents in finging, have ftimulated fordid and un- natural parents to have their children mutilated in expe&a- tion of their aggrandizement, though the horrid Operation does not give or improve a voice, but only preferves it from change at the time of puberty; and as not one boy in a 100 has a fine voice, though all boys have a fhnll and effeminate voice previous to manhood ; yet of all the un- happy children thus mangled, the number is very {mall of thofe who have voices fit for the theatre. And even when there is a voice, the want of genius, diligence, figure, and intelligence, will prevent their ever acquiring the favour or the pity of the public ; and though they merit the utmoft commiferation for the inhumanity of their barbarous parents, they are always treated with fcorn and derifion by the grofs and vulgar part of fociety. See Eurnvcx; where we fhall See Getpinec and CA § fall refume the fubjeét, and detail the hiflory and ufe of eunuchs from the molt remote antiquity to the eftablith- ment of the mufical drama in Italy. CAST REDE.d’ Alva, in Geography, a town of Portugal, in the province of ‘'ras los Montes, on the Duero; 4 leagues 5. of Efpadacimta. CASTREL, or rather Kesratz, in Ornithology, faleo tinnunculus of Linnzus, which fee. CASTRENSES, Morbi. See Camp Difeafes. CASTRENSIANL, or Castrenses, in dntigquity, an order of fervants in the Greek emperor’s honfel old, to whom belonged the care and feryice of what related to his table and cloathing. They were thus called either on account of their attending the emperor, when in camp, or becaufe they obferved a fort of camp-difcipline in the court; or rather becanfe they were conlidered as foldiers, were paid as fuch, and had the privileges belonging to the military body.— ‘Lhe caftrenfiani were alfo called ** caltrenfes miniitri,’? and © minilleriani.’”? To this order belonged the bakers, butlers, waiters, ful- lers, tatters, &c. They had a head, or fuperior, who was ealled * comes caltrenlis,”” which was a palatine dignity under the chamberlain. CASTRES, in Geography, a city of France, and prin. eipal place of a diltrict, in the department of the Tarn ; before the revolution, the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of Alby. In the reign of Lewis XIII. the inhabitants were chiefly Protettants, and formed within themfelves a kind of repub- He; but fince that time the walls have been demolifhed, and the place laid open. It is a town of good trade, containing 15,380 inhabitants; thofe of the canton amount to 17,266: the territory comprebends 142% kiliometres, and 7 com- munes. Turqnoile itones have been found in its neighbour- hood. It is diftant 34 miles from Touloufe. N. lat. «3° 40’. E. long. 2°.—Alfo, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Gironde, and diitrict of Cadilhac ; 10 miles S.E. of Bourdeaux. CASTREZZATO, a town of Italy, in the Breffan ; 11 miles W. of Brefcia. CASTRI, a town of European Turkey, in Livadia, built on the fite of the ancient Delphos, but has litle re- mains of its former {plendour. It contains about 200 houfes, and the inhabitants are milerably poor; 14 miles N.W. of Livadia. CASTRIES, a town of France, in the department of the Hérault, and chicf place of a canton, in the diltrict of Montpellier; 2 leagues N.E. of Montpellier. ‘The place contains 560, and the canton 4934 inhabitants: the terri- tory includes 165 kiliometres, and 20 communes, Castries, Bay of, fo called by Peroutfe, is fituated in the North Pacific ocean, at the top of a gulf about 209 leagues from the ftrait of Sangaar, on the coaft of Tartary ; it affords deep water, and a fafe commodious anchorage. N. lat. 51° 32’. E. long. 142° 28’. In this bay the foutherly winds are more fleady, more conitant, and more obftinate than in the feas of China, from which they pro- ceed; becaule, being confined between two lands, their greate(t variation cannot exceed two points to the ealtward or wettward. With a frefh breeze the fea rifes to an alarm- ing and dangerous height. The bay of Callries alone, fays Peroufe, of all thofe we vifited on the coaft of Tartary, de- ferves that name. It affords a fecure afylum againit bad weather, and it would even be poffible to winter there. The bottom is muddy, and fhoals gradually from 12 to 5 fathoms, in approaching the fhore, from which the breakers extend to three cables’ length, fo that it is very difficult to land, even in a boat, when the tide is low. No fea abounds more with 2 union, and the molt perfe& mutual confidence. CrAUS weeds aud different fpecies of fuci; and among the weeds valt quantities of falmon are caught, to the number of 2000 in a day, which are found in a rivulet that difcharges itfelf at the top of the bay.. The inhabitants of this coaft are deferibed as a very worthy and hofpitable people. Their chief fubfiftence is falmon, prepared on the fire with a {mall grain, which is their moft valued food. his grain is brought to them from the ccuntry of the Mantchous, who dwell feven or eight days’ journey from them, up the river Sega- lien, and who have a dire& communication with the Chinefe. Befides this grain they alfo bring from their country nan- keens, both which they probably receive in exchange for oil, dried fifh, and perhaps for fome {kins of bears or elks, which, together with dogs and {quirrels, were the only quadrupeds whofe exuviz were obferved. The Tartar village of the Orotchys, for to a nation of this name they belong, was compofed of four huts, ftrongly built of the trunks of fir- trees throughout their length, and properly notched to fit each -other at the corners. A frame fupported the roof, which was compofed of the bark of trees, avd the fire was fituated in the middle, under an aperture fufficiently largre to give vent to the {moke. hele four huts were inhabited by four different families, who feemed to live in the clofett Such were the inviolable fidelity of thefe people and their refpect for property, that the French navigators left in the middle of their huts, and under the feal of their probity, their bags full of manufactures, beads, iron utenfils, and, in fhort, all the articles exchanged with them ; nor was their confidence in any infance abufed. Each hut was furrounded by a place for drying falmon, which was expofed by the women, to whem the operation is committed, on pales to the heat of the fun, after having been fmoaked twoorthree days roundthe fire inthe middle of their houfes. The people of this bay, as well as thofe of Segalien, wear on their thumbs a thick ring of lead or bone, againft which they cut in {tripping the fal- mon with a fharp knife, worn by each of them at his waitt. Their village ftood on a neck of low and marfhy land, ex- pofed to the north, and appeared uninhabitable during the winter. But on the oppolite fide of the gulf, on a more elevated [pot open to the fouth, and near a wood, was anos ther village, confilting of eight huts, larger and better coa- ftruGed than the former. Above thefe, and near them, were fubterraneous houfes, like thofe of Kamtfchatka, defcribed: in the 3d volume of Cook’s lait voyage. They were large enough to contain, during the rigour of winter, the inha- bitants of eight huts. At one extremity of this village were feveral tombs, better conftructed, and equally extenfive with the houfes ; each of which contained four or five biers, properly formed and adorned with Chinefe manufa@ures. Bows, arrows, nets, and, in general, the moft valuable arti- cles, were fulpended within thefe monuments, of which the wooden doors were fecured by a bar fupported at each ex- tremity. Their houles were alfo filled with their effets in the fame manner. Their clothes, furs, fnow-fhoes, bows and arrows, ard pikes, remained in this deferted village, which they inhabit only during the winter. They pafs the fummer on the other fide of the gulf. In their interment of the dead, they proportion the expence of their maufolea to their re{pective wealth. Whilft a relative kind of magnifi- cence is manifefted in the monuments of the more affluent, thofe of. the poorer clafs are expofed on a bier, which is placed on.a {tage fupported by Itakes four fect high. AIL have their bows, their arrows, their nets, and {ome pieces of cloth round their tombs, and we may well conceive, from the veneration which thefe people pay to their anceftors, that it would be deemed facrilege to rob their tombs. Thefe CAS Thefe people, like the inhabitants of Segalien, feem to acknowledge no chief, and to fubmit to no government. Neverthelefs, the gentlenefs of their manners, and their refpe& for old age, may give this apparent anarchy a cha- raéter of mildnefs. We never witneffed, fay the French navigators, the flighteft quarrel ; and their mutual affection and parental tendernefs afforded an interefling {pectacle. However, thefe people are filthy and offenfive to a difguft- ing degree ; and there is not, perhaps, a race of perfons more feebly conitituted, and whofe countenance is more in- confiftent with all our ideas of beauty. “heir average height is nnder 4 feet ro inches, French meafure; their form is flender, and their voice weak and fhrill, like that of children. ‘They have prominent cheek-bones, and {mall blue eyes in diagonal diretions. Their mouth is large, nofe flat, fhort chin, almolt without beard, and fkin olive, var- nifhed, as it were, with oi] and fmoke. ‘They let their hair grow, and braid it in treffes, fomewhat in the European manner. That of the women falls loofe upon their fhoulders, and they have the fame caft of countenance with the men, It would not be eafy to diftinguifh them, if it were not for a flight difference in their drefs, and in their leaving their necks entirely open. All the cares of the female fex are li- mited to cutting and fewing their clothes, difpofing the fith for drying, and nurfing their children, whom they fuckle till they are three or four years old. Females feem to be much refpeéted in this part of the globe. The men never conclude any bargain without the confent of their wives. The filver ear-rings and copper jewels which adorned their drefs, are entirely referved for women and little girls. The men and little boys are dreffed in jackets of nankeen, dog’s fkin, and fifh fin, in the form of carters? frocks. If thefe extend below the knees, they wear no drawers; otherwife they have fuch as are ufed by the Chi- nefe, and which extend to the calf of the leg. They have all boots of feal fkin, which they referve for winter; and they wear at all times, and at all ages, a leathern gir- dle, to which are fufpended a knife and fheath, a flint, fteel, a little bag for tobacco, and a pipe. ‘The women are covered with a large nankeen gown, or one of falmon-fkin, which #hey have the art of tanning, and of rendering extremely flexible. This drefs extends to the ancle, and is fome- times adorned with a fringe of {mall copper ornaments, which make a noife like httle bells. As to their reli- gion, they feem to have neither temple nor priefts; but they appear to have fome idols of rough feulpture, fufpend- ed from the roofs of their cottages. ‘Thefe images, how- ever, may only ferve as memorials of fome child devoured by the bears, or fome hunter whom thefe animals may have wounded. They are reprefented as a people whofe delicacy and refinement of manners indicate a degree of civilization, not exceeded by any who have neither flocks nor agricul- ture. Dogs are their moft valuable property. Thefe they harnefs to little fledges, very light, and extremely well made, and exaétly fimilar to thofe of Kamtfchatka. Thefe dogs are of the wolf kind ; and though {mall in fize, are very ftrong, docile, and gentle, and feem to poffefs the charaéter of their mafters; while thofe of Port des Frangais, which are much fmaller and of the fame breed, are wild and fero- cious. The bay of Caftries abounds with iflands; the foil ef which confifts of lava and other volcanic fubftances. Among the latter, the eruption of which appeared more ancient, were difcovered various crytftallizations; but no craters of volcanoes could be perceived. Vegetation in the month of July was nearly fuch as it is in the environs of Paris in the middle of May. Strawberries and rafp- berries were till in bloom; goofeberries began to redden, CAS and celery and water-creffes were very fcarce. Several fine foliated oytter-fhells of a vinous and black colour.were found {trongly attached to the rock, and feparated from it with difficulty; and their valves were fo thin that it was very difficult to preferve them entire. With the dredge were taken up fome whelks of a fine colour, fome peétines, {mall mufcles of the common kind, and fome varieties of the cockle. Several fpecies of birds, fuch as pullets, wild ducks, cormorants, plover, white and black wag-tails, and a {mall blue fly-catcher, were thinly fcattered. The beach and the woods echo with the croaking of ravens, and afford refuge to bald eagles and other birds of prey. The martin and fand-martin alone appeared to be in their natural cli- mate. The earth feems to continue in a frozen {ftate throughout’ the fummer, as the water taken into the fhip was only 14° above the freezing point, and that of the ftreams never above four degrees. The mercury, however, was conftantly at 59°, even in the open air. ‘This momen- tary heat penetrates but a little way ; it only quickens vege- tation, which begins and ends in the fhort interval of three months, and infinitely multiplies gnats, mufketoes, and other troublefome infeéts. No plants are cultivated by the natives ; and yet they are fond of vegetable fubilances. The grain of the Mantchous, which 1s probably a {mall fhelled millet, is their greateft luxury. They gather with great care fome fpontaneous roots, which they dry for their win- ter provifion; among others the yellow lily, or faranna, which isa f{pecies of onion. They are unaccuftomed to the ufe of the fhuttle, and are only drefled in the moft ordina of the Chinefe manufa€tures, or the exuvie of fome cere trial animals and feals. Voyage of La Péroufe, vol. ii. Engl. Tranfl. CASTRIMONIUM, in Ancient Geography, a {mall ore of Italy, in Campania, rendered municipal by a law of ylla. CASTRIOT, Georce, in Biography. SeeScannerseEc. CASTRO, Pierro pi, an eminent painter of thofe fub- jects that are comprehended under the denomination of {till life, fuch as vafes, fhells, mufical inttruments, gems, veffels of gold, filver, and cryftal, books, and rich bracelets. He was well acquainted with all the true principles of perfpeétive, and the chiaro-fcuro; and none of his contemporaries were fuperior to him in tranfparence and truth. His colouring was peculiariy excellent, and he manifefted -peculiar judg- ment in grouping a variety of objects, fo as to give union and harmony tothe whole. ‘This artilt died in 1663. Pilking- ton. Castro, Atpuonso Dé, a Francifcan friar, was a native of Zamora, in Spain, celebrated as a preacher, and much efteemed by the emperor Charles V. and his fon, Philip I1. He accompanied the latter into England, when he came hither to marry queen Mary. His principal refidence was inthe Low Countries; and though nominated to the arch- bifhopric of Compoftella, he never took pofleffion of it, but died at Braffels in 1558, at the age of 63 years. Asa wri- ter he is principally known by his work “ Againft Herefies,”’ confifting of 14 books, partly hiftorical and partly polemical. An enlarged edition of this work by Feuardent, a Francif- cal es at Paris, in 1570. Caftro was alfo the author of a commentary on the 12 minor proph feveral homilies. Du Pin’s Eccl. Hift. Pla ork Castro, Joun ps, an eminent Portuguefe commander, was born at Lifbon, in 1500, and firft ferved at Tangier. He then accompanied Stephen de Gama to the ftraits of the Red Sea, which he accurately defcribed. On his return to Portugal, he was appointed to the command of a fquadron for guarding the coait; and he foon afterwards attended ; Charles CAS Charles V. in his expedition to Tunis. He ftrengthened the fortifications of Diu, the fiege of which the Turks, af- ter great lofs, had been obliged to abandon; and then took a number of towns: but in 1548, he expired in the arms of St. Francis Xavier, after having been very recently advanced to the viceroyalty of the Indies. His defcription of all the coafts from Goa to Diu is preferved in the Jefuits’ college, at Evora. His life was written in Portuguefe by Hyacinth Freyre d’Andrada, and has been tranflated into Latin. Castro, Paut nk, a celebrated lawyer of the 15th cen- tury, was born at the place from which he took his name, in the kingdom of Naples, and received his education in part from Chriftopher da Caftiglione. From an obfcure origi- nal, he rofe, by affiduous application, to feveral ftations of eminence, and diflinguifhed himfelf as 2 profeflor of jurifpru- dence at Avignon, llorence, Sienna, Bologna, and Padua. At the latter place, where he was teacher of the law for 45 years, he died about the year 1436. His reputation was fuch, that it was proverbfally faid, «* If there had been no Bartolus, Paul would have held his place ;’? and Cujacius faid, “* He who has not Paul’ de Caftro, let him fell his coat, and buy him.’ His. works are principally com- mentaries on the code and digeft, and have been printed at Venice, Franckfort, and other places. Gen. Biog. Castro, in Geography, a town of Spain in Arragon ; ro miles N.E. of Balbattro. Castro, a ftrong town of South America, in the ifland of Chiloe near the coaft of Chili, in the South Pacific ocean ; “180 miles S. of Baldivia, and fubjeét to Spain. S. lat. 43°. W. long. 82°. Castro, anciently called AZitylene, afea-port town of she ifland of Metelin, and the capital, fituate on the north-eatt coaft, facing the gulf of Adramiti, with two harbours, one of which is capable of receiving large veflels. It was for- merly a place diftinguifhed by its grandeur and magnificence, of which fome veftiges {till remain. It has two caftles, one ancient and another modern, each of which is furnifhed with a Turkifh garrifon and commander. The inhabitants are chiefly Greeks, among whom are fome Armenians: the for- mer have four churches and a metropolitan. The chief trade is fhip-building.. It is 30 miles S.W. of Adramiti. N. lat. 39° 14’. E. long. 26° 29’. -Castro, a duchy of Italy, in the ftate of the church, bounded on the north by the Orvietan, on the ealt by the Patrimonio, on the fouth by the fea, and on the weft by the Siennefe ; 25 miles long, and fron 8 to 13 wide. The duchy of Caltro, together with the earldom of Ronciglione, was conferred by Pope Paul III. on his natural {on, Peter Aloyfius Farnele, who afterwards became duke of Parma and Placentia: it was mortgaged by one of his defcendants to the Monte di Pieta at Rome ; but upon his paying nei- ther principal nor interelt, it was fequeftered by Pope Urban VIII. and in the year 1661 was annexed to the papal do- minions. The town of Caitro, from which it derives its name, which was formerly a bifhop’s fee, was demolifhed by Pope Innocent X. and the fee removed to Aquapendente, becaufe the inhabitants had murdered a bifhop whom he had fent to them. Castro, a town of Naples, in the province of Otranto, the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of Otranto ; which has been frequently plundered by the Corfairs; four miles S.S.W. of Otranto. Castro de Caldulas, a town of Spain, in the province of Galicia; 9 leagues N.E. of Orenfe. ‘ Castro Dayro, a town of Portugal, in the province of Beira; 5 leagues $.S.W. of Lamego. Vou. VII. CAS Castro Giovanni, 2 town of Sicily, in the valley of Noto; 63 miles S.W. of Melazzo. Castro de Gors, a town of Portugal in the province of Beira ; three leagues N.W. of Vifeu. Castro Nova, a town of Sicily, in the valley of Maz- zara, containing about 4000 inhabitants; 20 miles S.E. of Palermo. Castro Nuovo, a town of Venetian Dalmatia, built by a king of Bofnia, deftnded towards the fea by inacceffible rocks, and towards the land by a citadel and caflle. Castro de Rey, a town of Spain, in the province of Ga- licia; 5 leagues 8S. of Mondonedo. Castro dell Rio, atown of Spain, in the province of Cordova ; 5 leagues from Cordova. Castro Trionto, a town of Naples, in the provinee of Calabria Citra ; 11 miles E. of Roffano. Castro Verde, a town of Portugal, in the province of Alentejo ; 13 leagues N.E. of Ourique. Castro Vicenie, a town of Portugal, in the province of Tras los Montes; 6 leagues E. of Mirandola. Castro Villara, a town of Naples in the province of Calabria Citra; 6 miles W. of Caflavo. Castro Virreyna, a juvifdiétion of South America, in the country of Peru, ard in the diocefe eof Guamanga, W. of the city of Guamanga; and extending in fome parts above 30 leagues, with fuch a variety of temperatures, that it produces every kind of grain and fruits. The heaths, which are its coldefl parts, are frequented by a kind of fheep, called Vicunna, whofe wool is the moft confiderable article of its commerce. Its town of the fame name is 125 miles S.E. of Lima. S. lat. 12° $0’. W.long. 74° 45’. CASTROMARIM, a town of Portugal, on the Gua- diana, four leagues E.N.E. of Tavira. It furrounds a hill on which is an old ruinous caftle, no longer fortified. The houfes are fmall, and the place poor and mean, but far more lively than Villa-real. Near Caftromarim immediately rife mountains of the chain that divides Algarvia from Alen- tejo, which gradually become high as you advance north- wards; they confift of argillaceous flate, and a fand ftone, which has a very ftrong refemblance to the grey round {tones found in the Hartz mountains in Germany, called “ Grau- wache.”’ CASTROP, a town of Germany, in the circle of Wet- phalia, and county of Mark, containing one church for Roman Catholics, and two for proteftants of different per- fuafions ; 27 miles S.S.W. of Muntter. CASTROFOL, a town of Spain, in the province of Af- turias, on the borders of Galicia; 14 miles N.E. of Mondo- nedo. CASTROREALE, a town of Sicily, in the valley of Demona, containing about 8000 inhabitants; 15 miles W. ot Meffina. .CASTROSAROS, a town of European Turkey, in the province of Romania; 44 miles W. of Gallipoli. CASTROZARBA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Thrace, fortified by the emperor Juftinian. CASTRUCCI, Pietro, in Biography, anative of Rome, a fcholar of Corelli, and an eminent performer on the violin, arrived in England in 1715, with the earl of Burlington, when he returned from his travels. This violinift, an enthu- fiaft, and more than half mad, is reprefented in one of Ho- garth’s prints as the enraged mufician; the painter having fuflicient poliffonnerte, previous to making the drawing, to have his houle befet by all the noify inftruments he could colle& together, whofe clamorous performance brought him to the window in all the agonies of auricular torture. On his arrival, Corbet, who had hitherto led the opera band, CAS band, was fuperfeded for Ca/frucct, who was appointed leader. In 1731, a concert was advertifed at Hickford’s room, for the benefit of fignor Caltrucci, fir/} violin of the opera, who was to play the firft and eighth concerto of his mafter, the famous Corelli, and feveral pieces of his own compofition, particularly a folo, in which he engaged to execute ‘/wenty- dur notes with one bow.”? This advertifement was bur- lefqued, the next day, and a folo promifed by the /a/ violin of Goodman's Fields playhoufe, in which he would perform “6 taventy-five notes with one bow.” In 1732 Handel compofed, in his opera of Sofarmes, an Aria parlante, cuor di madre, on purpofe to difplay the talents of Caftrucci in the accompaniment ; and from this period to the year 1737, he feems to have led at all concerts, giving way only to the two boys, Cleg and Dubourg, in the folos, in which, from their youth as well as talents, they were highly favoured by the public. This year Caftrucci, in ad- vertifing a benefit concert, ftyles himfelf firft violin of the opera; promifing a particular concerto, with an echo, ad- ding, that “ as he has for the fpace of fo many years had the honour to ferve the Englifh nobility, he hopes they will favour him this laft time, being to return the enfuing fummer to Rome, his native city.” About the year 1737, poor Cafrucci, Hogarth’s enraged mufician, was {uperfeded at the opera, in favour of Fefting, for whom he had {uch an antipathy, that in his moft lucid intervals, he inftantly loft his temper, if not his reafon, on hearing, it pronounced. It was a common and irritating practice with fome of his young waggith acquaintance, who had no refpe& for age and talents, to addrefs him in conver- fation by the name of Mr. Felting, as if by miftake,—* I beg your pardon,—Mr. Caftrucci I mean ;”’ which put him in as great a rage as Hogarth’s ftreet muficians could do on May-day. ; After his difmiffion from the opera, opprefled with years, infirmities, and poverty, he was obliged to fupplicate for a benefit at the opera-houfe, which on the merit of his pat fervices was, with due benevolence, granted him at the age of 80, when he performed a folo for the lait time, and dicd foon after. He was a voluminous compofer for his own inflrument. Two books of folos, and 12 concertos for violins, though never much known, feem to have more fire and varicty than mott violin mulic of his time, till Verucini, ftill more in- flamed, furpafled him in genius, hand, knowledge, and ca- price. He had a brother, Profpero Caffrucci, who for feveral years led at the Cattle concert, and played concertos with his brother, @ parti equali; but though inferior to Pietro, he was not devoid of merit. CASTRUM, in Ancient Geography, a term which, in combination with others, gives name to, feveral fortified places ; of which fome were towns, and others mere for- treffes. They are too numerous, and not of fufficient im- portance, to be here recited. Castrum Doloris, in Middle Age Writers, denotes a eatafalco, or lofty tomb of ftate, erected in honour of fome perfon of eminence, ufually ia the church where his body is interred ; and decorated with arms, emblems, lights, and the like. Ecclefiaftical writers fpeak of a ceremony of confecrating 2 cajtrum doloris ; the edifice was to be made to reprefent the body of the deceafed, and the prieft and deacon were to take their pofts, and fay the.prayers after the fame manner as if the corpfe were adtually prefent. CASTRUP, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the GAS5 circle: of Weltphalia, and bifhopric of Munfter; 5 miles 5.S.E. of Clopenburg. CASTS. See Cast, Castine, and Jmpreffions from MepaAts. : CASTULO, or Castutum, in Ancient Geography, Caz- Jona, a confiderable town of Spain, towards the eaftern part of Batica, belonging to the Oretani. It had the title of “ Conventus”? when the Romans made themfelves mafters of the country, but before this time the Carthaginians had con- tended for the poffcffion of it with thofe to whom it naturally belonged. Hannibal. This town was fituated in a mountainous country ; and fome have derived its name from * Clafton,”” an oriental term, fignif;ing the noife of a fall of water; and we learn from Strabo, that there were rocks near the place which gave rife to the river that pafled to Caftulo. The town itfelf, placed on a mountain, or at lealt very near it, feems to have fome relation, by its name and fituation, to Parnaflus, famous for its fountain ** Callalia;?? and hence fome have been led to imagine, that it was founded by the Phoczans, to whom belonged, in Greece, the fountains of Caltalia and Parnaffus. Silins Italicus has net omitted this allufion. territory of Caftulo, eftablifhed a colony io it. There were defiles in the vicinity of Caltulo, meutioned by Livy, and called ‘ Saltus Caftalenfis.’’ ; CASU Consimitti, in Law, a writ of entry, where a tenant by courtefy, or for life, aliens in fee or in tail, or for another’s life: it takes its name hence, that authority being given by ftat. Welt. 2. 13 Edw. I. c. 24. to the clerks in” chancery to make new forms, as often as any new cafe fhould arife, not under any of the old forms; they framed this writ to the likenefs of the other called Ca/u provifo. ; Casu Provifo, a writ of entry, given by the flatute of Glocefter, 6 Edw. I. c.7. in cafe where a terant in dower aliens in fee, or for term of life, in tail: and lies for him in reverfion againtt the alienee._ CASUAL, fomething that happens fortuitonfly, or with= out any defign, or meafures taken to bring it to pafs, Casuat death. See DeEopann. Casuax geior, in Law, a nominal defcendant in eject- ment, and who continues fuch until appearance by or for the tenant in pofleffion. Black{t. Comm. vol. iii. p- 202. Casvat revenues, are thofe which arife from forfeitures, confifcations, deaths, attainders, &c. Casuat theology, a denomination given by fome to what is more frequently called cafuiltry. See Casuusr. : “Adam Ofiander, chancellor of the univerfity of Tubingen, has publifhed a fyftem of ca/ual theology, containing the folu- tion of dubious queltions, and cafes of confcience. Theologia Caufalis, 6 vols. ato. Tubing. 1682. CASUALTY, in the Tin Mines, a word ufed to denote the earth and {tony matter which is, by wafhing in the ftamp- ing-mills, &c. feparated from the tin ore, before it is dried and goes to the crazing mill. CASUARL, in Ancient Geography, a people of Upper Germany, according to Ptolemy, who dwelt near the Suevi. ae CASUARIA, a place of Gaul, in the divifion called the *« Greek Alps,’ which was fituated at a imall diftance to “ the right of I fara. CASUARINA, in Botany, (faid by Ventenat to be fo called from a fancied likenefs of its branches to the feathers of the caflowary.) Forit. Gen. 52. Thunb. Nov. Gen. Pl. 53K, Linn, Jun. Suppl. p. 62. Schreb, Gen. 1395. Juff. p.4r2. Vent. vol, ii, p. 576. Gert. 568. Filao, Lam, Encye. Bofet 3 Nouv. It was the native place of Imilia, the wife of — Julius Czfar, having purchafed the lands inthe . =x CAS Nouv. Di&. Clafs and order, monecia monandria. Nat. ord. conifere, Jufl. Vent. Gen. Ch. Male. Cal. common ; catkin filiform, imbricated ; fcales fomewhat membranous, whorled, lanceolate-awl-{haped, connate at the bafe, ciliated, one-flowered. Calyx proper two- valved ; valves acute, equal, boat-fhaped, fhorter than the feales of the catkin. Cor. none. Stam. one, capillary, longer than the feale. Female. Cal. common ovate-cylindrical ; feales ovate, acute, keeled, ciliated. Calyx proper two-valved, longer than the fcales of the catkin, permanent. Cor. none. Pif. germ ege-thaped, compreffed ; ftyle filiform, long, bifid; ftigmas two. eric. ftrobile almoft globular, com- pofed of the enlarged, aggregate calyxes, each containing a fingle feed. Seeds winged, compreffed. Gert. and Vent. Em. Ch. Calyx common, a catkin; calyx proper, two- valved. Style bifid. Pericarp a ftrobile. Sp. 1. C. eguifitifolia, Lion, Fil. Supp. Thunb, Nov. Gen. p-53- Forlt. Gen. tab. 52. Lam. Encyc. Illutt. pl. 746. fig. r. Mart. Mill. (C. littorea, Rumph. Amb. vol. iii. p. 86. tab. 57.) ‘* Monoicous; whorls of ftamens approximating.” Thunb. “ Little branches irregularly difpofed, crowded ; catkins thickened towards the top.”” Lam, A large, {pread- ing, lofty tree. Branches greyifi or brown, knotty, and tu- bercled on their lower part, furnifhed on their upper part with numerous branches, which are fet clofe together, almoft fafciculated, very flender, jointed, and regularly channelled, refembling the ramifications of the horfe-tails- (equifeta). Male catkins about an inch long, terminal, ftraight, linear- cylindrical. Svrobiles about the fize of a walnut, woody, ‘Jateral, below the flender branches; peduncles two or three lines long. A native of Madagafcar and the Eaft Indies. 2. C. nodiflora, Thunb. Mart. Gert. (C. verticillata, Lam. Encyc.) ‘ Whorls of flamens remote.” Thunb. ‘ Little branches whorled, loofe; catkins attenuated towards the top.” Lam. A large tree, with a lefs denfe head than the preceding. Branches more diftant ; upper ones three or four together, in diftinét whorls. Male catkins two inches Jong, cylindrical, jointed, whitifh ; filaments not more than a line anda half longer than the feales. Lam. Strobile nearly globular, echinate, peduncled. Scales of the catkin, when ripe, much thickened, of a corklike fubftance, retufe, white, in pairs, fet fo clofe together as to appear one body, hand- fomely teffellated, in quadrangular figures; valves of the calyx elongated, coriaceous, concave. Gert. A native of the Eaft Indies and New Caledonia. 3. C. frida, Hort. Kew. 320. Mart. * Dioicous ; little branches ere&t; feales of the ftrobiles unarmed, fmoothifh ; male-fheaths multifid, {mooth.’ A native of New Sonth Wales, flowering in No- vember and December. 4. C. torulofa, Hort. Kew. 320. Mart. ‘ Dioicous; little branches flaccid ; feales of the ftrobiles villous, roughened with tubercles; male-fheaths quadrifid.”” A native of New South Wales, introduced by fir Jofeph Banks in 1772. 5. C. africana, Lour. Cochin. 549- Mart. ‘ Little branches filiform, {welling at the tip, and floriferous; ftrobiles roundifh, axillary.” A native of the fandy ealt coalt of Africa. CASUENTINUM, or Casentinum, in Ancient Geo- raphy, a burgh of Italy, in Umbria, according to Pliny. : GASUENTUM, Bastenro, a river of thay, okt) by M. d’Anville’s map in Lucania, which difcharged itfelf into the gulf of Tarentum. Alaric, king of the Goths, was buried in the bed of this river. CASUHATTH, in Geography, a high chain of mountains, in South America, part of a triangle, one fide of which extends to the Andes, and another to the {traits of Ma- gellan. C! Avk CASUIST, a perfon who profefles to refolve cafes of con{cience. Efcobar has made a colle€tion of the opinions of all the cafuills before him. To cafuiftry belongs the decifion of all difficulties arifing about what a man may confcientioufly do, or not do ; what is fin, or not fin; what things a man is obliged to do in order to difcharge his duty, and what he may let alone without breach of it. M. le Feore, preceptor of Lewis XIII. called the booke of the cafuilts the art of quibbling with God ; which does not feem far from the truth ; by reafon of the multitudes of diftinGions and fubtilties with which they abound. CASULS Canianenses, in Ancient Geography, an epif- copal fee of Africa, in the. Byfacene territory. CASURGIS, a town placed by Ptolemy in Germania Major, fuppofed to be the prefent Caurzim, in Bohemia. CASUS Amissionis, in Scots Law. In aétions proving the tenor of obligations inextinguifhable by the debtor’s re- tiring or cancelling them, it is neceffary for the purfuer, be- fore he is allowed a proof of the tenor, to condefcend upon fuch a ‘ Cafus amiffionis,” or accident by which the writing was deftroyed, as fhews it was loft while in the writer’s poi- feffion CASWELL, in Geography, a county of America, in the diftri€&t of Hillfborough and ftate of North Carolina, cen- taining 10,096 inhabitants, of whom 2,736 are flaves. The chief town is Leefburg. CASYRUS, or Cuasirvs, in Ancient Geography, a moun. tain of Afia, in Safiana ; near which Pliny places the town of Softrates. CASYSTES, a port of Afia Minor, in Ionia, placed by Strabo at the foot of mount Corica. CAT, Craupe Nicuovas LE, in Biography, was born at Blerancourt, in Picardy, September 6, 1700. His father, Claude Le Cat, who was a furgeon of eminence, would have educated him to his bufinefs, but finding him difpofed to theological ftudies, he encouraged him in that purfuit, and he performed the duties of an ecclefialtic feveral years. Being well verfed in geometry, he, for a time, em- ployed himfelf in acquiring a knowledge. of military archi- tecture, and made fome drawings in that line which gained him credit ; but his friends not approving that pro- jet, and requiring him to fix on the object he now purpofed following, he determined on ftudying medicine, fome know- ledge in which he had acquired early, under the tuition of his father. He was now fent to Paris, and as he was of an ardent difpofition, he foon, by his intenfe application to his fludies, attraéted the notice of the profeffors. Though anatomy was the part to which he feemed particularly at- tached, yet he foon fhewed himfelf to be no mean proficient in fargery, and medicine, infomuch, that in the year 1729, M. Treflan, archbifhop of Rouen, appointed him his’ phy- fician and furgeon, though he did not take his degree of doétor in medicine, until the year 1732, when that honour was conferred upon himat Rheims. He had the preceding year been chofen furgeon major to the Hotel Dieu, at Rouen. For this honour, and for the attachment his coun- trymen conftantly fhewed him, he was not ungrateful. In the year 1733, having now completed his ftudies, he went and refided among them, and in the fame year he began his courfe of le€ures in anatomy and furgery, which foon became fo numeroufly attended, that the rooms in which they had been accuftomed to be given would not contain the con- courfe of pupils, who required admiffion. He therefore propofed building a theatre for the lectures, and founding a’ college, or fchool for the ftudy of anatomy and furgery, D2 which GAT which he had the pleafure of feeing carried into:execu- tion. He alfo formed a literary fociety, which was af- terwards erected into a royal academy, to which, as one of the mott zealous and active members, he was ap- pointed fecretary, which polt he held to the time of his death. In 1759, an addition of 20co livres was made to his falary as principal furgeon to the Hotel Dieu, and in January, 1762, the king gave him letters of nobility. In the mean while he had made himfelf known to moit of the philofophical, and medical focieties in Europe, by his com- munications on the fubjeéts of anatomy and furgery ; he was alfo a frequent correfpondent with the editors of the Journal des Savans, Mercure de France, and other literary and medica! journals. The fubjeéts of his differtations were fometimes fuch as rather fhewed his ingenuity than his judg- ment, and tended more to amufe than to improve the mind ; as, of the nature and properties of the nervous fluid, on the caufes of the colour of the fkin in negroes, &c. Many of them, however, were of a higher kind, and in the opinion of Haller, whom he occafionally oppofed, and who was therefore, perhaps, no jult appreciator of his merits, he made fome improvements both in anatomy, and furgery. But the fame verfatility of difpofition, which made it diff- cult for him to fix on a profeffion, might prevent his being a. correct experimenter, to which an almoft unwearicd attention is. neceffary. He died in full poffeffion of the efteem and veneration of his fellow citizens, Auguft 20, 1768. Of his works, which are numerous, Haller has given complete lifts, with occafional remarks, in bis Bib. Anat. & Chirurg. The following are the titles of fome of the principal of them. “ Traité des Sens, Rouen, 1740, Svo. avec figures.” It has been feveral times reprinted. Haller finds. fome of the figures faulty. ‘ Recueil de Pieces con- cernant l’Operation de la Taille.” Rouen, 1752, 8vo. Some of the plates in this work are alfo cenfured by Haller. He alfo wrote on folvents of the ftone, on the caufes of the menfes. “ La Theorie de l’Ouie, Supplement a cette Article du Traité des Sens.” Paris 1767, 8vo. the moft finifhed, Hal'er fays, of his works. Eloy. Dict. Hik. Cat, in Geography, a lake of Noith America. N, lat. 52° 30’. W. long. 91° 40’. Gar Tfland, or Guanabani, one of the Bahama iflands. It was the firlt land difcovered by Columbus, to which he gave the name of St. Salvadore, O&. 11, 1492. It hes on a: particular bank to the eaft of the great Bahama bank, from which it is parted by a narrow channel cailed Exuma Sound. .N. lat. 24° go’. W. long. 74° 30/.—Alfo, an ifland near the gulf of Mexico, and the coait of Welt Flo- rida. N. lat. 30° 6’. W. long. 89°. Car, in Sea language, denotes a ship formed on the Nor- wegian model, ufed by the northern nations of Europe, and fometimes employed in the Englifh coaltrade. It has three matts and a bow/{prit, rigged like an Englihh fhip.; having, however, pole-maits, and ne top gallaut fails. The mizen is with a gaff. Thefe veffels ufually carry from four to fix hundred tons. Car, ina flip. See Car-heads. Cat the anchor. See Ancnor and Cattinc. Car, in Zoology. See Fetis Catus, the common cat, and its varieties —Cat Mexican. See Feuis Pardalis.—Ticer- Cat, Mexican. Sce Fevis Mexicana.—Ticer-Cat, Ben- gal. See Fevis Bengalenfis.—Tieer-Car, Cape, See Feris Capenyis. Cart-bird, or Cat-fly-catcher, in Ornithology, Muscicars Carolinenfis, whieh fee. Cat’s-ear, in Botany, fee Hypocnaris. GAT Cart’s eye, in Mineralogy, a filiceous gem, called by the Latins, oculus cati, and fometimes onycopalus, as having white zones or rings like the onyx, and belonging to the divifion of chatoyant {tones, or fuch as vary their colour according to» the pofition of the light and the eye of the obferver, which M. Chaptal confiders as variettes of the opal. Near the middle it has a point, from which proceed, in a circle, green- ifh traces of a very lively colour. Its colour is generally of a greenifh or yellowifh grey, or light, or dark-yellowifh: brown, or reddifh brown, or itriped with thefe colours; and: in certain pofitions, particularly when polifhed, emitting a: filvery or yellowifh moveable effulgence. MKlaproth men. tions two varieties of this mineral; the one whitifh or yel-- low, from Ceylon, which, fays Kirwan, is found. in blunt: or rounded fragments; its luitre 2, and tranfparency, 3.2 ; its fra€ture imperfectly conchoidal, fometimes approaching, to the fplintery; fragments, 3; hardnefs, 10; fp. gr. from 2.56 to 2.66. Klaproth fays, that the fpecies from. Ceylon had 2.66 of fpecific gravity ; and was found to con- tain of filex 95 per cent. of alumine 13, of lime 14, and of oxyd of iron 4. The other fpecies is reddifh, and is pro curcd from the Malabar coat. This, or altroites, fays Kla- proth, was compofed of 94% per cent. of filex, 2 of alumine, 12 of lime, and § of oxyd of iron. Its fpecific gravity was 2.625. This is the fun-ftone of the Turks, called guneche. The beft of thefe ttones are very fcaree. One of them, an inch in diameter, was in the cabinet of the dukes. of Tufcany. See Asteria and CHALCEDONY. Cat-fi/h, in Ichthyology 5 {cveral of the fhark tribe are. known by this title. The leffer cat-fith, Catulus minor, Squalus caiulus of Linneus, is called alfo the lefler se see Greater cat-fih of Edwards, Catulus maximus of Willugh- by and Ray, is the Linnean Squalus fellaris. See Squarus.. Cart-gut, a denomination given to {mali ftrings for fiddles,. and other initruments, made of the inteltines of fheep or lambs dried and twifted, either fingly, or feveral together... Thefe are fometimes coloured red, fometimes blue, but are commonly left whitifh or brownith, the aatural colour of the. gut. hey are ufed alfo by watch-makers, cutlers, turners,. aud other artificers. Great quantities are imported into. England, and other northern countries, from Lyons and. Italy. Car-harpings, in Sea Language, are {mall ropes running in. little blocks from one fide of the fhrouds to the other, near the deck; their ufe is to force the fhrouds, and te make them tight, for the greater fecurity of the matts, and to af- ford room for drawing the yards in more obliquely, to trim« the fails for a fide-wind, when they are faid to be clofe hauled. , é Car-heads, two firong fhort beams of timber, which pro-- je@ almoft horizontally over the fhip’s bows, on each fide of the bow{prit, being like two radii which extend from a cen-. tre, taken in the direGion of the bow-fprit. That part of, the cat-head, which refls upon the fore-caftle, is fecurely bolted to the beams ; the other part projeéts like a crane, as. above defcribed, and carries in its extremity two or three {mall wheels, or fheaves of brafs, or ftrong wood, about which a rope, called the cat-fa/l, pafles, and communicates. with the cat-block, which alio contains three fheaves. The machine formed by this combination of pullies is called the- cat, which ferves to pull the anchor up to the cat-head, without tearing the fhip’s fides with its flukes. The cat- head ferves alfo to fufpend the anchor clear of the bow, when it is neceflary to let it go; itis fupported by a fort of. knee which is generally ornamented with fculpture. The eat-block is fitted with a large and itrong hook, which catches CAT eatches the ting of the anchor when it is to be drawn u 5 Je head, in Mineralogy, a denomination given to a fort of walte ftony lumps, not inflammable, found in coal- mines. In thefe there are frequently impreflions of ferns. Phil. Tranf. N° 360. p. 970. Car- holes, two {mall holes above the gun-room ports, to bring in a cable or hawler through them to the capitan, when it becomes neceflary to heave the fhip a-tern. Cat-mint, in Botany. See Catmint. Car of Mountain, in Zoology. See Carus pardus. Car’s paw, a light air of wind perceived at a diftance in a calm, by the impreffion made on the furface of the fea, which it {weeps very lightly and then decays, Car-/ait, a name given by our falt-workers toa very beautifully granulated kind of common falt. It is formed out of the bittern or leach brine, which runs from the falt when taken out of the pan. When they draw out the common falt from the boiling-pans they put it into long wooden troughs, with holes bored at the bottom for the brine to drain out; under thefe troughs are placed veffels to receive this brine, and acrofs them are placed certain {mall fticks, to which the cat-falt affixes itfelf in very large and beautiful cryftals. This falt contains fome portion of the bitter purging falt, and is very fharp and pungent, and is white when powdered, though pellucid in the mafs. It is ufed by fome for the table, but the greateft part of what is made of it is ufed by the manufacturers of hard foap. Car-fiver, and Car gold, names given to certain foffile fubftances, ufually calied alfo glimmer, and in Latin, mice. They are various ipecies of the éraéearia, or foliaceous tales, in {mail fpangles. ‘The fragments of mica, denominated as above, according to their colour, are employed as a fand for drying ink upen paper. See Mica. Cat’s-tail-grafs, in Botany, diilerent fpecies of Phleum; which fee. CATABANES, in Ancient Geography, a people of Ara- bia Deferta, who inhabited the parts between the town of Pelufium and the Red Sea, according to Pliny. CATABANI, a people placed by Pliny in Arabia Fe- lix, towards the ftrait of the Arabian gulf, CATABAPTIST, a perfon averfe from baptifm ; par- ticularly from that of infants. The word is compounded of the prepofition xer«, which, in compolition, fignifies againfi, and Barsw, I wa/b. See Anapartisrs and Baptists. CATABASION, in the Greck Church, a place under the altar, wherein the relics are kept. The word is formed from xaraGaww, J defcend; becaule they went down into it. CATABATHMOS, or Catasatumus, in Ancient Geography, a valley below the fteep declivity of a mountain, whence its name, from azlaBawa, to defcend, on account of the precipitation of its defcent; extending to Egypt, over- againit the fpot where ftood the temple of Jupiter Ammon, and fepayating Egypt from Cyrenaica, It is alfo called “©Carto Sappires;’? and the Arab pilgrims, who pafs through it in their way to Mecca, denominate it in their language, ‘“ Hefachbir,’’ or the ruined places. Steph. Byz. makes it a place of Lybia, between Ammon and Pa- retonium, and Pliny reckons 86 miles from this lalt place to Catabathmos. Ptolemy mentions two places under this appellation 5 one the greater Catabathmos, which he makes a fea-port of Lybia; and the other, the leffer Catabathmos,. which he fays was a mountain CATABAW, in Geography, a river of North Ameri- Tj CAT ca, otherwife called Wateroe, which unites with the Cangae ree, and forms the Santee, 5 miles N. of Amelia, in South Carolina. CATABAWS, a {mall tribe of Indians who poffefs one town, called Catabaw, fituated on the river of the fame name, on the boundary line between N. and S. Carolina, and containing about 450 inhabitants, of whom about 150 are fighting men. Thefe are the only tribe which refides in the'flare; the proprictary government having granted them 144,000 acres of land. They are a remnant of a formida- ble nation, the braveft and the molt generous enemy the Six Nations had; but they have degenerated fince they have been furrounded by the whites. N. lat. 35° 8’. W. long. 80° 52’. CATABEDA, in Ancient Geography, a river of India on the other fide of the Ganges, according to Ptolemy. M. d’Anville marks the mouth of this river at the bottom of the gu:f of the Ganges, to the eat of the principal mouth of this river. CATABIBAZON, in Ajffronomy, the moon’s defeend- ing node ; called alfo pRaGon’s fail. CATABITANUS, in Ancient Geography, an epifcopal fee of Africa, in Mauritania Cxiarienfis. CATABOLUM, or Carasutum, a place of Cilicia, fo called in Antonine’s Itinerary, and marked in the route from T’yana to Alexandria, between Gige and Baiz; fup- pofed to be the place called Caflabala. CATABULENSES, in the Afiddle Age, a fort of mi- nifters, or fervants of the empire, appointed to condu@ the public carriage from one catabulum, or ftage, to another. The catabulenfes appear alfo to have had the charge of con- veying the public corn to and from the mills; whence in the Theodofian code they are joined with bakers. CATABULUM, a kind of {table, or building, whereia beafts, efpecially of burden and carriage, were kept for the public fervice. The ancient Chriftians were fometimes con- demned to ferve in the catabula, that is, to work at the cleaning of them, attending the beatts, &c. CATACAUSTIC Corves, in the Higher Geometry, the fpecies of caustic curves formed by reflexion. See Causric curves. CATACECAUMENE, in Ancient Geography, a coune- try of Afia Minor, occupied in common by the Lydians and Myfians, according to Strabo. Steph. Byz. who affigns to this country the town of Ephefus fays, that it produced no trees except the vine, and that the wine derived its name from it. Vitruvius alfo mentions the hills of Afia Minor in Myfia under this appellation.—Alfo, an ifland fituated in the Arabian gulf, mentioned by Ptolemy, and Steph.. Byz. CATACHRESIS, in Rhetorics a figure whereby an improper word is uled inftead of a proper one. The word is formed from xaraxpeouas, abutor, I abufe ; of xara, againfi, or contrary to;.and xpeopx, T ufe. The catachrefis occurs, when for want of a word proper te exprefs a thought, we ufe, or rather abufe, a word that comes fomewhat near it :. as when we call a perfon who has killed his mother, matter, or prince, parricide; which word, in propriety, is only applicable to him who has mur- dered-his father: and.wir gregis ipfe caper, is alfoa catachre- fis. Catachrefis fignifies in general any harfh trope, though itis moft commonly found in metaphors.; and is principally ufed by poets, who make choice of it for novelty, or to cue ‘force expreflion, where the proper word does not feem As when Milton, (Parad. Loft, p. 4. v. ftrong enough. 208,) CAT 268,) in defcribing the angel Raphacl’s defvent from heaven, fays, he « Sails between worlds and worlds ;”” where the novelty of the word enlivens the image more than if he had faid, flies. This trope, however, is fometimes found in the graveft authors, and even in the facred writings. Thus, we read of the * blood of the grape ;”? and Solomon, (Prov. xxx. 15.) fays, “the horfe-leech hath two daugh- ters.” In all'thefe inftances the trope is a metaphor: but when St. John fays in the Revelation, (ch. i. 12.) * I turned to fee the voice that fpake to me,” it is here a metonymy of the adjuné ; the word voice being’ put for the perfon who uttered it. St. Matthew, (ch. xxvi. 6,) mentions <¢ Simon the leper ;”? not that he was then a Jeper, but had been fo, and was cured ; which is a fynecdoche of the part. And when a criminal is faid ** to have had his reward,”’ that is, his punifhment, it isan irony. Ward’s Oratory, vol. ii. Pp: 23- CATACLASIS, from xelaxrxw, Z diflort, in Surgery, denotes a diforder of the eye, wherein the eye-lid is invert- ed by a convulfion of the mufcles that clofe it ; called alfo campylon. i CATACLYSMUS, from xelaxrugx, I deluge, a Greek name for a deluge, or inundation of waters. CATACOMBS, in Antiquity. This word, derived from the Greek xazz and xvjGos, a hollow or cavity, is ufed to denote grottoes or fubterraneous excavations for the burial of the dead. Thefe are monuments of great curiofity, and confiderable both in fize and number. Of the remarkable excavations exilting, there are various kinds. Some are temples, like thofe of India, in the mountains of Ellora; fome have been originally executed for the purpofes of fepulture ; others have owed their origin to the operations of quarrying for building materials, and have been fubfequently converted to other purpofes: of this nature are the catacombs of Rome, and the quarries, or Latomiz of Syracufe, which ferved for public prifons. The religious ideas of various nations led them to honour the dead with extraordinary folicitude, and tombs and mau- foleums are among the molt eminent remains of antiquity ; where rocks afforded a convenient opportunity, it was an idea at once natural, and of peculiar propriety, to excavate in thefe filent retreats the habitations of the dead. In Egypt the honours paid to the dead partook of the na- ture of a religious homage. By the procefs of embalming they endeavoured to preferve the body from the common laws of nature, by which every fubftance is decompofed, and returns to its original elements. They alfo provided magnificent and durable habitations for the dead, proud tombs, the aftonifhment of all fucceeding nations, which have not preferved but buried the'memory of their founders. But by a fingular fatality, the well adapted punifhment of pride, the extraordinary precautions by which it feemed in a manner to triumph over death, have only led to a more hu- miliating difappointment. The fplendour of the tomb has but attracted the violence of rapine; the farcophagus has been violated ; and while other bodies have quietly returned to their native duft in the bofom of their mother earth, the Egyptian, converted to a mummy, has been preferved only to the infults of curiofity, or avarice, or barbarifm. The date of the conftruétion of not one of thefe monu- ments is known; indeed, moft of them mult have been ex- ecuted progreflively during a confiderable time: it is, there- fore, impoffible to follow any chronological order in defcrib- ing them: we fhall, however, begin with thofe of Egypt, GC AT which, while they are in many refpects the fineft and moft remarkable, are, in all probability, more ancient than any Enropean inftances. 5 The catacombs of Alexandria begin at the place where the ruins of the old city terminate, and extend along the fea-fhore for a confiderable diftance. They confift in gene- ral of long galleries, with apartments on each fide, excavat- ed in the rock: in the fide of thefe rooms there are three tiers of holes, or niches, in which the bodies were depofit- ed; but they have been all violated, and nothing is found in them at prefent. The galleries fometimes run parallel to one another, and fometimes crofs at right angles; others are carried one above the other, according to the fituation of the ground.. Many have been wafhed away by the fea, and others are rendered inacceffible by the drifting fand. The apartments in general but little exceed the length of a man, but fome which were probably the tombs of confider- able perfons, may, according to Dr. Pococke, “ be reckon- ed among the fineft that have been difcovered, being beau- tiful rooms cut out of the rock, and niches in many of them, fo as to depofit the bodies in, adorned with a fort of Doric pi'a‘ters on each fide.’’? Norden gives a fection of the fineft of thefe, vol. i. page 16, which is an apartment of a circu- lar form, and terminated by adome. ‘There are four doors oppofite one another, ornamented with pillars and an enta- blature, and pediments terminated with a crefcent. One of thefe doorways ferves as the entrance to the apartment, the other three lead to large fquare receffes, each of which. contains a kind of cheft or farcophagus of the fubltance of the rock, and fufficiently large to contain a body. From the {tyle of the decorations obferved in this fubterranean cham- ber, one would be led to date its conftruction much later than the generality of the catacombs. Near the pyramids of Saccara, which are at a fhort dif- tance from Cairo on the oppolite fide of the Nile, there is a defcent to a circular plain which has a rifing in the mid- dle. Bones and fkulls are fcattered over this fpot, under which are the catacombs of the mummies, extending about half a mile, the whole country being a rocky foil, covered over with fand five or fix feet deep. Az fome diftance from thefe are the catacombs of the bir¢s. The catacombs of the mummies are entered by various wells about four feet wide, and 20 or 30 feet deep, cut through the rock, the upper part being fand, whichis often moved by the wind and fills up the cavity. Some of thefe wells Dr. Pococke obferved to be cafed with unburnt bricks at the top as far as the depth of the fand, which from the fize he imagined to be very ancient. ‘I'he wells have holes on each fide to defcend by, but too much worn away to be of any ufe. Having defcended the well, a paflage fucceeds, about 50 feet long, and five feet wide, which, leads to an- other gallery of the fame fize, and about fix feet high. On one fide of this gallery there are apartments with platforms about two feet high, on which it is probable the mummies were laid during part of the procefs of preparation, and on the other fide there are narrow cells jult big enough to re- ceive a large coffin. To this gallery there fucceeds one much narrower, with niches on each fide, which feem de- figned to fet coffins in upright. From thefe paflages there are cut oblong {quare apartments, which are full of the re- mains of mummies, and probably here the inferior perfons of a family were depofited, piled’ up on one another, as we may fuppofe the heads of the family were fet upright in the niches, which appear to have been walled up as well as all the other apartments. This is the defcription given by Pococke of the catacomb which he examined ; aad it feems likely that the reft re- : fembled CATACOMBS. fembled this. 'Thefe muft have been the tombs of the com- mon people. The catacombs of the birds are fimilar to thofe laft de- feribed, but more magnificent. Thefe fepulchres were opened while the French were in poffeffion of Egypt, and more than five hundred mummies of the ibis difcovered. ne Siut is a large well-peopled town, apparently built on the fite of the ancient Lycopolis, or the city of the wolf. No antiquities are found in this town ; but the Lybian chain of mountains at the foot of which it ftands, exhibits proofs of the ancient proximity of fome grand and flourifhing city. Thefe rocks are about half a league from Siut, and are ex- cavated by a vat number of tombs of various dimenfions, and decorated with more or lefs magnificence.’ Denon has given a view and plan of one of the largelt of thefe cata- combs. The outer porch is a large vaulted excavation, with a doorway leading into the interior of the tomb, which confitts of feveral chambers one within the other, of various fizes and perfe@l regularity. All the inner porches are co- vered with a profufion of hieroglyphics, and the moft deli- cate'and elegant ornaments. M. Denon obferves, that * if one of thefe excavations was a fingle operation, as the uni- form regularity of the plan of each would feem to indicate, it mait be an immenfe labour to conftru& a tomb; but we may fuppofe that fuch a one when once finifhed, would ferve for ever for the fepulture of a whole family, or even race, and that fome religious worfhip was regularly paid to the dead ; elfe where would have been the ufe of fuch &- nifhed ornaments, of infcriptions never read, and of a ruin- ous, fecret, and buried {plendour? At different periods, or annual feftivals, or when fome new inhabitant was added to the tomb, funeral rites were doubtlefs performed, in which the pomp of ceremony might vie with the magnificence of the place; which is the more probable, as the richnefs of decoration in the interior part forms a mott ftriking contraft with the outer walls, which are only the rough native rock. I found one of thefe caves with a fingle faloon, in which were an innumerable quantity of graves cut in the rock in regular order: they had been ranfacked in order to procure the mummies, and I found feveral fragments of their con- tents, fuch as linen, hands, feet, and loofe bones.” Befides thefe principal grottos, there is fuch a countlefs number of fmaller excavations, that the whole rock is ca- vernous, and refounds under the foot. At Gebel Silfilis, on the banks of the Nile, between Et- fu and Ombos, the fite of the principal quarries of Egypt, there are various chapels confiiling of porticos with co- Iums and entablatures, covered with hieroglyphics, all cut out of the folid rock, and likewife a large number of tombs alfo hollowed out of the mountain. Thefe tombs are very curious, though they are disfigured with trenches and rub- bifh. In feveral of thefe tombs {mall private chambers are found, many of which contain large feated figures; thefe chambers are adorned with hieroglyphics traced on the rock, and terminated with coloured itucco reprefenting con- ftantly offerings of bread, fruit, liquors, fowls, &c. The ceilings, alfo ttuccoed, are ornamented with painted fcrolls in an exquifite tafte; the floor is inlaid with a number of tombs of the fame dimenfions and forms as are given to the cafes of mummies, and equal in number to the {culptured fi- gures: thofe that reprefent men have {mall fquare beards with a head-drefs hanging behind over the fhoulders: the women have the fame dreffes, but falling down in front over their naked necks. Thefe latter are commonly repre- fented with one arm paffing within the arm of the figure befide them, and the other holding a lotus flower, a plant of Acheron, the emblem of death. Some of thefe fepul- chral chambers contain but a fingle figure, and may pro- bably be the tombs of men who have died in celibacy. Others contain three or more figures, and feem to be family monuments. At Montfalut there are alfo quarries, the grottoes of which {till remain: they refemble thofe of Sint, and feem to have ferved as tombs to the ancient Egyptians, and as places of retreat to the firft folitaries. The catacombs of Thebes are, among all thefe monu- ments, the moft extraordinary and magnificent ; thefe con- fitt of the Necropolis or city of the dead, on the weft bank ef the Nile, which was the common burial place of the in- habitants, and the tomb of the kings. The Necropolis of Thebes is fituated on the north-weft of this city, on a ftep of the lower part of the Lybian chain, an arid and defolate fpot, which feems to be devoted by nature to filence and death. The rock cut down on an inclined plane prefents three fides of a {quare, in which double galleries have been excavated, and behind them fe- pulchral caves. Thefe excavations are almoft innumerable, and cecupy a {pace of nearly a mile and a half fquare. At prefent they afford a lodging to the inhabitants of Kurnu and their numerous flocks, who, {trong in thefe retreats, maintained themfelves again{t the French in their late inva- fion of Egypt with fingular obftinacy, and were only re- duced by a regular fiege. M. Denon, who accompanied this expedition, has given a lively and interetting defcription, which we hall tranferibe. “T now began my refearches accompanied by fome vo- lunteers. I examined the ‘grottoes which we had taken by allault: they were conftruted without magnificence, confilt- ing of a regular double gallery fupported by pillars, behind which was a row of chambers often double, and tolerably regular. If we had not obferved tombs, and even fome re- mans of mummies, we might be tempted to believe that thefe were the dwellings of the ‘primitive inhabitants of Egypt, or rather that after having firft ferved for this pur- pofe, thefe fubterranean caves had become the abode of the dead, and had at laft been reftored by the people of Kurnv to their original deftination. : Tn proportion as the height of thefe grottoes increafes, they become more richly decorated, and I was foon cons vinced by the magnificence both of the paintings and f{culp- tures, and of the fubjeéts which they reprefented, that I was among the tombs of great men or heroes. The {culp- ture in all 1s incomparably more laboured, and higher fis nified than any that I had feen in the temples; and I ftood in aftonifhment at the high perfection of the art, and its fin- gular deltiny to be fixed in places devoted to filence and ob- {curity. In the working of thefe galleries, beds of a very fine grained calcareous clay have occafionally been croffed, and here the lines of the hieroglyphics have been cut with a firmnefs of touch, and a precifion, of which marble offers but few examples; the figures have an elegance and cor- re€tuefs of contour, of which I never thought Egyptian fculpture fulceptible. Here too I could judge of the ftyle of this people in fubjeéts which were neither hieroglyphic nor hiltorical, nor fcientific; for there were reprefentations of {mall {cenes taken from nature, in which the ttiff profile outlines, fo common with the Egyptian artifts, were ex- changed for fupple and natural attitudes: groups of perfons were given in perfpective, and cut in deeper relief than I fhould have fuppofed any thing but metal could have been worked. One cannot help being ftruck with the little ana- logy which the greater number of thefe fubje&is have with the fpot wherein they are immured ; it requires the prefence of "“GATACOMBS. ; -of mummies to perfuade one’s-felf-that thefe excavations are tombs. I have found here bas-reliefs reprefenting games, Such as-rope dancing ; and afles taught to play tricks and to reat on their hind legs, which are fculptured with all the na- tire and fimplicity which Baffin has fhewn in reprefenting the fame animals on the canvafs. The plan of thefe excavations is not lefs fingular; there are fome which are fo va(t and complicated, that one would take them for labyrinths or fubterranean temples. After pafling the apartments adorned in the elegant ftyle that I have jut defcribed, we entered Jong and gloomy galleries, which wind backwards and forwards in numerous angles, and feem to occupy a great extent of ground; they are melancholy, repulfive, aud without any decoration; but from time to time open into other chambers covered with hieroglyphics, and branch out into narrow paths that lead to deep perpen- dicular pits, which we defcended by refting our arms againft the fides and fixing our feet into feps that are cut in the xock. At the bottom of thefe pits we found other adorned chambers, and lower {till a new feries of perpendicular pits and horizontal chambers, and at laft afcending a long flight of fteps, we arrived at an open place which we found to be on a level with the chambers that we firft entered.”’ M. Denon made many refearches among thefe tombs, in hopes of finding one that had not been ranfacked, that he might light upon an unrified mummy and find out the man- ner in which they were laid within the tombs, a fecret which the inhabitants obftinately concealed, as the fituation of their village had given them almoft an exclufive trade in this fingular article pn ae During their fearch, M. De- non and his companions arrived at a narrow hole, before which were fcattered numerous fragments of mummies. After fome hefitation, they proceeded, and having crawled along near a hundred paces over a heap of dead and haif de- cayed bodies, the vault became loftier, more fpacious, and Gecorated with a confiderable degree of care. They now found'that this tomb had already been fearched, that thofe who firft entered it not having torches, had ufed bufhes to give them light, and that thefe had fet fire to the linen and refin of the mummies which had caufed fuch a combuttion as to {plit fome of the ftones, melt the gums and refins, and blacken all the fides of the cave. They could obferve how- ever, that this vault had been intended for the burial-place of two confidcrable perfons, whole figures were {culptured in relief feven feet in height, holding each other by the hand. Above their heads was a bas-relief reprefenting two dogs in a leafh lying on the altar; and two figures kneeling, had the appearance of worlhipping, which makes it proba- ble that two friends were buricd here who were unwilling to part even in death. Befides this, there were lateral chambers unornamented and filled with corpfes that had been embalmed with more or lefs care, fhewing that though the t mbs had been conftruéted and decorated by perfons of confequence, they received not only the corpfes of the founders, but of their children, friends, relations, and per- haps all the fervants of their houfe. M. Denon found fe- veral bodies lying on the ground fwathed up but without any coffin, and others that were not fwathed; and obferved various particularities concerning thefe. The fepulchres of the kings of Thebes are mentioned by Diodorus Siculus as wonderful works, and fuch as could never be exceeded by any thing afterwards executed in this kind. He fays that 47 of them were mentioned in their hittory, that only 17 remained to the time of Ptolemy La- gus, and adds, that moit of them were deftroyed in his time. It feems probable that moft of thefe fepulchres were built and not excavated in the rock, as it is not eafy to de- flroy fuch fort of monuments. Strabo, however, fays, that above the Memnonium were the fepulchres of the kings of Thebes, in grottoes cut out of the rock, being about 40 in number, wonderfully executed and worthy to be feen. In thefe, he faye, were obelifks with infcriptions on them fet- ting forth the riches, power, and empire of thefe kings as far as Scythia, Batria, India, and lonia, their great reve- nues, and their armies corfilting of a millicn of men. The magnificent catacombs, called the tombs of the kings, lie to the north-weft of Thebes, at fome diflance in the defert. Having pafled the Necropolis, the traveller enters a narrow and rugged valley flanked, with perpen- dicular rocks, and afcending a narrow fteep paflage about 10 feet high, which feems to have been broken down through the rock, the ancient paflage being probably from the Memnonium under the hills, he comes to a kind of am- phitheatre about 100 yards wide, which is called Bab-il- Meluke, that is, the gate or court of the kings, being the fepulchres of the king's of Thebes. In this court there are figns of about 18 excavations, but only nine can be entered ; the hills on each fide are high fteep rocks, and the whole plain is covered with rough ftones that feem to have rolled from them. The grottoes prefent externally no other ornaments than a door in a fimple {quare frame, with an oval in the centre of the upper part, on which are infcribed the hieroglyphic fi- gurcs of a beetle, a man with a hawk’s head, and beyond the circle two figures on their knees in the aét of adoration. Having paffed the firft gate, long arched gallerics are difco- vered of about 12 feet wide, and 20 in height, cafed with ftucco fculptured and painted; the vaults, of an elegant ellip- tical’ figure, are covered with innumerable hicroglyphics, dif- pofed with fo much tafte, that notwith{landing the fingular grotefquenefs of the forms and the total abfence of demi-tint or aerial perfpective, the ceilings make an agreeable whole, a rich and harmonious affociation of colours. Four or five of thefe galleries, one within the other, generally lead toa fpacious room containing the farcophagus of the baa com - pofed of a fingle block of granite about r2 feet long by 8 in brea&th, ornamented with hieroglyphics both within and without ; they are f{quare at one end, and rounded at the other, like the f{plendid farcophagus depofited in the Britifh Mufeum, and fuppofed by Dr. Clarke, to have contained the body of Alexander. They are covered by a lid of the fame material, and of enormous thicknefs, fhutting with a groove ; but neither this precaution, nor thefe vaft blocks of fione, brought from fuch a diftance with fuch immenfe la- bour, have been able to preferve the relics of the fovercigns from the attempts of avarice; all the tombs are violated. The figure of the king appears to have been fculptured and painted at full Jength on the lid of each farcophagus. The paintings found in thefe fepulchres are among the mott curious and interefting remains of Egyptian art, and in wonderful prefervation, the colours being as frefh as when firlt executed. Some of thefe figures were copied by Bruce ; and Denon who in a fhort vifit obferved every thing with the eye of an artilt, bas publifhed a moft valuable colle@tion which have all the appearance of {pirited and charaéteriftic refemblances. We fhall extra& part of his relation. ‘* I difcovered fome little chambers, on the walls of which were reprefented all kinds cf arms, fuch as panoplies, coats of mail, tigers’ fkins, bows, arrows, quivers, pikes, javelins, fabres, helmets, and whips: in another was a collelion of houfehold utenfils, fuch as cafkets, eheits of drawers, chairs, fofas, and beds, all of exquifite forms, and fuch as might well grace the apartments of modern luxury. As thefe were probably accurate reprefentations of the obje&s them- : felves, GeAS TA; CO, A B.S. {elves, it is almoft a proof that the ancient Egyptians em- ployed for their furniture Indian woods carved and gilt, which they covered with embroidery. Befides thefe, were reprefented various {maller articles, as vafes, coffee-pots, ewers with their bafons, a tea-pot, and bafket. Another chamber was confecrated to agriculture, in which were re- prefented all its various inftruments, a fledge fimilar to thofe in ufe at prefent, a man fowing grain by the fide of a canal, from the borders of which the inundation is beginning to retire, a field of corn reaped with a fickle, fields of rice with men watching them. Ina fourth chamber was a figure clothed in white playing on a richly ornamented harp with eleven ftrings.’? M. Denon alfo obferved figures with the heads cut off, which reprefented black men while their exe- cutioners were coloured red. (Pococke and Denon). Quitting Egypt, the European examples of catacombs come next to be defcribed, and we fhall begin with thofe of Rome, which though by no means the moft confiderable for fize or beauty, are, however, the molt generally known. The catacombs of Rome are a valt colle&tion of fubterra- nean labyrinths, excavated fometimes in {tone or tufa, but more commonly in beds of puzzolana, which run fometimes to So feet below the furface of the earth. Thus it feems probable, that thefe excavations were originally dug for the purpofe of procuring this ufeful fubitance, and afterwards appropriated as a burial place. In many places the finking of the earth has fuddenly afforded an entrance to new ca- verns, but fimilar accidents have filled up others, fo that the extent of this fubterranean city is unknown. ‘The princi- pal entrances are thofe of San. Sebaftiano, San. Lorenzo, and Porta Porrefe. ‘Chefe galleries are in general three or four feet wide, and fix or feven in height. Some, however, are fo low that it is neceffary to ftoop greatly to pafs along them. There is no mafonry or vault, the earth fupports itfelf. In the two fides of thefe alleys, the farco- phagi containing dead bodies were placed length-ways, in re- ceffes three or four tiers over one another, and clofed with very thick tiles, or fometimes flabs of marble, cemented in a manner which would be very difficult to imitate at prefent. Some tombs are placed on the floor. There are alfo found a large number of urns containing bones, which, upon accefs of air, are reduced to powder. Sometimes, though rarely, the name of the deceafed is found on the tile or urn, and frequently a palm is feen painted or engraved, with the cy- pher X. P. Thefe are luppofed to be the graves of the early Chriftians, and their contents are regarded by the Ro- mans as facred relics. The fareophagi are for the molt part quite plain, and the little fculpture, painting, or or- nament, that has been found in the catacombs, is of the lower ages of the empire, and very indifferent. Almoft all the galleries and chambers which have been difcovered re- femble one another, differing only in fize. It is faid that one may travel 20 miles in them ; but many parts are fhut up to prevent people from lofing themfelves in thefe gloomy la- by rinths. The catacombs of Naples are much larger and finer than thofe laft defcribed. Thefe caverns do not extend under the city like thofe of Rome; they are lituated in a mountain to the north of Naples, and dug-one over the other partly in a ftone ufed for building, and partly in beds of compacted puzzolana, There are three tiers of galleries, but earth- quakes have clofed the greater part. From the entrance of the catacombs a ftraight ftrect, 18 feet wide, and about 14in height to the top of the vault, continues to a confiderable length. It then becomes irre- gular, and feems to have been pierced at random in the mountain, as well as feveral other itreets of various dimen- fions, with which it communicates on all fides, Vhefe ta- Vor. VII. verns refemble, in their diftribution, the excavations of a {tone quarry with various large chambers, in which piers have been left to fupport the ceiling. Among thefe fubter- ranean halls, there are fome which may have ferved as cha- pels, with altars of rough ftone, and fome frefco paintings, reprefenting the virgin and faints, which feem to be of the roth century. The walls on both fides, through their whale length, are pierced with an infinite number of receffes; there are in fome places five, fix, and even feven rows one above the other. Thefe cavities are large enough to receive a human body horizonta'ly, but not a farcophagus: they are of va- rious fizes, and feem to have been calculated for the. indivi- dual tenant. When the body was depolited in thefe receffes, they were clofed with a long, flat {tone, or with brick-work well cemented. In fome places there were niches in which the bodies were placed upright; thefe were perhaps the fepul- chres of particular families. Some of the tombs are orna- mented with Mofaic paintings of tle lower ages ; and there were found marble monuments with Greek and Latin in- {criptions, but thefe have been fawed to form the pavement of the church della Sanita. All the niches have been opened and the remains removed. : There are alfo confiderable catacombs at Civita Turchino, near Carneto. Sicily pofle{fesmany monuments of thiskind; fothat the an- cient greatnefs of Catana, Palermo, Agrigentum, and Syra- cufe, is attefled by extraordinary excavations. The catacombs of Syracufe are the moft ample and magnilicent of any in Europe. Thefe forma kind of fubterranean town, with its greater and fmaller ftreets, {quares, and places, all cut in the rock on feveral levels, and evidently originally deftined for a place of fepulture, differing in that refpe&t from the other remarkable excavations of that town, the Latomiz and Dionyfius’s ear, which were at firft ftone quarries, while the catacombs are not at all adapted tor that purpofe, their entrances being neither {pacious nor convenient. The catacombs are entered from the church of St. Jehn, one of the oldeft Chriftian churches in Sicily. hey confit of various itreets crofling one another in many dire¢tions, and are hewn with great care and regularity. ‘The princi- pal ftreet continues to a very great diftance, but its whole length cannot be eftimated, as the finking ‘of the ground has filled it up in one part. On each fide the walls are oc- cupied by large tombs incrufted in the rock. At ftated diltances large excavations branch off, which fometimes contaia near 60 coffins hollowed out of the rock. In other places there are private fepulchral chambers with doors which appear formerly to have been faftened with locks; in the middle of thefe chambers-there are large infulated tombs, doubtlefs intended for the heads of families. The interfec- tions of the ftreets form large openings, and there are various confiderable circular halls with domes, and pierced at top with an opening to the outer air; thefe halls are fluccoed, and there are tombs placed fymmetrically in them of the fame kind as thofe in the ftreets. In exploring thefe caverns, the traveller is furprifed to find himfelf returned to the fame {pot whence he fet out, but upon a lower ftory. Though it is only poflible to vifit a part of thefe vaft excavations, the extent of what is feen excites the utmoft admiration of the energetic induftry of the nation that could conftruét fuch noble fepulchres. They are undoubtedly the greateft monument of the ancient Sy- racufans. ‘lhe only ornaments found in thefe catacombs, have been added at a later period, and confift of fome indifferent Greek paintings of the laft age of the empire, executed upon. a ttucco applied to the rock. Among the coffins of all fizys which ave excavated in the floors of the fe- E pulchral CAT pulchral chambers, there are fome fo fmall as to be fit for nothing but the reception of a cat or lap-dog. p-dog The catacombs of Syracufe have not the difmal appear- ance of thofe of Naples and Rome, but a my {lerious tran- quillity prevails in them perfe@tly edapted to this fantuary of repofe. Voyage Pittorefque de Naples & Sicilie. Swin- burne’s Travels. The catacombs of Malta are remarkable for the fmall- nefs of their dimenfions, and their perfe& prefervation. Hewn in a white ftone and perfe@ly dry, they appear like works of yelterday. The galleries are fo narrow that only one perfou can pafs at a time, regularly diflributed and vaulted. At certain diflances fepulchral chambers occur ; the principal of thefe is decorated with two fluted columns. The tombs aré regulariy placed in fquare recefles, and ornamented with pediments. Small niches, apparently to receive lamps, are diilributed in various places. No veftiges remain of infcriptions, fculpture, or painting. Voyage Pitrorefque de Naples & Sicilie. i CATACOUSTICS, from xe4x and axsw, J hear, called alfo Catarronics, the fcience of refleded founds or echoes. See Acoustics. Catacouitics is to acoultics what catop- trics is to optics. Catacoustics, in Military Language, are écoutes, or {mall galleries from diflance to diftance in front of the glacis of a fortifizd place, all of which communicate with a gallery, that is carried parallel to the covert-way. The befieged make ufe of them in going to meet the enemy’s miners and interrupt their progrefs. CATADA, in Ancient Geography, now the Miliana, a river of Africa, which difcharges itfelf into the Mediter- ranean, nearly S. of Carthage, and at a {mall diftance from Rhades or Ades, forming the bay of Tunis. About a mile from it is the noted hot-bath c#led Hammam Leef, much reforted to by the inhabitants of Tunis. CATADERBIS, a lake of Afia, in Sufiana, abounding with fifh, the mouth of which at the fea was nearly clofed by the {mall ifle Margaftana, 500 ftadia from the mouth of the river Arofis, according to the journal of the navigation of Nearchus. It is mentioned by Arrian. CATADIOPTRICA Ltelefeope, the fame with refleZing TELESCOPE, which fee. CATADRA, in Ancient Geography, a people of Ethio- pia, near Egypt. Ptolemy fays that they occupied the arts that lie S. of mount Garbate. \ CATADROMUS, from xaix and dpeuw, T run, in Anti- guity, a ftretched floping rope ia the theatres, down which the funambuli walked to fhew their flail. Some have taken the word to fignify the hippodrome, or decurforium, wherein the Roman knights ufed to exer- cife themfelves in running and fighting on horfe-back. But the moft natural meaning is that of a rope, faftened at one end to the top of the theatre, and at the other to the bottom, to walk or run down, which was the higheft glory of the ancient /chenobates, or funambuli. Elephants were alfo taught to run down the catadromus. Suetonius fpeaks of the exploit of a Roman knight, who paffed down the catadromus mounted on an elephant’s back, in Ner. cap. xi. p. 5. CATADUPA, in Hydrography, a catara&, or water-fall. See CaTraracr. The word comes from xaza, downwards, and dur, to make a noife by falling. The appellation catadupa feems to have been peculiarly given tc a place in (Ethiopia joining on Egypt, where the Nile, which here firft afflumes that name, rufhed down a fteep rock into the fubjacent plain, with a noife fo. impe- tuous, that the inhabitants are faid to have loft all fenfe of za CAT hearing. Plin. Hift. Nat. lib. v. cap 9, Ammian. Mare. lib. xxii. cap. 34, &c. Senec. Nat. Queit. lib. iv, cap. 2. : ‘CATADUPI, Kasadure, in Ancient Geography, an appel- lation given by the ancients to the inhabitants about the cata- raéts of the Nile. he catadupi are reprefented as ail deaf ; being made fo by the continual din of the falling waters. CAT JEA, or Catrza, an ifland of the Perfian gulf, on the coaft of Carmania, according to the journal of the navigation of Nearchus; in whofe time it was inhabited, and confecrated to divinities, whom he defcribes under the names of Mercury and Venus. It extended from the weft- fouth-weft to the eaft-north-ealt, and was diftant about two or three leagues from the continent. Pliny calls it Aphro- difias, which fee. ; CATZONIUM Promontorium, a promontory of Africa, placed by Ptolemy in Marmarica. CATAFALCO, an Italian term literally fignifying feaf- fold. \t*is chiefly ufed for a decoration of architeéture, fculpture, and painting ; raifed on a timber fcaffold, to fhew a coffin, or tomb, in a funeral folemnity. CATAGELA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Sicily, according to the fcholiaft of Ariftophanes. CATAGMATICS, in the Materia Medica, medicines proper to unite broken bones; by promoting the formation ofa callus. The word comes from xz, againfl, and epups, I treak. ut as this is a power which is not certainly known to exiftin any medicine whatever, the term, fays Dr. Cullen, is falfely employed. See Consovipation. CATAGOGION, Kellaywyiov, a heathen feftival at Ephe- fus, celebrated on the twenty-fecond of January, in which the devotees ran about the ftreets drefied in divers antic and unfeemly manners, with huge cudgzels in their hands, and carrying with them the images of their gods ; in which uife they ravifhed the women they met with, abufed, and often killed the men; and committed many other diforders, to which the religion of the day gave a fanétion. Du-- Cange. CATAGRAPHA, Keleypaga, in Antiquity, denote ob- lique figures, or views of men’s faces; anfwering to what the moderns call prorires. Catagrapha are faid to be the- invention of Simon Cleonzus, who firft taught painters to vary the looks of their figures, and fometimes dire& them upwards, fometimes downwards, and fometimes fidewards, or backwards. Plin. Hift. Nat. lib. xxxv. cap. 8. cum. Not. Hardouin. CATALAUNI, or Cararaunum, in Ancient Geogra- phy, now Chalons fur Marne, a town of Gaul, in Belgica Secunda; called alfo ** Duro-Catalauni,” in the Itinerary of Antonine. It was before this place that the emperor Aurelian vanquifhed Tetricus, the prefident of Aquitania,. who had been proclaimed emperor by the troops, according to Vopifcus and Eutropius. CATALECTIC, a term in poetry, derived from xare andanyw, Jend. Theancients called cataledic verges thofe which wanted either feet or fyllables, in oppofition to acataledics,. which are complete Series, wanting nothing. F CATALEPSY, in Medicine, xaraxula, apprebenfio, occu- patio, from xararzusavedas, to be feifed or poffeffed, a difeafe in which the fenfes and the power of voluntary motion are fuddenly fufpended, the body and limbs af; the patient re-- maining unmoved in the fituation in which they happen to be at the moment of the attack, and readily receiving and, retaining any other pofition, which is. communicated to them by external force. With refpe& to the nature of this fingular difeafe, which. is aptly enough compared by Van Swicten to that condi- tion of the body, which was produced, according to the fitions ©. ATTAILAR IPS ‘Y. FGions of the poets, by the fight of Medufa’s head, much difference of opinion has exiited among phyficians, and various denominations have been given to it. By the an- cient writers it does not appear to have been accurately dif- tinguifhed from, other foporofe difcafes. According to Galen, thofe affected with it were originally called xarax0us, and the difeafe itfelf catoche or catochus ; but the catochus of Galen bears a greater refemblance to apoplexy or teta- nus, and the term, perhaps, included the catalepfy, toge- ther with thefe difeafes. Czlius Aurelianus, who confiders the catalepfy as bearing an affinity chiefly to lethargy and apoplexy, has enumerated the fynonimes, which his prede- ceflors had employed to defignate it. By Praxagoras and others it was included, he fays, with the comatofe aff-¢tions, under the general terms, coma, lethargy, &c. By others fome prominent fymptom was aflumed as a name for the dif- eafe, implying that its nature or affinity with other difeates was not underftood; thus it was called anatdia by, Anti- genes, from the lofs of hearing which accompanied it, and aphonia by Diocles, from the lofs of voice 5—circumftances by which, however, it is obvious, it could not be dittin- guifhed from /yncope, epilepfy, and many diflimilar diforders. A{clepiades arft denominated it catalepfy ; but he has not left any diltiné defcription of the difeafe, fuch as it is now confidered. (See Cxi. curelian. de ‘ard. Paffion, lib. ii. cap. 5-) It is not quite clear whether Celfus was ac- quainted with the cataleply, or not. The learned Van Swieten is of opinion, and in this he is followed by Mor- gagni, that this difeafe is meant by Celfus, when he {peaks of perfons, as it were, thunderftruck, artoniti: (De Medicin, lib. iii. cap. 26.) for although he confounds the diforder of the attoniti with the apoplexy .of the Greeks, yet he defcribes it as a rare difeafe ; while in the fubfequent chap- ter he {peaks of apoplexy again, as a pally of the whole body, and a common difeafe ; meaning the compiaint com- monly underltood by that term. (See Van Swicten. Com. § 1007.) In thort, the accounts to be collected from the ancient writers refpecting the catalepfy are confufed and imperfeét, and appear to refer to various lethargic or coma- tofe affeGiions; and even to fome fpafmodic difeafes, fuch as tetanus. Nor do we find all difference of opinion done away, if we defcend to the more modern records of medi- cine; in which feveral hiitories are related under the title of cataleptic affeétions, which obvioufly belong to other genera of difeafe. ‘Uhis confufion, together with the ex- treme rarity of the true difeafe, and the wonderful hitories of cataleptics, which have been detailed by authors, have induced fome phyficians of eminence, (and among thefe Dr. Cullen mutt be particularly mentioned,) to doubt of the exiftence of fuch a difeafe. In his Synopfis of Nofology, Dr. Cullen has menttoned this complaint as a f{pecies of apoplexy, under the title of Apoplexia Catuleptica ; having believed that the cafes of catalepfy deferibed by authors were either varieties of apoplexy, or altogether feigned. He had feen no inftance of cataleptic fymptoms, buat what was obvioufly a deception. The number of well autheu- ticated examples on record, however, in which no caufe of an attempt to deceive apparently exilted, and which are related by phyficians of charaéter and fagacity, render the exiftence of catalepfy indubitable. Its fymptoms are the following : : : The patient is fuddenly feized, fometimes after feeling a head-ach, or {ftiffmefs of the neck, or exhibiting obvious figns of torpor of the mind or body, but generally without any previous fymptom, with a rigidity of all the limbs; or, in other words, the fenfes and the power of voluntary motion are fuddenly fufpended, fo that the patient remains fixed in the potture in which he happens to be at the moment of feizure : if he is fitting, he continues to fit 3 if flanding, he remains up- right ; and if occupied in any mechanical employment, or under the influence of any paflion of the mind, he continues in the attitude peculiar to his work, and the countenance re- tains the expreflion charaéteriltic of the mental condition. “* Sic manus ereéta non delabitur; faciei mufculi ad rifum, ad fletum compofiti, rifum vel fletum conttanter expri- munt.”? Yet fuch is the ttate of equal, though involuntary action in the antagonift mufcles, that the limbs are {aid com- monly to retain any pofition into which they are put by ex- terual force. During the paroxyfm the fenfations are in general fufpended; the patient neither receives any impref- fion from external objects, nor retains any recolle@tion of what happened during the fit. The vital fun@ions con- tinue to be performed, but more feebly ; the pulfe and re- {piration are regular, but the former is fmaller than in healch: the colour of the countenance ufually undergoes little or no change. After a duration, which is varions in different inftances, commonly after a few minutes, fome- times after the lapfe of a few hours, and occafionally, though rarely, after a continuance of three or four days, the pa- roxy{m fuddenly declines. The patient awakes as it were from fleep, generally with deep fighing, and all the fun@ions of the body are reftored. The congeries of fymptoms juft enumerated conftitutes what has been called by fyltematic writers, the perfect paroxy{m, catalepfis vera, in which the abolition of the fenfes, both internal and external, is complete. But more fre- quently the lofs of fenfe is only partial; and in fome in- {tances the fenfes all remain undiminifhed, while the volun- tary motions are altogether fufpended; fo that, although the patient is confcious of every thing that is palling around him, he is unable to {peak or move, or in any way to make known his feelings or wifhes. An interefting example of this kind is on record, (fee Duncan’s Med. Comment. vol. x. p. 242.) in which a female lay in complete poffeffion of her mental faculties, but deprived of the power of moving a mufcle of the body. She was in the diftrefling condition of finding herfelf given up by the attendants as dead, of being /aid out, with her toes tied together, and her chin tied up, and of hearing certain arrangements for her funeral talked of, yet fhe was unable to make the flightett fign of her poffeffion of fenfe, feeling, and life. In other cafes there is a certain degree of fenfe and confcioufnefs during the fit, and of recollection of the circumftances of it afterwards ; and the limbs, if bent, do not retain firmly the pofition into which they are moved, but return gradually to their original pofition. Some patients are able to move one hand: or limb, while the others remain rigid ; and fome, though ap- parently lifelefs in all other refpects, yet retain the power cf {wallowing whatever is put into their mouths. Thefe are faid tobeexamples of imperfe@or /puriouscatalepfy. See Sauvages’s Nofol. Method. cl. vi. ord. 5. Vogel. de Morb. Cognofc. et Curand. § 572. Burfer. Inflit. Med. Praét. tom. iii. cap. 5. TTincre is alfo another variety of the fpurious catalepfy, which is defcribed by the title of Ecfafis, by fome writers, in the paroxy{m of which the imagination of the patient has piftured dreams of an extraordinary nature, which left a vivid impreffion upon the memory ; and after the termination of the fit, the (for it appears to have happened generally with females,) has related accounts of furprifing celeltial vifions, with which fhe had been favoured during the trance. Many of the hiltories of trances which are on record, are, how- ever, beyond a doubt, altogether fabulous; and in many inftances they have been ay deceptions, feigned with a £2 view CeaAcWA (Leb iP 4s: Y, ; view of furthering fome political or religions defign, or of ferving fome private purpofe ;—deceptions fuch as were praétifed by diviners of old, and as have been reforted to by fanatics in all ages. Sometimes thefe ecffacies have been among the extravagancies of maniacs. The particular condition of the body, or of the nervous fy {tem, which conftitutes the cataleptic ftate, has been at- tempted to be explaingg in various ways. Dr. Cullen con- fidered it as depending upon the fame condition of the brain, by which the modification of palfyand apoplexy are produced, and there are fome cafeson record, which accord with this opi- nion. Such are two cafes related by Henry ab Heers, (Obfer- vat. Med. 00/3.) which are obvioufly of an apopleétic nature. One of the patients was a Capuchin friar, who was attacked with the fit, when ftanding, and remained in an upright potture. The fit went flowly off, but he was feized a decond time, and died. Vogel believes that the fource of the cataleptic fymptoms is rather to be traced to the ftomach or abdomen than to the head, which feems to imply a no- tion that they were of an byfterical nature. The fpecula- tions of Boerhaave, Home, and others, refpecting the inter- ruption, fuperabundance, or quiefcence of the nervous fluid in the voluntary mufcles of the patient, merit little attention : they are either altogether gratuitous, or confit of a mere ftatement of the faéts in other and more ambiguous terms. We know very little in regard to the conneétion of many of the irregular ations of the nervous fyftem, with the phy- fical condition of the nerves, or of their common fource, the brain: and we muft content ourfelves, for pratical pur- pofes, with endeavouring to trace, in the cafe of uncommon difeafes, fome analogy with thofe more common affections, with the treatment of which we are already acquainted. Epilepfy appears to aflume occafionally a cataleptic form 5 i.e. the paroxy{ms, which were in the beginning epileptic, become ultimately cataleptic; or vice verfa; or the two formsalternate with each other. In thofe cafes in which the patients have died apopleéic, the apoplexy mutt be con- fidered as partaking of the nature of epilepfy, or, perhaps, enfuing to the epileptic flate; for the fymptoms of cata- lepfy, as they generally appear, are incompatible with the condition of pure apoplexy. In the latter, the nervous communication from the brain to the mufcies is loft, and the limbs are confequently deprived of all power of aétion ; in the catalepfy, on the contrary, a confiderable degree of ac- tion exifts in all the antagonift mufcles, at the fame time, and in an equal degree, fo as to retain the limbs in any pofition in which they may be placed. The pulfe, it may be alfo added, continues its ufual beats, and is fmaller than in health ; and the complexion of the countenance is unaltered : nor do any of the ill effects of apoplexy remain after the termination of the paroxyfm. In by far the moft numerous well-authenticated inftances on record, cataleply obvioufly bears the clofeft analogy to, or rather appears to be a mo- dification of, hylteria. This conclufion will be drawn, whether we confider the nature of the fymptoms, the fex and conttitution of the patients, the occafional complication and converfion of the difeafe, or the remedies which have been fuccefsfully employed in its cure. Asa proof of theintimate conne@ion of the cataleptic with the hyfteric paroxy{m, we fhall relate an account of one deferibed by Dr. Jebb, which is fimilar to feveral others that have been recorded. The young lady, who was the fubje&t of the diforder, was feized with the fit, when Dr. Jebb was announced on his firft vifit. ‘ She was employed,” he fays, ‘in netting, and was paffing the needle through the meth; in which pofition fhe immediately became rigid, exhibiting, ina very pleafing form, a figure of death-like fleep, beyond the power of art to imitate, or the imagination to conceive. Her forehead was ferene, her features perfeétly compofed. ‘The palenefs of her colour, her breathing at a diftance being alfo fearcely perceptible, operated in ren- dering the fimilitude to marble more exaét and ftriking, The pofition of her fingers, hands, and arms, was altered with difficulty ; but preferved every form of flexure they acquired : nor were the mufcles of the neck exempted from this law; her head maintaining every fituation in which the hand could place it, as firmly as her limbs. “ Upon gently raifing the eye-lids, they immediately clofed with a degree -of fpafm. The iris contraéted upon the approach of a candle, as in a ftate of vigilance; the eye-ball itfelf was flightly agitated with a tremulous motion, not difcernible when the eye-lid had defcended. «¢ About half an hour after my arrival, the rigidity of her limbs and ftatue-like appearance being yet unaltered, fhe fung three plaintive fongs, in atone of voice fo elegantly expreffive, and with fuch affeGting modulation, as evidently pointed out how much the moft powerful paffion of the mind was concerned in the produétion of her diforder, as indeed her hiftory confirmed. In a few minutes afterwards the fighed deeply, and the fpafm in her limbs was immediately relaxed. She complained that fhe could not open her eyes, her hands grew cold, a general tremor followed; but ina few feconds, recovering entirely her recollection and powers of motion, the entered into a detail of her fymptoms, and the hiftory of her complaints. After fhe had difcourfed for fome time with apparent calmnefs, the univerfal fpafm fud- denly returned. Her features now aflumed a different form, denoting a mind ftrongly imprefled with anxiety and appre- henfion. At times fhe uttered fhort and vehement excla- mations, in a piercing tone of voice, expreflive of the paffions that agitated her mind ; her hands being ftrongly locked in each other, and all her mufcles, thofe fubfervient to {peech excepted, being affected with the fame rigidity as before.’? (See Sele&t Cafes of Paralyfis of the Lower Extrem. by Dr. Jebb, Appendix.) Thefe paroxyfms obvioufly partici- pate of the charaéter of hyftcria. The appearances, in- deed, are not common; but the varying forms of hyfterie difeafes are a fubje&t of general obfervation. Sydenham long ago remarked, that *‘ a day would fcarce fuffice to enumerate all the fymptoms of hy{teric complaints, fo various they are, and fo contrary to one another, that Proteus did not aflume more fhapes, nor the chameleon a greater variety of colours.”” A very large proportion of the decided cafes of cata- lepfy, which have been diftin€tly recorded, occurred in the female fex, or in hypochondriacal conftitutions. Sauyages has related the hiftories of feveral cataleptic patients, all of whom were females, and of hyfterical habits; and feveral modern and well authenticated examples are of the fame na- ture. (Sauv.loc. cit. Jebb,loc.cit. Hilt. Acad. Roy. de Sciences, Paris, 1738, &c. Britifh Magazine, 1800, Edin. Med. & Surg. Journ. vol. i. p. 61, 1805. Mem. Roy. Acad. Scien. of Sweden, 1778.) The Jalt reference is to the cafe of a melancholic or hypochondriacal man,-in whom the cata- lepfy was accompanied with ¢rifmus, or locked jaw. In- {lances are related by other authors in which the catalepfy was joined, or alternated, as well with melancholy, fomnam- bulifm, convulfions, &c. as with proper hyfterical fymptoms ; or readily pafled into thefe maladies. The remote or occafional cau/es of catalepfy are various. In the majority of inftances they appear to have been the fame, which, in conftitutions naturally pre-difpofed to dif- eafes of mobility, excite all the varieties of hyfterical and other nervous fymptoms; fuch are all circumftances which 7 powerfully ali: Oe W powerfully influence the mind, or debilitate the body, and thus induce a degree of morbid fenfibility and irritability throughout the fyltem. Hence, among the more frequent caufes of catalepfy enumerated by authors, are grief, terror, anxiety, love, intenfe ftudies, indigeftion, cold, {trong liquors, acute fevers, &c. Where the difeafe has been a modifica- tion of epileply or of apoplexy, if this ever happen, the caufes were fuch as produce other forms of thofe com- plaints. See Erivepsy, &c. If we confider the nature of the cataleptic difeafe, in its more common form of catalepfis hy/ferica, it will be obvious by what means the cure isto be attempted. In the various cafes which are recorded, it has been often fuccefsfully treated by the fame remedies to which other nervous and fpafmodic difeafes commonly yield. Where it occurs in florid and plethoric habits, as hy{teria occafionally does, bleeding from the arm or the jugular vein has been praétifed with advan- tage, efpecially during the paroxy{m ; this, however, is very rarely requifite. Gentle laxatives have been found ufeful ; and in this, probably, as in other nervous complaints, the regular evacuation of the bowels is of the utmoft import- ance. The whole tribe of flimulants and tonics have been reforted to, efpecially in the modern inftances, the former with a view of counteraGting the inordinate ations of the nervous fyftem, and the latter in order to reftore the ftrength, and obviate the morbid irritability of the patient. In the fit, opium, ether, volatile alkali, and various fcetid antifpafmo- dics, have been adminiftered ; errhines have been applied to the nollrils; narcotic or acrid and ftimulating glytters in- jeGted intdthe bowels; and fri€tion with muftard, or ftrong {pirits, alfo employed on the limbs, and furface of the body. In the intervals between the paroxy{ms, bitter medicines have been given, the cold bath has been prefcribed, and exercife in various ways reforted to fuccefsfully in different inftances. The principle, in fhort, upon which the difeafe has been treated, appears to be the fame with that upon which all other difeafes of nervous mobility have been fuccefsfully combated. Ifthe lethargic, apopleétic, or epileptic difor- ders aflume the cataleptic form, which muft be determined by the concomitant circumftances, the remedies adapted to the cure of thefe diforders refpe&tively will of courfe be in- dicated. Before we conclude this article, we cannot forbear to mention an extraordinary account of a woman, labouria under catalepfis hyflerica, which has been lately publifhed by an old and moft refpectable phyfician, Dr. Petetin, of Lyons, prefident of the Medical Society of that place. The title of bis work is ‘* Eleétricité Animale, prouvée par la décou- verte des phénoménes phyfiques et moraux de la catalepfie hyftérique, &c.”” The cafe which is here related occurred fome years ago; and another fimilar one now exifts at- Lyons. The hiftory, we muft acknowledge, excites our {cepticifm, but, on the other hand, the refpedtability of Dr. Petetin, fupported bya letter, which we have perufed, from a young phyfician of character at Lyons, who went to fee the patient, doubting of all he had heard, but returned fully convinced of its truth, js entitled to attention. In thefe cafes, it is affirmed, that the /énfes were transferred to the pit of the fto- mach, and to the ends of the fingers and toes ; i. ¢, that the pa- tients, in a ftate of infenfibility to all external impreffions vpon the proper organs of fenfe, were, neverthelefs, capable of hearing, feeing, fmelling, and talting whatever was ap- proached to the pit of the ftomach, or to the ends of the fingers and toes. Dr. Petetin attributes thefe extra- ordinary phenomena to the influence of animal ele€tricity or galvanitm ; -and affirms, that if the obje&s were not applied to the pit of the ftomach, but made to communicate with it CAT by an eleétric conductor, the fenfations were ftill excited ; but that if the communication were interrupted, as by a piece of filk, or other non-condudtor, the effe& was altoge- ther prevented. The patients are faid to have anfwered queftions propofed to the pit of the flomach, io have told the hour by a watch placed there, to have tafled food, and {melt the fragrance of apricots touching the part, &c. &c. Dr. Petetin concludes that hyfterical catalepfy fhould be thus defined: ‘* Abolition reele des fiens, et apparente de la counoiflance et du mouvement, avec tranf{port, des premiers ou de quelques-uns d’entre eux dans l’epigaftre, a Pextréemité des doigts et des orteils ; et pour l’ordinaire difpofition de la part des membres a recevoir et a conferver les attitudes qu’on leur donne,”’ p. 140. The phyfician whofe letter on the fubject we have pe- rufed, obferves, that Dr. Petetin’s pamphlet has been and is ftill confidered by many ‘ comme une fglie, comme le réve d’une imagination exaltée;”? but he avers, that itis neverthe- lefstrue. ‘* I can affure you,” he concludes, “that I have obferved this cataleptic patient with the moft fcrupulous at- tention; that my experiments have been made with every caution, not for the purpofe of publication, but folely with a view of fatisfying myfelf as to the-reality of a difeafe of which 1 had long doubted; and that the refult has been a perfect conviétion that all T have feen is true. If it be not, my fenfes have ftrangely deceived me.” Until we obtain farther evidence upon the fubjeét, we leave our readers to balance thefe authorities againft the extraordinary nature of the facts which they promulgate. CATALINA Hagsour, in Geggraphy, a bay on the ealt coaft of Newfoundland. N, lat. 48° 38’. W. long. 53° 45". CATALLIS captis nomine diftridionis, in Laqw, an ancient writ that lay where a houfe was within a borough, for rent iffuing out of the fame; and which warranted the taking of doors, windows, &c. by way of diftrefs for rent. Old Nat. Brev. 66. This writ is now obfolete. Carautis reddendis, an ancient writ which lay, where goods, being delivered to perfons to keep till a certain day, are not, upon demand, delivered on that day. It may be otherwile called a * writ of detinue,” and correfponds to “ adtio depofiti”? in the civil law. Reg. Orig. 139. Old Nat. Brev. 63. CATALOGUE, a lift or enumeration of the names of feveral books, men, or other things; difpofed according to a certain order. ; George Willer, fometimes improperly called Viller, and Walter, a bookfeller at Augfburg, who frequented the Franckfort fairs, firft adopted the plan of caufing to be _ printed for every fair a catalogue of all the new books, in which the fize and the names of the printers were marked. Le Mire, better known under the name of Mirzus, a catho- lic clergyman, who was born in 1598, and died in 1640, in his work “ De Scriptoribus ecclefiatticis feculi xvi.” printed in the “ Bibliotheca Ecclefiaftica” of Fabricius, Hamb. 1718, fol. informs us, that catalogues were firft printed in the year 15543 but Labbe (Bibliotheca Bibliothecarum, Lipf. 1682, 12mo. p. 112.), Reimann (Einleitung in die Hiforiam Literariam, i. p.203.), and Heumann (Confpecus Reip. Liter. c. vi. § 2. p. 316.), who took their information from Le Mire, erroneoufly make the year to be 1564, which error is copied by Fabricius. Willer’s catalogues were printed till the year 1592 by Nicol. Baffeus, printer at Franckfort. Other bookfellers, however, mult foon have publifhed cata- logues of the like kind, though that of Willer continued a long time to be the principal. Among the many curious and rare articles in the library of profeflor Baldinger, there is GAT AL GE U FE. isa collection of old catalogues, the earlteft of which are the following: Cafalogus novus aundinarum autumnalium, Fran- cof. ad Moen. anno 1586, celebratarum. Plerique apud Joan. Georg. Porteabachium et Th. Lutz. bibliopolam Au- guitanam venales habentur; 4 catalogue of all the new books —printed at Franckfort, by Peter Schmid. This catalogue was publifhed by bookfellers of Augfburg; but not by Willer, of whom we have, Catalagus novus nundinarum autum- nalium, Francof. ad Moen. anno 1587.—Plerique in xdibus Georgii Willeri, bibliopol2 Augultani, venales habentur. 4 catalogue of almoft all the books which have been publifhed be- tween loft Eafter and the prefent September fair. Franckfort on the Mayn, printed by Nicolas Baffeus. In all thefe ca- ‘talogues, printed in 4to. and not paged, the following order is obferved. The Latin books occupy the firlt place, begin- ning with the Prote/lant theological works, probably becaufe Willer was a Lutheran; then the Catholic; and after thefe the books of jurifprudence, medicine, philofophy, poetry, and mufic. The fecond place is affigned to German books, which are arranged in the fame manner. The lait Ealter catalogue of Willer, that is found in Baldinger’s library, is dated 1597, with the following title: ‘ Plerique libri in edibus Eliz et Georgii Willeri, fratrum bibliopolarum Au- guftanorum, habentur ;” printed by Baffeus at Franckfort. In 1604, the general Eafter catalogue was printed with a permiffion from government, as appears by the following title: « Catalogus univerfalis pro nundinis Francof. de anno 1604 ;” Francof. permiflu fuperiorum excudebat Joh. Saur. After this the Leipfic bookfellers began not only to reprint the Franckfort catalogues, but to enlarge them with many books which had not been brought to the fairs in that city. Accordingly Baldinger’s library has “ Catalogus univerfalis pro nundinis Francofurtenfibus vernalibus de anno 16co ;”” printed at Leipfic by Abraham Lamberg. An imperial privilege appears, for the firft time, in the Franckfort Sep- tember catalogue of 1616; ‘ cum gratia et privilegio {pe- ciali S. Cef. Maj. Proftat apud J. Krugerum Auguftanum.” Some imperial permiffions, however, may be of an earlier date. Reimann (ubi fupra) fays, that, after Willer’s death, the ca- talogue was publifhed by the Leipfic bookfeller, Henning Groffe, and by his fon and grandfon. The council of Franck- fort cauled feveral regulations to be iffued refpeGting cata- logues ; of which an account may be feen in ‘ D’Orth’s Treatife on the Imperial Fairs at Franckfort.’’ After the bufinefs of bookfelling was drawn from Franckfort to Leip- fic, occafioned principally by the reitriétions to which it was fubjected at the former place by the cenfors, no more cata- logues were printed there ; and the fhopsin Book-ttreet were gradually converted into taverns. See Booxsertrre. In perufing thefe old catalogues, the fudden and great in- creafe of books may well excite aftonifhment ; and when we reflect that a great, perhaps the greater, part of them no longer exiit, this perifhablenefs of human labours will pro- duce the fame fenfations with thofe which arife in the mind, when we read in a church-yard the names and titles of per- fons long fince mouldered into duft. In the 16th century there were few libraries; and thefe, which did not contain many books, were in monatteries, and confifted principally of theological, philofophical, and hittorical works, with a few, however, on jurifprudence and medicine; while thofe which treated of agriculture, manofactures, and trade, were thought unworthy of the notice of the learned, and of being preferved in at colle&tions. The number of thefe works was, neverthele{s, far from being inconfiderable ; and, at any rate, many of them would have been of great ufe, as they would have ferved te illuftrate the inftructive hiftory of the arts. Catalogues which might have occafioned inquiries after books that may be ftill fomewhere preferved, have fuffered the fate of tombftones, which, being wafted and crumbled to pieces by the deitroying hand of time, become no longer legible. A complete feries of them is no where to be found. The lofs, however, might in fome meafure be {upplied by two works, that are now exceedingly f{earce ; viz. thofe of Clefs and Draudius; who, by the defire of fome bookfellers, collected together, as Georg did at.a later pe- riod, all the catalogues publifhed at the different fairs, in dif- ferent years. ‘he work of Clefs has the following title : © Unius feculi ejufque virorum litteratorum monumentis tum florentiffimi, tum fertiliffimi, ab auno rgoo ad 1602 nundina- rum autumnalium inclufive, elenchus confummatiffimus—de- fumptus partim ex fir gularum nundinarum catalogs, partim ex bibliothecis ;?? firit publifhed in 1592. The work of Dravudius, printed in feveral 4to. volumes, for the firft time in 1611, and afterwards iu 1625, is much larger, more com- plete, and more methodical. The firlt part is entitled ‘* Bibliotheca claffica, five catalogus officinalis, in quo finguli fingularum facultatum ac profeffionum libri, qui in quavis fere lingua extant—recenfentur ; ufque ad annum 1624 inclu- five ;?? auctore G. Draudio, Francof. 1625. This contains Latin works on theology, jurifprudence, medicine, hiftory, geography, and politics. he fecond partis entitled, ‘ Bib- liotheca claffica, five catalogus officinalis, in quo philofophici artiumque adco humaniorum, poetici etiam et mufici libri, ufque ad annum 1624 continentur.”? This part contains Latin books, with an index of all the authors that are mentioned. A {mall volume, without an index, isentitled, ** Bibliotheca exotica, five catalogus officinalis librorum peregrinis lingwis ufualibus {criptorum ;’’ and a third part, containing an index of the authors, is-called ‘* Bibliotheca librorum Germanico- rum claffica,” 1625. This work of Draudius, though it mentions many books which were never printed, and though many titles, names, and dates are given incorreétly, well de- ferves the attention of thofe who with to acquaint themfelves with the hiftory of literature ; and it was undoubtedly of ufe to Haller, when he compofed his Bibliotheca. See on this fubje& Beckmann’s Hii. of Inventions, vol. iii. Catalogues of books are digeited in different manners ; fome according to the order of the times when the books were printed, as that of Maittaire; others according to their form and fize, as the common bookfellers’ catalogues ; others according to the alphabetical order of the authors? names, as Hyde’s catalogue of the Bodleian library ; others according to the alphabetical order of matters or fubje&ts which are called real or claffical catalogues, as thofe of Lipenius and Dravdius; laftly, others are digefted in a mixed method, partaking of feveral of the former, as de Scine’s catalogue of cardinal Slufius’s library, which is firft divided according to the fubje€ts or fciences, and afterwards the books in each are recited alphabetically. The moft applauded of all catalogues is that of Thuanus’s library, in which are united the advantages of all the reft. It was firft drawn up by the two Puteani in the alphabetical order, then digefted according to the {ciences and fubje&s, by Ithm. Bullialdus, and publifhed by F. Quefnel at Paris in 1679, and reprinted, though incorre@ly, at Hamburgh in -1704.° The books are here ranged with juftnefs under their feveral fciences and fubje&s, regard being ftill had to the nation, fect, age, &c. of every writer. Add, that only the beft and choiceft books in every fubje& are found here, and the moft valuable editions. Yet the catalogue of M. le Tciliers, archbifhop of Rheims? library, mace by M. Clement, is not inferior to any pub- hfhed ia our age, either on account of the number and cheice of the books or the method of xs difpolition. One CAT AE SGU E. One advantage, peculiar to this catalogue, is the multi- tude of anonymous or pfeudonymous authors detected in it, fearcely to be met with elfewhere. Some even prefer it to Thuanus’s catalogue, as containing a greater varicty of claffes and books on particular fubjects. Bibliotheca Thuanea, Par. 1679, Svo. 2 vols. and Hamb. 1704, fol. and 8vo. The conditions required in a catalogue are, that it indicate at the fame time the order of the authors and of the matters, the form of the book, the number of volumes, the chrono- logical order of the editions, the language in which it is written, and its place in the library; fo as that all thefe circumflances may appear at once, in the fhortelt, cleareft, and exa&eft mavner poffible, In this vicw, all the catalogues yet made will be found to be de- fective. An anonymous French writer has laid down a new plan of a catalogue, which fhall unite all thé advantages, and avoid all the inconveniences of the reft. Lett. a Abbé ***, fur un Nouveau Projet de Catalogue de Bibliotheque. Par 1712. The Jefuits of Antwerp have given us a catalogue of the popes; which makes what they call their Propyleum. “CaTaALocuk of the flars, is a lift of the fixed ftars, dif- ofed according to fome order in their feveral conflellations; with the longitudes, latitudes, right afceniions, &c. of each. Catalogues of the ftars have been ufually reftri€ted to two forms; in the firlt and moft ancient, the ftars were claffed in their re{peétive conftellations ; in the latter, they followed one another, ina continued feries, according to their right afcenfions, or the order in which they tranfit the meri- dian. All the catalogues, from the moft ancient to that of Flamftead inclufively, were of the firft of thefe forms; but moft of thofe which have been fince conftru&ted are of the latter form, as being much more convenient for the greateft variety of ufeful purpofes. Another catalogue of a third kind has been lately formed, in which the ftars are difpofed in claffes according to zones, or their degrees of polar dif- tance. The firft who undertook to reduce the fixed ftars into a catalogue, was Hipparchus Rhodius, about one hundred and twenty-eight years before Chrift ; in which he made ufe of the obfervations of Timocharis and Ariftyllus, for about 180 years before him. Pliny informs us (N. H. lib. ii. c. 26) that he, upon the appearance of a new ftar, began to doubt whether there might not be changes among the fixed ftars, and therefore made a catalogue of them, fettiug down the place and magnitude of each itar, fo that if, in future time, any new {tars fhould appear, or any of thofe already obferved by him fhould increafe or be diminifhed in magni- tude, or fhould totally difappear, fuch changes might be known to fucceeding ages. Ptolemy retained Hipparchus’s catalogue, containing 1022 ftars, with fome few alterations ; though he himfelf made many obfervations, with a view toa new catalogue, A. D. 140. Ptolemy tells us, that he added 2° 4o' tothe longitudes of Hipparchus, in order to reduce them, from the beginning of the 128th year B.C. (the epoch for which Hipparchus had given them), to the beginning of the year 137 after Chrift, or the firft of Antoninus Pius. This al- lowance is after the rate of one degree in Loo years, the quantity of the preceffion which was found by Hipparchus, from comparing his own obfervations of Spica Virginis with thofe which had been made of the fame ftar by Timo- charis, about 140 years before; and hence it is manifeft that Ptolemy depended on no obfervations made by himfclf in this bufinefs, but refted wholly on fuch as had been made by thofe two excellent aflronomers, three centuries before his time. If he had made any obfervations himfelf, he mutt have found that the quantity which he allowed was too {mall, by a whole degree at the lealt ; the true quantity of the pre- ceffion for 265 ycars (the difference of the epochs) ie 42/ 22.6", Tocompare his tables, therefore, with the prefent, we mult firlt incrcale his numbers by 1° 2’ 22”, and then allow for the preceflion from that time to this. This catalogue, as we have itin Ptolemy, contains 1026 ltars, in 48 conftellationss but, according to Pliny (N. H. ¢. 41) it contained 1600 flars, in 72 conttellations. ‘Ihis author, however, 1s fo fubjeét to error, that little atrention has been paid to what he fays on the fubjeét; and it has generally been concluded that the catalogue never containcd more ftars than are to be found in Ptolemy ; efpecially as pone of the copies, which the Arabs have left us, contain more. About the year of Chriit 889, Albategni, a Syrian, brought down this catalogue'to his time. The molt ancient catalogue which the Chinefe now have was made in the year of Chrift ros0. The Arabians are the firt who, after Ptolemy, obferved the flars, and noted down their places. The learned Dr. Hyde mentions fe- veral of their catalogues; and he publifhed the moft con- fiderable of them, with a Latin tranflation and notes, at Oxford in 1665. This catalogue was made by Ulough Beigh, a prince of Tartary, and grandfon of the famous Tamerlane, from his own obfervations at Samarcand; it contains the places of 1022, or according to fome, 1016 ftars, adapted to the beginning of the 841ft year of the He- gira, or the year 1437 after Chrift. The third perfon who made a catalogue of the ftars from his own obfervations was Tycho Brahe; who determined the places of 777 flars, for the year 1600, His “* Progymnafmata,”’ pubhfhed in 1610, contained only this number, and his ‘* Opera omnia,” printed in 1648, contain no more. However the places of 222 more flars had then been deduced from his own obfervations by Kepler, and publifhed with thofe of the former 777, at the end of the Rodolphine tables, in 1627. The places of the ftars, in this catalogue, are adjufted to the end of the year 1600. Kepler added to the,rooo ftars obferved by Tycho thofe of Ptolemy’s catalogue, which he had omitted, to- gether with thofe of the new fouthern conftellations, from: other authors ; fo that his whole catalogue amounts to above 1160; their places being computed for the year 1600, About the fame time with Tycho, William, landgrave of Hefle, with the aid of his mathematicians, Chriftopher Roth- mannus and Juftus Byrgius, determined the places of 400 fixed ‘ {tars, by his own obfervations, with their places reétifid for: the year 1593 ; which Hevelius prefers to thofe of Tycho., This catalogue was firft publifhed by Willebrord Snellius in 1618, and is faid to have contained the places.of 400 flars ;. hut the copy of it which we have in the third volume of Flamitead’s “¢ Hiftoria Coelettis,”? contains no more than 368. Ricciolus, in his ** Aftronomia Reformata,’’ determined the places of 101 ftars for the year 1700, from his own obfer- vations; for the reit he followed Tycho’s-catalogue, altering: it where he thought fit. In the year 1667, Dr. Halley, in the ifland of St. Helena, obferved 350 fouthern ftars, not vilible in our horizon, The fame labour was alfo repeated: by F. Noel in 1710, who publifhed:a- new: catalogue of the fame ftars conttructed for the year 1687. In 1603, John Bayer, in his ‘-Uranometria,” publihed a catalogue of 1160 ftars, at Augfburg in Germany ; and here the fituations ef the ftars, with refpe& to the conftella- tion in which they are placed, are exprefled in words; but their longitudes and latitudes are exhibited by means of maps, in which the figures of the contlellations are drawn, and their {tars put Gownin their proper places, and of their re=- {pective- CATALOGUE {pedtive magnitudes. The chicf excellence, however, of this publication, confiltsin the authar’s havirg marked every ftar with a letter, the brighteft or biggelt far in each confleilation being always denoted by the firft letter in the Greek alphabet; the next in degree of brightnefs, by the fecond letter of the fame alphabet, and fo on; and when the flars iu any conftellation exceed the number of letters in that alphabet, thofe that remain are marked by Roman letters; the relative brightnefs of the flars being {till exprefled by the order of theletters. By thefe means, we are enabled not only to refer to every flar in the heavens, with great readinefs and precilion, but to exprefs, !'kewife, its relative brightnefs to other ftars in the fame conttellation; and, in fome degree, its magni- tude alfo. This invention is fo ufeful, that Flamftead has, in his catalogue, adopted Bayer’s letters, as far as they go ; Senex has alfo done the fame upon his globes of the largeft fize, and alfo upon his planifpheres; and it is followed by molt aflronomers fince his time. Bayer cannot be fuppofed to have formed this catalogue from his own obfervations. The places of fuch Mars as are vifible in Europe were taken from the catalogues of Ptolemy and Tycho Brahe; and with yefpe& to thofe which are about the fouth pole, he tells us, that they are partly taken from the obfervations of Ame- rico Velpuiius, partly from thofe of Andrew Corfalis, and partly from thofe of Peter de Medina; and that Peter Theo- dore, a moft fkilful mariner, firft formed them into conttella- tions, and publifhed them. Ia 1673, John Hevelius of Dantzic, publifhed his « Machina Cecleftis,? which, among other curious and valuable articles, contained a catalogue of the fixed flars. This work is very rare; as the greateft part of the impreffion was burned with his obfervatory and inftruments, on the 26th of September, 1679. The catalogue is faid to have contained the places of 1$88 ftars, of which 1553 were obferved by himfelf ; but as it ftands in the “ Hif- toria Ceeleftis,?? of Flamitead (1725), it contains only 1520 ftars. Their places are retified to the end of the year 1660. The mo€ complete catalogue that ever was given from the labours of one man is the Britannic catalogue, deduced from the obfervations of the Rev. John Flamftead, the firft royal aitronomer at Greenwich ; who for many years devoted him- felf wholly to that bufinefs. As there was nothing wanting either in the obferver or the apparatus, we may confider this asa perfect work, fo far as it extends. It is, however, to be regretted that the impreffion did not pafs through his own hands; that now extant was publifhed by authority, but without the author’s confent. We have two editions of this catalogue; the firft in 1712, which is generally called Dr. Halley’s edition, becaufe he was employed as the editor by prince George of Denmark, at whofe expence it was printed. This edition contains only 2680 ftars: owing, poflibly, to its having been publifhed without the confent, and, it is apprehended, contrary to the wifhes of Mr. Flam- ftead, who might not, on that account, contribute all the ma- “terials for it, which he could have done. It is, however, more correct in fome inftances, than that which was pub- lithed in 1725, by Mr. Flamftead’s executors, in pur- fuance of his will; but this latter contains the places of 2934 ftars, and is that to which altronomers generally refer. The {tars in both are adapted to the beginning of the year 1690. They are diltinguifhed into feven degrees of magnitude (of which thole of the 7th de- gree are telefcopic) in their proper conitellations. ‘To the laft is added Mr. Sharp’s catalogue of the fouthern ftars not vifible in our hemifphere, adapted to the year 1726. See vol. iii. of the “ Hiftoria Cceleftis,” in which are printed the catalogues of Ptolemy, Ulugh 6 Beigh, Tycho, the prince of Heffe, and Hevelius ; together with an account of each of them in the “ Prolegomena,”? In 1782, M. Bode, member of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Berlin, publifhed a very extenfive catalogue of the fixed ftars, colle&ted from the obfervations of Flamftead, Bradley, Hevelius, Tobias Mayer, Dela Caille, Meflier, La Monnier, D’Arquier, and other aitronomers ; in which the places of the flars, amounting in number to 5058, are given for the beginning of the year 1780. This catalogue, which is a very valuable work, though there is reafon to apprehend that the fame ftar is inferted more than once, is accompanied by a celcttial atlas, or fet of maps of the conftellations, engraved in a very delicate aud beautiful manner. In all the catalogues already enumerated, the ftars are claffed in conftellations. In the following catalogues they fucceed each other according to the order in which they tran- fit the meridian, without any regard to the conftellation to which they belong: the name of the conftellation being given with a defcription of the ftar’s htuation init. The firlt catalogue of the ftars, as we conceive, that was printed in this form, or in the order of their right afcenfions, is that of M. de la Caille, given at the beginning of his Ephemerides, for the 10 years between 1755 and 1765, and printed in 17556 It contains the right afcenfions and declinations of 307 ftars, adapted to the beginning of the year 1750. In 1757 he publifhed his ‘ Aftronomiz Fundamenta,’’ in which is a catalogue of the right afcenfioas and declinations of 398 fars, adapted likewife to the beginning of 1750. In 1763, the ear immediately fucceeding that of his death, the “ Ca- lum Auftrale Stelliferum” of the fame author was publifhed; and this contains a catalogue of the places of 1942 ftars, all fituated to thé fouthward of the tropic of Capricorn, and obferved by the fame indefatigable aftronomer while he was at the Cape of Good Hope in 1751 and 1752. The places of thefe are given for the beginning of the year 1750. In the fame year, the Ephemendes for the ro years between 1765 and 1775 were publifhed; in the introdu€tion to which the places of 515 zodiacal {tars are given, all deduced from his own obfervations. The ftars in this catalogue are rectified to the beginning of the year1765. The nautical al- manac for 1773 contains a catalogue of 38c ftars, in right afcenfion, declination, longitude, and latitude, derived from the obfervations of the late Rev. Dr. Bradley, and adjutted to the beginning of the year 1760. It has been fince, viz. in 1798, republifhed with corrections by Dr. Hornfby, in the firit volume of Bradley’s obfervations. Thefe make but a {mall part of what might have‘been deduced from the la- bours of that great man, if his reprefentatives had not with- held the reft from the public. Mr. Wollafton, (ubi infra) informs us, that Dr. Bradley had the whole Bnitifh. cata- logue calculated to the year 1744; and that traces may be obferved in it of his having examined almoft every flar in it. He adds, from fatisfa&tory information, that Dr. Bradley obferved the Britith catalogue twice through: firft with the old inflruments of the royal obfervatory, previous to 1750, and afterwards with the new ones. The 380 ftars above- mentioned were carefully reétified for the year 1790 by Mr. G. Gilpin. ley’s papers, fee the article Braptey. In 1775, a thin volume, containing feveral papers of the late celebrated To- bias Mayer, of Gottingen, was publifhed, under the title of “* Opera Inedita ;”” and among the reit, a catalogue of the right afcenfion and declination of 998 flars, which may be occulted by the moon and planets. It is adapted to the beginning of the year 1756; and, from the known Ball For a brief account of the ftate of Dr. Brad- ee dem i a ne a mee Lal a CATAL @GUE. {kill and accuracy of its author, is much valued. At the end of the firlt volume of Aftronomical Obfervations made at the Royal Obfervatory at Greenwich,’ publifhed in 1776, Dr. Maflelyne, the prefent altronomer royal, _has piven a catalogue of the places of 34 principal flars, in right afcenfion and north polar diflance, adapted to the beginning of the year 17703 and which, being the refult of feveral years’ repeated obfervations, made with the utmolt care, and the beit inllruments, may be prefumed to be exceed- ingly accurate. In 1776, a work was publifhed at Berlin, entitled © Receuil de Tables Aftronomiques,” in which is contained a very large catalogue of tars from Hevelius, Flamiteed, M. de la Caille, and Dr. Bradley, with their Jatitudes and longitudes, for the beginning of 1800; with a catalogue of the fouthern tars of M. de la Caille, of dou- ble {tars, of changeable ftars, and of nebulous ftars: a work very ufeful for the practical aflronomer. To thefe may be added Dr. Herfchel’s catalogue of double ftars, printed in the Philofophical Tranfa€tions for 1782 and 1783; M. Meffier’s nebul and clufters of flars, publifhed in the * Connoiffance des Temps” for 1784.3 and Dr. Herfchel’s catalogue of the fame kind, given in the Philofophical Tranfaétions for 1786. In 1789, Mr. Francis Wollalton publithed in folio a “ Specimen of a general altronomical Catalogue, arranged in Zones of north- polar Dittance, and adapted to January 1, 1799.’’ In forming this catalogue, Mr. Wollafton has not made any ufe of thofe which precede EFlamfteed, except ina {mall pact that of Hevelius: but all the {tars in the Britifh catalogue of 1725 are inferted, as well as thofe which are in the three latter catalogues of M. de la Caille, thofe of Dr. Bradley in the Nautical Almanac for 1773, of M. Mayer, of Dr. Mafkelyne, the double ftars of Dr. Herfchel, M. Meffier’s nebule, and all thofe of Dr. Herfchel, excepting his 2d and 3d clafics, that is, all thofe which are capable of being difcerned with any tele- fcopes inferior to his own. This work contains five diflin& catalogues ; viz. Dr. Mafkelyne’s new catalogue of 36 prin- cipal fixed {lars ; a general catalogue of all the ftars, 1 zones of north-polar diltance 3 an index to the general catalogue; a catalogue of all the flars in the order in which they pafs the meridian ; anda catalogue of zodiacal flars, in longitude and latitude. / Ws The firft catalogue contains the right afcenfions in time, the annual preceflion of right afcenfion in time, and the an- nual proper motion, both in time and in degrees, for each ftar, and alfo the zone to which it belongs in the fecond ca- télogue. Thefe circumitances are deduced from a multitude of obfervations, recently made, with the utmoft care and circum{pection, by the aftronomer royal, for the purpofe of determining, when compared with his former fettlement of the fame ttars in 1770, whether thofe flars have any motion of their own, and what it is. That the fixed ftars, as they are ufually called, have a proper motion of their own, has long been fufpected ; and it was fuppofed that it had even been detected in Aréturus: but this motion is certainly fo {mall, that no obfervations, made before Dr. Bradley’s time, were fuflicient to exhibit it; and the bafs of ‘twenty years, which our prefent ingenious and indefatiyable altro- nomer royal has yet been able to obtain, feems much too fhort to determine it with any great degree of accuracy, even in the prefent improved {tate of attronomieal initru- ments. ‘The obfervations, however, fufficiently: indicate fuch a motion in ali the ftars, and one which is pretty con- fiderable in Arcturus. "ae ‘ ‘The fecond catalogue, or that in zones, as its difpofition is cutirely new, will require fome explanation, All the fiars which are fituated within 10 degrees of the north pole wre Vou. VII. colleled together, and inferted in a catalogue by them- felves, ‘according to the order in which they pafs the meri- dian ; and this is called the firft zone. The fecond zone contains all the {tars which are fituated at a greater diftance from the north pole than ro degrees, and at a lels diltance than 15 degrees, difpofed in the fame manner, The third zone contanis all the {tars which are diftant between 15 aud 20 degrees from the north pole: but hence, till the author comes within zo degrees of the fouth pole, the zones are but one degree in breadth, that is, the fourth zone contains all the ftars which are at the diftance of more than 20 de- grees from the north pole, and lefs than 21 degrees, dif- pofed in the order in which they pafs the meridian, and fo on. The ftars which are at a lefs diftence from the fouth pole than 20 degrees, are difpofed, like thofe which are at the fame diftance from the north pole, into two zones,’each 5 degrees broad, and into ove which is ro degrees broad : to that the whole number of the ftars is diftributed into 146 diftinét catalogues, or zones; and in each of thefe the ftars follow one another in the order in which they pafs the me- ridian. Each of thefe catalogues employs nine columns: the firfk contains the right afcenfion of the ftars, in degrees, for the ift of January 1790; the fecond, the preceffion of right af- cenfion, in the fame meafure; the third, their right afcen- fions in time; and the fourth, the preceffion in time. The fifth contains the ftar’s diftance from the north pole; the fixth, its preceffion in north-polar diftance. In the feventh, the magnitude is expreffed ; the eighth contains the number, name, or charaéter of the ftar, together with the name of the obferver by whom its pofition was afcertained ; and the uinth column contains fhort notes, intended to call the atten- tion of obfervers to certain circumftances there mentioned, in order that they may either be difproved or verified by fu- ture obfervations. Where the fituation of a ftar has been given by different obfervers, as is the cafe in malt, each of their iituations is given, reduced to the fame time, (Janu- ary the uft, 1790,) and fet down in the order in which their obfervations were made. By thefe means, it is readily feen how far different obfervers agree with each other, and wherein they difagree. Mr. Wollafton’s reafon for thinking that a catalogue of the fixed ftars would be more ufefulin this form than in any other, is ftated in the Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixxiv. p- 181, and vol. Ixxv. p. 3463 where the author propofes frequent exa- minations of the heavens, as the means of deteéting any al- terations which may happen among the fixed ftars. In this bufinefs, every altronomer was invited to take a part, and to examine a certain number of zones, (each one degree in breadth,) with a telefcope of a large ficld, mounted ona polar axis, and furnifhed with a fy{tem of wires in its focus. This telefcope being dire€ted to the proper parallel of decli- nation, and fixed there, the bulinefs of the obferver would be, to take the tranfits of all the {tars which pafled the field of the telefeope, at the feveral wires in its focus; which were fo difpofed as to give both the difference of right afcenfion and declination between them ; and for fuch a purpéfe, this ca- talogue is evidently well adapted. The third catalogue is called, an index to the ftars in the Britifh catalogue, referring to the zone of north-polar dif- tance, in which each flaris to be found. This catalogue contains only the {tars in the Britith catalogue of 1725, ar- ranged in conitcllations ; and the {tars in each conttellation follow one another in the fame order as in that catalogue : but the conitellations are difpofed alphabetically. The ca~ talogue employs three columns : the firfl containing the num- ber of the itar, as it flauds in the Britifh catalogue ; the fe- by cond, CAT cond, Bayer’s letter of reference, where the ftar has one ; and the third, the number of the zone to which the flar be- longs in the fecond catalogue, reckoning from the north pole: but the reader muft take care that he is not milled with regard to the import of this laft column: the author does not mean, by the number there put down, the number of the zones as they ftand in his catalogue, but the number of the zones in which it would have been, if every one of his zones had been no more than one degree in breadth ; fo that his firft zone, (as defcribed above,) is to be confi- dered as containing 10.of the zones in the fecond catalogue ; and the fecond and third zones mutt be confidered as each containing five. The fourth catalogue contains the ftars of the Britifh ca- talogue, of de la Caille’s fouthern catalogue, and about eighty {tars from Hevelius’s catalogue, which were omitted by Flamiteed, all arranged in one continned feries, accord- ing 'to the order in which they pafs the meridian. ‘This ca- talogue employs four columns: the firit containing the ftar’s right afcenfion in time, for the 1ft of January 1790, put down to the neareft fecond ; the fecond, the ftar’s diftance from the north pole, for the fame time; the third, the mag- nitude of the ftar; and the fourth, the number, name, or chara@ter of the ftar, and the conftellation in which it is laced. The fifth catalogue gives the longitudes and latitudes of fucl flars as are fituated within nine dearees of the ecliptic, arranged in the order of their longitudes. It contains all the flars which are to be found within thefe limits, m the catalogues of Flamifteed, Bradley, Maver, and the {mall catalogue of de la Caille, at page 238 of his “ Aftronomiz Fundamenta.”? This catalogue employs five columns; the longitude of the ftar, reduced to the beginning of 1790, ftends in the firft column; the fecond contains the latitudes of fuch ftars as are on the north fide of the ecliptic; and the third gives the latitudes of {uch as are on the fouth fide of it. The fourth column exhibits the magnitude of the ftar ; and the fifth, the number, name, or charater of it, and the name of the obferver who affigned its fituation. Where any {tar has been obferved by two or more perfons, the refult of each of their obfervations, (reduced to the fame epocha,) is inferted, in the order in which their obfervations were made, In 1792, Dr. Francifco de Zach publifhed at Gotha, * Tabule Motuum Solis 3’? to which 1s annexed a new ca- talogue of the principal fixed {tars from his own obferva- tions, made in the yeats 1787, 1788, 1789, 1790. This catalogue contains the right afcenfion and declination, with the magnitudes and annual variations in right afcenfion of 381 principal ftars, adapted to the beginning of the year 1800. The catalogues of the places of Dr. Bradley’s 389 fixed ftars, adapted to the beginning of the year 1760; of thofe of M. de la Caille’s 515 zodiacal ftars, adapted to the beginning of the year 1765; of the fame author’s 307 prin- cipal ftars in the heavens, adapted to the year 17503 of Zach’s 38¢ principal fixed ftars, adapted to the beginning of ghe year 1800; of the fame author’s declinations of 162 principal fixed ftars, with their annual variations, adapted to the beginning of the year 18co; and of Mayer’s gg2 principal fixed ftars, adapted to the year 1790; are publith- éd_by profeffor Vince i the 2d volume of his Aftronomy. M. dela Lande has publithed a new catalogue of more than ¥2,000 ftars in the volumes of the ‘Connoiflance des Temps,” from the year 7 (1799) to the year 12. A!lmoft all thefe are ftars which had not been before obferved. M. C. Vidal has lately communicated to the lyceum of Tou- loufe a catalogue of 88S aultral ftars, from the 5th to the I C 2r 7th magnitude inclufively. Every ftar has been obferved three times, and all are reduced to a mean pofition, regard being had to the effe& of refraction, the aberration of light, and the rotation of the earth’s axis. The mean polition of all thefe ftars has been calculated to a common period, viz. Jan. 31, 17983 the equation and preceflion of the equinoxes being previoufly allowed for. he place of M. Vidal’s ob= fervation was Mirepoix ; a fituation admirably fuited to his purpofe, by the ferenity of its atmofphere and the excellence of the inflruments with which its obfervatory is furmfhed, and commanding nearly fix degrees of the heavens fouth- wards more than Paris. On this account C. Lalande, and his nephew C. Francois Lalande, in their grand work of completing a catalogue of 48,000 ftars, have engaged M. Vidal to form a catalogue of the auftral ftars, which he has executed with great fuccefs and admirable precifion. From the hiftory of aftronomy for 1800, by Jerome de Lalande, it appears that M. F. Lalande has terminated the labour, commenced Auguft 5, 1789, and determined the places of 50;coo itars from the pole to two or three degrees below the tropic of Capricorn. The examination of the heavens is {till vigorovfly profecuted by the European aftronomers, conformably to the plan and wifhes of Mr. Wollafton; and from the induftry and accuracy with which their obferva- tions are conduéted, we may expe the happieft refult with regard to our knowledge of the ftars and other celef- tial bodies. Cararocues of the books of the Old and New Teftament, in Diblical Hiflory. See Bisie, Canon, and Tesra- MENT. CATALONGAY, in Botany, the name given by fome authors to the plant which produces the faba /anGi [gnatii, or St. Ignatius’s-beans of the fhops. CATALONIA, in Geography, a province of Spain;. bounded on the north by France, from which it is feparated by the Pyrenées, on the eaft and fouth-eaft by the Mediter= ranean, on the fouth-welt by the province of Valencia, and on the weft by Arragon. Its form is nearly that of a trian- gle; the bafe towards the Mediterranean being about 160. miles in length, the fice towards France 120, and that to- wards. Arragon’14o miles. Catalonia, towards the fhores of the Mediterranean, has many convenient fea-ports; the inland country is in general mountainous, particularly in the northern part towards France, but interfperfed with a va- riety of {pacious plains and fertile vallics. The mountains are covered with large foreits of tall trees, fuch as the oak, the ever-green oak, the beach, the pine, the fir, the cheft- nut, and many others, befides cork trees, fhrubs, and mes dicinal plants. The foil is rendered produ@tive by the ins duftry of the inhabitants, fo that Catalonia is reckoned oné of the bet cultivated provinces in Spain; and it yields a plentiful fupply of corn, wine, oil, flax, hemp, liquorice, and almoft every kind of fruit. Brandy, wine, nuts, al- monds, raifins, and cork are fhipped at different places on the coaft, for the merchants who refide in Barcelona. The wines are Mataro, Villanova, Sitges, Valls, and Granatché! The price varies according to the feafon; but when it is highett, we may reckon Mataro at 16 dollars, or 48s., the hogfhead, including the Spanifh duties ; Villanova, 15 dol- lars; Granatché, 40. All thefe are red. The following white wines are, Sitges, 543; Walls, 20 dollars; but the common price is 124 dollars per hogfhead for both the Ma- taro and Villanova. When brandy is deareft, it is fold, duty free, at 57 dollars, or 8]. 41s. the four cargas or pipe of 124 gallons Englifh, Hollands proof, or 1s. 43d. per gallon; but it is fometimes fold at rod. Catalonia fur- nifhes 35,000 pipes of brandy, and 2000 of wine, befides g0,000 GA: Ff 30,000 bags of nuts, containing three buthels each, at 20s. the bag. Of the above about 4000 pipes of brandy, and fome filk, go to Guernfey and Alderney, and the reft to France, all to be {muggled into England. The merchants alfo export wrought filks, printed cottons, woollen goods, {mall arms, and {pice ; the laft article, however, is contra- band. Their imports are, corn, fifth, woollen goods, hard- ware, and oil of vitriol. The articles prohibited are, beer, cyder, lead, hofe, haberdafhery, muflins, and cottons ; but of the two la{t, immenfe quantities are {muggled into this province. The mountainous diftridts have quarries of mar- ble of all colours, cry{al, alabafter, amethy its, and lapis la- zuli. Gold duit has been found among the fands of one or two of its rivers; and here are mines of antimony, copper, lead, tin, iron, filver, one of gold, alum, vitriol, and falt, and many of coal. On the eaitern coalt they likewife fihh for coral. Provifions of every kind are excellent. The cli- mate is mild in the plains, the cold on the mountains is fup- portable, and the air is pure. It is neither fo hot as Anda- lufia, nor fo cold as Atturias, and the northern part of Spain; being fheltered on the north by the Pyrenées, and on the eaft by the fea. This temperature, joined to the many ftreams and rivers with which the country abounds, renders it very fertile and delightful. The inhabitants are hardy, courageous, induftrious, ative, vigorous, and good foldiers, but apt to be difcontented. The miquelets are a fort of foldiers, whofe province it is to guard the paifes of the mountains and to protect travellers ; but they are often extortionate in their demands of recompence. In Catalonia, as in France, with which this province was formerly connected, accounts are kept in livres, fols, and deniers ; 12 deniers making a fol, and 20 folsa livre. But in reckoning by the money of the province, nominal and real, there is great perplexity. If we reckon the pefo or current dollar at 3s. fterling, the hard dollar will be four, the current piftole 12 ; and the piltole of gold, 153. See Corns. As to the meafures in Catalonia, 12 cortans make one quartera, which is two buthels, Englifh meafure. Six- teen cortans make a carga of wine or brandy, which is about 30 gallons Englifh, and is reckoned to be 12 arrobas. 100 quarteras are reckoned equal to 128 fanegas, In eftimating the weights of this province, eight ounces make a marc, being 4 heavier than in Cailile; 12 ounces make a pound; 26 pounds one arroba; four arrobas one quintal, which is 93 pounds Englifh, or gr peunds Catli- lian; 125 pounds make 112 pounds Englith. In the beginning of the Jalt century they reckoned in Catalonia 101986 houfes, and only 391490 inhabitants ; but the province had then been ravaged by civil war. In 1763 the bifhops, in their account of the population, made the following return 5. viz. men, 1892523 women, 1927633 boys, 3613793 girls, 220916; clergy, regular and {ecnlar, 44245: in all, one million and thirty thoufand two hundred and forty-five. Since that time the population has not de- creafed; and vet, in the returns to government, A. D. 1737, the number of inhabitants is ftated at enly Sor6oz2. Of thele 6953 are under vows, and 1256 are knights. Thefe accounts, fo different from one another, without any affignable caufe of deficiency in the latter, fhew, that, not- withftanding the molt vigilant attention on the part of go- vernment, they always fall fhort of the aCtual population, becaufe it is the interelt of every family, parifh, and diltrict, to conceal their numbers, in order to avoid the capitation tax. Catalonia enjoys the privilege of exemption from the taxes called alcavala, cientos, and millones; in lieu of which the inhabitants pay 10 percent. on all rents, belonging to individuals or communities, and on the fuppofed gains of CAT merchants and mechanics. They are fubje@ alfo to fome other charges on labour and manufaéture, and on cattle. The whole amount of the taxes collected in Catalonia was, A.D. 1721, 4818671. fterling. But as the revenue of Spain is more than doubled fince that period, if we allow the fame increafe for Catalonia, we may flate the revenue arifing from this province at little lefs than a million fter- ling ; which, according to the computed pepulation, is 20s. annually for each perfon ; whereas, taking the whole penin- fula together, the Spaniards pay no more than ros. each per anuum. Confideriag the rapid circulation of money in this province, and the univerfal affluence refulting from it, with the peculiar advantages and refources of the Catalans, this contribution, though relatively heavy, is comparatively light ; for being freed from the ftagnating influence of the alcavela, cientos, and millones, they enjoy a decided fupe- riority over provinces which have never claimed the fame in- dulgence. Unfettered by thefe impolitic reftraints, and per- mitted to fet their own value on their commodities expofed to fale; their induftry is free, and not like that of lefs-fa- voured provinces, crippled in all its operations. In addition to thefe immunities, the great number of troops, quartered in Catalonia, not only gives to the farmers and manufaéturers a ready market for their commodities, but contributes much to maintain good order in the province. \ For near two cen- turies previous to the acceffion of the prefent family, Cata- lonia was infelted with banditti, who, by robbing and plun- dering paflengers, interrupted the fafe and eafy communica- tion of the cities with each other, and prevented, in a great meafure, the interior commerce of the country. But Philip IT. ftationed a confiderable detachment of his troops in this doubtful part of his dominions ; and thefe not only reftored good order, but revived commerce by a quick and certain demand for all the produCtions of induftry. Befides, the po- pular prejudice in Catalonia is favourable to commerce ; for here artilts and manufaéturers are as much honoured and re- {pected as in other provinces they are defpifed. In confe- quence of this their trade is brifk ; the veffels employed to carry it on are more than 1000; and government can al- ways depend upon 18000 feamen, who are regiflered and always ready to obey the fummons in cafes of emergency. Moreover, what contributes moft to the wealth and pro{pe- rity of Catalonia is the power, which gentlemen of landed property have over ther eftates to grant a particular {pecies of leafe, called ** Ettablifhment by Emfiieutie contra&s.” By this kind of contraG@, the great proprietor, inheriting more land than he can cultivate to profit, has power to grant any given quantity for a term of years, either abfolute or conditional, cither for lives or in perpetuity, always referv- ing a quit rent, like our copy-holds, with a relief on every fuccefiton, a fine on the alicnation of the land, and other feignioral rignts dependent on the cuftom of the dilri€, fuch as uthes, milis, pnblic-hosfes, the obligatian to plough his land, to furnith him with teams, and to pay hearth-mo- ney, with other contributions, by way of commutation for ancient {tipulated fervicess’ The tenure in Catalonia is evi- dently feudal. All preperty inland is traced up to the king, and 1 held by knights’ fervice from the crown, fabje@ to telief, to fines, and to efcheat. Under the royal grant, the great lords claim, not merely tithes of all lands not being freehold, with quit-rents and fines, mills, and public-houfes, but the night of appointing magiitrates and receiving tolls on the pallage of cattle aver their eflates. To the power retained by them of making emfiteutic contraés has with reafon becn attributed the cultivation of fuch waite Jands as are fufcepcible of tillage, ard the confequent increafe of population. Indultry has res new families have G2 been e AT been called into exiftence, and many, refcued from poverty and wretchednefs, are now maintained in comfortable afflu- ence. Neverthelefs by the culpable inattention of great proprietors, both to the general good and to their private benefit, they leave their lands uncultivated ; and, therefore, even in Catalonia, according to the government returns, more than 300 villages have been deferted. See on this fubje&, Townfend’s Spain, vol. iii. ig } The province of Catalonia has been ufually divided into 15 vigueries, or jurifdiétions, befides the two which are in Roufillon and which belong to the French ; viz. Tortola, Monblanc, Tarragona, Villa Franca de Panades, Barcelona, Gerona, which includes that of Ampurdan, all which lie along the fea-coaft; Campredon, Puicerda, with the county of Cardagna, both which Jie near the Pyrenean mountains ; Balacuer, Lerida, Agramont, Tarrega, Cervera, Manrefa, and Vigue. Some have divided this principality into Old and New Catalonia, including in the former the country between the Pyrenées, which runs along the river Llobregat ealtward to the fea; and towards the welt the tra from this river to the borders of Valencia and Arragon. The principal towns of this province are Barcelona, the capital, "Tortofa, Tarragona, Gerona, Monblanc, Lerida, and Vil- la Franca de Panades. The chief rivers are the Segre, the Llobregat, the Cervera, and the Ebro. Catalonia has been reckoned one of the moft populous provinces in Spain; and contains one archbifhopric, feven bifhoprics, 28 large abbies, one principality, 2 duchies, 5 marquifates, 17 earldoms, 14 vifcounties, and a great number of baronies. When the Moors had overrun the greateft part of Spain, and began their attacks on this province, the Catalonians made an effort to fecure their freedom, and applied to Charles Martel of France for affiftance ; by whom, as well as by his fon Pepin, they were aided in their wars againft the Moors. On the death of Zaro, governor of Barcelona, who had agrecd to pay tribute to Charles the Great, Ber- nard, grandfon to Charles, was made earl and governor of Catalonia ; on his deceafe, Godfrey, or Wiford, the fon of his colleague in the government of this province, as well as of Provence and Languedoc that were annexed to it, was created governor of Barcelona, and in $84 hereditary count of Barcelona, which was to continue to him and his heirs for ever, with the reftriction, that they fhould remain vaf- fals to the king of France. In 1137, Don Raymond V., count of Barcelona, marrying Petronilla, the daughter of Don Ramiro, the monk, and heirefs of Arragon, united Catalonia to the crown of Arragon, but without any incor- poration of territaries ; and in 1382 it fhook off all de- pendency on France. Catalonia continued united to Arra- gon till the year 1640, when it fubmitted to France. In 1652, the king of Spain recovered Barcelona and fome other places; and by the treaty of the Pyrenées in 165y he faw himfelf again mafter of all Catalonia. In 1705, the whole principality fubmitted to the archduke of Aultria, and ad- hered firmly to his caufe, infomuch that, though in the year 1713, he was obliged to evacuate Catalonia, Majorea, and Yvica, yet the inhabitants of Barcelona determined to maintain their privileges or die in the attempt ; however, in the year 1714, Barcelona was obliged to furrender at dif- cretion, and the whole country was reduced to the fubjec- tion of Philip V. who abolifhed all thofe valuable privileges, which they had fo often afferted with a fuccefsful intre- pidity. Among the ancient inhabitants of this province we may reckon the Caftellani, from whom fome have imagined that it derived its name ; others trace its etymology to the Cate- 6 C A-T jauni, an ancient people in Gaul ; but other3, with greater probability, trace the origin of the appellation to the follow- ing circumitance. Upon the decline of the Roman empire, the Alani feized the befl part of this province, of which they were, in fome meafure, difpofleffed by the Goths ; aud at length, mixing together and becoming one people, they came to be called Gothalani, and their country Gothalonia, which, by degrees, was foftened into Catalonia. CATALPA, in Botany, the Indian name of a North American plant, referred by Linnzus to the genus bigno- nia, (fee BicnontAa catalpa); but as the plants included in this genus differ confiderably from each other, it has been divided by Jufficu and Ventenat into four, jacaranda, ca- talpa, tecoma, and bignonia. Of catalpa, the French na- turalilts give the following charaéter. Cal. two-cleft. Cor. bell-fhaped ; tube diltended ; border four-lobed, unequal. Stam. two, fertile, three, barren. Stigma bilamellate. Cape fale vefembling a filique, long, cylindrical, two-valved ; par- tition oppofite to the valves. Seeds with a membranous appendage at the tip and bafe. Trees, with fimple, ternate, whorled leaves and panicled flowers. Juffieu refers to it, dig- nonia catalpa of Linnzus, and Lignonta longiffima of Jacquin. CATALS, Catalla, denote good or chatte!s. CATAMANA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afiay in Syria, fituate, according to Ptolemy, in Comagena. CATAMARAN, or Catimoran, in Sea Language, is alfo called Balza, or Balfa, for an account of which fee the article Boar. CATAMENTIA, from xaz« and px, month, in Medicine, women’s monthly purgations, called alfo men/és, which fee. CATAMITE, a boy kept for fodomitical praices. CATANA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Sicily, on the eaitern coait of the ifland, in a gulf of the fame name. Thucydides fays, that this city was founded feven years after Syracufe, by the Chalcidians, from Naxus. Strabo alfo mentions it, and fays, that it was repaired by Auguftus, and became a Roman colony. Pliny and Ptolemy give it this title. Strabo reports that this city loft its firft inha- bitants; but that Hiero, tyrant of Syracufe, placed others in it, and changed its name into that of /Etna; aflumirg the glory of being its founder. It ftill bore this name; when Dionyfius, to revenge himfelf for the fuccours which it had given to the revolted inhabitants of Syracufe, levelled its walls, and beftowed its territory on the Campanians ; and immediately after the deccafe of Hiero, the Catanefe expelled thofe whom he had eftablifhed there, and demolifhed the tomb of the tyrant, and the city regained its ancient name. It fell into the hands of the Romans among their earlieft acquifitions in Sicily, and became the refidence of a pretor. To make it worthy of fuch an honour, it was adorned with fumptuous buildings, and every convenience was procured to fupply the natural and artificial wants of life. It was deftroyed by Pompey’s fon, but reilored, with fuperior magnificence, by Auguitus. The reign of Decius is fa- mous, in the hiftory of this city, for the martyrdom of its patronefs, St. Agatha, whofe interceffion is implored on every emergency. She is pioufly believed, fays Swinburne, to have preferved Catania from being overwhelmed by tor- rents of lava, or fhaken to pieces by earthquakes; yet its ancient edifices are covered by repeated ftreams of volcanic matter, and almolt every edifice, even her own church, has been thrown to the ground. In the reign of William the Good, 20,000 Catanians, with their paltor at their head, were deitroyed before the facred veil could be properly placed to check the flames. In the 17th century Catana was twice demolifhed. Cicero, fpeaking of the riches and beauty of this city, adds, that it had a temple dedicated to Ceres, CAT Ceres, in which was preferved an image of this goddefs ; but that only women were allowed admiffion, and that it was guarded by young females. See Catania. CATANADROMI, in Ichthyography, a term of the fame fignification with the more common word anadromi, the diflinétive term of a fet of fifhes, which at times leave the frefh water for the falt, and afterwards return to the frefh water again. See Anapromous. CATANANCHE, in Botany, (Gr. xaravxyxn, violence, fo called, according to Diotcorides, becaufe it was fuper- ftitioufly ufed as a philtre, or love-charm by the women of Theffaly.) Linn. Gen. 920. Schreb. 1250. Jufl. p. 171. Vent. vol. ti. p.492. Gert. 9oo5. Catanance, Tourn. 271. Cupidone, Lam. Eneyc. Bofe. Nouv. Di&. Candia lion’s foot. Clafs and order, /yngenefia polygamia equalis, Linn. Ci- choracea, Jul. Vent. Gen. Ch. Cal. common, imbricate, top-fhaped ; feales numerous, loofe, egg-fhaped, acute, concave, fearious, fhin- ing, permanent. Cor. common, uniform; florets all with ftamens and a piflil, numerous, ligulate, linear, truncated, five-toothed. Svam. filaments five, capillary, very fhort ; anthers forming a hollow cylinder. Pi. germ oblong ; ftyle filiform, the length of the ftamens; ftigma bitid, re- flexed. Peric. the permanent calyx. Seeds folitary, egg- top-fhaped, crowned with a five-leafed, chaffy, awned pap- pus or ealycle. Recep. chaffy. Eff. Ch. Receptacle chaffy. Calyx imbricate. Pappus confilting of five chafly awned leaves. Sp. 1. C. cerulea, Linn, Sp. Pl. r. Willd. 1. Mart. 1. Lam. Encye. 1. Illuft. Pl. 658. fig. 1. (Chondrilla, Bauh. Pin. 130. 6. Barr. Ic. 1134. Rai. Hitt. 257.) ** Calyx-feales all egg-fhaped, mucronate, coloured in the middle.’? Lam. Leaves villous, linear, a little pinnatifid at the bafe.’? Willd. Root perennial. Root-/eaves nume- rous, long, narrow, with two pair of long, linear teeth, lying flat on the ground. Stems about two feet high, flender, pubefcent ; furnifhed with fmall, generally entire leaves, or rather tranfparent fcales growing nearer together as they approach the fummit. Flowers terminal, blue, large, on long peduncles. A native of the South of Europe, flowering from June to O&ober. 2. C. ca/pitofa, Willd. 2. Desf. Atl. ii, p. 238. tab. 217. “ Inferior calyx-feales egg-fhaped, acute, leaves linear, rather flefhy, flightly tooth- ed at the tip.’? Walld. oot annual. Flowers yellow. 3. C. lutea, Linn. Sp. Pl. 2. Willd. 3. Mart. 2. Encyc. Illuft. Pl. 658. fix. 2. Geert. tab. 157. fig. 5.“ Interior (not inferior, as in Linnwus,) calyx-fcales lanceolate.”? Lam. *¢ Leaves lanceolate, toothed, three-nerved.”? Willd. Root annual. Svems two or three, a foot anda half high. F/owers {mall, yellow, on flender peduncles. A native of Italy and the Levant., Propagation and Culture. The firft fpecies may be pro- pagated by flips planted in pots filled with light fandy foil, or in warm borders, under the fhelter of walls, pales, or hedges. But it fucceeds better when raifed from feeds fown in March, in a border of good warm earth, and after- wards tranfplanted into pots or borders where it is to re- main for flowering. The third fpecies may alfo be readily raifed from {feeds ; but, as it has little beauty, it is not often kept in gardens. Mill. Caranancue greca, Linn. Willd. Mart. Lam. Scorzonera elongata. CATANDUANES, or Cantuapanes, in Geography, a province of the ifland of Lugon or Manilla, confilting of a {mall ifland to the mott fouth-catterly part of Lucon ; its fouthern point being almott parallei with Sifiran. its fhape is triangular, about 30 leagues in compafs, and 10 in length. See G £7 As it is expofed to the north wind, it is always ftormy ; and it lies fo near the Emtfocadero, or mouth of the channel of St. Bernardin, that fome pilots miltaking it, and apprehend- ing that they were entering the mouth of the ttraight, have found themfelves among dangerous flats, which encompats the ifland about a mufket-fhot from the fhore, and fuffered fhipwreck. ‘This ifland abounds in rice, oil of palms, cocoas, honey, and wax. It has feveral rivers that are dangerous to crofs, in the channel of which is found gold, brought down from the mountains by the floods. The largett of thefe is called Cutandangan, and by the Spaniards Catan- duanes, whence the ifland took its name. The chicf em- ployment of the natives is the carrying of wood, and the making of light boats, which they fell at Mindora, Caleleya, Balayan, and other places. They firft make one very large, without any deck, and not nailed, but fewed together with Indian canes, and then others lefs and lefs, one within ano- ther, and thus they tranfport them 100 leagues. The peo- ple paint themfelves ; they are warlike, and excellent failors ; and if a boat be overfet, they leap into the water and imme- diately turn it. Apprehending fuch accidents, they carry their provitions in their hollow canes clofely ftopped, and tied to the fides of the boats. Their habit ts only a waiit- coat, which reaches down to the knees. The women are of a mafeuline fize, and apply themfeclves as much as the men to tillage and fifhing, They are modeftly clad in a coat or jerkin, and along mantle. ‘lheir hair is tied on the crown of the head, forming a knot like a rofe. On the forehead they wear a plate of gold two fingers’ broad, lined with taffeta; in their ears three gold pendants. On their ancles they have rings, which make a tinkling noife as they move. CATANGIUS Sinus, in Ancient Geography, a gulf of Afia Minor, in the Thracian Bofphorus. CATANHEDE, in Geography, a town of Portugal, in the province of Beira. CATANI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Afia, in the vicinity of the Cafpian Sea, according to Pliny. CATANIA, or Caranea, the ancient Catana, a town of Sicily, in the valley of Noto, near the foot of mount Etna. This city has frequently fuffered in ancient and modern times, from the eruptions of this mountain. See /Erna and Carana. The materials of which the modern city is built are fuch as might be expected in a volcanized country, where {tones of any other than a volcanic nature are not to be found but at a confiderable diftance. The edifices, both public and private, and even the walls of the city, are principally of lava; which has furnifhed materials not only for the modern Catania, but alfo for the more ancient city, which was entirely dettroyed by an earthquake in the year 1693: at leaft its ruins, when dug up, have all been found to conlilt ef lava. ‘Thole who have taken a view of the furface of the territory of Catana have every where met with immenfe accumulations of lava; among which the moft confpicuous are the remains of that torrent which, burfting from one of the fides of dltna in 1669, inundated a fpace 14 miles in length, and nearly four in breadth, rofe over the walls of Catania, burying under it a part of the city, and at length precipitated itielf into the fea. The prince of Bifcaris has employed great labour and expence in digging downto the ruins. We defcendcd, fays Mr. Swinburne, mto baths, fepulchres, an amphitheatre, and a theatre, all much injured by the catatlrophes that have befallen them. ‘Chey were ere&ted on old beds of lava, and eve built with {quare pieces of the fame fub- {tance, which in no inltance appears to have been fuled by the contact of new lavas. ‘Lhe {ciarra, or ftones of cold lavay CG AT lava, have conftantly proved as ftrong a barrier againit the flowing torrent of fire, as any other {tone could have been, though fome authors are of opinion, that the hot matter would melt the old mafs, and incorporate with it. Nothing lefs than the fertility of its territory could have infpired the inhabitants with the courage, or rather the obftinacy, to build and rebuild in a fituation which derives no advantage from the fea; which is without a river and without fortifi- cations; expofed to all forts of natural misfortunes, aud continually threatered with the dreadful calamities which have already proved fo deftruétive. And yet in the courle of the latt century it has revived with great fplendour, and when all the houfes are-finifhed, it will be a very handfome city. In the progrefs of its improvement it has acquired more the features of a metropolis and royal refidence than Palermo. Its principal flreets are long, flraight, and wide, and well paved with lava ; but they are fo difpofed, that in the middle of the day this burning town is totally without fhade, and almolt impaflable. If its wealthy inhabitants had poffeffed a greater degree of talle; if, inftead of huge pa- laces, and large churches of an obfolete and fanciful archi- teéture, the buildings had been ereéted in a fimple and noble ityle, Catania might have been one of the molt magnificent cities in the kingdom of Naples. The market-place, how- ever, is not without beauty; it is a {quare cut off at the angles, and decorated with arches fupported by marble columns. ‘In the centre of the great {quare formed by the town-hall, feminary, and cathedral, are two antique frag- ments, very happily grouped: they conlilt in a part of an Egyptian obelifk of granite, with hieroglyphic characters ; placed on the back of an elephant formed of lava, the an- cient fymbol of Catania. ‘The cathedral ereéted by the - abbot Angerius in 1094, and endowed by earl Roger with the territories of Catania and /Etna, has fuffered fo much by earthquakes, that little of the original ftru€ture remains, and the modern parts have hardly any thing, except their materials, to recommend them. The other religious edifices of the city are profufely ornamented, but in a bad tafte. The Benediétine convent of St. Nicholas is the largeft be- longing to that or any other religious order. Every part has been rbuilt fince the earthquake of 1693. The church ds a noble fabric, though it has many defeéts in the defign and execution ; and is accounted the largeft in Sicily. The organ, conttruéted by a Neapolitan prielt, is much elteemed by connoiffeurs in mufical inftruments. The tones of all forts of wind and {ringed inftruments are imitated by it with the molt perfeét illufion. One wing of the monattery is appro- priated to a confiderable mufeum of antiquity and natural hiftory. This mufeum is magnificent, and amid{t a variety of trifling objeéts it contains fome utenfils in bronze, of as perfect purity and beauty as thofe of the cabinet of Portici, earthen vafes of a molt elegant form, and very curions lamps. The prince of Bifcaris, to whom the modern Catania is in- debted for many of its improvements, has alfo formed a very magnificent mufeum. His collection confilts of fpecimens of the-molt curious fubjects in antiquity which Catania and Sicily produce 5 fuch as the remains of architecture, Mofaic ornaments, Roman and Grecian materials for building ; {culp- ture, among which, a fingle coloal Torfo, found at Catania, may be ranked with the mott beautiful pieces of antiquity ; a colle@ion of earthen vafes, peculiarly valuable for the number, the forms, and prefervation of the figures repre- fented on them; another of antique bronzes; the natural hiftory of marine productions, plants, fhells, and fifhes ; and the produGions of the earth, fuch as minerals, vegetables, volcanic matters, marbles, precious {tones, and animals :— the whole arranged in an order which exhibits fcience, € AT tafte, and indufiry. You fee likewife in this mufeum @ feries of arms, armour, and fingular coftumes. In this city there is alfo a third mufeum, the poffeffor and founder of which is the chevalier ‘Gioeni;’ the valuable contents of which are enumerated by Spallanzani. One of the greateft curiofities at Catania is the Villa Sciarra, belonging to the prince of Bifcaris. Upon the biack impenetrable furface of the lava, which iffued from /Etna in 1669, this prince has laid the plan of a garden, built houfes, planted trees in foil brought hither from other places, and formed two large ponds of freth water, fupplied by {prings that ooze through the lava. The pools of the Villa are ftocked with fith and water-fowl, and are preferved from the fury of the neigh- bouring fea by a ftrong pier, which is the only feparation between the falt and frefh water. The number of public edifices that are crowded together in fo {mall a fpace, has left little room for the houfes of in- dividuals ; and from this circumftance it has been inferred, that Catania has been embellifhed at different periods, or that the private houfes were extremely {mall in comparifon with the public buildings ; or that the ancient city was more ornamented than extenfive, and, confequently, more rich than populous. The modern town is fomewhat of the fame kind. Although its population be eflimated at 20 or 30,000, and by the Catanians themfelves at double this number, yet nothing is feen in the ftreets but convents, churches, and palaces, feparated by a few private houfes. Catania is the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of Monreal, whofe revenues are very confiderable ; 20col. fterling per annum being derived, as it is faid, from the fale of fnow colle@ed on mount /Etna, “This city has alfo an univerfity, the only one in the ifland, and the nurfery of all the lawyers. N. let. 37% ge 1 lang 3 52. a0 Swinburne’s Travels, vol. iv. one’s Travels, vol. i. Spallanzani’, vol. i. The News Travels. 2 ; ciggailt aod CATANIDIS Promontorium, in Ancient Geography, a promontory of Afia Minor, in the vicinity of the ifle of Leby towards the Arginufe iflands, according to Diodorus iculus. CATANII, a people of Arabia Deferta. a ssabiaticies a a people placed by Prolemy in Arabia Telix. CATANZARO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in the province of Calabria Ultra, the feat of a governor and tri- bunal of juflice, the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of Reggio. It is fituate on a mountain, and bas manufa@ures of ‘filk velvets and cottons. ‘This town was built in 963 by order of the emperor Nicephorus Phocas, as a poft of ftrength againit the Saracens, to which its fituation on an emivence in the pafs between the mountains and fea, adapted it Th 1593 it attained to the dignity of capital, formerly the right of Reggio. It contains 12,000 inhabitants, who live by the law, and the fale of corn, filk, and oil. ‘The college of the late Jefuits is a handfome building, and poflifesa good flatue of St. Ignatius, by Fonfeca, and a very fine piciure repre- feating St. Bruno diltributing bread to the poor; aH N.E. of Squillace. N. lat. 38° 58’. E. long. ecotcs es CATAO, a town of Afia, in ‘Thibets 15 miles W.S.W. of Yolotou. pik PP é CAT AONIA, in Ancient Geography, a province of Afia in Armenia Minor, between Taurus and Antitaurus. Sieshs places this province in Cappadocia, becaufe Armenia Minor once made a part of Cappadocia ; and he fays that Ariara- thes I. king of Cappadocia, joined Cataonia to Cappadoci It is fituated to the north of Cilicia Campeftris, Re eB mt 2 from the N.E. to the S.W. by the Sarus. The two prin cipal towns were Tariana and Comana Cappadocica. oT he Pyramus CAT Pyramus had its fource in the mountains of the eaftern art. : CATAPAN, or Caripan, a name the later Greeks, about the twelfth century, gave the governor of their do- minions in Italy. - Ughelius and others fay, catapan was the fame with capi- taneus ; formed from it by metathefis, or tranfpofition : others derive it from xara, juxta, and ws, omne ; in which fenfe, catapan was a governor-general, or magiltrate, who had the direction of all: others will have it derived from xr movroupeTop, that is, next after the emperor. In which fenfe, catapaa was a fecond matter, fecundus dominus. Du- Cange derives it from xxrereos, captain ; which the Greeks applied to every governor, and even every man of quality. CATAPELTA, an inftrument of punifhment, in ufe among the ancients. It confifted of a kind of prefs, com- pofed of planks, between which the criminal was crufhed to death.. CATAPELTA, in Ancient Writers, more frequently written catapulta, which fee. CATAPHONICS, in Mufic, fynonymous with cata- couftics, which fee. . CATAPHORA, ina themeof the heavens, anappellation given to the houfes falling from the third, fixth, ninth, and twelfth angles. In which fenfe the word ftands oppofed to anaphora. Carapuora, in Medicine, a term formerly ufed to denote a variety of lethargy, or coma, with which it may be confi- dered as nearly fynonymous. It fignified a lefler degree of fopor than the term Carus (which fee), or a leffer approach to the ftate of complete apoplexy. But thefe diltinétions are now difcarded as ufelefs, fince the nature, caufes, and treatment of all muft be fimilar ; they are not different dif- eafes, but only different degrees of the fame difeafe. Sauvages defines the cataphora, ‘ Status fomnolentus facile excitabi- lis, fine febre, delirio, et oblivione.”? Nofol. Meth. clafs vi. ord. v. CATAPHRACTA, from xara, and ¢paccw, I fortify, or arm, in the Ancient Military Art, a cuirafs, or heavy de- fenfive armour, compofed of {heets or links of iron, fo cu- rioufly faftened and arranged on ftrong cloth or leather, l:ke plumes, that they preferved the fame appearance in all mo~ tions, and left no part of the body expofed. It was for- merly ufed fometimes both by infantry and cavalry, and when by the latter, it was generally made to cover the horfe as well as his rider. It was anciently ufed by the Pertians, Sarmatians, and others. It was frequently made to cover only the breaft. The Romans adopted it early for their foot, and, according to Vegetius, retained the ufe of it till the time of Gratian, when the Roman difcipline becoming greatly relaxed, and. military exercifes with laborious duty being chiefly difcontinued, their foot thought the cata- phraéta, as well.as the helmet, too great a load for them to carry, and therefore threw both afide. But he tells us, that by thus leaving their brealts and heads expofed and unpro- . teGted, they were, when fighting againtt the Goths, fre- quently deftroyed by the multitude of the archers of thofe barbarians. And he very emphatically obferves, that whilit they declined military fatigue, and the trouble of carrying armour fuflicient for their protection, they were in a mott difgraceful manner killed like fheep. Hence it would ap- pear, that the Romans were overcome chiefly by the bow, after they laid afide their defenfive armour. His words are the following: ** Licet exemplo Gotthorum et Alanorum, Hunnorumque equitum arma profecerint pedites tamen conftat effe nudatos. Ab urbe enim condita ufque ad tempus C Ast D. Gratiani, et cataphraGtis et galeis muniebatur pedettris exercitus. Sed cum campettris exercitatio, interveniente negligentia defidiaque ceffaret, gravia videri arma coeperunt, quz raro utique milites induebant. Itaque ab imperatore potlulant, primo cataphraGtas, deinde caffides deponere ; fic deteGtis pectoribus et capitibus, congrefli contra Gotthos milites noftri, multitudine fagittariorum fepe deleti funt ; nec poft tot clades, que ufque ad tantarum urbium excidia pervenerunt, cuiquam cure fuit, vel cataphractas vel galeas pedettribus reddere. Ita fit, ut non de pugna, fed de fuga cogitent, qui in acie nudi exponuntur ad vulnera. Quid enim pedes fagittarius fine cataphraGa, fine galea, qui cum arcu feutum tenere non potett, faciat? Quid ipfi draconarii atque figniferi, qui finiftra manu haltas gubernant, in preelio facient, quorum et capita nuda efle conttat, et pectora? Sed gravis pediti lorica videtur, et galea fortafle, raro meditanti arma raro tractanti. Caterum quotidianus ufus non laborat, etiam fi onerofa geftaverit. Sed illi quilaborem in portandis veteribus munimentis armorum, ferre nen poffint, detectis corporibus et vulnera fuftinere coguntur et mortes; et, quod eft gravius (et turpius) aut capi, aut certe faga rempublicam prodere. Sic dum exercitium laboremque declinant, cum maximo dedecore trucidantur ut pecudes.” In this paflage Vegetius afcribes the fuccefs of the Goths againft the Romans without their defenfive armour chiefly to the great multitude of their archers. Even in the defence of modern fortifica- tions there are fituations in which we are convinced the bow and the arrow would have greatly the advantage of the muf= quet and bayonet, as in cafemated galleries, in the counter- {carps of ditches, &c. where mufquetry foon becomes ufelefs on account of the {moke. And were it neceflary to defend fuch a very inclofed country as this, many occurrences might arife, in which a certain number of good archers might be of more real ufe for the purpofes of defence than thrice the num- ber of our beft mufquetry. Tacitus, Hilt. lib. i. cap. 79. Veget. de Re Mil. lib. 1. cap. 20. Carapuracta, among Surgeons, denotes a bandage of the thorax; thus denominated from its refemblance to a Roman brealt-plate, called cataphratta. See Ban- DAGE. CATAPHRACT SE Naves, veffels armed and covered in fight, fo that they could not be ealily damaged by the enemy. ‘Chey were covered over with boards or planks, on which the foldiers were placed to defend them: the rowers fitting underneath, thus ikreened from the enemies’ weapons. . CATAPHRACTI, or Carapuractaru, perfons fe- cured with cataphraéte. The term, however, is molt com- monly employed to denote an ancient fpecies of cuirafliers, or horfemen, covered completely, as well as their horfes, with fuch armour as is defcribed in the article Cataphraéta, which fee. The Perfians made ufe of fuch cavalry; after them the Greeks ;:and then the Latins. Antiochus had 3000 of them when he marched againit Scipio Afiaticus. Andas the Romans copicd after the Greeks, notwithftanding their hatred of them, in things they thought ufeful and advan- tageous, there 1s every reafon to fuppofe that they-borrowed from them that inftitution. ‘The lame meaning is affixed to the term Crapellarii. CATAPHRACTUS, in Zoology. Cararnractus Pogge, in Ichihyology. Cataphraédus. CATAPHRYGIANS, in Leclefaflical Hiflory, a fe& in the fecond century, fo called as being of the country of Phrygia. They were orthodox in every thing, fetting afide this, that they took Montanus for a prophet, and Prifcilla and See Dasyrus. See Corrus CA Th find Maxitnilla for true propheteffes, to be confu.ited in every thing relating to religion ; as fuppofing the Holy Spirit had abandoned the church. See Monrantst. CATAPLASM, in Surgery, a poultice, or external ap- plication of a pulpy confiltence, more or lefs compofed of fubftances poflefling a medicinal quality, and thence denomi- nated autifeptic, emollient, cifcutient, anodyne, aftringent, {limulating, maturating, repellent, &c. Cataplafms have their name from xalux272¢», illino, to {pread or befmear ; and are therefore always fuppofed to be fomewhat coherent or tenacious. They ufually confit of farinaccous ingredients or mucila- ginous vegetable matters, which are mingled with gums, bal- fams, refins, eggs, honey, &c. and foftened by the addition of vinegar, water, or milk, and generally applied warm. I=gno- rance and caprice, however, have introduced a vatt farrago of fub{tances into compofitions of this clafs ; but jadicious and experienced furgeons have limited them very conliderably, and much fimplified the form of their cataplaims. The practitioner who keeps in mind the particular object he has in view, whether to communicate heat, cold, moifture, or fome peculiar medicinal virtue, will not be ata lofs to find appropriate materials for his purpofe ; in the Pharmacope@a Chirurgica of Mr. Houlfton are contained many formularies of this nature, adapted to various occafions. CATAPOTIA, from xerux02, [/wallow, dry medicines, in a form fit to be {wallowed whole ; otherwife called pills. CATAPPA, in Botany, Rumph. Gert. See TERMI- NALIA. CATAPTELEA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia Minor, in Bithynia, feated on the Euxine fea. CATAPULTA, from xaze and 7, in Ancient Mili- tary Language. Much diverfity of opinion has exifled among modern writers, in regard to the catapulta and bali/ia 5 fome reprefenting the former as having been employed to throw ftones and bullets, and the latter to throw arrows, darts, javelins, pointed poles, &c. 5 others reveriing thefe ap- plications of them ; whilft fome contend that each of them was made ufe of for both purpofes. The chevalier de Fo- lard, whom many of the French writers have fc llowed on this fubjet, in his * Traité de l'Attaque et de la Defence des Places des Anciens,’’ {peaks of thefe machines in the follow- ing words. “ Polybe dit formellement par tout, oui il parle de ces deux machines (la balifte et la catapulte) que la baliite jettoit des durds, et la catapulte des pierres.”” *¢La catapulte, comme la balifte, avoit ditférens noms. Les Grecs l’ont appellée d’une fagon, et les Romains d’une autre, chaque nation comme il lui a pli, Cefar l’appeile tantot catapulte, tantot onager, onagre. 4ucs Grees de la moienne antiquité )’appellent tantot Pun tantot l’autre, jamais machine n’a fouffert tant de differens noms. J’er pourrois compter une douzaine tout au moins, qui ont couru toutes les nations. Je confens qu’on les adopte tous, mais du moins doit-on fe faire entendre dans la defcription de la_ machine: car le nom n’y fait rien, et ne change ricn a la chofe, des que nows en concevons la ftruéture et le principe du mouvement.” « Le fcorpion ne fut jamais la catapuite, comme une in- finite de commentateurs Pont cru; ce n’etoit qui la balitte: car quel rapport peut avoir la catapulte avec cet antmal ?” « Végéce dit qu’on nommois autrefois {corpion, ceque de fon tems on appelloit manubalifle; c’ett Varbalete dont on commenca a fe fervirdu tems de nos peres, ct que nous avons abandonnée depuis l’invention de nos futils, ou de nos moul- quoique cette arme, toute prevention a part, fut infini- quets, t J plus avantageule, que tic le font nos ment plus meurtriege et CAT fufils, {es coups plus certains et plus affurez, et fa force an moins égale. Wegéce prouve affez, que le feorpion etoit la balifte des anciens. Cela fe voit dans Céfar en plufieurs endroits de {es commentaires, car il emploie indifferemment ces deux termes pour fignifier la meme machine; mais il dif- tingue toujours celleci de la catapulte: Ce/far in caflris, dit Hirtins, /corpionum catapultorum magnam vim habebat.”” « Avant que d’entrer dans l’explication de notre catapulte, ou pour micux dire de celle des anciens, je crois, quele lec- teur ne fera pas faché de voir ici celle d’Ammien Marcellin, Liv. xxiii. en éclairciffant ceque nous paroit obfeur et embar- raflé dans Je texte de cet hiltorien. Cette hardieffe nous doit etre permife, lorfqu’elle ne va pas aude la des bornes raifon- ~ abies.’ His tranflation follows. «« La catapulte eft compofée de deux poutres courbes, dit cet hiftorien, qui fe joignent a leurs extremitez par deux tra- verfans. Aux deux cotez et vers le milieu de leur courbure, on pratique deex trous arrondi oppofez Vun a l'autre, et larges a proportion du poids qu’on veut jetter; c’eft dans ces deux trous que l’on fait pafler un cordage repiié en plu- fieurs tours qui paflent deffus et deffcus deux chevilles de fer qui part gent cctte efpece d’écheveau de cordes, Au milieu de ce cordage file et partagé par les deux chevilles de fer, on introduit a leur centre le bout d’une piéce de bois ou bras fait en maniére d’axe de charette. Lorfqu’il eft quef- tion de s’en fervir, l'on entortilie et l’on bande les cordes également des deux cotez; et de pcur que la force du bar- dage et des cordes entortillécs ne lache, on tient fixes les deux chevilles par‘un arrét: alors on baiffe le bras par le bout d’en haut par le moien d’un moulinet, et ce bout eft retenu par une détente; on met alors la pierre a l’extremité de ce bras qui forme un cuilleron (bowl of a fpoon). Un homme lache alors la détente d’un coup de maillet, et fait partir le bras qui pouffe la pierre d’une force extraordi- naire, parce qu’il va donner et choquer dans le plus fort de fon mouvement contre un montant, au mi.ieu duquel il ya un couffinet rampli de paille hacheée.”’ And he compliments thofe, who have written before him on the fubject, in tke following manner. ‘© S’il nous eft permis de dire librement ceque nous pen- fons, ceux qui nous ont donne de la catapulte, entre autres Lipfe, Choul, Fabretti, Perrault, n’ont rien preduit que d’imaginaire. : We fo far agree in opinion with Folard that the real and original ufe of the catapulta was to throw ftones, and that of the bali/le to throw darts, &c. But we cannot help ob- ferving, that he mifquotes Polybius in afferting that that hiftorian conitantly makes this diftinétion between thefe two machines whenever he mentions them. For at the fiege of Thebesin Phthiotis by Philip, where he makes Polybius fay there were 150 catapulte and 5 ballitz, that writer does not mention balitte at all. His words are thefe. ‘ Su2ySeres dexaramcdray paty cxutoy weriyncite TeTpoGodiney OF ceyasus SEvre A That is, 150 catapults and 25 ftone-throwing machines being colleéted or brought to- gether, he, (Philip) advanced towards Thebes. Now the dgyaroy weerg0SoAxor, as diflinguifhed from the catapulta, was not the baliita, but the oxager, which threw ftones by means of a wooden itilus, pole, or beam, and a chain or a fling fuf- pended at the end thereof for receiving the ftoncs. This -ma- chine might have been fo covitructed as to throw ftones of any fize. ‘I'he xeu ro wAxS0c sav BcAdy, and the multitnde of projectiles, which Mr. Hampton has tranflated, * darts dif. charged without intermilfion,” might lead an incavtious reader to fuppofe that there were bahfte there. from which thofe were thrown. Dui this could not have been the cafe ‘even ~. O = 2 RUb EMOTI, TEOTMATE THIS Qnoaic. GAP even according to his own tranflation of the Greek words denoting the machines, of which there were 25 diltinguithed from the 150 catapulte, and which he exprefsly calls ma- chines for throwing ftones. Folard’s affertion, then, on this point is altogether unfounded. In like-manner the words ‘x2 te:7s Toav Bedorraces rsbeSo- Aois,”” and there were three places, ftations, or batteries, for ftone-throwers, nfed by Polybius, when {peaking of the fiege of Echinus by Prilip, are without any reafon tranflated by Cafaubon ‘‘ et crant ibi tres ftationes idenee locandis ba- liftis,”” and by Mr. Hampton, ‘and in thefe (trenches) there were three batteries of balifte.” Folard.alfo roundly and unferupuloufly afferts that Julius Cefar calls the fame machine fometimes catapulta and {ome- times onager, The truth, however, is, that Cxfar does not make any mention at all of the onager. But his authority may be confidered as decifive in regard to-the ufe that was made both of the balifta and the catapulta, and the dillinc- tion, ta this refpeét, between the two machines. He men- tions the balifla only once, viz. in the fecond chap. or fec- tion of his fecond book, © De Bello civili,’”? when {peaking of the fiege of Marfeilles, by his lieutenant, C. Trebonius. His words are thefe. ** Sed tanti crant antiquitus in oppido om- nium rerum ad bellum apparatus, tantaque multitudo ter- mentorum, ut eorum vim nuile contexte vimimbus viniz fuftinere poffent. Afferes enim pedum xii cufpidibus pre- fixi, arque hi maximis: baliftis mifl per quatuor ordines cra- tium defigebantur.’”? From this paflage it is evident that even the largelt baliite were employed to throw long pointed poles, &c. and fuch like miffiles. Of the catapulta he alfo makes mention only once, which he doesin thefe words ; ‘‘ aut faxa ex catapultis latericium difcuterent,”” which chearly thew, that the catapulie were in coutradiftinion to the dalife employed for throwing floncs. 1 Vegetius doss not mention the catapulta; but he exprefs- ly tells us, that the fcorpiones were called manubalifte, or hand-balifta, in his time. They were fo called, no doubt, from fuch a machine’s being manageable by one perfon. And, befides him, Vitruvins informs us, that the fcorpio and onager were different machines, though it appears from Am- mianus Marcellinus, that the name of {corpo was alfo given to the onager. Folard taking it for granted. that the catapulta and the onager were the fame machine with different names, has tranf- lated as above a pqflage on the onager in the twenty-third book of that author in fuch a manner as to make it fue this fuppolition, What he calls his catapulte is neither the cata- pulta northe onager of the ancients. It has a large wooden itilus, pole, or beam, with a Jadle or fpoon at the end of it for holding a flone. This flilus evéry time it is let loofe and throws a ftone, ttrikes violently againtl the crofs-beam at the top, and mult foon fhacter either it or itfelf in picces, and fo fhake the other parts of the machine as to render the whole ufelefs. It has no fling or funda, which that writer exprefs- ly faysthe onager had, in thefe words. “ Summitatique ejus (itili feu temonis) unci ferret copulantur. e quibus pendet ftu- pea vel ferrea funda.”’ It isonly neceflary indeed to turn to the paflage in A. Marcellinus to be fatistied, that the cheva- lier has tranflated it very erroneoulfly, The following extract refpe€tiny the frame of the machine is from Heronis Ctefibt: Telefactiva. ** Duo ligna accipiuntur quadrata et equalia, que quatuor diapegmatibus, id eit, tran/ver/ariis, itidem equalibus con- neciuntur, ex quibus duo in extremitatibus cardines habeant, qui in ligna quadrata immiffi in exteriorem partem pertingant, ita ut in ipfarum eminentiarum foraminibus cuncoli adadi p gma totum fortiflime contineant. Extremitatibus vero quadratorum lignorum fucule, que traufverfam motum Vor. VII. CAT habeant, aptentur, in quibus fint foramina, per qua vectes trajiciantur, five ad extremitates, five in medio, per quos verfentur. Superant autem quadrata lignea ipfa diapegmata ad fuperiorem partem.’’? This author reprefents it as a ma+ chine of the crofs-bow kind with two ftraight arms, one end of each of which is faftened in the upright cordage and the other ends are joined by acord or fome other tubitance, anfwering the fame purpofe as the ftring of a bow. The catapulta was certainly of the huge crofs-bow kind, and when ufed aéted like a pellet bow. The ftand was reétan- gular and confiited of two beams placed longitudinally, and connected together with crofs beams. On or near the mid- dle of each of the fide pieces there was an upright pott erested. Thefe two potts were mortifed, or let into a {trong crofs-beam at top, paralle! to, and direétly below which there was alfo a crofs beam for upright cordage, which was {trained both above and below by means of crows put into the holes of the circular iron capitals, which had ftrong iron crofs pieces, fmootlrat top, to prevent their chafing the fame, of which there were two fets or coils {eparate and dif- tinct from each other, equally dittant from the centres of the {aid crofs beams, and paffing through the upper one, and either round picces of iron faftened to the beam below, or crofs pieces of iron in moveable capitals as in the beam above. ‘Lhe two arms forming the bow lay horizontally. The inner ends of them were inferted in the upright cordage ; and the outer ends were united by a bow-{tring which was drawn back by a windlafs or capftan at the hinder end of the machine. When the cord or other fubftance forming the bow-ftring was drawn fufliciently back, it was held by a catch and iron pin, from which, when the machine was going to be dif- charged, it was difengaged by the ftroke of a hammer or mallet. Under the bow there was a table or platform on @ fort of univerfal joint, by which it was elevated in front when neceflary and alfo moved a little to the right or left - between the upright cordage. There is now at Gibraltar a catapult, which was con- ftru@ed at the defire of the late Lord Heathfield under the direétion of that very eminent military antiquarian, the prefent General Melville. It was for throwing ftones a very little way over the edge of the rock in a particular place, where the Spaniards ufed to refort to the foot of it, and where fhells thrown from mortars could not injure or annoy them. See the drawing of the faid machine. See Se OES Tay Ee, And my Mouth fhal thew forth thy Praif. Te Deum Laudamus. We prayfe the, O Lorde, we know - lege the to be the Lorde. — fi All the earth doth worfhipp the, the Fa--ther e- - ver--laft - ing. f To the al Angels cry a - loud, the Heavens, and all the Powers therin. ————— To the Che--ru - bin, and Se - - ra - phin, con - ti - nu- - al - - ly —s 2 do erye, Ho--Jy, Ho»-ly, Ho -- ly, Lorde God of Sa--ba-- oth. CATHEDRAL SERVICE. a ee Heaven and Earth are full — of the Ma--jef-tye of thy Glo - rye. oN £ = The glo - ri - ous Com - pa - ny of the A - poft - les prayfe the. The good - - ly fel - - low - - fhip of the Prophettes, prayfe the. m The no-ble Ar-my of Martyrs prayfe the. The Ho - ly Church throughout all the World doth knowlege the. The Fa - ther of an in - fin - oN 7 -~- ite Ma--jef--tye. Thy ho--nor--a-- ble, true, and on - - lye Sonne, & vom * Al--fo the Ho-~-ly Ghoft the Comfort--er. Thou arte the Kyng of x o™ o~ Glorye, O Chrift. Thou arte the e = verlaft-- ing Sonne of the Fa - ther. = When thou tokeft up--on the to de- - li--ver Man thou dideft not 8 ee = = ij abhorre the Virgins Wombe. When thou haddeft o - vercome the —_ fharpnes of Death, thou dide&k open the Kyngdome of Heaven to all be = lievers. CATHEDRAL SERVICE. 5 Thou fittet on the right hand of God, in the Glo-rye of the Fa-ther, SN We be = lieve that thou flalt come to be our Judge. We ther -fore pray ee ee ee ee ee the, helpe thy fervauntes whom thou haft re-dcem - ed with thy pre - - ci- SN - ous bloud. Make them to be nombred wyth thy Saints in Glo - rye @isin Governe them and lift them up for e- ver.,.Day by Day we mag - ni- 1 >-fie the And we worthipp thy Name e-~-ver World wyth-out — end. © Vouchfafey O Lorde to kepe us this Day without Sinne. O Lorde have oN Mer-cy up--on us, have Mercy up--on us. O Lorde lett thy 5 oe Mer - cy lighten up -on us, as our truf is in The. O Lord £™N a —— in Thee have I trufted, lett me ne-~ ver be con ~ founded. CATHEDRAL SERVICE After the Second Leffon one of thefe that follow. Benepictus Dominus. ee ee —# | Blef - fed be the Lorde God. of If - - ra- - el | A j = _ The fame Chant re- ; ee ee ey, for he hath Vifit - - ed Blef - fe be the Lorde God -2 o_>—!_i 2 Vi - fi- ted and Re - de - med his and Redeem - ed his of People, &c. . i. lie evoeraas ae) for he hath : lo : Ba People, &c. to the end. In this manner the whole Morning and Evening Service, as it is now Chanted, is fet ; except the Litany. At this time, the plain-/ong of the Romihh church in the chants of the principal hymns and refponfes, remained nearly the fame, as may be feen in comparing the Te Deum laudamus, and other parts of the cathedral fervice, in this publicaion, with the miffals, graduals, and antiphonaria of thofe times. The chant to the Ze Deum, as publifhed by Meibomius, (Antique Muf. Aud. Sept. Amft. 1652.. Wide pref. LeGtori benevolo,) from a copy nearly as an- cient as the hymn itfelf, and another example of the fame Canto Fermo, given by Glareanus, (Dodecad. p. 110.) in 1547, correfpond exaétly with that which was retained by Marbeck, at the time of the reformation : as the mode, the dominant, and medius, are all the fame; nor is the leaft de- viation difcoverable, except where the different number of fyllables in the tranflation required it, and which afieét the melody no more, than thofe flight changes which happen in the manner or ufe of any two choirs in finging the fame chants, or even in adjufting different flanzas of any fong to the fame tune. Marbeck was admitted, in 1549, to the degree of bache- lor in mufic, at Oxford, according to Anthony Wood, (Falti Oxon.) who erroneoufly calls him James Marbeck : he is honourably mentioned by Bale, becaufe he had been perfecuted by the Catholics, and his name is omitted by Pitts, for the fame reafon. It feems as if we may fafely conclude, that the chief part of fuch portions of Scripture, or hymns of the church, as have been fet by Englith muficians to Latin words, were produced before the reformation, or, at leaft, in queen Mary’s time; that is, before the year 1558, when queen Elizabeth afcended the throne, by which time a {chool of counterpoint was formed in this country, that was equal, at leaft, to that of any other part of Europe. A reafon, however, may be affigned for the choral mufic of every At the end is the name of Joun Mersecxe. Chriftian country approaching perfetion by nearly equal ftrides. ‘ Before the reformation, as there was but one religion, there was but one kind of mufic in Europe, which was plain chant, and the difcant built upon that foundation; and as this mufic was likewife only applied to one language, the Latin, it accounts for the compolitions of Italy, France, Spain, Germany, Flanders, and England, keeping pace with each other, in ftyle and excellence. All the arts feem to have been the companions, if not- the produce, of fuc- cefsful commerce ; and they will, in general, be found to have purfued the fame courfe, which an admirable modern hiftorian has fo well. delineated: (Hiit. of Charles V. vol. i. feét. 1.) that is, liké commerce, they will be found, upon inquiry, to have appeared firft in Italy ; then in the Hanfeatic towos; next in the Netherlands; and by tranfplantation, during the 16th century, when com- merce became general, to have grown, flourifhed, matured, and diffufed their influence, in every part of Europe. If this were a place to illuftrate fuch an idea, it would be eafy to thew, that ecclefiaftical mufic, in the middle ages, was all derived from the papal chapel, and court of Rome ; that counterpoint was firlt cultivated for their ufe; that it travelled thence to the Hanfeatic towns, and the Nether- lands, where “the affluence, which flowed from fuccefsful commerce, afforded encouragement and leifure for its cuitiva- tion ; till about the middle of the 16th century, when, by the general intercourfe which traffic and the new art of printing introduced, all the improvements in harmony, which had been made in Italy and the Low Countries, were communicated to every other part of Europe; which not only itimulated the natives to adopt and imitate them, but to improve and render them more perfe&, by their own inventions and refinements. CATHE- 4 Cant CATHEDRATIC dodor, dofor cathedraticus, denotes a doétor poffeffed of a chair or fellowfhip in fome of the univerlities of Spain. They fay a cathedratic door of Salamanca, of Alcala, &c. CATHEDRATICUM, in Ecclefiaftical Writers, denotes a fum of money, amounting to two fhillings, anciently paid annually by the inferior clergy to their bifhop, or as often as he vilited his diocefe, ob honorem cathedre, 1. e. as an ar- " gument of their fubjection, and for the honour of the bifhop’s fee or cathedra. his was otherwife denominated /ynodatt- cum, and by modern writers PROCURATION. Caruepraticum alfo denotes a fum which bifhops new- ly ordained gave partly to bifhops or patriarchs, by whom they were confecrated, and partly to the clerks and notaries who officiated on the occafion. This was alfo called evSpoussxov, as being given on account of the throne, or chair, they had now obtained, and /yasdaticum, or SYNODALS. Bifhops confecrated by patriarchs or metropolitans, pro- vided their church was not worth lefs than thirty pounds of gold, were to pay a hundred folidi by way of cathedra- ticum. CATHEM, in Geography, a town of Arabia, 80 miles S. of Baffora, and 170 N. of El Catif. N. lat. 29°. E. long: RAL 3 : CATHENON. See Catrenom. CATHERETIC. See Catnezretic. CATHERINA, Sayra, in Geography, a {mall Grecian ifland, which feems to have been detached from the fouth point of the ile of Rhodes. It isa remnant of the land which joined it to another country, in like manner infulated, and which bears the name of the ifland of Scarpanto. CATHERINE, in Biography. See Catuarine. CaTHERINE, ST. in Geography, a pleafant ifland in the harbour of Sunbury, and {tate of Georgia, in North Ame- rica.—Alfo, a {mall produCtive ifland on the fouth coat of St. Domingo, 20 leagues E. of the town of St. Do- mingo. CAaTHERINE’S Town, atown of America, in the ftate of New York, and county of Ontario, fituate 3 miles S. of the S. extremity of Seneca lake. Caruexine Bay lies at the E. end of the ifland of Jer- fey, fouthward of the point fo called, and affords a good road in welterly winds. — Caruerine, Sr. Cape, lies onthe W. coaft of Africa, in S. Jat. 2° 9’, and E. long. ro® 38'. CaTHERINE’s Foreland lies in the ftraits of Maghellan, near the eaft end. N. lat. 52° 48’. W. long. 67° 50’. Catuerine’s //land, an ifland of N. America, on the coalt of Florida. N. lat. 31° 36’. W. long. 81° 41’..— A\lfo, an ifland off the coaft of Honduras. See Provipence t/land. Bee Pod Sound lies, with a {mall ifland of the fame name, on the coatt of Georgia, in N. America, in 31° 10! N. lat. Catuegine’s St. Tower, a fea-mark on the fummit of St. Catherine’s hill down, on the back of the Ifle of Wight, about 750 feet higher than high-water mark. N. lat. 50° 4’. W. long. 1° 19!. CATHERLOUGH. See Carrow. CATHETER, in Surgery, a curved tube employed for drawing off the urine, or injecting fluids into the bladder. The term xaSere is derived from xsbinus, demitto, to thruft into ; and although it fignifies a hollow inftrument, or fyphon, for the above purpofe, in the writings of Celfus, Galen, and Paulus AZgineta, this word has 2 very different meaning in Vor. VII. GAT the works of Hippocrates, who ufes it to denote a piece of twifted cotton or lint introduced into ulcers. Vide Defin. Medic. Gorrhzi. It appears from lib. vii. cap. 26. of Corn. Celfus’s furgical work, that catheters were formed at firlt of polifhed copper or brafs, though the Arabians made them of filver, lead, tin, or leather; and there can be no doubt that they were ufed by the ancients, not only for drawing off the urine, but for the purpofe of removing ob{truétions in the urethra, as we now employ dougies: this is further evident from a paf- fage in Galen, De Locis Affectis, lib. i. where he treats of caruncles in the urinary paflage. See likewife Galeni De Mcth. Med. lib. v. cap. v. It is alfo perfe@tly certain (notwith{tanding the lateclaims of Mr. Jeffe Toot, in his tra& upon the ‘ Vefice Lotura,’’) that the older furgeons were accuftomed, on various occa- fions, to inject the bladder through a catheter or cannula, precifely in the manner we adminifter an enema. Vide Pauli fEyinete, lib. vi. cap. 59. De Catheterifmo & Clyftere Velice ;” hkewife, Albucafis, lib. ii. fe&. 59. ‘* De Modo Vefice Liquorem Syringa infundendi, & de Forma Inftru- mentorum ad hoc idoneorum.’’ Gorrheus defcribes the operation of ufing the catheter as follows: ‘ KaSerngicpds ** eft adminiftrationis chirurgice ratio gua injicimus per Ca- “* theterem in veficam td quod ad ejus curationem convenit ; vel ‘‘eximimus id quod impedit ne urina reddatur, five con- “cretus intus fanguis fit, five aliud quippiam, reéto fiphone “immiflo, quem Graci xaSer¥ex vocant.” For a particu- Jar account of the ancient modes of injeGting the urinary bladder, we refer the inqnifitive reader more efpecially to the 59th feétion of Albucafis, already quoted, and to Avi- cenna, lib. ii. Fen. 19. Tra&t. 2. cap. 9. This practice was continued by feveral furgeons of the middle age, but foon afterwards appears to have been generally neglected, until it was revived by Le Dran. Although the original as well as the prefent ufe of the catheter muit neceffarily have required it to be made of a tubular form, it is ftrange that this inftrument has been defcribed by many- refpeétable French furgeons as a folid inftrument! Thus, for example, M. Sue (in his Dia. de Chir.) exprefsly fays, ‘* Mal-a-propos confond-on le ca- * théter avec la fonde: Le cathéter n'a point de cavité intéri- “ eure, mais feulement une caunelure qui regne tout le long ‘ de fa partie convexe, au lieu que le fonde eft creufe inte- * rieurment. Le premier inftrument fert a connoitre les “* pierres qui font dans la veflic, & A faire Popération de la “taille. Le fecond fert a évacuer l’urine contenue dans Ja “ veffie. Il elt vraie que, dans plufieurs cas, celui-ci peut ‘ fupplier a lautre, mais non pas le premier au fecond.”? Again he tells us, “ Le cathétérifme n’eft auitre chofe que “* Pintroduétion du cathéter dans la veffie, pour s’aflurer de “ Pexiftence d’une pierre, our faire Voperation de la taille ‘© &F non pas pour évacuer Purine; ce qui peut fe faire *¢ qu’avec la fonde.”’ In the old Trench Encyclopédie, M. Louis fays, that ** fome authors are accultomed to give the name of catheter “more particularly to a grooved found which ferves to “ condué the lithotome in the operation of cutting for the “ ftone:”? whereas, by all Englith furgeons, this inftrument is called a flaf. (See Article Lirnoromy.) The /ound is a folid fteel inftrument, without any groove: the /laff is made of the fame form and materials as the found, but is grooved on its convex fide ; andthe catheter is hollow throughout its whole extent, whatever materials it be made of. The found and the laf are always curved to the fhape of the urethra, and are inflexible ; but the catheter may be made either of a rigid or a yielding fubftance; and inthe Oo former C: A former cafe it mu alfo be curved like the found. The flexible catheters are now generally made of wove filken cylinders, covered with a coat of elaltic gum: the belt have been fabricated hitherto by M. Bernard of Paris, but they are at prefent well manufactured by Mr. Walfh of London. ‘Their fize and form vary, according to the fex or age of the pa- tient. Bernftein, in his dictionary of furgery, gives the fol- Jowing account of this inftrument, as it is fabricated in Ger- many.—‘‘ One of the moft ufeful inventions which have been made with refpeG to thefe inftruments, is to conilruct them of elaftic gum, and the merit of this invention is to be afcribed, without doubt, to Mr. Theden. (Neue Bemer- kungen u. Erfahrungen, &c. Th, ii. Berlin, 1752. pag. 143.) They were afterwards improved by a filver-{mith at Paris, of the name of Bernard, who directed not to apply the dif- folved elaftic gum to a wire-cylinder, as Mr. heden had done, but to one made of knitted filk ; and thefe catheters certainly deferve to be recommended in preference to all others. But with refpec to their price, the elaftic catheters that are prepared by prof. Pickel, (Richter’s Chirurg. Bibliothek. B. vi. p. 512.) of Wirzburg, deferve particular recommendation. ‘Thefe confit of filk cylinders plaited or worked upon a probe, and afterwards covered with the following varnifh. Three parts of white lead, minium, or fugar of lead with boiled linfeed oil, which is the common varnifh ufed by cabinet makers, mixed with one part of melted amber, and the fame quantity of oil of turpentine. With this varnifh he f{preads the filk cylinders, and repeats this three times as foon as the former coating has dried in the open air; after which he puts the catheters into a baker’s oven 24 hours, when bread has béen baked in it the laf time, and when it retains the temperature of 60°—70° Reaum. Here he lets them remain 10 or 12 hours. When he has taken the catheter out of the oven, he rubs the ine- qualities off a little with pumice flone, fews up the end, cuts into it the oblong lateral aperture, and then fpreads it 12 or 15 times more with the varnifh formerly mentioned. Every time, however, the catheter mult-be well dried in the open air before the varnifh is fpread upon it again, and after every third coating which it has received, it muft be put again into the bake-oven, fo that in all it muft have received from 15 to 18 coatings with varnifh, and have been laid five or fix times in the oven. ‘The end is fmoothed off with oil, Each of thefe catheters cofts a dollar.” The flexible catheters poffefs great advantages over thofe made of metal. For, in the firft place, they can be intro- duced: much more eafily than the metal ones, even by an un- practifed hand. 2. They may be fuffered to remain in the urethra and bladder as long as is neceffary, without occafion- ing much inconvenience. 3. There is no danger of injuring the tender furface of the urethra with them, or of pieces breaking off and remaining behind. 4. They may be ufed equally conveniently both for children and adults. Another very important ufe may be made of claltie cathe- ters in all cafes in which the introduction of nourifhment by the mouth is impeded or obftru&ed, as in wounds of the pharynx, in tetanus, hydrophobia, &c. In fuch cafes an elaftic catheter is introduced through the nofe into the afophagus, where it may be fuffered to remain without oc- eafioning any material inconvenience to the patient; and nourifhment and drink may thus be introduced through it into the patient’s ftomach. In applying the initrument, it eafily happens that the end of the tube gets mto the larynx inftead of the pharynx. This error is generally difcovered merely by the circuasftance that the flame of a candle, when held before the external aperture of the tube, is thrown into xiolent motion. — Dr, Hales defcribes a catheter of a new CAT {truGture, contrived for the more advantageous injection of li thontriptics into the bladder. Its cavity 1s divided lengthways by a thin partition into two feparate channels, which end in two divaricating branches. By one of thefe branches the menftruum is to be inje¢ted into the bladder, in the com- mon, or rather in the hydroftatical way, while it returns mixed with urine by the other. Hales, Hamaftat. p. 212. There is likewife a defcription in the Philofophical Tranf- ations, vol. xliii, p. 400, of an ingenious catheter invented by M. Le Cat, at Ronen; and other furgeons have recom- mended an inftrument made of filver-wire, flatted, and turned fpirally, fo as to be hollow and flexible. Thefe contrivances are certainly very fpecious, but they are too complex to be ufeful in ordinary practice. Concerning the introduétion of the catheter into the urinary bladder, fee the following article. CATHETERISM, is the act of paffing a catheter into the urinary bladder, with a view to draw off the urine, or to facilicate the introduction cf fluids into the bladder by means of a fyringe. . The introduétion of a flexible catheter, of elaftic gum, fuch as is in common ule among furgeons, can {carcely give any trouble; unlefs there be a confiderable ob{trution in the urethra, which may prove the occafion of infuperable difficulties. The obfervations which follow are intended chiefly to apply to the filver male catheter, which is gene- rally ufed in cafes requiring an evacuation of urine, or the injection of fome fluid into the bladder. This little opera- tion, fimple as it may appear to an inexperienced by-ftander, is, in fact, fometimes one of the molt perplexing to men of real ability, and therefore deferves the young furgeon’s par- ticular attention. “* T do not know,” fays Mr. John Bell, in his Principles, of Surgery, vol. ii. p. 209, ‘ that even’ the operation of lithotomy itfelf is more difficult than that of introducing the catheter; more iyportant it cannot be, than an opera- tion which gives relief in accidents and difficulties fo ex- tremely common and fo very affli€ting.”” The firft caufe of embarraffment in performing this operation arifes often from the incumbent pofition of the patient, which renders it neceflary (at leaft furgeons have generally thought it ne- ceflary ) to pafs the catheter with its concave part towards the abdomen. ‘This pofition, however, except in male fubjeéts requiring lithotomy, is feldom the molt eligible ; as we have found a ftanding pofture by far the moft convenient for the operator’s accommodation, provided the patient is not ex- ceedingly fat and corpulent. : Suppole the furgeon fits on a low chair, or kneels on his right knee, while the patient ftands before him, leaning againft fomething immoveable. The operator then holds the peuis with the middle finger of his left hand, and the glans with the fore finger and thumb of the fame hand chiefly in order to expofe the orifice of the urethra. ‘The handle of the catheter, previoufly oiled, he holds with his fore finger, thumb, and middle finger of the other hand, and direéts it in fuch a manner that its ftraight pofterior part is placed near the belly.of the patient, and parallel with the axis of his body ; and he thus introduces its point into the orifice of the urethra, The furgeon then draws the penis gently towards him and extends it, pufhing the catheter forwards at the fame time with the utmoft caution, till its point has arrived at the bend of the os pubis; and in order now to introduce the catheter completely into the curvature of the urethra, the operator muft fuddenly deprefs the hand, with which he holds the upper part of the catheter, towards the thighs, and thus raife up the point of the inftrument; fo that it pafles behind the pubis, into the bladder itfelf. CAT In the other method, the operator gives the catheter fuch a direction, with the hand next to the patient’s thighs, as to turn the elevated convex part of the inftrument upwards, and to place the ftraight part under the belly before the thighs ; the point of the catheter is then cautioufly intro- duced into the orifice of the urethra and the bladder, whilft the penis is fomewhat extended with the other hand. When the point of the catheter has arrived at the place where the urethra paffes under the os pubis, the operator muft turn . both the catheter and the penis, fo as to make both defcribe a femicircle: this he does by turning them towards the groin at the oppofite fide; and from hence towards the belly; in which motion the point of the catheter muft re- prefent the centre, a3 it were, round which the other parts revolve. At lait the hand with which the catheter is directed, mult be lowered a little, and the reft of the operation com- pleted in the fame manner as before. Thefe two methods of introducing the catheter, differ only in this, that in the firft the introduétion is performed at once; but in the fecond (which is conceitedly termed ‘fonder par le tour du maitre’’) it is done by two different manceuvres, and confequently the operation is unneceflarily lengthened. CATHETOLIPES, in Natural Hiflory, the name of a genus of foflils of the clafs of the //enife, but differing from the common kinds in the difpofition of the conftituent lates. The word is derived from xx$e+@-, perpendicular, and r:7155 a feale or plate, and exprefles a fet of thefe bodies whofe plates are ranged perpendicularly. All the known /elenite, except thofe of this genus, are compofed of a number of parallel plates, or thin flakes, ranged evenly horizontally on one another. / CATHETO-PLATEUS, in Jchthyology, a term with its oppofite, which is plagio-plateus, very much ufed by Ar- tedi, in his defcription of fifhes, but not adopted by Lin- nzus, or more recent ichthyologifts ; they may be explain- ed in Englifh by the two familar words, comprefled and deprefied. The heads of fifhes are the parts principally cha- racterized by thefe terms. CATHETUS, in drchitefure, is a perpendicular line, fuppofed to pafs through the middle of a cylindrical body, as a column. Cathetus is fometimes applied to a line in the Ionic capi- tal, pafling perpendicularly through the eye or centre of the volute. This is otherwife called the axis of the volute, which fee. Caruetus, in Botany, Loureiro ; Flor. Cochinch. Clafs and order, diacia monandria. Gen. Ch. Male. Ca/. Leaves fix, almoft round, con- cave; three outer ones f{maller. Cor. none. Ned&. fix two- lobed glands. Stam. [Filament one, fhort ; anthers three, oval. Female. Calyx fix-cleft ; fegments roundifh, con- cave. Cor. none. Pif, germ fuperior; ftyle thick ; ftigma trifid. Peric. capfule compreffed, roundifh, fix-lobed, three- celled. Seeds angular, two in each cell. A fhrub. Leaves fafcicled, fmall, oval, entire, flat, {mooth. Flowers axillary, folitary, very fmall. A native of Cochinchina. Catuetus, in Geometry, a perpendicular, or a line, or radius, falling perpendicularly on another line, or fur- face. Thus, the catheti of a right-angled triangle, are the two fides that include the right angle Caruetus of incidence, in Catoptrics, is aright line drawn from a radiant point, perpendicular to the refle&ting line, or the plane of the fpeculum, or mirror. Catuetus of reflexion, or of the cye, a right line drawn CACY from the eye, or from any point of a reflected ray, perpen dicular to the plane of reflexion, or of the fpeculum. See REFLEXION. CATHMANDU, or Catmannu, in Geography, the capital of an independent kingdom in the kingdom of Nepal or Nepaul, in Hindooftan, fituate to the northward of the plain of Nepal, 105 geographical miles N. of Maifly, that is, in N. lat. 28° 6’. This city contains about 18,000 houfes; and the kingdom extends, from fouth to north, to the diftance of 12 or 13 days’ journey, as far as the borders of Tibet, and it is almoft as extenfive from eaft to weft. The king of Cathmandu has always about 50,000 foldiers in his fervice. ‘T'o the eaftward of Cathmandu, at the diftance of two or three miles, is a place called “ Tolu,’’? by which flows a {mall river, the water of which is efteemed holy, ac- cording to the fuperiftitious ideas of the inhabitants ; and thither they carry perfons of high rank, when they are thought to be at the point of death. At this place isa temple, which is not inferior to the beft and richeit in any of the capital cities. They have alfo a tradition, that at Tolu, as well as two or three other places in Nepal, valuable treafures are concealed under ground; but no one is per- mitted to make ufe of them, except the king, and that only in cafes of neceffity. Thefe treafures, it is faid, have been thus accnmulated: when any temple had become very rich from the offerings of the people, it was deftroyed, and deep vaults dug under ground, one above another, in which the gold, filver, gilt copper, jewels, and every thing of value were depofited. At Cathmandu, on one fide of the royal gar- den, there is a large fountain, in which is one of their idols, called * Narayan.”’ ‘I'his idol is of blue ftone, crowned, and flecping on a mattrefs of the fame kind of {tone ; and both the idol and the mattrefs appear, as if they floated upon the water. This ftone machine is very large, about 18 or 20 feet long, and proportionably broad, but well wrought and in good repair. In a wall of the royal palace, there is a ftone of a fingle piece, about 15 feet long, and four or five feet thick, on the top of which are four fquare holes at equal diftances from each other. On the infide of the wall they pour wa- ter into the holes, and on the court-fide, each hole having a clofed canal, every perfon may draw water to drink. At the foot of the ftone is a large ladder, by which people af- cend to drink ; but the curiofity of the ftone confifts in its being quite covered with characters of different languages cut upon it. Some lines contain the characters of the lan- guage of the country; others, the characters of Tibet; others, Perfian; others, Greek ; befides feveral others of dife ferent nations: and in the middle there is a line of Roman characters; but none of the inhabitants know how they came there, nor do they know whether or not any Euro- pean had ever been in Nepal before the miffionaries, who arrived there in the beginning of the laft century. They are manifeftly two French names of feafons, with an Englifh word between them. To the northward of the city of Cathmandu is a hill called « Simbi,’? upon which are fome tombs of the Lamas of Tibet, and other people of high rank of the fame nation. The monuments are conftructed in various forms; two or three of them are pyramidal, very high and well ornamented. Round them are remarkable {tones covered with chara&ters, which prebably are the in- {criptions of fome of the inhabitants of Tibet, whofe bones were interred there. The natives of Nepal regard the hill as facred; and conceive that it is prote¢ted by their idols ; and, therefore, they never {tation troops there for its defence, although it is a pott of great importance, and only at a fhort mile’s diftance from the city. Adjoining to the tomb they Q2 have C.A 7 have found, in digging, confiderable pieces of gold, with a quantity of which metal the corpfes of the grandees of Ti- bet are always interred. Afiatic Refearches, vol.it. p. 3075 &c. See NrepAt. CATHOLIC, from xox, and ores, whole, denotes a thing that is nniverfal, or general. Some have faid, that Theo- dofius the Great’ firft introduced the term catholic into the church ; appointing by an ediGt, that the title fhould be ap- plied, by way of pre-eminence, to thofe churches which ad- hered to the council ‘of Nice, in exclufion of the Arians, &c.—Catholicifm, however, foon changed hands ; for under the emperor Conftantius, Arianifm became fo predominant, that the Arians were called the catholics. But the term was ufed much more anciently, as by Polycarp and Ignatius. “ Ubi fuerit Jefus Chriftus, (fays the latter) ibi eft ecclefia catholica.”? The Romifh church now aflumes the diftin- guifhing appellation of the catholic church. See Cuurcu. The term catholic, or Roman catholic, is now fanétioned by law (fee the title to the act of 31 Geo. III., c. 32.) as well as by common ufage, co denote the religion formerly called Popery, and the profeffors of it ufually denominated Papi/ls. See Papists and Porery. Catuoric Lpifiles, in Biblical Hiftory, a denomination given to feven epiftles of the New Teltament, fignifying univerfal or general, becaufe they are rot written to the believers. of fome one city, or country, or to particular per- fons, as St. Paul’s epiftles are, but to Chrillians in general, or to Chriftians of feveral countries. This is the cafe of five, or the greater part of them, with which the two others are joined. When the firft epiftle of Peter, and the firft of St. John, were called catholic by the mott early Chriftian writers, the two {maller of St. John were unknown, or not generally received. The antiquity of this denomination is eafily afcertained. They. were fo called in the time of Eu- febius (HL E. 1. ji. c. 23. 1. vi. c..14), and, probably, before. Of this fact we have good proof. For St. John’s firft epil- tle is feveral times called a catholic epiltle by Origen in his remaining Greek works, as well as in others. Itis likewife fo called feveral times by Dionyfius, bifhop of Alexandria. Athanafius, Epiphanius, and later Greek writers received feven epiftles, which they called catholic. They are fo ealled likewife by Jerom. The epiftles bearing this appel- lation are, one of James, two of Peter, three of John, and one of Jude; but they are recited in a different order by ancient authors. Of thefe epiftles two only, viz. the firtt of St. Peter, and the firft of St. John, were univerfally re- ceived in the time of Eufebius; though the reft were then well known. All the feven were received by Athanatfius, Epiphanius, Jerom, Auguftine, and many other writers. Hewever, the Syrian churches received only three of thefe epiltles ; nor does it appear, that more were received by Chryfoftom or Theodoret. Thefe epiftles were alfo called canonical by Caffiodorus, about the middle of the fixth cen- tury, and by the writers of the prologue to thefe epiftles, afcribed (erroneoufly) to Jerom. The propriety of this latter appellation is not fatisfactorily afcertained. Du Pin fays, that fome Latins have called thefe epiltles canonical, either confounding the name with catholic, or alfo to denote, that they alfo are a part of the canon of the books of the New Teftament. See Epistve. Catuotic furnace, is a little furnace, fo contrived, as to be fit for all kinds of operations, which do not require an intenfe fire. Caruotic hing, is a title which has long been hereditary to the king of. Spain. Mariana pretends, that Reccarede firft received this title after he had deftroyed Arianiim in his kingdom, and that it is found in the council of Toledo for C A'‘t the year 589. Vafcé afcribes the origin of it to Alphonfus in 738. Some allege that it has been ufed only fince the time of Ferdinand and Ifabella. Colombiere fays it was iven them on occafion of the expulfion of the Moors. The Bollandilts pretend, it had been borne by their predeceffors, the Vifigoth kings of Spain; and that Alexander VI. only renewed it to Ferdinand and Ifabella. Others fay, that Philip de Valois firft bore the title; which was given him after his death, by the ecclefiaftics, on account of his favour- ing their interelts. In fome epittles of the ancient popes, the title catholic is given to the kings of France, and of Jerufalem, as well as to feveral patriarchs and primates. CATHOLICA, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the province of Romagna. It derived its name from being the place whither the orthodox bifhopé retired in the year 359, after being outvoted by the Arian party, in the council of Rimini; 9 miles S.S.E. of Rimini. Caruotica, La, a town of Sicily, in the Val di Mazara, fituate in a fpacious plain open to the fea, and fhut up on the north fide by a broken theatre of mountains. It is the chief town of the diltridt. It was founded in 1612 out of feveral {mall hamlets by Francis Istar, lord of the foil, but is now poffeffed by the family of Bonanni, who take the title of princes of La Catholica.. The number of its inhabirants exceeds 7000. The prince of La Catholica derives’ from Siculiana an annual income of 14,c00 crowns. CATHOLICIANI, in Middle Age Writers, the officials or minifters of the catholici, or receivers of the taxes of a diocefe, fometimes alfo denominated Czsarians. ‘ CATHOLICON, in Pharmacy, akind of foft purgative eletary ; fo called, as being fuppofed univerfal; or a purger of all humours. Different authors give different recipes for it : that called Catholicon Nicolai was long in ufe; it confifts of fixteen in, gredients, the chief whereof are tamarinds, caffia, fena, and: rhubarb. It was called the double caiholicon, when there was,a double portion of fena.and rhubarb. ; The CatHoricon for clyfers, only differs from this, in that it had no rhubarb, and that honey was ufed in it inftead of fugar. CATHOLICUS, the title of a dignitary, or magiflrate, under the Roman emperors, who had part of the admini(tra- tion, and particularly the care and receipt of the revenues and taxes in Roman diocefes. : * The catholicus was the fame with what was denominated by the Latins procurator, and rationalis Cefaris. Such was the catholicus of the diocefe of Africa, mentioned by Eufe- bius, and other ancient writers. Catuoricus, among Lcclefiaftical Writers, an appellation given to the primates or metropolitan prelates of feveral churches in Afia, fubjeét to the fee of Antioch; but whofe jurifdi&ion and diocefes are of fuch extent that they, have affumed the title of catholici, q. d. univerfal bifkops. See PRIMATE. : CATHON, in Ancient Geography, an ifland of Greece, S. of the Peloponnefus, in the gulf of Lacedemon. CATICARDAMNA, a town of India, on this fide of the Ganges, according to Ptolemy. CATIEH, in Geography, a town of Egypt, near the coaft of the Mediterranean, 70 miles N.N.E. of Suez, and 130 miles N.E. of Cairo. N. lat. 30° 54’. E. long. 33° 30% CATIF, or Katir, Ex, a town of Arabia, in the pro- vince of Lachfa, feated on the coait of the Perfian gulf, at the diftance of about 5 German miles from the ifle_ of Bahhrein. The inhabitants earn their fubfiftence by the pearl-afhery. When any aretoo poor to fh at their own rifk C Anat rifk and expenc?, they hire their labour to ftranger-adven- turers, who refort hither in the hotter months of the year, which are the feafon for fifhing. ‘The air of this country, however, is believed to be very falutary in fummer. The ruins of an old Portuguefe fortrefs are {till to be feen near this place. It is 142 miles S. of Baffora, and 420 S. of If- pahan. N. lat. 26°20’. E. long. 48° 4’. Niebuhr’s Tra- vels, vol. ii. CATI-FONS, in Ancient Geography, a fountain from which proceeded the ftream called ‘* Aqua Petronta,” which was a river of Italy that difcharged itfelf into the Tiber. CATILINE, Lucius Sercius, in Biography, was de- fcended from the illuitrious patrician family of Sergi at Rome, but rendered infamous by a feries of debaucheries, incelts, murders, and the molt atrocious crimes. He began his licentious career at an early age, by debauching a female of diftinGtion, and afterwards marrying the daughter he had by her. He was alfo aceufed of holding a criminal inter- courfe with a vettal, the filter of Terentia, Cicero’s wife, and of murdering his own brother, whofe name he prevailed upon Sylla to infert in the h{t of proferibed perfons for the purpofe of jultifying his crime. During the fanguinary adminiftration of Sylla, he was the chief inftrument of his cruelties, and headed a band of affaffins, who dragged out of the houfes and temples perfons, whofe names were included in the lift of profcription, and cruelly murdered them in the prefence of his employer. He was alfo attive in fearching, out and affaflioating many knights and fenators, before they knew they were proferibed. As a recompence of thele favage fervices, and in confideration of his birth and brutal courage, he was advanced, by the favour of the dictator, to the principsi dignities of the ftate. Accordingly, he had been quzltor, legate in Macedonia under C. Curio, and pretor in Africa; butin all thefe employments, he had difgraced him- felf by his debaucheries and enormous oppreffions. As he had diffipated his patrimony, and was overloaded with debts notwithitanding his uncontrouled exa¢tions, he had no pro- fpect of retrieving his affairs but by the fubverfion of the ftate ; and he, therefore, feized all opportunities that oc- curred for exciting and prometing civil confufion. Upon his return from Africa, B.C. 65, he formed a confpiracy with other difcontented and turbulent perfons for murdering the confuls, Aurelius Cotta and Manlius Torquatus, toge- ther with the greateft part of the fenators, and violently feizing the government, This plot, though the execution of it was twice repeated, proved unfuccefsful, in conlequence of a miftake in the fignal on the part of Catiline; and he was therefore under a neceflity of deferring the accomplifh- ment of his purpofe to a future period. Having ftrength- ened his party by the acceffion of a great number of fenators and knights, of debauched young perfons in the city, and of old foldiers and officers of Sylla’s army, who had reduced themfelves to indigence by the profufe expenditure of all the gaius of their oppreffions, he concerted a more extentive plan for the total fubverfion of the commonwealth. With a view to the more eafy and certain execution of it, he offered him- felf a candidate for the confulfhip, and had Cicero for his competitor. In the mean while, the confpiracy of Catiline had been difcovered to Cicero by Fulvia, a woman of dif- tinction, who had difhonoured her family by a criminal cor» refpoudence with Quintus Curtius, one of the party concern- ed ; and this difeovery, though not fully authenticated, had excited fufpicions again{t Cauline, which defeated his election, and favoured that of Cicero, his avowed adverfary, A.U.C. 691, B.C. 63. Catiline, enraged by the fuccefs of his rival, determined to offer himiclf a feco: d time for the confulate, and prepared for an open rebellion, in cafe of his failure. CAT With this view he borrowed large fums of money, and en- gaged Manlius, one of Sylia’s old officers, who then refided at Fefule, to make levies of foldicrs throughout Etruria. Lucullus, however, whom Pompey had fucceeded in the Eatt, being informed of thefe holtile preparations, made a, report of them to the fenate, and aflilted the conful with all his intereft in the profecution of the traitor. Cicero alfo kept up a correfpondence with Fulvia, and had even gained over fome of the confpirators, who, purfuant to his directions, pretended to be the moft ardent promoters of the plot. By meaas of this information, he ducovered the defiyus of Ca- tiline, the various fentiments of his accomplices, their number and quality, and the general, as we.] as the private, views of each of the confpirators. By them he was informed, that on a day appointed the confpirators were to fet fire to feveral parts of the city ; and that, during the confufion and uproar, which fo yeneral a conflagration would occafion, fome were to murder the chief men of the fenate in their houfes, others to aflemble the mutinous populace, feize the Capitol, and fortify themfelves there, till Manlius fhould arrive from Etruria with his veterans. ‘Two Roman knights were ap- pointed to murder Cicero in his own houfe; but the conful, previoufly informed of every thing that had paffed in their affembly, fummoned the fenate, and boldly apprized the con- {cript fathers, in Catiline’s prefenc-, of the danger to which they were all expofed. The fenate, having been made ac- quainted with the whole plot, iffued a public decree, accord- ing to an ancient form, which had been obferved in times of national danger, ‘* that the confuls fhould take care that the republic fuflered no detriment.’? Cicero, thus invefted with ample. power, adopted every neceflary meafure for keeping in awe the principal cities in Italy, and for guarding Rome, the capital ; and the fenate, by his advice, promifed not only a pardon, but ample rewards, to any of the con/pirators, who fhonld make farther difcoveries of this deteftable at- tempt. Although the conful might, on his own knowledge, have condemned Catiline and bis accomplices to death with- out appeal, this would have been a perilovs meafure; and he thought it more advifable to induce Catiline to leave Rome, and take refuge in Manlius’s camp near Fetule. With this view he affembled the fenate, and pronounced, in: the prefence of Catiline, that motl fevere and fpirited invec- tive, ftill extant under the title of the firft oration againft Catiline, in which he lays open all his murderous defigns, af- fures him that they are fully known and guarded againit, and exhorts him to leave that city which can no longer endure his prefence. Catiline, retaining fuil poffeffion of himfelf, with an air of great plaufibility intreated the fenate not to credit the accufations of a declared enemy, who had not in Rome fo much as a houfe of his own, and who was attempt- ing to raife his own character by the defeat of a confpiracy forged by himfelf, and thus to acquire the title of defender of his country. When he proceeded to invectives againit the couful, he was interrupted by the clamours of the whole aflembly, and the fenate-houfe echoed with the names of in« cendiary, parricide, and enemy to his country. Stung with thefe reproaches, and foaming with rage, Cotiline exclaimed, “© Since you have provoked me to the utmoft, 1 will not perith alone, but will enjoy the fatisfaction of involving thofe who have [worn my ruin in the fame deftruétion with myicil.’? Having thus fpoken, he left the fenate-houfe, and accompa- nied by. about goo friends, haftened to the cump of }\anlius in the vicinity of Fetule. Here he affumed the command of the troops, together with all the enligns of a fupreme magi- ftrate, being preceded by li€tors, carrying their axes aj d fafces. The fenate, as foon as information was received of this act of open rebellion, declared Catiline and Manlius enemies of their country ; CAT country ; and gave orders, that Antonius, the affociate of Cicero in the confulfhip, fhould take the field with a pro- confular army, and that Cicero fhould continue in Rome to watch the motions of the confpirators. Some of the party, who {till remained in the city, made an attempt to attach to their caufe the ambafladors of the Allobroges, who were then at Rome, and thus to obtain affiltance from Tranfalpine Gaul; but thefe ambaffadors, by the intervention of Sanga, the proteCtor of their nation, communicated the whole affair to Cicero; and he inftru€ted them to proceed in the negocia- tion, and to obtain the draft of a written treaty, fubfcribed with the names of the confpirators. Cicero, being informed by the ambafladors when they were to leave Rome, fent pri- vately two pretors, with a fufficient number of troops, to feize them, together with the confpirators, and bring them all to Rome. The pretors faithfully executed their commif- fion ; and the ambafladors, together with Vultureius, who had undertaken to condu& them to Catiline, in order to ob- tain his ratification of the treaty, were ftopped in the way, and brought back to Rome, with all the papers which either the Allobroges or Vultureius had in their cuftody. Cicero, having thus got into his poffeflion undeniable proofs of the confpiracy, difpatched proper officers to arreft Lentulus, Gabinius, Cethegus, and Statilius, and to commit them to fafe cuftody. He then affembled the fenate, in the temp’e of Concord, laid before the affembly the proofs of the plot, and having obtained a decree for the execution of the cri- rninals ata fubfequent meeting, ordered them to be capitally punifhed. During thefe tranfations at Rome, Catiline refolved to Yead his army into Tranfalpine Gaul, where he expected very general fupport ; but he was prevented from accom- plifhing his purpofe by Q. Metellus Cefar, who, leaving Picenum, which he had guarded the laft year, pofted him- felf with three legions at the foot of the Alps, while An- tonius followed Catiline in the rear, who, kemmed in by two bodies of troops, made a retregrade march, and falling in with the proconful near Piltoria, now Piftoia in Tufcany, offered him battle. Antonius, who had formerly been of Catiline’s faGtion, appeared unwilling to engage; but his troops, infifting on being led to a¢tion, he pretended indif- polition, and devolved the command on his lieutenant Pe- treius, a veteran of tried and diftinguifhed valour. The engagement was fevere and obftinate; but at length, when Manlius and another commanding officer were killed, it ter- minated, after a long and dubious contelt, in favour of Pe- treius, who was left maiter of the field. Catiline, having lott Manlius and his affociates, during the engagement, found himfelf unable to rally the fugitives; and, therefore, deter- mining not to furvive the ruin of his party, threw himfelf into the midift of the victorious enemy, where he was found among the dead bodies of thofe whom he had flain, {till breathing, and retaining in his countenance the traces of that ferocious valour which diftinguifhed his character. Thus the Catiline confpiracy, which was detected by Ci- cero in Oégtober, was terminated in December, B.C. 63. The character of Catiline has been fufficiently deli- neated in the orations of Cicero; and his portrait is thus drawn by the ftrong pencil of Sallult: “ His powers of mind and body were extraordinary, but his difpofition bad and depraved. From his youth he took delight in civil contelts, murders, rapines, and intefline wars, and inured himfelf to the pra€tice of them. His conftitution was, be- yond credibility, patient of hunger, cold, and watchful- nefs. In temper he was daring, deceitful, capable of every kind of Simulation and diflimulation, greedy of the property of others, lavifh of his own, ardent in his defires, plaufible, CAT rather than deep, in difcourfe. His boundlefs foul always aimed at things immoderate, exceflive, and out of probabi- lity.” In after times he appears to have ferved as an ex- ample of defperate and favage treafon ; and Virgil has irre- vocably fixed his doom, iu making him the figure by whofe punifhment the regions of ‘Tartarus are difcriminated on the fhield of AEneas. « _______ et te, Catilina, minaci Pendentem fcopulo, F'uriarumque ora trementem.” En. viii. 668. « There Catiline, o’er-hung a mountain’s brow, : And fhudd’ring view’d the Furies glare below.”” Salluftt Bell. Catilin. Plutarchi Sylla, et Cicero. Orat. Anc. Un. Hil. vol. xi. vol. i. CATILLUS, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of Italy near the Tiber. CATIMARUS, in Botany, Rumph. Amb. See KLEINOvIA. CATIMBIUM, Juff. See Grossa. . CATINA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Pelopon nefus, in Arcadia. Pliny. CATINGA, in Botany, Juffieu, p. 321. Aublet Guian, tab. 203. fig. rand 2. Trees, the fru@tification of which is imperfectly known. Nat. Ord. Myrti. Calyx four-cleft. Cor. unknown. Stam. filaments numerous. Pi/?. unknown. Peric. drupe as large as an orange or citron, crowned with the very fmall calyx, fibrous within, rind thick, covered with velicles, which contain an aromatic effential oil; nut brittle, kernel reddifh, veined. Leaves moft commonly op- pofite, oval, oblong, entire, befprinkled with tranfparent points. Fruit axillary. Thefe trees grow on the banks of rivers in Guiana. There are two {pecies; oné of which bears a round, the other an elongated fruit. CATKIN, the Englith name of a {pecies of infloref= cence, called by Linnzus amentum, and improperly confi- dered by him as a fpecies of calyx. It confilts of nume- rous chaffy fcales, containing either the flamens or pittils fes parately, or very rarely both together, and ranged along a fleader ftalk, which is the common receptacle. By the older botanifts it was ftvled julus, nucamentum, and ca~ tulus. The latter term, correfponding with the Englifly catkin and the French chaton, is derived from its fancied refemblance to a cat’s tail. The amentaceous plants cons ftitute the fixteenth natural order of Linnzus in his Philo- fophia Botanica, and the fiftieth in his pofthumous Jeétures publifhed by Gifeke. In the latter work the order confifts of the following genera; falix, pepulus, platanus, floanea ? fagus, juglans, quercus, corylus, carpinus, betula, myrica, piltachia, cynomorium. Julfieu and Ventenat have alfo a natural order of the fame name which is thus divided by Juffien : 1, With hermaphrodite flowers; fothergilla, ul- mus, celtis. 2. With dioicous flowers ;' falix, populus, myrica. 3. With monoicous flowers; betula, carpinus, fa- gus, quercus, corylts, liquidambar, platanus. The three fpecies of the firft divifion have not their flowers in true cat- Ciceronis Middleton’s Life of Cicero, ‘kins ; and Ventenat obferves that, although they have fome affinity with the amentacee, they may more properly be placed in a diltin@ order. Tournefort, Boerhaave, and Royen, have alfo a clafs or order diftinguifhed by its amen- taceous flowers; a chara¢ter which the former extends to the coniferz of Juffieun ; but thefe, according to Ventenat, although in many refpeéts allied to the true amentacez, have feveral peculiar important characters which neceflarily keep them diftinét. Betides their difference in habit, the coniferz have a cylindrical embryo, furrounded by a flefhy perif- perm; CAST perm ; whereas the true amentacee have a flat embryo with- out a perifperm, shh CATLENBURG, in Geography, a town and bailiwick of Germany, in the circle of Lower Saxony, and principa- lity of Grubenhagen; 16 miles 5.5.1. of Linbeck. ’ CATLIN, among Surgeons, is a difmembring knife, for cutting off any corrupted part of a body. See Suryical Plates on Amputation. : ’ CAT-MINT, in Botany. See Nepera cataria. CATO, Marcus Porcivs, diltinguilhed by the appel- lation of « the Cenfor,”’ in Biography, was born at Tufculum in the year of Rome, 519, B.C. 2353 and was bronght up at a {mall farm near the’country of the Sabimes, pofleiled by his father, which he cultivated with his own hands. At the age of 17 years, he made his firft campaign under Fabius Maximus, when Hannibal was ravaging Italy; and five years afterwards he accompanied the fame general in his ex- pedition againft Tarentum. At the commencement of his military career, he attracted notice by his fingular fobriety, valour, attention to difcipline, and all the virtues of the an- cient Roman foldiery. On his return from the army, he joined his domettics in the culture of his {mall eltate, de- voting himfelf at his leifure hours to the ftudy of eloquence at home and to the practice of it in the adjacent cities, where he pleaded on behalf of thofe who applied to him. His talents and virtues engaged the notice of Valerius Flac- eus, who had lands contiguous to the {mall farm of Cato ; and who belonged to one of the moft noble, affluent, and powerful families of Rome. With the advice and under the promifed patronage of this rich neighbour, he determined to try his fortune at Rome, where the fuccefsful eloquence of his pleadings and the intereft of his friend laid the found- ation of his future preferment. In his goth year he ferved as military tribune in Sicily ; and he was afterwards queltor under Scipio in the African war; but difgulted with the {plendid liberality and popular manners of this great man, he came to Rome and joined with Fabius in acculing Scipio before the fenate. But though Scipio was honourably ac- quitted and continued in his command, Cato gained eftima- tion with the public for his rigid economy. Befides, his mafculine ftrain of rhetoric, which occafioned his being de- nominated the Roman Demotthenes, gave him great influ- ence in the affemblies of the people. Having pafled through the office of edile, he was appointed prator in the province of Sardinia; and in this {tation he difplayed, in a very emi- nent degree, his temperance, integrity, and rigid juttice. His predeceffors in this office had ruined the country, by extortions for fupplying the means of profufion ; whereas Cato diftinguifhed himfelf by the fimplicity of his habit, table, and equipage, and never touched a fingle farthing of the public money. At this time Sardinia abounded with ufurers, who, under a pretence of affilting private perfons with the loan of fums of money for particular occafions, ut- terly ruined them; but Cato expelled from the ifland all perfons of this defcription, In the year of Rome 558, B.C. 196, he was eleé&ted conful, in conneétion with his friend Valerius Flaccus, and the Hither Spain was affigned to him as his province. But before his departure he vigo- roufly oppofed the repeal of the Appian law, which re- {trained the propenfity of the female fex to indulge in thow and ornament; but Valerius the tribune, having carried this point againft him, which he defended with his fingle voice, he proceeded to his province, where he undertook the difci- pline of his troops confifting of new levies, and fet them an example of encountering every kindof hardfhip. His habit was always plain ; his provifions were the fame with thofe of the common foldiers; and he took part with them in the q CAT labour of forming the entrenchments of his camp. Having thus prepared his troops for contending with the natives, who, in their previous wars with the Romans and Cartha. ginians, had learned the military art, and who were naturally brave and courageous, he difmiffed his fleet, that his foldiers might folely confide in their own valour. In this war he gained feveral viGories, and by demolifhing the fortifica- tions of the towns which he captured, he completely fub- jected the province to the Roman dominion, ‘To each of the foldiers, befides the {poils, he gave a pound of filver out of the rich booty which he acquired ; and when fome of the officers exprefied their furprife at his hberality, he told them, “It is better that many of the Romans fhou.d return home with filver, than a few only with gold.” However, he appropriated to his own ufe no part of the booty; but continued to live in as frugal a manner as the meanett fol- dier. «At the clofe of the campaign, he failed back to Rome with his troops, and next year was honoured with a triumph. Notwithftanding this merited dignity, he ftill continued freely to ferve his country in the forum and the field ; and when the public fervice did not call for bis a@ive concurrence, he enjoyed the pleafures of retirement, and de- voted his hours of leifure to ftudy. In the campaign of M. Acilius Glabrio again{t Antiochus the Great in Greece, Cato ferved as a military tribunes and by his advice and af- fitance enabled the conful to force the Syrian’s {trong en- trenchments in the pafs of Thermopyle, as the Perfians had formerly done, and to oblige him to abandon Greece, and retire to Ephefus. About ten years after his confulate, viz. in the year of Rome 569, B.C. 185, he offered himfelf as a candidate for the office of Cenfor; but the known fe- verity of his character alarmed the nobles, and they fet up feven competitors again{t him ; however, the people pertifted in the choiee of Cato, and they nominated as his affociate his confular colleague, Valerius Flaccus. Many of the fe- nators, who had been guilty of fcandalous enormities, were re- jected; others were degraded on more frivolous grounds; and Cato feems to have indulged a perfonal pique againft the Cor- nelian family, by taking from Scipio A fiaticus the horfe which the public kept for him asa knight. The rigid cenfor exe- cuted his office with great feverity ; he laid a heavy tax on rich furniture, jewels, and all fuperfluities ; and by fuch popular acts, he made himfelf fo acceptable to the people, that they erected a ftatue to him in the Temple of Health. After the expiration of his cenforfhip, he merely attended his duty as a private fenator, and his advice was received wit deference and refpect. The neceffity of deftroying Car- thage was a point which he always ftrenuoufly inculcated ; and in his eftimation this neceflity feems to have been jufti- fied by the fingle circumftance, that Carthage was the in- veterate foe and rival of Rome. Cato, confidering the ori- ginal rude chara¢ter of the Romans as the ftandard of per- tection, ftrenuoufly oppofed every kind of innovation, and for a long time refifted the introduétion of Grecian letters and philofophy into Rome. To this purpofe he exerted himfelf in haftening the difmiffion of Carneades the acade- mic, and Diogenes the ftoic, who had been ferit on a public embafly from Athens. He feems, however, in his-old age, to have changed his opinion ; as he became a convert to the caufe of learning, and affiduoufly ftudied the Greek lan- guage. He became a writer himfelf, and compofed a va- nety of works, of which the principal was a Hiltory of the Roman affairs, and of the origin of all the cities of Italy, from that circumftance entitled « Origines.” A few frag- ments of the feven books which he lived to finifh, are ftill extant. - He alfo publifhed a large number of his orations, letters, a treatife on the military art, and another on rural affairs + CAT O. atairs: the latter of which ftill remains, and is ufually printed with the * Scriptores de Re Ruftica.” Cato married for his firft wife a woman of family, who was protufe in her expences and perverfe in her temper, and who therefore afforded fufficient exercife to his philofophy. By her he had a fon, whofe education he himfelf condu&ted, but he would not allow him to be taught the learning of the Greeks, alleging, that the only itudy of a Roman ought to be, how to conquer, and how to govern conquered rs. In his advanced years he was 2 widower, and not chooling to marry again, he took a young female flave to his bed, at which his fon being difpleafed, he married ‘the daughter of Salonius, who had been his fecretary ; and by her he had a fon named Salonius, who was the grandfather of Cato of Utica. The cenfor lived to an advanced age, and died in his S6th year, as fome fay, and according to others in his gif, in the year of Rome 605, B.C. 149, at the commencement of the third Punic war, which his advice very much contributed to promote. Cato was a great foldier, an eloquent orator, a learned hiftorian, and well fkilled in rural affairs; but thefe accom- plifhments were counterbalanced by great defects, and very unamiable qualities. Asa mafter, he was {tern and unfeel- ing, fo that he confidered his flaves as a fort of labouring animals, whom he wifhed to get rid of when exhautted by age and fervitude. His economy degenerated into avarice ; and though he was uncorrupt in the management of public money, he defcended to very mean and unwarrantable prac- tices to amafs a private fortune. Tor money lent he took exorbitant profits; and received even from his own male {laves a certain pecuniary confideration for the liberty of frequenting the females. He ufed to fay to his fon, that no man deferved any e!teem till he had doubled his fortune. In public he was ever extolling continence; but he in- dulged his paftimes in private with a beautiful female flave ; and it is alfo faid that he was equally faulty in the exceffive ufe of wine. nd «© Narratur et prifci Catonis, Szpe mero caluifle virtus.”” Hor. His public cenfures of private men feem fometimes to have originated from envy and perfonal pique; and thus we may account for his having been 44 times impeached, which pro- bably would not have been the cafe if he had not provoked private refentment by the unjultifiable feverity of his temper. However,-on all thefe occafions he was acquitted by the people, in whole c{timation his virtues preponderated his de- feéts and vices; fo that whilft he lived he was held in extraor- dinary veneration, and his name has defcended with honour to fucceeding generations. Cicero exhibits him inan amiable point of view, by making him the principal {peaker in his beautiful dialogue on old age, which fome have confidered as a kind of fancy-portrait, founded, however, on the real traits of the man, though foftened and embellithed. Plutarch has made him the fubjeét of one of his lives, and Cornelius Nepos, at the requeft of Atticus, wrote a particular account of him, of which a brief fketch only is extant. Plutarch, t. ii. Cicero. Livy. Corn. Nep. Anc. Un. Hilt. vol. xi. Rollin’s Rom. Hitt. vol.iv. and v. Cato, Marcus Porcius, Cato Minor of Plutarch, furnamed of Utica, from the place of his death, was great grandion to Cato the Cenfor, the fubjeé&t of the preceding article, and born about 94 years B.C. As he loft his parents at a very early age, he was brought up in the houfe of Drufus, his maternal uncle, and a man of high rank and charaGer. Whillt he was a child, he manifefted that fteadi- uefs of temper and folidity of underftanding, which were the diflinguifhing features of his chara&ter; and though his apprehenfion was flow, his memory was tenacious. His paffions, though feldom difplayed by outward figns, were durable in their influence ; and his inflexibility approached even to ftubbornnefs. However, when his reafon was con- vinced, he readily complied ; and this was found by the in- ftructors of his youth to be the only method for fecuring his obedience. Of his firm and unyielding temper, when he was an infant, Plutarch mentions a fingular inftance. The Ita- lian allies of Rome having demanded admiffion to the right of citizenfhip, Pompedius Silo, one of their deputies for urging this claim, was a gueft at the houfe of Drufus, and in a jocole manner afked young Cato to recommend his fuit to his uncle. The child was filent; but exprefled by his looks and an air of diflike in his countenance, that he would not comply with the wifhes of Pompedius. Pompedius re- newed his folicitations, but was unable to prevail. At length he took up the infant Cato in his arms, and carrying him to the window, threatened to let him fall out of it if he perfifted in his refufal. But fear was equally unavailing with intreaty. Pompedius, on letting him down in the room, exclaimed, ‘* What an happinefs it is for Italy, that thou art but a child! For if thou wert at age, we fhould not have a fingle vote.” Atthe age of 14, Cato was introduced by his tutor, Sarpedon, to the houfe of Sylla, the dictator, which, on account of the profcriptions and cruelties of this tyrant, was a fcene of torture and of blood. When the youth ob- ferved the heads of feveral noble vigtims that had been mur- dered carried out, and the bye-ftanders fecretly fighing on account of the horrid fpetacle, he afked his tutor, why nobody killed fuchatyrant. ‘¢ It is,” replied he, ‘ becaufe he is ftill more feared than hated.’’ Cato exclaimed, ‘* Give me a {word, that I may kill him, and deliver my country from flavery.”? He uttered thefe words with a tone of voice and an afpect that made his tutor tremble ; and from this time he was very watchful of his pupil, left he fhould at- tempt fome rafh and daring action. Notwithftanding the firmnefs and intrepidity of Cato’s temper, he was not unfuiceptible of tender emotions, nor deftitute of kind affections. His love to his brother Czpio was manifefted on a variety of occafions, whillt he lived ; and when he died, grief feemed to triumph over all his philofophy. He fhed many tears whilft he embraced the dead body ; for fome time he indulged deje&tion and melancholy, and ex- pended great fums in his funeral, and in erecting a monument of coftly marble in the forum of Enus, a town of Thrace, where he died, nor did he quit his afhes till he brought them into Italy. But though he was led by fraternal affeGion to incur this expence, and though in his maturer years he re- ceived a confiderable fum of money from his fhare of the pa- — ternal eftate, the habits of his life were fimple and frugal, and he cultivated the manners of a philofopher rather than thofe of a young patrician. The courfe of his ftudies was adapted tb his peculiar temper; and the principles of the Stoic philofophy, which he affiduoufly cultivated, under Antipater of Tyre, habitually influenced his judgment, dif- pofition, and condu&. With a view of being better qualified for defending the caufe and claims of juftice, and enforcing wife and falutary counfels, he ttudied eloquence; but his eloquence was altogether deftitute of artificial ornaments ; it was fimple and grave, and occafionally intermixed with dry humour and farcafm. »Cato not only cultivated his mind; but he inured himfelf to bodily exercife, and to every kind of fatigue and hardfhip, in order to acquire that corporeal itrength and that firm tone of nerves which were fuited to his mental difpofition, and which would qualify him for the various a¢tive fervices to which he de- -3 yoted ee CATO. eoted his life. He was alfo diftinguifhed by his felf-denial and temperance ; and he avoided every kind of luxury in drefs and in diet, which began very much to prevail among his countrymen. He has been charged, however, with occa- fional excefs in the ufe of wine; and his advocates have found it difficult altogether to exonerate him from the charge of drunkennefs. The charge was ftrongly urged by ‘Cexfar, who may be confidered as an enemy ; but as he was ' vegarded by all Rome.as a model of private as well as public virtue, and peculiarly diltinguifhed for his temperance, we may inferthat his conduét in this refpe& muft have been ma- licioufly exaggerated. Cicero, in his defence of him again{t Memmius, who accufed him of pafling whole nights ‘in drinking, could only allege, that he could not reproach him with pafling whole days at dice; and Seneca, his extrava- gant panegynit, very abfurdly fays, “* that it is more eafy to make drunkennefs a virtue than Cato vicious.”” In his drefs he alfo affected fingularity, and feemed to glory in counteracting the tafte and fafhion of the age in which he dived. We may alfo add, that he blended with that great- nefs of foul and conftancy, which have been juftly admired, a degree of haughtinefs and contempt for others, attributable perhaps to the principles of his philofophy, which in a de- gree degraded his general charaéter and rendered it lefs amiable. After all the allowances which truth and candour are conftrained to admit in forming a general eftimate of his charaGter, Cato has been jultly confidered as one of the moft virtuous Pagans that ever lived. Cato acquired from in- heritance an ample fortune ; which he employed very differ- ently from his anceftor, the Cenfor, in loans and gifts among his friends, without recurring to ufury for its increafe. Dif- appointed in his firft views of a matrimonial nature, by the rior claims of Metellus Scipio, he formed a connection of this kind with Atilia, the daughter of Soranus, whom he repudiated for her infidelity, after having had two children by her. The firft military fervice of Cato wasin the “ fer- vile war,”? under the conful Gellius, againft Spartacus; on which occalion his conduct was fo much approved by his general, that he offered him fome military rewards, which he declined, alleging, that he had done nothing that deferved fuch honours. Soon after he obtained a tribune’s commif- fion, with which he was fent tothe army in Macedonia under Rubrius. ‘This general gave him the command of a legion, which became, in confequence of his fedulous attention to the morals as well as the difcipline of his men, the moft orderly as wellas the moft martial in the fervice. It was at this time that his brother Czpio died. When the term of his tribunitian fervice expired, he made the tour of Afa, without burdening the allies of Rome, which was too fre- quently done by the journies of Romans of diftin@ion. At Ephefus he was introduced to Pompey, who received him with very diltinguifhed tokens of refpeét; but though he paid him particular attention whilft he was prefent, he does not feem to have regretted his departure, as he did not with to have his conduct infpeéted by fo rigid an obferver. After having vifited the whole of Afia and Syria, Cato re- turned to Rome, accompanied by the celebrated Stoic philo- fopher, Athenodorus, who refided in his houfe. Having acquired thofe maxims of wifdom and habits of virtue which qualified him for the fervice of his country, he now withed to employ them for the benelit of the public. His philofo- phy, fo far from aiming at that imaginary perfection, which confilts in ab{traGtion from all the common duties of life, was fuch as the poet Lucan reprefents ;— a patrizque impendere vitam, Nec fibi, fed toti genitum fe credere mundo.” Pharf. ii, 382. Vor. VII. * To hold his being at his country’s call, And deem his life was lent a common good for all.’ Accordingly he firit afpired to the office of quarftor, having previoufly ftudied with diligence the rights and du- ties ofthis office. Having fucceeded in obtaining it, he be- gan with reforming a variety of abufes, which had been in- troduced by his predeceffors ; and, heedlefs of private enmi- ties, he brought all defaulters to account with the public, and eftablifhed fuch checks and orders that might effe€tually ferve to prevent future fraud and peculation. One of the boldeft and moft popular ats which he performed was that of calling to flrict account the infamous affaffins employed by Sylla and extravagantly recompenfed out of the funds of the treafury for the apprehenfion and murder of pro- {cribed perfons. Thefe men he caufed to refund their ill- acquired gains, reproaching them at the fame time for their crimes, and indicting them for their atrocious murders before the criminal judges. Such were the integrity and affiduity, with which he difcharged all the duties of his office, and fuch was the high eftimation in which his conduét was held, that his name became in a manner proverbial for upright- nefs. T'o this purpofe we may adduce the compliment paid to him by a popular crator, who, once objecting to the de- cifion of a caufe by the teftimony of a fingle witnefs, faid, ©© One man’s evidence is infufficient, were it even Cato’s.’* His fidelity in performing the duty of a fenator was no lefs exemplary than the difcharge of his functions as quettor. He was the firft in the fenate, and the laft that left it; and as he frequently pafled a confiderable interval of time, before the houfe was aflembled, he brought a book, and read till it began to deliberate: nor did he ever quit the city during the feffion of the fenate. Although he attached himfelf at this time to none of thofe who led the prevalent parties in the {tate, but rather oppofed and fufpected all, he inclined to that of the ariftocracy, from an opinion that the exiltence of the republic was chiefly endangered by men of great po- pular influence. No man was ever lefs governed by that ambition, which a€tnated the leaders of all parties, than Cato. Neverthelefs, he thought it his duty to ftep for- ward, whenever he apprehended that his country needed his fervices. With thefe views he altered his purpofe of retir- ing from the public fcene, when Metellus Nepos, whom he knew to be a man of dangerous character, was offering him- felf for the office of tribune; and became a candidate, as his competitor. They were both chofen ; and Cato, as tri- bune ele@, ferved his country very effentially at the time of the confpiracy of Catiline. Concurring with Cicero in his meafures for the fafety of the ftate, he fupported them by his influence, honoured him with the appellation of ‘ Fa- ther of his country,”? and by his eloquence counteracted the {peech of Cefar, who withed to fhew lenity to the confpi- rators, and procured their capital condemnation. He after- wards oppofed a motion of Metellus for recalling Pompey from Afia, that he might have the command againft Cati- line; but his oppofition was followed by a tumult, excited by Metellus and aided by Cafar, which very much endan- gered his life. After Pompey’s return to Rome Cato ex- erted himfelf in defeating his unconftitutional projects ; and when the firft triumvirate was formed, he alone perceived the danger that might refult from fuch an union of power. When Cefar propofed his agrarian law, Cato raifed an out- cry againft it, alleging that ic was not proper to dillurb the public tranquillity, and that he did not fo much appre- hend the divilion of the lands, as the wages that would be required of the people by thofe who fought to inveigle them by this prefent. Cafar,; who was then conful, was fo much i provoked ~ CATO. provoked by the invincible oppofition of Cato that he com- mitted him to prifon; but he was foon after releafed. Ci- cero ufed many arguments to mollify, the inflexibility of Cato’s temper ; and fearing that banifhment might be the confequence of his continued oppofition, addreffed him with thefe words, ** If Cato has no need of Rome, Rome has need of Cato.” At length Cato yielded ; the agrarian law was paffed; and the triumvirs became irrefiftible. © Their principal agent was Clodius; and as Cato refifted his mea- fures, he determined to remove him from Rome. With this view, he expreffed confidence in his integrity, and hav- ing obtained a decree for depriving Ptolemy, the king of Cyprus, of his dominions, on the ground of perfonal animo- fity and revenge, he affigned to'Cato this odious employ- ment, aid obtained a Jaw, invefting him with the authority of pretor, for the execution of his iniquitous purpofe. Whilft Canidius, a friend of Cato, was fent to acquaint Ptolemy with the determination of the Roman people, and to propofe to him terms of furrender, he waited at Rhodes to learn the refult of the negotiation. In the mean while Ptolemy, fully apprifed that refiltance would be vain, pre- ferred death by poifon to acquiefcence in this arbitrary de- cree. As foon as Cato heard of the event, he fent Brutus, his nephew, to fecure the royal treafures ; and having re-elta- blifhed the exiles of Byzantium, which was another objeét of his commiffion, he repaired to Cyprus, where he difpofed of all the treafures he found amounting to near 7000 ta- lents or about 1,050,000 pounds fterling ; referving to him- felf only a ftatue of Zeno, the founder of the Stoic fed. This wealth was fafely tranfported to Rome, and lodged in the treafury ; and it feems to have been a jult retaliation of the iniquity of the meafure by which it was procured on the part of the Roman people, that it was foon after feized by Czfar and employed in the deftrution of their liberty. After Cato’s return to Rome a conteft took place between Cicero and Cato, refpecting the legitimacy of the tribune- fhip of Clodius, and the confequent validity of every thing that had been done by Catoin the ifland of Cyprus ; but the interruption of friendfhip and coolnefs that were thus ecca- fioned between thefe two diftinguifhed perfons foon termi- nated. We have already mentioned Cato’s firft marriage of Atilia and his fubfequent divorce. When this event took place, he married Marcia, the daughter of his friend Philippus, with whom he feems to have lived in connubial harmony and by whom he had feveral children. However, at the time when fhe was actually pregnant, he refigned her to Hortenfius at his requeft, and having obtained her father’s confent, gave her away in marriage to his friend. This tranfaétion, though altogether inconfiftent with modern ideas and man- ners, was conducted with gravity and decorum, and feems to have occafioned no fcandal. After the death of Horten- fius, who bequeathed his large fortune to his widow, Cato took her again. In this cafe, as a new marriage ceremony was performed on both occafions, it cannot be jultly faid that Cato /ent his wife. Moreover, he only availed himfelf of the unlimited right of divorce allowed by the Roman law, in firft {urrendering his wife to Hortenfius and then marrying her again as his widow. It has been faid, however, that, notwithitanding the eftablifhed ufage among the Romans, a perfon of Cato’s dignity and character fhould not have fane- tioned it by his example. Cato, who flill perfifted in his oppofition to the trium- virs, took an aétive part in the canvas of Domitius, his fifter’s hufband, for the confulfhip againft Pompey and Craflus ; but whilft they were foliciting votes in the Cam- pus Martius, they fell into an ambuicade prepared by the rivals of Domitius, and Cato was wounded by the affaflins, This intrepid Roman, who was not to be deterred by any violence from ferving what he apprehended to be the caufe of liberty, expofed himfelf to new danger by his ftrenuous oppolition to the 'Trebonian law, which propofed to af- fign to the confuls the government of Syria and of Spain for five years, with as many troops as they fhould judge proper, and with the power of making war and peace ac- cording to their own pleafure. After all the efforts of a con{tancy equally obftinate and fruitlefs, Cato was feized by the ferjeants of Trebonius and conveyed to prifon; but the tribune fearing the confequence of this unpopular meas fure, caufed him foon to be releafed. The next, and the higheft, civil dignity, to which he was advanced, was that of praetor, and in the execution of this office he engaged the fenate to iflue a decree again{t bribery; but Rome was re- duced to fuch a ftate of corruption, that the decree offended both the candidates for offices who purchaled votes, aud the people who fold them. After the death of Craffus, the agents of Cefar were in+ duftrious in their exertions on his behalf; and Cato, perceiv- ing that the power of Pompey might ferve to countera& their efforts, diverted his ambitious friends from the plan they were purfuing of making him diétator, and propofed the lefs obnoxious meafure of creating him fole couful. Pom- pey was not infenfible of his obligations; and Cato, who. profeffed to have ferved him with a view to the intereft of the public, took the liberty of giving him free advice, and of checking him when he thought his conduct was improper. In the following year Cato became a candidate for the con fulfhip, but not condefcending to make a popular canvas, he was rejected. ‘The difappointment, though much regretted by Cicero, was flightly felt by Cato himfelf ; and from this. time he refolved never more to afpire to this dignity. On this occafion he obferved, that an honeft man, and good. citizen, fhould not decline the adminiltration of public af- fairs, when he was thought fit to be employed; but that he ought not to be immoderately anxious and ardent in feeking it. Inthe year 50, B. C. the predi¢tions of Cato. were tulfilled by the commencement of the civil war. On the divifion of the provinces by the fenate, he was appointed as propretor to the government of Sicily, and in the dif- charge of his office he ated with his ufual vigilance and. diligence in fitting out fhips and raifing forces; but when Curio arrived there with three of Cwfar’s legions, he aban- doned the ifland and removed to Pompey’s camp at Dyrra- chium, where he was left to guard the treafure and military {tores, when Pompey had fet out in purfuit of Cafar; and thus he was preferved from being prefent at the battle of Pharfalia. During their previous intercourfe, it was his ad- vice to procrailinate the war, and thus to leave room fora negotiation ; for fo patriotic were his feelings, that he in- dulged no fatisfaétion from anticipating the continuance of the couteft, whatever might be the fide to which vidtory in- clined ; and after the vitory at Dyrrachium he could not - participate the joy and triumph manifefted by others on the occafion. From the commencement of this conteft, appre- hending the lofs of many brave citizens which it muit un- avoidably occafion, he neither fhaved his beard, nor cut his hair, nor wore any other garb befides that which teftified the anguifh of his mind. His humanity was very fignally difplayed in prevailing upon Pompey and the council of war to pafs an order, that no city fubje@ to Rome fhould be facked, nor any Roman put to death, except in the field of battle. After the difaftrous battle of Pharfalia, Cato failed with his troops to Corcyra, where he offered the command to Cicero, as fuperior officer; but Cicero, con- {cious — he received the news of his affaffination. CA feious of his unfitnefs for the arduous and important under- taking, declined accepting it; upon which Cneius, the fon of Pompey, was fo provoked, that he drew his {word and would inftantly have killed Cicero, if his hand had not been ftaid by Cato, wks conveyed the orator from the camp pri- vately by night. From Corcyra, Cato proceeded to Africa, jp order to join Pompey ; but immediately on his arrival Adhering fuill to the caufe of liberty, whilft he conceived any hope remaining, he proceeded with his troops to Cyrene; whence he pur- fued his march acrofs the deferts, encountering many toils and dangers, with a view of joining Scipio, the father-in- law of Pompey, who had landed before him in Africa, and taken refuge with Juba, king of Mauritania. In this fatiguing and hazardous march, he exhibited every quality that was adapted to infpire his foldiers with elteem and attachment, leading them for feven days on foot, and fubjeQing himfelf to hardfhins equal to thofe to which the meaneft of them were expofed. At length a junGion of the whole force was effected at Utica; and when a conteft arofe concerning the fupreme command, Cato, in oppofition to the wifhes of the whole army, yielded to the pro-confular dignity and aufpicious name of Scipio, and perfuaded all to acquiefce in his fuperiority. But he had afterwards reafon to repent of his felf-denial. As the in- habitants of Utica were jultly fufpeCted of entertaining a fecret inclination for Czfar’s party, Juba, whofe temper was violent and cruel, wifhed to deftroy the city and exterminate its inhabitants, many of whom were Romans. Cato hu- manely interpofed, and, though Scipio concurred with Juba in opinion, he inveighed with fo much vehemence and in- dignation againft fo unparalleled an aét of cruelty, that he put a ftop to the execution of this barbarous project. At the defire of Scipio, and in compliance with the requeft of the inhabitants, Cato undertook to defend the city ; and with this view he formed ample magazines of corn, repaired its walls, erected turrets, and prepared a fort of camp with- out, enclofed with a. ditch and palifade, in which, after having taken away their arms, he lodged all the youth of Utica. As for the reft of the inhabitants, he kept them within the walls, ftri€tly watching their motions, but at the fame time protecting them from the infults of his foldiers. ‘From this place, thus ftered and guarded, he furnifhed Scipio with arms, money, and provifions ; and thus rendered it the grand magazine for the fupply of the army. Whilft Cato was thus employed, Scipio and Labienus were op- pofed to Cefar in the ficld. It was the decided opinion of Cato, that the war fhould be protracted ; and to this pur- pofe he repeatedly counfelled Scipio not to engage in a general aétion with a commander of Cefar’s abilities ; but Scipio rejeGted his advice with difdain ; and the confequence of difregarding it was that almoil the whole republican army .was deftroyed at Thapfus. This fatal battle was fought at the diftance of about three days’ journey from Utica ; and this garrifoned city was the only place in Africa that had not fubmitted to the conqueror. Cato, having quelled the tumult of its inhabitants, and difpelled their alarms, afflembled the council of 300, which he had formed into a kind of fenate, and exhorted them to unite, with their perfons, property, and counfel, againft the common enemy. With a firmnefs and prudence for which he was eminently diftinguifhed in the moment of impending danger, he exerted his utmoft eflorts in calming their apprehenfions, compofing their differences, and animating their con{tancy. But his endeavours produced only a temporary effect, and ferved only to delay the threatened evil. Upon the arrival ef Scipio’s cavalry, which had retreated from the field of 7 ©. battle towards Utica, his hopes revived ; but when he re- ceived from them a meflage, expreffing their attachment to him, and their diftruft of the Uticans, he was again alarmed : more efpecially when they ftipulated their affiftance in the defence of the city, on the favage condition of previoufly killing or expelling the fufpeCted inhabitants. Cato thought this propofal no lefs unreafonable than cruel, and declined accepting it. Cefar was now approaching, and the fenators refolved to fend deputies to him for the purpofe of im- ploring his clemency ; avowing at the fame time that the firft and principal objet of their folicitations fhould be Cato, for whom if they failed in obtaining prote&tion, they would not accept any pardon for themfelves, but would fight in his defence to the laft moment of their lives. Cato acknowledged himfelf obliged to them for their kind inten- tions, approved of their defign of fubmitting to Cefar, and advifed them to lofeno time. But he forbade them to make any mention of him in their folicitations. ‘ It is for the varquifhed,” faid he, “to have recourfe to fupplications, and for thofe who have done injuftice to {ue for pardon. As for me, | have been invincible during the whole courfe of my life, and even now am as vidtorious as I wifh to be, and triumph over Cefar by the fuperiority of juftice and equity. It is he that is conquered; it is he that is overpowered ; being this day attacked and convicted by undeniable evi- dence (notwithftanding he has always denied it), of plotting againft his country.’ The cavalry, who had impatiently waited the refult of Cato’s deliberation, were now leaving the city, and before they departed enriching themfelves with plunder, which Cato made every poffible effort to re- {train ; and as moft of the fenators preferred efcaping by {ca to putting themfelves under the proteétion of Juba, Cato, perceiving that their danger was increafed by the departure of the cavalry and the approach of Cefar, took the laft meafures for haftening and fecuring their retreat. His own refolution was fixed; and that was neither to afk his life of Czar, whom he regarded as an ufurper, nor to difhonour himfelf by flight, and thus protraét a fruitlefs conteft. Having determined to put an end to his own exiftence, he prepared for the la{t {cene by a&is of kindnefs to his friends, and grave difcourfes with philofophers. In the laft even- ing of his life, he firft bathed and then fupped in the midit of a large affembly of his friends, and the magilftrates of the city, whom he had invited to this laft interview. They fat late at table, and the converfation was lively, gay, and in- ftructive, turning on certain points of moral philofophy. Supper being ended and the company difmiffed, he walked for fome time, according to his ufual pra&tice, and then re tired to his chamber, where he read Plato’s dialogue, en- titled ‘* Phedo,’”’ on the immortality of the foul, Having made a confiderable progrefs in it, he looked for his fword, and found that it was withdrawn; his fon having taken it away, while they were at fupper. . Upon this he called his flave to queftion him concerning his {word ; but receiving no anfwer he refumed his reading. He again afked for his {word ; but perceiving, when he had done reading, that it was not brought, he called all his flaves one after another, and raifing his voice, infifted on their bringing it. $* What,’ faid he, with a great degree of indignation, ‘ do my fon and family confpire to deliver me to my enemy, unarmed and defencelefs ??’ His fon then appeared, accompanied by other friends, who befought him with tears, and in the moft fuppliant manner, to alter his purpofe. Cato’s indignation was more rouzed, and he vehemently remonftrated againft their conduct. ‘ Brave and generous fon,” faid he, ** why do you not put your father in chains? why do you not tie my hands behind me, till Czfar come, and find me sa aie P2 ° Ee€ATO, of defence? Had. I a mind to deftroy myfelf, I could equally effect it without a {word ; fince by holding my breath for fome moments, or only once dafhing my head againit the wall, I could difpatch myfelf, were I fo difpofed.’ Afterwards recovering his calmnefs, he vindicated to the two philofophers, Demetrius and Apollonides, who attended him, the reafonablenefs of his purpofe, and the folly of at- tempting to deprive a man, already determined, of the means of death. A young flave at length brought him his fword, which he drew and examined with attention 5 and finding it fharp and fit for execution, he faid, * Now Tam my own matter.” He then laid it down, took up his book, and read it from the beginning to theend. Plutarch affures us, that he afterwards flept, and fo foundly, that thofe who waited without, and liftened at the door, heard him {fnore. Some, however, have queitioned this fact, and afcribed to him an affectation of tranquillity, by which he hoped to augment the falfe glory which he expected to derive from a voluntary death. However this be, about midnight he dif- patched one of his freedmen to the fea-fide, in order to bring him information whether or not his friends had fet fail 5 and being told that the wind was very high and the fea rough, he exprefled great concern. | He {ent again to the port to know, if any remained, and if they wanted any af- fiftance, and during the abfence of the meflenger, renewed his fleep.- Being at length affured that all was quiet in the port, he defired to be left alone, and then {tabbed himfelf with his f{word. The noife occafioned by his fall f{ummoned his fon and his friends into the chamber, where they found him {till alive, but weltering in his blood, and part of his bowels hanging from the aperture in his body. Attempts were made, during a fainting fit, to preferve his life by re- placing his bowels and fewing up his wound ; but as foon as he came to himfelf, he violently tore it open again, and inftantly expired. This event happened in the year B.C, 46, when Cato had attained the age of 48 years. As foon as the news of his death was fpread through the city, the Uticans loudly lamented it, and caufed the air to refound again with encomiums on his charaéter, as their benefactor and their faviour. Notwithftanding Cefar’s approach, they folemnized his obfequies with great pomp, and erected a monument to him near the fea-fhore, where, in Plutarch’s days, was a ftatue of Cato, holding a {word in his hand. When Cefar received information of his death, he is faid to have exclaimed, “ O Cato! I envy thee the glory of thy death ; for thou haft envied me that of faving thy hfe.” Tt would lead us into a wide field of difcuffion to itate the arguments that have been ufed by fome to extenuate and even to juttify, and by others to criminate and condemn this lat a& of Cato. In judging concerning his condué, we fhould advert to the principles of his philofphy. Profefling to believe with the fect whofe tenets he embraced, that It might or might not, in particular circumttances, be expedient for a man to preferve or lay down his life, it remained with him to determine whether his own fituation was fuch as to warrant the voluntary termination of his exiftence. But it has been alleged, in reference to this latter view of his cale, that he aéted inconfiftently with that virtue, on which be chiefly valued himfelf during the whole courfe of his life; and this was an invincible conitancy, re to all events. The fituation of his country, though difcouraging, was not abfolutely defperate. The remains of Pompey’s party be- ean to revive in Spain, and became afterwards very formi- Gable. Cato, therefore, it is faid, in conformity to his cha- vader, ought yet to have tried that refource, or waited for fome unforefeen and unexpeGed change favourable to his views; and confequently by the a@ of fuicide, while any hopes yet fubfifted, or whilft there remained a pofitbility cf fome favourable revolution, he was deviating from his own principles, and abandoning too foon the caufe of liberty. Some, indeed, have afcribed his death to that pride and inflexibility of temper, which the Stoical philofophy was adapted to produce and cherifh. Accordingly it has been. faid, that he difdained fuch an humiliation as that would” have been of owing his life to Cafar, and that he might not be obliged to his enemy for it, he preferred depriving him- felf of it by an aé& of defpair. I£ we appreciate his condu& by the principles of an enlightened theifm, and more-efpe- cially by thofe which we derive from our holy religion, we. cannot helitate in condemning it. See Suicipe. It was, however, for many ages, and has been by fome in modern times, extolled as an @& of heroifm; and it: gained among his countrymen general admiration. Horace, though writing under Auguftus, places the “‘ noble death”? of Cato (Catonis nobile lethum, Carm. lib. 1. od. 12) among the greateft and moft honourable events of the Ro- man hiftory. Plutarch’s Cato Minor apud oper. t. 1. p. >59, &c. Salluft. Rollin’s Rom. Hift. vol. vii. viii, and? ix. Caro, Varerius, a Latin poet and grammarian, was a= native of Gallia Narbonnenfis, and driven by a civil war: which occurred in his country in the time of Sylla to Rome,. where he opened a {chool of grammar aed polite literature, - that was frequented by perfons of the-firltrank. His friend, Marcus Furius Bibaculus, gives his eulogium in thefe twos lines : ** Cato grammaticus, Latina fyren, Qui folus legit, et facit poetas.’’ From the competence acquired by his profeffional labourss- he fell into poverty, which he bore with great unanimity, and died at avery advanced age, B.C. 20. He was the author of feveral grammatical-works, and fome poems, one of which (if it be his) entitled “ Dire,” expreffive of his- forrow at quitting his native country and his Lydia, has reached our times. It was printed feparately by Chrifto— pher Arnold at Leyden, in-1652,-12mo. and is contained ins Mattaire’s Corpus Poetarum. Gen. Biog. Caro’s Diflichs, in Literary Hiflory, a well-known me- trical fyitem of ethics, which has been erroneovfly 2fcribed’ by fome to Cato the cenfor, and by others to Cato of Utica 3: although it is perfeGtly in the character of the former, and. Aulus Gellius. (lib. xi. cap. 2) has cited with commenda- tion M. Cato’s ‘¢ Carmen de Moribus,”’ which is altogether” different from this. ft is entitled ‘* Difticha de Moribus ad: Filium,” which are diftributed into four books, under the name of Dionyfius Cato. This work has been abfurdly at- tributed by fome writers to Seneca, and by others to Aufo- nius. It is, however; more ancient than the time of the emperor Valentinian ILf., who died in 455. On the other hand, it was written after the appearance of Lecan’s Phar-- falia, as the author, at the begiwning of the fecond book, commends Virgil, Macer, Ovid, and Lucan. The name- of Cato orebbly became prefixed to thefe diftichs, in a low- er age, by the officious ignorance of tranferibers, and from, the acquiefcence of readers equally ignorant, as Marcus Cato- had wnitten a fet of moral diftichs. Whoever was the au- thor, this metrical fyftem of ethics had attained the highetft degree of eftimation in the barbarous ages. John of Salif- bury, in his ‘* Polycraticon,” mentions it as the favourite and eftablifhed manual in the education of boys. It is alfo much applauded by Ifidore, the old etymologift, Alcuin and Abelard ; and it muft be owned, that the writer, exclu- five of the utility of his precepts, poffefles the merit of a : nervous CAT us and elegant brevity. It is perpetually. quoted by rita who Pils the writer Caton or Cathon; and Cax- ton obferves, that it is * the befte boke for to be taught to yonge children in fcole.”? But he fuppofes the author to be Marcus Cato, whom he duly celebrates with the two Sci- pics, and other noble Romans. It was tranflated in- to Greek at Conftantinople by Maximus Planudes; and at the reltoration of learning in Europe, illuftrated with a commentary by Erafmus, which is much extolled by Luther. There are alfo two or three French tranflations, — Fabr. Bib. Lat. t. ii. p..213. Wharton’s Hilt. of Englith Poetry, . i, p. 168. 7: eis, in Geography, a military townfhip of New-York ftate in America; 7 miles S.E. of lake Ontario, and about zo S. of Ofwego fort. ot : CATOCHE, or Catocuus, in Medicine, from xaréxe J occupy, or detain, are terms nearly fynonymous with Cara- tepsis. Galen obferves that the ancient phyficians deno- minated the difeafe Catochus, which the later.authors have named catoche and catalepfis. The latter term was firlt ufed by Afclepiades. ‘The ancients, however, it is obvious, did not diflinguifh the different forms of foporofe difeafes, with that accuracy with which they are now difcriminated, and hence there is confiderable difficulty in afcertaining the precife meaning of their terms. It appears that the word catochus was applied by different writers, not only to cata- lepfy, but to Coma and to Tefanus, and perhaps to other difeafes, in which the voluntary power of mufcular motion was diminifhed, or deftroyed. Among modern nofologits, Dr. Cullen confiders the catochus of Galen, as a variety of tetanus ;.and Sauvages refers it to the fame clafs ; obferving, however, that it differs from the tetanus ;. 1. in being a flow or chronic difeafe ; and, 2. becaufe it is not attended with ve- hement agitation of the breaft and _ difficulty of breathing. It is equally difficult and unimportant now to affix a pre- cife fignification to a word, wes = never accurately ape jated by thofe who originally ufed it. Pre TOCHITES, in Maar! Hila the name of a foffil mentioned among the ancients, as having. great virtues in medicine, and in the cure of wounds. It 1s faid to have been found in Corfica ; and Pliny records this remarkable property of it, that if the hand were held upon. it for fome time it would flick to it in the manner of glue. Hence it appears ye been a bitumen. Fi GATODON, in the Artedian fyftem of Lchihyology, the name given to a genus of cetaceous animals, the charaéters of which are thefe:. the teeth are placed only in the lower jaw; there is-no fin-upon the back, and the fiftulous aper- ture is placed either inthe head or the fnout.—This genus is not admitted by Linneus; his genus PuyseTER compre- hends thofe cetaceous animals which have teeth in the lower. jaw, and none in the upper; and the {pecies P. catodon is one of the two {pecies of that genus, which has no dorfal fin, CATOLUCA, in Ancient Geography, fee Caruraca. CATOMUM, or Catomus, trom xe‘lx and wuos, /houl- der, in Middle Age Writers, denotes that part of the body below the neck, and between the fhoulders. eh. ; CATONBELLA, in Geography, a large river in Africa, in the kingdom of Benguela, which runs into the river, called by the Portuguefe Rio de las Vaccas, or Cow’s river. Itis compofed of three large ftreams united, and of a faltifh nature: along the banks the natives dig large channels to receive its briny liquor, which is afterwards condenfed into a good falt. CATONIA, in Botany, Jull. p. 441. Brown Jam. Clafs and order, tetrandria monogynia, Nat. ord. undetermined. Gen. Ch. Cal. fuperior four-cleft.. Cor. none, Stam. four. CAT Pift, Germ inferior, globular ; ftyle one; fligma one. Perie: Berry, fucculent, crowned, four-feeded; one or two of the feeds often abortive. A fhrub. Leaves oppofite. A native of Jamaica, CATOPSIS, in Surgery, ufually called myopia. CATOPTRICS, derived from xarorrpev, fpeculum 3 of note, and omtopas, video, f fee, the fcience of reflex vifion 3 or that branch of optics, which illuftrates the laws and pro- perties of light, refle@ed from mirrors or {pecula. The principles and laws of catoptrics, asa diltin@ branch of optics, will be found under the articles, REFLECTION and Mirror. See alfo Licur and Vision. The principal authors who have treated of catoptrics, among the ancients, are Euclid, Alhazen, and Vitellio. Eu- clid’s treatife is the firft that is extant on this fubje ; it was publifhed in Latin in 1604, by John Pena, and is included in Herigon’s courfe ef mathematics, and in Gregory’s edi- tion of the works of Euclid, Some, however, have fuf- pected that this piece was not written by that great geomes trician; though it is afcribed to him by Proclus (lib. ir.) and by Marinus in his preface to Euclid’s Data. See Ev- cLip. “Alhazen was an Arabian author, and compofed a large volume of optics about the year 1100, in which he treats pretty fully of catoptrics. See ALHazeN. Vitellio was a Polifh writer, and compofed another treatife on thiz fubject about the year 1270. Among the moderns, many authors have either direétly or indirectly treated of this fub- jet. Tacquet has demonttrated very much at length the properties of plane mirrors in the firft book of his Catoptrics, printed in the colleGtion of his works in folio. Fabri has. alfo written on this fubje@ in his book, entitled « Synoplis Optica.” James Gregory in his “ Optica Promota,’’ and particularly Dr. Ifaac Barrow in his « Optical Leétures,’? have alfo direéted their attention to the principles and laws of eatoptrics. Dr. Barrow, in the laft mentioned work, has laid down and demonttrated the principles of this branch. of optical {cience with peculiar accuracy and clearnefs; and deduced from them the properties of {pherical mirrors, both concave and convex. We have alfo David Gregory’s « Ele- ments of Catoptrics ;”” Wollfius’s ‘ Elements of Catoptrics,’? Dr. Smith’s elaborate work on optics, in which he has am ply difcuffed the laws of catoptrics ; and many others of lef note or of later date ; either printed {eparately or compre- hended in thofe courfes of mathematics and philofophy, both theoretical and experimental, to which we have occalion to. refer in various parts of the diétionary. Caroprric Dial, a dial which exhibits objects by reflec. ed rays. See Diat. Carorrric Telefope, a telefcope that exhibits objecis by reflection. See Refeding TeLescore. Catorraic Cifula, a machine or apparatus, whereby little bodies are reprefented extremely large ;.and near ones. extremely wide, and diffuled through a vatt {pace ; with other agreeable phenomena: by means of mirrors, difpofed by the laws of catoptrics, in the concavity of a kind of chet. Of thefe there are various kinds, accommodated to the various intentions of the artificer: fome multiply the ob- jects ; fome deform ; fume magnify, &c.—The {truGture of one or two of themmwill fuffice to fhew how many more may be made. be a diforder of the fight; more To make a catoptric ciflula ta reprefent feveral different feenes- of objeds, when viewed at different holes. Provide a polygonous ciftula, cheft, or box, of the figure of the multilateral prim, ABCDEF (Plate LV. Optics, Jig: 1+) and. divide its cavity by diagonal planes EB, FC,. 2- ioe CAT DA, interfeting each other in the centre, into as many triangular locules, or cells, as the cheft has fides. Line thefe diagonal planes with plane mirrors: in the lateral planes make round holes, through which the eye may peep within the cells of the box. The holes are'to be covered with plain glafles, ground within-fide, but not polifhed, to prevent the objeé, in the cells, from appearing too diltinét- ly. In each cell are to be placed the different objects, whofe images are to be exhibited; then covering up the top of the box with a thin tran{fparent membrane, or parch- ment, to admit the light ; the machine is complete. For, from the laws of refleGion, it follows, that the images of objects, placed within the angles of mirrors, are multiplied, and appear fome more remote than others ; whence the objects in one cell will appear to take up more room than is contained in the whole box. By looking, therefore, through one hole only, the objeéts in one cell will be feen, but thofe multiplied, and diffufed through a fpace much larger than the whole box ; thus every new hole will afford a new fcene: according to the different angles the mirrors make with each other, the reprefentations will be different : if they be at an angle greater than a right one, the images will be monftrous, &c. The parchment that covers the machine, may be made 4peliucid, by wafhing it feveral times ina very clear ley, then in fair water, and bracing it tight, and expofing it to the air to dry. If it be defired to throw any colour on the objects, it may be done by colouring the parchment. Zahnius re- commends verdigrife ground in vinegar, for green; decoc- tion of Brafil wood, for red, &c. He adds, that it ought to be varnished, to make it more pellucid. To make a catoptric ciflula to reprefent the objects within it pro- digiouly multiplied, and diffufed through a vaft fpace. Make a polygonous ciftula, or cheft, as before, but with- out dividing the inner cavity into any apartments, or cells ; (Plate 1V. Opiics, fg. 2.) line the lateral planes CBHI, BHLA, ALMF, &c. with plane mirrors, and at the foramina, or apertures, pare off the tin and quickfilver, that the eye may fee through: place any objects in the bottom MI, v. g. a bird in a cage, &c. Here the eye looking through the aperture 47, will fee each object placed at bottom, valtly multiplied, and the images removed at equal diftances from one another. Hence, were a large multangular room, in a prince’s palace, lined with large mirrors, over which were plain pellucid glaffes to admit the light; it is evident the effects would be very fur- prifing and magnificent. For other modes of applying and combining mirrors, fee Mirror. CATOPRITES, in Natural Hiflory, a name given by fome writers to a ftone of the marble kind, which, when polifhed, was capable of ferving as a fpeculum, either flat, and only ufed to reprefent the images of things; or concave, and ufed as our refleGting burning-glafles. The hard black marbles were moft frequently ufed for this purpofe; but fometimes the reddifh ones, and fometimes one or other of the jafpers. All thefe were indifcrimi- nately called by the name catopirites, when put to this ufe. CATOPTROMANCY, formed from xazorrpov, /pecu- Zum, and pavrae, divinatio, a kind of divination among the ancients: fo called, becaufe it conlilted in the application of a MIRROR. q Paufanias fays, it was in ufe among the Achaians ; where thofe who were fick, and in danger of death, let down a mirror, or looking-glafs, faftened by a thread, into a foun- tain, before the temple of Ceres ; then, looking in the glafs, if they faw a ghaftly disfigured face, they took it as a fure cAgT fign of death ; on the contrary, if the face appeared frefh and healthy, it was a token of recovery. Sometimes glaffes were ufed without water, and the images of things future, they fay, were reprefented in them. CATO-SIMIUS, Perv. in Zoology. VOLANS. CATRA, or Catrxa, in Ancient Geography, a town of the ifland of Crete. Steph. Byz. CATRALEUCOS, a town of Spain, placed by Ptolemy in Lufitania. See Lemur CATRENSIS, an epifcopal fee of Africa, in Mauritania Cefarienfis. CATROPITZ. See Aconisticr. CATROU, Francis, in Biography, a learned and inge- nious writer,.was born at Paris in 1659, entered among the Jefuits in 1677, and took his vows at the college of Bourges in 1694. He officiated as a preacher for 7 years, and then abandoning that office, on account of the difficulty of com- mitting ‘his fermons to memory, he devoted himfelf to lite- rature, and was employed from 1701 for 12 years in writing for the ‘ Journal de Trevoux.’? In 1702, he publifhed « A general Hiftory of the Mogul Empire,” from the Por- tuguefe memoirs of Manouchi, a Venetian ; to the third edi- tion of which, in 1715, is annexed the reign of Aurengzebe. His ‘* Hiftory of the Tanaticifm of the Proteftant Reli- gion,” containing only that of the Anabaptifts, appeared in 1706; and in 1733 he added, in two volumes, that of Davicvim and of the Quakers. His ‘ Tranflation of Vir- gil in Profe, with hiftorical and critical notes,” began to be publifhed in 1708, and was completed in 6 vols. 12mo. in 1716. With many defeéts and faults, this work difplays both ingrnuity and induftry. ‘Che moft elaborate perform- ance of Catrou is his ‘*‘ Roman Hiltory, from the founda- tion of Rome,” which employed the greateft part of his lite- rary life, and in which he was affifted by his brother Jefuit, Julian Rouillé. This appeared ia 1737, with the notes, differtations, medals, &c. in 20 volumes 4to. and, without thefe appendages, in 20 volumes 12mo. The hiftory was brought down by Rouillé, after the death of Catrou, in one volume 4to., to the end of Domitian’s reign. The work difplays great labour and refearch, and contains an ample and well-conneéted colleGtion of faéts; though the ftyle is affeGted, and not charaéteriltic of a folid and dignified hiftorian. It has been tranflated into Italian and Englifh. Catrou died in 1737, in the 78th year of his age, and retained to a very advanced period the force and vivacity of his imagination. Nouv. Dié&t. Hitt. Gen. Biog. CATRY, in Geography, a particular {e&t of Hindoos, mentioned by Theyenot, who places them in the vicinity of Moultan, and who fays that they fpread from hence over all the Indies. He explains this tribe to mean ** Rajpoots,”? or warriors; that is, the Kuttry tribe, properly. Thefe Catries, according to Rennell, were the Catheri of Diodorus Siculus, and the Cathei of Arrian; with whom Alexander contended on the borders of the Malli. See Caruara. CATSAL, a town of Chinefe Tartary ; 28 miles W. of Concha. CATTABANIA, in Ancient Geography, a country of Arabia Felix, according to Steph. Byz. ; called by Strabo Catabania. CATTACK, or Cuttack, in Geography, a city of Hin- dooftan, and capital of a diftri& of the fame name, in the province of Oriffa. It is feated on the river Mahanuddy, and is an important poft, as it lies in the only road between Bengal and the northern circars ; and the poffeffion of this city and its dependencies gives the Berar rajah more confe- quence in the eyes of the Bengal government, than even his 8 extenfive | | | CAT extenfive domain and centrical pofition in Hindooftan. It is diftant 785 miles from Agra, 452 from Beuares, 1034 from Bombay, 251 from Calcutta, go2 from Delhi, 651 from Hydrabad, 641 from Lucknow, 779 from Madras, 482 from Nagpour, 822 from Ougein, and 968 from Poonah. N. lat. 20° 32’. E. long. 86° 1/ 30”. CATTAHUNK, one of the Elizabeth ifles, in the {tate of Maffachufetts. ; - CATTAIO, a town of Italy, in the Paduan territory ; 5 miles S. of Padua. ; CATTARO, or Cararo, a town of Dalmatia, capital of the territory of the fame name, furrounded with thick walls, and defended by a caltle ; the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of Bari. It is fubjeét to the flate of Venice, and feated on a gulf of the fame name. N. lat. 42° 25’. E. long. 19° t9!. CATTECORONDE, in the language of the Ceylonefe, prickly cinnamon. This is a bark very much refembling cinnamon, but produced by a tree which differs very much in the fhape of the leaves, and is full of fharp thorns, which .the true cinnamon tree is not. The bark has nothing either of the tafte or {mell of cinnamon, though fo like it externally. The natives fe the root, leaves, and bark of this tree exter- nally, to foften tumours. Phil. Tranf. N° 4cg. See Cas- sia and CINNAMON. CATTEGAT, or Scaccerac, in Geography, a large gulf of the North Sea, between North Jutland to the weit, Norway to the eaft, and the iflands of Zealand and Funen to the fouth; about 120 miles from north to fouth, and from 60 to 70 from eaft to weft. This gulf is fprinkled with an aftonifhing number of rocks and iflands. See Bevts. CATTENOM, a town of France, in the department of the Mofelle, and chief place of a canton in the diftrict of Thionville. -The place contains 1067, and the canton 14,876 inhabitants ; the territory comprehends 297% kilio- metres and 47 communes. CATTERTHUN, a remarkable Caledonian poft, fitu- ate a few miles N. of the town of Brechin, in the county of Angus, in Scotland. Mr. Pennant reprefents it asa very ftrong polt, and particularly defcribes its ftru@ture and di- menfions. Near it is another fimilar fortification of inferior ftrength, called “ Brown Catterthun,” fromthe colour of the ramparts, which are compofed only of earth: the other confifting of ftones. The former is of an oval form; but that of the latter is circular. Catterthun denotes “* Camp- town ;” and Mr, Pennant is of opinion, that thefe might be polts occupied by the Caledonians before their engagement at the foot of the Grampian mountains with the Roman eneral Agricola. CATTI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Germany, who lived in the vicinity of the Cherufci. They were a warlike people, and their infantry was reckoned the beft in Germany. The moft remarkable places of their country were Caltellum Cattorum and Munitium. Under the lower empire they were divided into two bands or clafles; one of which joined the Cherufci, and the other eftablifhed itfelf in a diltrict of the country of the Batayi. CATTIER, Isaac, in Biography, born at Paris in the early part of the 17th century, received his education at Montpellier, where he took his degree of doctor of medicine, in 1637. Returning to Paris, he was made phyfician in ordinary to the king, and ranked among the moft eminent phyficians of histime. He was author of feveral learned works. ‘* On the Waters of Bourbon ;”? ‘* On the Powder of Sympathy,” which he did not admit to be poffefled of the qualities attributed to it; ‘¢ De Rheumatifmo, ejus Na- Lope. Wiest tura, et Curatione,” Paris, 1653, r2mo.3 &* Obfervationes Medicz rariores,”’ publifhed the fame year. They were after- wards joined with the obfervations of Peter Borelli. Among them 1s one of a malefator who was executed at Paris, in whom the vifcera of the thorax and abdomen were found to be tranfpofed ; thofe belonging to the right fide being placed on the left, and vice verfa. He has alfo obfervations on varieties obferved in the laGteals, and in the thoracic dud, and on fome moniftrous births. Haller. Bib. Anat. et Chirurg. CATTIGARA, in Ancient Geography, a confiderable port of India, the pofition of which correfponds, as M. d’An- ville endeavours to prove, with that of Mergui, on the weft coait of the kingdom of Siam. CATTING the Anchor, is the operation of hauling the ftock of the anchor up to the cat-head. CATTIVELLAUNI, in Ancient Geography, the inha» bitants of that part of Britain which lay north of the terri= tory of the Trinobantes, and eaft of that of the Dobuni, in the country which now comprehends Hertfordthire, Buck- inghamfhire, and Bedfordfhire. Thefe ancient Britith people are fometimes called by Greek and Roman authors Catti, Cafii, Cattieuchlani, Cattidudani, Catticludani, Catycuclani, &c. It cannot be doubted that they were of Belgic origin, and it is not improbable, that they derived their name of Catti from the Belgic word Katten, which fignifies illuftrious or noble, and that the addition of Vellauni, which denotes on the banks of rivers, might be given them after their ar- rival in Britain, as defcriptive of the fituation of their country. (Baxt. Gloff. Brit.) However this may be, the Cattivel- Jauni formed one of the moft brave and warlike of the ancient Bnitifh nations, when Cefar invaded Britain, and long after. Caffibelanus, their prince, was made commander in chief of the confederated Britons, not only on account of kis own perfonal qualities, but alfo becaufe he was at the head of one of their braveit and moft powerful tribes. In the interval between the departure of Czefar and the next invafion under Claudius, the Cattivellauni had reduced feveral of the neigh bouring {tates under their obedience; and they again took the lead in the oppofition to the Romans, at their fecond ins vafion, under their brave but unfortunate prince CaraGacus. The country of thefe people was much frequented and im- proved by the Romans, after it came under fubjetion to them. It made a part of the Roman province called Bri- tannia Prima. Its capital was Verulamium. Czf. Bell. Gall. lov. c.g. Dio. 1. Ix. Tacit. Annal. l.xii. c. 33- Henry’s Hift. vol. i. CATTIVO, Stal. bad:.in Mufic, it is chiefly ufed in {peaking of accentuation, as tempo buono, an accented part of a bar ; ¢empo cattivo, an unaccented part. Of the former, in common time of 4 crotchets in a bar, the rft and 3d are ac= cented, and the 2d and 4th unaccented. » CATTLE, in Rural Economy, a name commonly applied to a certain kind of quadrupeds or beafts of patture, as thofe of the bos, or cow and ox tribe; which are animals of vaft importance in the practice of hufbandry. As marking the divifion of domeftic animals, or what is ufually termed live ftock, they are often denominated neat, or the /arger-horned cattle, and in fome diftriéts black cattle, though this la(t appellation is more frequently employed to fignity a particular breed or variety of this fort of animals. See Brack Cattle. It feems not improbable but that all thefe forts of animals were originally in a wild or untamed {tate, and that in proportion as the art of cultivation increafed, fuch as were the mott proper and beit {uited to this pur- pofe and that of domettication, were gradually feleéted and made fubfervient.to.the power of man. This is more pro- bable: CA TEL ft. table from Some being fill found in a ftate-of nature in dif- ntc rics. E acteriftic diftinGtions of the genus or kind, ac- cording to the very intelligent naturalift, Mr. Pennant, are that they are “ cloven footed, with or without horns, the horns bending out laterally ; eizht cutting teeth in the lower jaw, and none in the upper; the {kin along the lower fide of the neck pendulous; rounded horns with a large {pace between their bafes.” This fpecies conftitutes the principal particular forts, being formed from the original and mott remarkable divifions or diftintions ; and the varieties are produced by the interco- pulation of thefe, which, from their being accidental, as well as from the great diverfity of foil, food, and climate, mutt obvioufly affume a valt diverfity in refpect to fhape and form. Some of thefe varieties, whether original or acquired, -have, however, been preferved in a permanent ftate by-the efforts and attention of the careful breeder. But notwith- ftanding the variations produced in neat cattle by the influ- ence of climate, or the agency of other caufes, the principal {pecific diftin@tion which has been made in their kind by the naturalilt is that of the wrus, or common bull of temperate cli- mates in its native wild {tate, and the di/ox or bull of the more hot regions, having a bunch between his fhoulders, which in fome of the largeft is faid to be of confiderable weight and exquifite flavour, and to form the charaéteriftic diltin@ion of the animal: while the clevated creft, and in fome cafes the lion’s mane, form nearly a charaéteriftic mark of the common bull, the former of which being individually pre- ferved to the ultimate ftages of domettication, as is occafion- ally feen in the Devonfhire, Alderney, and other kinds or breeds. Before we come to confider the various breeds and varie- ties of domeficated cattle in our own country, it may be of advantage to take notice of fome particulars refpeéting thofe in others, that are the moft remarkable. In regard to the urus, or native wild bull, it has in gene- rala curled fhaggy coat, efpecially on the forehead ; the hair conftantly long on the fore quarters, neck, and forehead, and depending from the chin; the neck elevated, thick and fhort, with the tail long, the eyes red and fiery ; the horns thick and fhort. It grows to a large fize, the female being larger -than our largeit bull, and is of a black colour. The éi/on has the fame hairy appearance in his fore part only ; his long fhaggy mane forms a fort of beard under his hin, but he differs from the former in having a lump or bunch between his fhoulders, and the tail and legs are {hort, the eyes fierce, the forehead large, and the horns extremely wide. The former of thefe forts of animals are difperfed over the more temperate and cold climates, and efpecially throughout America, probably imported from Europe ; while the latter have {pread over moft of the more fouthern parts of the world, but with confiderable diverfity in refpect to their fize and form :—Thofe met with in the ifland of Madagafcar, in Mala- bar, as well as other parts of India, in Perfia, the Ukraine, Calmuck Tartary, the Upper Ethiopia, and in Abyffinia, be- ing of the proper Jé/ax or large kind; while thofe of Africa, the higher fouthern latitudes of India, and fome parts of Ara- bia, are of the {mall dwarf or zelre kind in which the hairis more fine, gloffy, foft, and beautiful, than that of the common cow:—Thelargett animals of the different forts being conftant- jy met with in thofe temperate fituations or diftriés, where the {uppliesof waterand herbagearethe moft regularandabundant. In fome of the former of the above countries the animals rife to a very large fize, fometimes being wholly without orng, but in other cafes with extremely large branching or pendulous ones, having a very great fubftance or thicknefs at the-bafis. They are in much eftimation, efpecially the oxen, when of a fine white colour, for the purpofe of qrick draught in carriages. And in fome of the more barren and lefs fruitful parts of the latter countries the fort is found ex- tremely ufeful in carrying loads, though often not more than three ‘feet in height. The Indian cattle have been occafionaly brought from their native fituations, and blended with the breeds of this country. . The mufe ball, which is found in the interior parts of North America, between Churchhill and Seal rivers, may perhaps be confidered as a variety of the above fort pro- duced by intercopulation with the wild European kind, as the wild bull of this part of the globe emits a mufky fcent. It is defcribed as fomewhat lower, but more bulky than the deer; the legs fhort, a {mall hump or bunch on tive fhoul- der; the hair of a dufky red colour, very fine, and fo long as to reach the ground ; beneath which the body is covered with an afh-coloured wool of exquifite finenefs, capable of forming ftockings finer than filk. ‘The tail not more than three inches in length, being covered with long hairs, which the Efquimaux Indians convert into caps. The horns are elofe and large at the bafe, bending downwards, and turn- ing out at the tips, being two feet in length or more. The farbuc, or grunting ox of Tartary and Thibet, where it is brought into a domettic ftate, from having the hump between the fhoulders, and being capable of generat- ing with the’bifon, may obvieufly be concluded to belong to that kind. The chief circumftance in which it differs, is that, in{tead of lowing, as in the ox kind, it has the peculiarity of grunting like the hog, but it varies in other particulars. It has the whole body covered with a very long hair, which hangs down below the knees, moftly of a black colour, ex cept on the ridge of the back and the mane, which is white. The horns are fhort, upright, fharp, and flender at the ex- tremities. The tail in the form of that of the horfe, but white and bufhy. It buts or ftrikes with its head like the goat, and in its wild ftate is extremely unruly. held in high eftimation for various purpofes of ornament. How far any of thefe foreign breeds or varieties of cattle are capable of being introduced with advantage into this country, remains to be further proved by the teft of actual experiment, in refpe& to the qualities or properties of hardi- nefs, quicknefs of fattening, finenefs of flavour in the meat, and many other points, as has been ingenioufly fuggefted by Dr. Anderfon. In regard to the cattle of our own country, as they are not lefs numerous in their varieties than thofe of the foreign kinds, and of much more importance to the farmer in a va- riety of different points of view, but particularly in that of profit; the greateft care and attention fhould obvioufly be beftowed on the breeding, rearing, and providing fuch forts . as are the beft fuited to the particular nature of the farm, or land on which they are to be fupported. And as no ene particular breed is fuitable for every fituation or kind of farm, much circumfpeétion fhould be employed in adapting fen to the peculiar nature of the climate, fituation, and oil. The circumftances that are to be more particularly res garded, in refpeé& to the breeds themfelves, in fo far as they intereft the farmer, have been already explained, in con-~ fidering the methods of breeding this fort of live ftock. See BreEDING. It is not well afcertained what were the primitive or ori- ginal forts of cattle in this ifland, but it feems probable from thofe breeds which have, from particular ciscumftances, re- ' mained The tail is CAT mained without being much debafed by the admixture of other forts, fuch as the Highland, the Welfh, and the North Devon, as well as perhaps the Lancathire long -horns, that, in the more hilly regions and the low vallies, they con- filted of the long and middle-horned varieties, perhaps with- ovt any of the flrort-horned fort, which have, probably, been fince introduced from the oppofite continent. Some, however, think, with much probability, that the long-horn- _ ed fort was originally brought into this country from Ireland, from the native flock of that ifland confiding wholly of that breed, and from no other country poffeffing cattle, which have a fimilarity of form and fize of horn. Poland is likewife fuppofed to have fupplicd the breed, which, from their having no horns, is termed the polled, though it is probable from the want of horns being a part of the generic character, that a mixture of this fort of cattle may have oviginally exifted in the country, notwithftanding they are now fo blended and intermixed with others as not to leave a poflibility of difcovering the orginal. Itis probable that the primitive or original forts of cattle have not deviated much from thei: itandard forms, except in what has proceeded from an increafe of fize, bulk, and fubftance, in confequence of being better fupported from the improved ftate of hufbandry, and their being blended and moulded into different varieties by croffing, and other means made ufe of by the breeder. The numerous breeds and varieties of cattle which are to be found in different diftricts of this kingdom have been principally defignated either from the appearances which they immediately prefent to the farmer, or the places in which they are found to prevail in a ftate of the greatelt perfection ; though no very corre€ enumeration of them has hitherto been givea, only a few of the more valuable and ufeful forts having been fully deferibed. Thefe are the /ong-horned or Lancashire breed ; the middle- horned breed ; the /hort-horned breed ; the H’el/o breed, the polled or Galloway breed; the Scotch brecd; the d/derney or French breed; and the wi/d breed. It has been obferved by Mr. Culley, in his ‘¢ Treatife on Live Stock,’”? that the /ong-horned or Lancafhire breed of cattle are diftingutfhed from ethers by the length of their horns, the thicknefs and firm texture of their hides, the length and clofenefs of their hair, the large fize of their hoofs, and coarfe, leathery, thick necks; that they are like- wife deeper made in their fore quarters, and lighter in their hind-quarters, than the other breeds in general. And Mr. Donaldfon fays that in fize they are fupcrior to the Suffolk duns, but inferior to the fhort and middle-horned breeds. Mr. Culley thinks alfo further that they are narrower in their fhape, lefs in point of weight than the fhort-horns, though better weighers in proportion to their fize; and that the cows give confiderably Jefs milk, though it is faid to afford more cream in proportion to the quantity. Thefe cattle are more varied in colour than any of the other breeds; but whatever the colour be, they have gene- rally a white flreak along their back, which the breeders ‘term flinched, and moltly a white fpot on the infide of the hough. And in the bending of the horns there is an equal variety in this fort of cattle. It is hkewife remarked by the fame author, that many peo- ple contend that they are the native or original"breed of this ifland. Itis not eafy, he fays, to afcertain this matter ; but if he may venture a conjeGure, he thinks it is probable thefe have been the inhabitants of the open plain country ; whilft the wild breed, or perhaps the Welfh aid Scotch, pofleffed the woody, wild, and mountainous parts of the ifland.— © However,” fays he, * Lancafhire at prefent, and for a Vou. VII. T EXE. long time paft, has as much right to be called the mother country for long-horned cattle, as Lincolnfhire has for the large long-woolled fheep; for though all or molt of the cheefe-dairies in Chethire, Gloucefterfhire, &c. and indeed the greatelt part of the midland counties employ a kind of long-horned cows, yet they are only a fhabby mixed breed, much inferior in fize and figure to the Lancafhire breed, from whence it is very probable they all originated.” The author of “The prefent State of Hufbandry in Great Bri- tain,”’ however, thinks it probable that the long-horned breed originated in importations of cattle from the neighbouring country of Ireland; and that bulls and cows brought from thar ifland, having been coupled with the ancient breed of the diftnét, produced the fort of cattle known by the name of the Lancafhire or long-horned, and which now occupy a large portion of the paiture lands of this kingdom. It is added, that befides Lancafhire, the long-horned cattle are alfo very general in the counties of Warwick, Leicefter, Gloucelter, Chefler, and feveral others of the midland coun- ties ; and what is furprifing, and (hows great attention in the one inftance, and equal negle& in the other, this fort of cattle is faid to be found in greater perfection in the coun- ty of Leicefter than in the diftriét whence they take their name. ‘This has arifen, according to the obfervations of the author of the Treatife on Live Stock, from the graziers of thefe counties buying their beft bulls and heifers for many years palt, before the people of Lancathire were well aware of it. The former paid more attention to that kind which were of a true mould or form, and quicker feeders: while the latter contented themfelves with the old-fafhioned, large, big-boned kind, which are not only flower feeders, but when fed, are not fuch good beef. In fhort, the little far- mers in Lancafhire, tempted by the high prices given them for their bett ftock, had loft their valuable breed before they were fenfible of it.’? It is evident that the original breed of this fort of cattle fpread themfelves from the great breeding diftri€ts of the northern parts of Lancafhire, Wett- moreland and Cumberland, into the extenfive grazing and dairying diftriéts of the midland counties, where they are at prefent met with in the moft improved ftate. Itus aflerted that this breed is underftood by graziers to be in.general rather flow feeders, except that particular kind feleQed and recommended by the late Mr. Bakewell, which are faid to eat lefs food than the others, to become remark= ably fat in a fhort fpace of time, and to lay their fat upon the mott valuable parts, but have little tallow in them when killed ; and, when ufed in the dairy, give very little milk. This variety alfo differs from the reft of the long-horned cattle, in having very fine, clean, fmall bones in their legs, and thin hides. They are flated to be “a middie-fized, clean, {mall-boned, round-carcafed, kindly-locking cattle.” It is fuppofed by Mr. Culley that the Irifh cattle are a mixed breed between the lang horns and the Welfh or Scotch, but more inclined to the long horns, though of lefe weight than thofe in this part of the kingdom. It was from the midland long-horned breed of neat cattle that the late Mr. Bakewell felected the ftock for his great improvements in thefe animals. Much attention had indeed been previoufly paid to the precuring and introducing of the belt cow ttock of this fort into this diltriG by others, and it was by fele€ting from thefe that Mr. Webfter conftituted the noted Canley itock. And from cows of this celebrated fort with Weftmoreland bulls the very intelligent breeder juit mentioned commenced his -plan, which, after breeding repeatedly from the beft of the fame kind, conftantly choof- ing individuals with the roundelt forms and {mallett bones, he produced that variety, which has fince acquired fo bigh a character CAT a charaéter for their fattening property. It is, of courfe, obvious that this variety which has been denominated the Difbley or new Leicefler, is principally ca’culated for the pur- pofes of the grazier, while the original long-horns have preferved their fuperiority for the pail. The fize of this improved fort is confiderable, and its utility fufliciently fhewn by the high prices that are frequently given for them. There is a fort of mixed kind which are termed half long- horns, that are an ufeful fort of ftock, and which will be Noticed below. The middle-horned iced of catile 27, according to the au- thor of the Treatife on Live Stoc!:, moft frequently met with in the fouth and fouth-welt parts of the uland, 2s Suffex, Dorfetthire, Hamp‘hire, Devonthire, &e. and have alfo reached fo far north as Herefordthire, in which diftri¢t per- haps ths largeil breed of this fort of cattle aré now to be found.. The cattle of this breed that are met with in De- vonfhire are {aid by Mr. Culley to be found in the greatelt purity, and of the beft kind, in the vicinity of Barnttaple ; thefe are of a high red colour ; if they have any white {pots they reckon the breed impure, particularly if thofe ipots run into one another ; with a light dun ring round the eye, and the muzzle of the fame colour; fine in the bone, clean in the neck, horns of a medium length bent upwards, thin-faced and fine in the chaps, wide in the hips, a tolerable barrel but rather flat on the fides, tail {mall and fet on very high: they are thin-fkinned, and tiky in handling, feed at an early age, or arrive at maturity fooner than moft other breeds ; they are well fitted for draught, both as to hardinefs and quick movement, and their fhoulder-points are beautifully fitted for the collar. But according to Lord Somerville, who has given a full account of them in the “* Annals of Agriculture,”? and who muft be allowed to be no mean judge of this breed of cattle ; they are, when defcribed, ‘‘not as they might be in imaginary individuals, but as they really are found, in general, {peaking of this as of all other breeds, that conclu- fions mut not be drawn from the fhape and fize of the Bulls, but from the general quality of their ftock. Certain it is (he fays) that individually handfomer bulls are often to be found in other breeds; and it is as certain, that this race, of which the whole produce is brought to view, flands the confeffed favourite, or among the very firft at Smithfeld, where prejudice cannot find the way. And in forming an eftimate of merit or demerit, the annual produce is to be the obje& attended to; this in oxen, which for fupcriority of grain, activity in labour beyond all competition, and what in horfes is termed blood, will be found a right criterion to judge of the bulls which got them.” And that ‘beginning with the fhape of the bull, in any very handfome individual, the horn is (he fays) found neither drooping too low, nor rifing too high, nor with pointe invert- ed, called here fag-headed; tapering at the points, and not too thick, or goary at the root ; the colour yellow, or waxy. The eye clear, bright, and prominent ; looking well behind and fhewing much of the white ;—2 dead-eyed ox not often a geod prover, or fine in fkin ;—an occafional variation of colour round it. Forehead flat, indented, and {mall :—this found almoft univerfally in this breed, and is a point that fhews much blood. Cheek fmall and muzzle fine :— if the forehead is fine the muzzle is fo too. The nofe of a clear yellow, if poffidle like the horn, or mottled :—a black nofe always to be avoided; for although occafionally a black- nofed ox miy bear work, and die well, yet it isa point of- ten demonitrative of a bad conttitution, of fuch as tara {courers, or /Rinters provincially, and particularly when the eaft of the coat is of too pale a colour, The noftril high TIAE. and open. In refpeét of throat, the bulls of this breed are fometimes reproached with being throaty, or with the fkin too profufe and pendulous. The hair curled, giving an ap- p2rent coarfenefs to the head not to be found in the New Leicefter buils, when carefully trimmed with fciflars. The neck perhaps thick and goary in the eftimation of flrangers, with which property the oxen of this breed are not to be reproached, or they would not labour as they do. “ Generally {peaking (he thinks) the bulls are relatively to oxen not of a large fize ; and it fhould be obferved refpeét- ing fize in general, that nature operating in food and elimate is imperious, and will produce oxen proportioned to thofe two circumftances in due courfe of time, whatever may have been originally the fize of the bulls and cows. «* Here end (he fays) the points wherein there is any effen- tia! difference between the bull and the ox; the variation i Gthers is fmall and uneffential: a remark which is, however, fubjeét co limitation; for individual inftances will occurs which if too much attended to, would feem to eftabiith @ different rule. “ The neatnefs of form, and energy and vigour in labour, greatly, if not wholly, in this breed arofe (he fuppofes} from breeding by heifers and yearoldand two years’ old bulls. Although an old ewe may produce a finer Jamb than 2 younger one, yet the quality of vigour is unneceflary and extraneous (he fays) to the fheep. ‘This, (continues he,) is a prejudice deeply rooted in the minds of a!] praétical men, although much, in the eltimation of fome, may be given to- climate. “Compared with the horfe, the fhoulder is (he conceives) low. It fhould correfpond with the general thicknefs of the animal; on no account projecting. If a bullock is in« Aneed, or beading towards each other, the point of the toe muit be out ; the point of his fhoulder muft be the fame and he mutt be hollow behind the withers, (an incorrigible point in an ox for feeding) and he mutt be, of neceflity, a flow worker. ‘* The bofom is not fharp with a loofe, pendulous dewlap ; but wide in form, and mellow in handling. In buying an ox great notice fhould be taken of the breadth of the bofom, and between the fore-legs, ftanding quite wide, the legs like ftraight pillars fupporting a great burden. Much in buying is loft or gained by attention to this point: it is not for fymmetry only, but implies ftrength and fpeed; a proportionate breadth of breaft giving wind: and here we find (he fays) the application to a working ox. “¢ The legs are ftraight; and the more blood an ox fhews, the {maller will they be. The circumftance of this breed fhewing more blood than any other in the kingdom, has (he obferves) been remarked by many perfons ignorant of cattle, but deeply fkilled in horfes. The leg neither too long, nor too fhort : an undue length is to be avoided. “Very much of a bullock’s proof is admitted, (he adds) on all hands to depend on the fize of the mb, rotundity of the barrel, and mellownefs of the fkin. Thefe are the firft points to handle in a lean and in a fat ox. The two hind ribs fhould be bold, prominent, and widely independent of each other. The fkin rifing eafily from the ribs, mellow, and elaftic, affording room to lay fat on below it. A man buying a lean ox would do well to handle him on both fides : it often happens, that the frame or barrel is not equally round on both; one being evidently to the eye and hand flatter than the other. “¢ The hips, or pins, lie fo high as to be on a level with the back, either in a fat or lean ftate ; by no means dropping. The older the animal, the lower the upper flank drops, and confequently, the higher the hips appear. In this point of 6 the GA TF EE the upper flank, a fcilful judge will (he thinks) difcover much of the inward properties of a fat bullock. The hind quarters from the pin to the catch, or point of the rump, fhould be long and well filled up: handling the centre of this fpace is a leading feature, in the eftimation of choice judges, and afcertains more of the fubftantial quality of the flefh and fat of a beaft than the prominence of fat fo much admired by bad judges on the catch of the rump. “ The fetting on of the tail is on a level with the back, fomething elevated, nothing deprefled: fize long, fmall, ta- per, and with a round bunch of hair at the bottom; the tail, asin a horfe, denoting much of high blood. “ The gafkins are not too much cut away, nor, as in the Holdernefs breed, heavy and loaded: bearing always in mind, that thefe oxen are not bred for inaétivity, but for wind, vigour, and ftrength: for although a breadth in the bofom, inafmuch as it is effential to wind, in a working ani- mal, is beneficial ; yet a load of flefh on this hind part tends nothing to activity ; and being of fecond-rate quality, 1s not defirable for profit. «Tn point of {kin they are among the thinner clafles, rather than the thicker. It is very rarely that an ox 1s fonnd with a hard or wiry fkin. Much depends on colour; the hades mott admired are the mahogany ; and the more glofly filki- nefs, if {mooth, the better. "Thofe with curled hair are deemed excellent provers, and a very glofly mahogany {kin, paler or lighter, with curls like ripples of wind on a fmooth mill-pond, is alfo in the higheft eftimation. It is hard to fay which of thefe is the belt; all turning out fuch num- bers of good fat oxen. The paler hades, if the eye is clear and good, will bear hard work, and prove as well as any. This rule only is abfolute, that a pale fkin, hard under hand, with a dark and dead eye, too often denote a /Rinter in hard work, and rarely under any indulgence, a good rover. “ RefpeGting the lower flank and the cod, they do not deferve that attention which many perfons pay them, who confider thefe points of prime importance. “ The graziers like this breed (he fays) beft at five years old. The worked-out fleers of the vale fell for more, at five years, than at fix: but fix isthe properage. At eight, nine, and ten, they are going back in all their points; and in their value after feven. No ox fhould be kept after feven, or, at moft, after eight. « They (the red cattle) are (he fays) yoked at two or three years old, and lightly worked ; labour increafed at four; from that period till fix full worked, Worked oxen attain a larger fize than unworked ;. finifh their growth generally at fix years old; but the larger fize grow the longeit.”’ From the aétual experience of the noble writer, “ the pole and yoke form the true lever of an ox, and he can draw a greater weight in yoke, than in collar and harnefs, particu- larly in a tteep country. The bullocks never come home in the middle of the day; a bundle of hay is carried into the field ; all the calves of this breed are reared.” Thefe oxen are ‘ not (he fays) parted with by the tillage- farmers until the barley-fowing 1s over, and, in many cafes, the turnip-ground once {lirred ; yct they are grazed fat, in fix or eight months, to the average weight ot forty-five {core : thefe, kept ony after Chriftmas, fattened on+hay alone, which, in the grazing diftriéts of the weft, is held equally nutritious with any other fort of corn; oil-cake feeding not practifed ; thefe hay-fed oxen ttand the drift to London without walte. Inftances of marfh-feeding heifers bought in April or May, quite poor, fit for the butcher by the mid ile of July ; in Auguit uncommonly fine beef.” “ The flation of this breed begins (his lordthip obferves) at Barnitaple, and is traced, by purfuing the line of the river Taw, as high as Chumleigh, then’ to Tiverton on the Ex, Wellington, and nearly to Taunton. Then turning north ftraight to the fea, over the eaftern boundary of the Quantoc hills, to Stoke Courcy ; from which place, on the egitern extremity, to the mouth ef the Barnftaple river on the weftern, includes the whole, to the length of forty-five miles, and to the breadth acrofs, from Tiverton to Minehead, of twenty-two. To the eaft of this range, the breed gets into a mixture of Gloucefter, Welfh, Upper Somerfet, Kc. being a varied dairy fample: and more to the weft, a Devon, verging on the principle of the Cornifh ftock. To the fouth, the variety of the fouth hams is found 3 coarfe, with a good deal of white and brown, with black and white mixtures, of uncertain properties. Exmoor is the higheft point of the dittri& thus defined, the country fhelving from it in every direétion, the fource of all the rivers, and the head-quarters of all the cattle. At Bampton and Wyvelif- comb, they are found in great. perfection.” It is obferved by Mr. Lawrence, in his “ Treatife on Cattle,’ that “the red cattle of North Devon and Somerfet are, without doubt, one of the original breeds, and one of thofe which has preferved moit of its primitive form: the excellence of this for labour is beft proved by the fa@, that the fafhionable fubftitution of horfes has made no progrefs in the diftri& of thefe cattle; by their high repute as feeders, and for the fuperior excellence of their beef, which has been acknowledged for ages.’’ It was remarked by Mr. Bakewell, that the Devonthire could not be improved by any crofs with other breeds. This breed has been fuppofed by fome to run to too great length of leg, crooked behind, or fick/e-hammed, and to be of infufficient general fubftance, as well as to be more apt to be in-kneed, that is, crooked in the fore legs. It is fuggefted, by the writer juft mentioned, that, ¢ by a proper feleétion from their own ftock, they might be bred fomewhat more fquare and fubftantial, without at all detracting from their delicacy, fhew of blood, or fpeed. Their labouring powers might be thus increafed, and their quantity of beef, without either debafing its fine qualities, or rendering neceflary a larger portion of keep. Thefe cattle have generally, for a century pat, it is added, com- manded the beft price at Smithfield; but of late years the buyers there have fhrewdly remarked, that although blood and fine form are very pleating to the eye of the gentleman breeder, yet fubftance and weight are, and ever mutt be, the grand objects at market.” It is ftated that ** the Devonfhire variety of this breed are the quickeft working oxen in this country, and will trot well in harnefs; in point of ftrength, they ftand in the fourth or fifth clafs. They have a greater refemblance to deer than any other breed of neat cattle. They are rather wide in the horns, in part inclining. Some, however, have regular middle horns, that is, neither fhort nor long, turned upwards and backwards at the points. As milkers, they are fo far inferior to both the long and fhort-horns in quan- tity and quality cf milk, that they are certainly no objeés for the regular dairy. They have, however, been formerly ufed with fuccefs at Epping in Effex, in one or two in- {tances ; as a balance to which they are univerfally rejeGed, by the dairies of their own and the neighbouring coun- ties.” It has been {tated by Mr. Young, * that the naft or polled Devonthire breed, in the neighbourhood of Barnftaple, is coloured, middle-fized, thick-fet, and apt to make fat, but Q2 coarfer Gr Ac 'T: Tob eE: coarfer than the true-bred. The Devonfhire fort, being a hill-cattle, are faid to be much more hardy, and better win- terers, than might be fuppofed from their appearance.” The Suffex and Herefordthire cattle are varieties of the middle-horned, or Devonthire breed of a greater fize; the Herefordhhire being the largeft. Of thefe cattle Mr. Cul- ley gives the following defcription. Colour red, fine hair, and very thin fkin, neck and head clean, horns neither long nor fhort, rather turning up at the points; in general, well made in the hind quarters, wide acrofs the hips, rump, and furloin, but narrow on the chine ; tolerably ftraight along the back ; ribs or fides lying too flat, thin on the thigh, and bone not large. An ox, fix years old, when fat, will weigh from 6o to 100 ftone, of 14lb. to the ftone, the fore- quarters being generally the heavieft. ‘The oxen are moitly worked from three to fix years old, fometimes feven, whea they are turned off for feeding. Tt is concetved by Mr. Lawrence, that the Herefordfhire variety of cattle, which at prefent are a mixed breed, are, in general, to be confidered as having been originally of the De- vonshire fort. And that “ its great fize is probably derived from an intercopulation with the heaviell of the Welfh or Shropthire breeds.”’ According to Mr. Marfhall, ** this variety has the counte- nance pleafant, cheerful, open; the forehead broad; eye full and lively; horns bright, taper, and fpreading ; head {mall ; chap lean; neck long and tapering; chett deep ; bofom broad, and projeSting forward; fhoulder-bone thin, flat, no way protuberant in bone, but full and mellow in fleth ; cheft full; loin broad ; hips ftanding wide, and level with the {pine ; quarters long and wide at the neck ; rump even with the general level of the back, not drooping, nor ’ ftanding high and fharp above the quarters; tail flender, and neatly haired; barrel round and roomy, the carcafs throughout deep and well {pread; ribs broad, itanding clofe and flat on the outer furlace, forming a {mooth even barrel, the hindmolt large and of full length ; round bone {mall, fnug, not prominent ; thigh clean, and regularly ta- pering ; legs upright, and fhort ; bone below the knee and hough fmall; feet of middle fize; cod and twilt round and full; flank large ; flefh every where mellow, foft, yield- ing pleafantly to the touch, efpecially on the chine, the fhoulder, and the ribs; hide mellow, fupple, of a middle thicknefs, and loofe on the nache and huckle; coat neatly haired, bright and filky, colour a middle red, with a bald face, chara¢teriftic of the true Herefordfhire breed.’ How- ever, Mr. Lawrence fays, ‘of late years, confiderable coarfe- nefs of bone has been obferved even in the belt Hereford cattle ; a circumftance which is of trifling importance, as they have proved themfelves of fuch fuperior excellence chat no poffible crofs could probably improve them.’’ It is fug- gefted “ that the breeders fhould refle& on the importance of preferving the old blood in a {tate of as great purity as pol- fible, as they poflefs, for fome purpofes, the molt valuable breed of cattle in the kingdom, and have been very judi- cious and fortunate, in nicely blending the elements of fuch a variety 5 but they ought not to forget, that, by further mingling and crofling with inferior ftock, they may, by de- grees, recede from the great eminence they have attained. Should, however, a crofs become really neceflary, from too much coarfenefs or over-fize, the Devonfhire or Norman bulls are fuppofed the proper ones.” It is added, that “the great diftinguifhing properties of the oxen of this diftrict are, the great produce of beef, quick feeding in proportion to their growth and fize, and the union of ftrength and {peed in labour. It is obferved that, with refpeét to the moft profitable return in quantity of beef, it may be prefumed no breed in England can ftand in competition with this, aad they have accordingly been moft fuccefsful at the annual prize fhews. They alfo are faid to command the firft price alive or dead.” It has been ftated that the weight of Mr Weftcar’s ox, which carried the prize at the Smithfield fhew in December, 1802, was as follows: Stones of 8lb, Ib. Head, tongue, fkirts, heart, and lights - 13 2 Tripe, guts, feet, and liver - - 19 I Hide = = = = = x 16 5 Blood - - - - - - 6 ° Fat ns é _ = a ‘ 3 5 Offals - - 92 ft Fore quarter - - - - 72 I Hind ditto - - - - - 65 2 One fide - 137 3% Ditto - =e eae 3 Carcafs - - 274 6 Offals - - 92 5 Grofs weight - 367 3. Thovgh the fhort-horns are of larger fize than thefe, they do not feed fo quickly, and require more keep than the Herefordfhire fort, which vary very conveniently as to fize, but require to be well kept. They are the moft powerful draught oxen, being fpeedy enough for any work, either in ~ the plough or cart, and generally walk {ufficiently quick. It is faid that they are docile and traétable, and, if trained with temper and kindnefs, will drive to an inch with reins. But * as milkers they have nothing particular to boatt.”? Mr. Lawrence thinks the old Glouceflerfhire Reds and Browns were middle-horned, fhewing blood, and refembling, in a confiderable degree, the South Devons, but of a more fquare and fubitantial form. They were, however, he fuppofes, a mixed breed, which fhewed much Welfh blood, and were, it may be prefumed, more apt to fatten than milk, fiuce they have given way to the long-horned’ fpecies in that dairy country. It would be difficult, he thinks, at this time, to find any genuine fpecimens of this old variety. The Suffex variety of cattle are, he fays, in high eftimation: for beef and labour, and, in fome degree, for milk ; in which latter refpet they are fuperior to the Devonfhire and Here- ford forts, to which they are related. They are a mixed breed, in which much Welfh croffing is fufficiently obvious 5. but equal pains do not feem to have been taken in their im- provement as with the Herefordfhire kind. They may be eafily found in a ftate of original purity as to form. ‘This fort are very flat and deep, generally red or brown in colour, and fhow much blood; both wide and midd@e-horned, the points turned upwards and backwards; of various fize, but the largeft generally far too coarfe in the bone, and of in- fufficient width or fubftance for their great depth of carcafs. They yet, he thinks, need no alien crofs, having all the materials of improvement within themfelves, unlefs, indeed, to remedy the exceflive fatnefs in fome, a Hereford crofs might be ufeful. Their fpeed appears to him remarkably great, and he doubts whether even the Devons are, in that refpe&t, fuperior; they are, in the mcan time, equal in Ss power Ci A! TT Ie ES power to the cultivation of the heavieft clays, and to draught over the deepeft roads ; in temper fomewhat quick, like the Devons. Thefe different varieties of the middle-horned breed of cattle are faid, for their particular excellencies, to deferve the utmoft care from breeders, and to be one of the firlt objets of national intereft, to fpread them through the country as beafts of labour. _ He fuppofes that the Kenti/o Homebreds, which are raifed from dairy heifers, are of a mixed breed, the Suffcx generally forming the bafe, croffed with Welfh long-horns, Alderney, &c. A variety is, he fays, thus raifed of excel- lent butter-cows of a {mall fize; and he fuggefts it to the breeders of that diftridt whether it may not be worth while to eftablifh and render the breed permanent. A good {pecimen of a bull of this fort raifed from Suffex bulls, introduced into that county about forty years ago, was remarkable for fhortnefs of the leg, length of carcafs, and vaft fubftance; the bone fomewhat coarfe, and crooked in the hams. It is obferved by the fame writer that, of the ‘white cattle of Surrey, mentioned by old authors, he knows nothing, nor does he believe Surrey was ever a breeding county. The notion may have arifen, he thinks, from fome temporary introduction of Alderney, or other ftock of light colour.‘ In fact, fays he, it is faid, that fome gentle- man, about fifty years fince, brought up from Lincolnthire, into Surrey, a lot of white cows, very large milkers, and that the fame kind were at that time kept in Suffolk ; they were probably, he thinks, of Dutch extra¢tion.”’ The author of the “ Prefent State of Hufbandry in Great Britain”? remarks, that when all the properties which fhouid attach to an ufeful breed of cattle are confidered, the middle- horned may be faid, as a general variety, to come nearer to erfetion than any other in England. They are of a large aa well formed, and in difpofition to fatten, they are pro- bably, he thinks, much on a par with the fhort-horned, and generally fuperior to the Suffolk. As dairy-cattle, they are alfo as valuable as any that fall under the defcription of quick feeders; for although they give a lefs quantity of milk than the Suffolk or the long-horned, it is faid to be of a richer quality. The /hort-horned breed of cattle, according to Mr. Culley, differs trom the other breeds in the fhortnefs of their horns, in being wider and thicker in their form or mould, confe- quently feeding to the moft weight, in affording by much the greateft quantity of tallow when fattened, in having very thin hides, and much lefs hair upon them than any other breed, except the Alderney ; but that the moft effential difference, he thinks, confilts in the quantity of milk they give beyond any other breed; there being inftances of cows of this breed giving 36 quarts of milk per day, and of 48 firkins of butter being made from a dairy of 12 cows; but the more general quantity is 3 firkins per cow ina feafon, and 24 quarts of milk per day. ‘The great quantity of milk, thinnefs of their hides, and little hair, are, he fays, probably the reafons why they are tenderer than all the other kinds, except the Alderney. It is faid of this kind, and he fuppofes very jultly, that they eat more food than any of the other breeds; nor can we, fays he, wonder at this, when we confider that they excel in thefe three valuable particulars, viz. in affording the greateft quantity of beef, tallow, and milk. Their colours are much varied ; but the generality of them are red and white mixed, or what the breeders call flecked, and, when properly mixed, a very pleafing and agreeable colour. They are chiefly to be found in Lincolnfhire, and the ealtern parts of the coun- ties of York, Durham, Northumberland, and Berwick. And this breed, in confequence of its having been originally im- ported from Holland, is, he adds, frequently called the Dutch, and fometimes the Holdernefs breed, from a place of that name in York(hire, where it would feem it was firft eftablifhed in this kingdom. Deftitute of the exertion and agility of the middle-horned fort, fays Mr. Donaldfon, they are not fo well adapted for the cart or the plough. And .- conlidering their fize, and the quantity of food they devour, it is probable, he thinks, that they are inferior to any of the above-mentioned ; and, when compared with the Suffolk duns, greatly fo. Much attention, he obferves, was for- merly beftowed by the graziers in the midland diftricts on the improvement of the long-horned breed of eattle; and probably a greater number of eminent breeders have lately embarked in the laudable undertaking of improving the fhort-horned breed; and from their knowledge, afliduity, and exertions, much may be expeéted. Mr. Charles Col- lings at Kettnes, near Darlington, in Yorkfhire, is fuppofed at prefent in poffeffion of the beft breed of fhort-horned cattle in England. There are many reafons, fays the author of the “ Treatife on Live Stock,”’ for thinking this breed has been imported from the continent. T"irft, becaufe they are fill in many places called the Dutch breed. Secondly, becaufe we find very few of thefe cattle any where in this ifland, except along the eaftern coall, facing thofe parts of the continent where the fame kind of cattle is ftill bred, and reaching from the fouthern extremity of Lincolafhire to the borders of Scotland. The lonz horns and thefe have met upon the mountains which feparate Yorkfhire from Lancafhire, &c. and by crofling have produced a mixed breed, called half- long-horns ; a very heavy, ftrong, and not unufeful kind of cattle; but we do not find that the one kind has fpread further weft, nor the other further eaft. This breed, fays he, like mof others, is better and worfe in different diftriGs 3 not fo much from the good or bad qualities of the land, as from a want of attention in the breeder.’” It has been obferved, that the northern fhort-horned {p2- cies is the largeft breed in the ifland, the Herefords being the next. They are an original breed, but whether thofe of the northern counties are fo or not, cannot at prefent be afcertained; “‘ that is to fay, whether they are aboriginal, or were imported in very early times, as we know they have continually been during feveral centuries.” Contrary to the long-horns, this fort has great depth of carcafs ; but with ample fubftance, large bone, thin hide, and: gives much milk, which is not diftinguifhed for its richnefs. They are not of firft-rate character as labouring cattle, as has- been feen, which, neverthelefs, the Holdernefs variety, Mr. Lawrence fays, feems to promife by their form. * We look, continues he, to the coarfe, fquare, Dutch beefy breed, as the bafis of this fpecies. In many parts of the north, they remain, he adds, {till coarfe, and by no means equally dif- pofed to large milking. The common Lincolnfhire cattle are coarfe in head and horn, large boned, high upon the leg, and, to borrow a jockey phrafe, ragged hipped. Tqually coarfe internally, but producing flefh in great quantity. The Lincoln neat cattle, in faét, plainly, he thinks, demand a Bakewellian improvement, fuch as their fheep have received. The moft accurately marked and diftinguifhable permanent varieties of the northern fhort-horns appear to him to be the Holdernefs and Lincolnthire. Culley, fays he, tells us, than amongit the old ftock there were fome with black flefh, which would grow, but never fatten, provincially called lyery ; thefe were to be known by the rotundity of theiv fhape, approaching, in many refpeéts, that of an ill-formed cart-horfe. And the extreme coarfenefs and fize of the northern fhort-horns led, he thinks, to the introduétion of Norman or Alderney bulls at fome period of the 18th cen- tury, with the precife date of which we are unacquainted.’ And he fuppofes “ there never was a more fortunate crofs, as Cra. T TELE. as in no other country exifts fo excellent a breed of cattle, including all the ufeful properties. In one, perhaps the moft important, ref{peét, great milking, they are (fays he) fuperior, and even without rivals. Their beef is finer than that of the old fhort-horned breed, and they fatten much earlier and quicker, car:ying fill a vaft depth of natural flefh, and tal- lowing within im the firft degree. They have both {peed and ftrength enough (he fuppofes) for labour, and their thoulders are well formed and well pofited fordraught. Being beauti- fully variegated in colour, {potted, ftriped, fometimes /heeted red and white, or black, or brown and white, they make a fine park ftock. From their fuperior quantity of milk, they rival, in his opinion, the beft long-horns in the cheefe and butter dairies, and for fuckling are unrivalled. It may be prefumed (he fays) they are at leaft equal to the Herefords in the ftall, at all points: and there feems but one refpe& in which they are, in any confiderable degree, inferior to any breed which can be named, which is finenefs of flefh ; in that particular, it is obvious, they can never equal certain other breeds without the entire overthrow of their Dutch bafis by a repetition of the Norman or fome other crofs, which would go to deltroy the prefent fuperior breed. An occafional mixture, however, of Norman blood may, he fays, keep the Holdernefs ttock fufficiently fine, and prevent its degeneration on the other fide; or a feleGtion might be made of very ele- gantly fhaped and fine-boned Holdernefs cows, with the view of improvement. ‘Thefe are well known as the ftock gene- rally kept by the London cow-keepers. They heve {mall fhort horns, in the fhape of a half-ring, rather a long plain head, fine fkin, the legs feldom too long, the carcals large but compact, good back and loin, the general figure {quare. They are not the f{pecies of ftock for fhort keep, however {mall their fize ; indeed they are faid to be great confumers.”’ But “this high charaGter of the Holdernefs cattle (he defires) fhould be received with confiderable referve. It relates to the cows chiefly, and to a fele¢tion of the oxen; to what they ought, and might be, rather than what they generally are.’ ‘They are too often, he thinks, “ the worlt fhaped cattle in the ifland, and perhaps the ieaft protitable. Long, gaunt, deep carcaffes, without adequate fubitance, placed upon high ftilts of the coarfeft timber ; flow feeders, never fat, and the fleth exceffively coarfe. The feeding fuch ill- fhaped ftock muft (he farther obferves) be immenfely difad- vantageous, and is particularly difgraceful in diftriéts which produce the belt models.” The firlt objeét, in refpeét to their improvement, is (he fuppofes) to fhorten the legs ; «« which might be effe&ted (he thinks) by a conjunétion of the beft Teefwater and Holdernefs bulls, with {elected fhort- legged cows. It is a ftriking fact, obvioufly (he fuppofes) indicative of a rapidly increafing population, that, notwith- ftanding unprecedented prices, encouragement, and improve- ments, {tore cattle are at this inftant fo fcarce, that many graziers mu{t come fhort of their needful quantity.”” The following ftatement has been given, by the author of the “Treatife on Live Stock,” as the weight of a five years old beaft of the Teefwater fort killed in 1739, allowing 14lb. to the tone. : tone lb. Bs Se Two fore-quarters 74 8% at 4s. per ftone 14 18 5 hind ditto 75 10 at 5s. 18 18. 7 Weight of carcafs 150 4% a wh Me tallow 16 0 at 4s. Bh ALO -—-—— hide IO II at 4s. AIRC | Total 177 14 Value £.39 4 © It is added, by Mr. Lawrence, that the beft and quickeit feeders of this breed: are not remarkable for milking, and thac the Tweed-fide fort-horns are a valuable variety of the Teefwater fort. It is believed, by the fame writer, that the northern half long-horns ave the immediate produce of a conjun@tion of the long and fhort-horns, which mult, of neceflity, frequently happen upon, and in the vicinity of thofe mountains which feparate the native diltri€ts of the two kinds. The horns of this variety, he think, generally run out pretty ftraight and even, unlike thofe which are called middle or wide-horns. They area large and long breed of cattle, partaking equally, as may be fuppofed, of the qualities of each f{pecies, and thence ought to be good dairy cattle, as uniting quality and quantity of milk, and fize; in faét, he has been affured, by an intelligent Effex dairy-man, that they have the belt title to fuch chara¢ter, and many years fince, when cow-ftock was at a low rate, he preferred going to the price of 16 or 17 guineas a piece, for this defcription. They are not, he thinks, fo permanently eitablifhed and generally known ag their originals. And “the northern or York/bire polled cattle have (ac- cording to him) the fame qualities as the fhort-horned, carrying vaft fub{ftance, and fome he has feen lately are of great fize, although in that particular they are moft con- veniently various. In his opinion they are a moft excellent breed, and well merit improvement, with the view of labour, by a felection of the fineft breed and mott a@tive individuals. From the fhape of thefe polled cattle, they hold a ftriG@ af- finity in all refpects with the fhort-horned, among{t which they are found; and it feems that various breeds of horned cattle are attended with hornlefs, but perfe&ily congenial varieties.”” The Berwick/bire cattle have probably, he fays, a relation to this breed, having been improved by Teefwater bulls from Northumberland. They rife, at three years old, to fixty, or perhaps nearly eighty ftones, of fourteen pounds, and at five or fix from the laft to one hundred and twenty. The belt cows affording fo high as fix gallons of milk in the day. The ox is defcribed as having a ‘long face, open countenance, clean and fmall, turned up, curving, and fpreading horns, ftraight fhanks, ftraight and round along the back, full and deep in the ribs, fhort legs, thighs turned out, open boned.” This breed in the improved fort is highly valuable. The Wel/b breed of cattle, efpecially {uch as are found in Cardiganfhire, are, the author of modern agriculture fays, moitly black, with thick horns turned upwards; of a fmall fize, clean boned, of a good fhape, efpecially where the native breed has not been injured by injudicious croffing with others from England. ‘They are hardy and aétive ; and in great requeft in the fouthern counties of England, on account of their being quick feeders. The quantity of milk which the cows of this breed afford is trifling ; but they are, upon the whole, a breed well adapted to that country, although itill capable of very great improvement : which might be effected with more certainty, and to a greater extent, he thinks, by feleGing the beft individuals of the native breed, than by bringing others poflefling probably very different qualities from England. But the author of a late treatife on cattle fuppofes that there may have been originally two diftinét breeds, in this diftriG of the kingdom, as the mountain kind having large wide horns, thick hides, and much bone in proportion to their fize ; the cows afford- ing but little milk; aad the low land or fouthera fort, which are of a larger fize and finer form, having middle horns, being in fome inftances good milkers, thofe of fome parts, as Glamorganfhire, being in high eitimation for the purpofe of draught on the lighter forts of hilly lands.- In general, he thinks, the cattle of this diftri& are, however, deep C AUT TALE. deep and flat in form, * fome of them cloddy and of great fubftance alfo.”’ Thofe of the above part, Pembroke and Montgomery- fhire, are confidered as the molt valuable forts of the cattle of this part of the kingdom. It is {uppofed that the principal defects in thefe cattle are, at prefent, the want of fubltance, and great length of leg ; the remedy of which is fuppofed to be a Herefordfhire crois _ in the view of beef or labour. Their appearances in the different countries of this breeding diitri¢t, are ftated by a late writer fomewhat as below. The original Carmarthen/bire fort, Mr. Lawrence fays, is « black, coarfe, ill formed, fhort and thick, having wide horns of great fubftance at the bafe. The cattle, in courfe, fmall in the mountain diftri€ts, and of large fize in the vales, in good keep.’”? ‘‘Theimprovers there,”’ he adds, ‘ have tried various crofles. Hereford, Shropfhire, Leicefter, Pembroke, Glamorgan, but they fay without the defired fuccefs. The produce of a Pembroke heifer and Hereford bull, is, he fays, the favourite ftock in this county, where, in truth, the rior object ought to be an improvement of keep.’’ The Glamorzaefhire cattle are, according to the fame wri- ter, ‘in the cows rather fmall, of light bone, in colour black or brown, handfome, and fhew much blood. They milk well, and feed quick, and are ufed as beafts of labour: they need no improvement from alien croffes (he thinks); but there are inferior varicties of them, from being mixed with the itock of the borders. ‘This breed (he fuppofes) prevails in Monmouthfhire, and is to be found at the fairs and markets of Pontypool.’” But the Pembrokefbire cattle are, he fays, ** coal black, fometimes dark brown, finched, or white towards the tail ; fome have white faces. ‘They were originally finer than at prefent, probably the fame race as the Glamorgans, which fome of the Pembroke cows refemble at this time: -but the breed has been croffed with the o/d Leicelter, with the view of obtaining milk, in which the improvers did not fucceed fo well; as in rendering their flock coarfe, bony, and unfit for labour. If butter was the objedt, they had better, he thinks, probably, have retained the imported long- horns unmixed, This crofs accounts (he fuppofes) for the Pembrokes being fnched, and having ‘ong and round carcaffes. They gene- rally labour on the roads, yoked with horfes, and their jour- neys are performed with a {peed unknown elfewhere. But the Pembroke ox 1s too leggy, but he becomes early ripe, and will make fat at four years old. He attains the weight of 80 to130, or 140 ftone London weight, and is faid to ftand his drift or journey better than any from Wales, whence he finds a preference particularly in the counties ad- joining the metropolis. ‘Two year old Pembroke bulls are bought up at the fairs, at confiderable prices, by the im- rovers of the neighbourins counties.” The native Brechnock/bire fort are, he thinks, ** much the fame as thofe of Carmarthen and Pembroke; but being crofled with Hereford, and iome with Devonthire bulls, Jabour feems to be the object, and with fuch croffes and at- tention to good keep, avery exce lent breed may (he believes) be raifed.”” And the Cardiganfbire breed are « fmaller variety of the Pembroke and Carmarthen forts ; according to the fame wri- ter, ‘being hardy, and lefs milky than moft breeds. The Radnorfhire forts are, Mr. Lawrence obferves, “ dark red, and brindled in confequence (he fuppofes) of the origi- - nal black {tock being croffed with the buils of Hereford and Shropfhire, which are adjoining counties. Although thefe crofles produced {tock too large for the hills, they make ex- cellent cattle, in good keep, and of coufiderable fize, namely, from 1co to 120 ftone London weight. But it is faid that the produce of the Hereford crofs has not the charaéteriflic bald face.” The, Montgomery/bire fort are in the favourite colour blood red, with a imoky face. he oxen from this county pro- duce good prices. The Merioneth/bire fort are, according to Mr. Lawrence, a fmall and ill fhaped breed, faid to be the worft in Wales ; but in Mr. Corbet’simprovements, in crofling with good Eng- lifh ftock, much advantage has, he fays, been obtained. The Carnarvonfbire is a havdy native fort, which has been formerly crofled and improved by Englifh bulls and cows, fome of the New Leicelter and Warwickfhire kinds. The improvement fucceeded, and with a {mall additional expence in rearing, the {tock has been found fufficiently hardy, whe- ther on the mountains or plains; and the improved cattle at two or three years old, are, in the opinion of the above wri- ter, worth more by two or three pounds than the original breeds. The Denbigh/bire and Flintfbire forts have, he fays, been much croffed and mixed with thofe of England. There are fome good milch cows in thefe forts, which give fix or feven gallons per day, three or four months after calving. The Angle/ey fort is, he obferves, ‘¢a {mall black breed, with wide and thick horns, being prevalent there, and in far greater purity than in moft other parts of Wales. This hardy race is preferred on account of the conftant winter expofure, and defect of winter provifion, and alfo becaufe they are ap- proved by the purchafers. An Englifh crofs has been at- tempted without fuccefs, which was a neceflary refult, un- lefs the keep were at the fame time improved. The breed- ers decline keeping any cattle beyond the age of three years, not finding themfelves reimburfed the charge of another year. The weight, when fat, at three or four years old, from 60 to 120 ftone, the fore quarters being the heaviclt. No crofs could (Mr. Lawrence fuppofes) poflibly improve thefe ifland- ers, unlefs bulls could be found of fuperior form, and equally hardy ; fuch are, perhaps (he fays) to be fought for in the Ifle of Sky.” The fame writer thinks, that, in the quality of the Welfh cattle, generally, there is no appearance of improvement of late years, notwithitanding the encouragement held out by prices, of which no former age can furnifh a precedent. Indubitably the want of winter keep, and a good winter fyftem, is, he thinks, the chief caufe of this defect. According to the above writer, the Shropthire wide-horns, which are large, {quare, deep, and bony, with thick hides, in colour brindled red and brown, the horns branching, points turned upward ead backward, are ufed for labour, and faid to be better milkers than their neighbours of Herefordshire, with which they ore doubdtlefs, he fays, often blended. OF the origin of this variety no accounts, he obferves, are ex« tant, or how lony they have been a permanent or eftablifhed breed. 1t has, probably, he fuppofes, originated in a mix- ture of the old ‘ong horns, the Welth, and the red breed of the weltern difiriéts. According to Mr. Culley, the polled or Galloway breed of cattle are a very valuable breed, and feem to be, 9 weight and fize, as much lefs than the long-horns, as thefe are than the fhort-horas; they generally weigh from 40 to 60 ftone. Some particular ones reach 70 and upwards; but their molt effenuial dificrence from every other breed of cattle is, their having ne horns at all: fome few indeed, in every other res {peét polls, have two little knobs or unmeaning horns, from two to four inches long, hanging down loofe trom the’ fame parts that other cattle’s horns grow, and are joined to the head by a little loofe fkin and fefh, In molt other refpe dts, except C Ag except in that of wanting horns, thefe cattle refembie the long horns, both in colour and fhape, only they are fhorter in their form, which probably makes them weigh lefs. ‘Their hides feem to be in a medium between the two laft-mention- ed breeds, not fo thick as the long horns, nor fo thin as the fhort horns; but like the beit feeding kind of long horas, they lay their fat upon the moft valuable parts, and their beef is well marbled, or mixed with fat. We find, he fays, a few of this breed ftraggling through different parts of England ; amongft the reft, he remembers the earl of Darlington having had a very handfome variety of ‘them, finely globed with red and white. But we mutt, he ‘fays, look for the original of thefe in Galloway, a large Giftri@ in the fouth-welt of Scotland, where they are motlly bred upon the moors or hilly country, and grazed upon the Jands nearer the fea, until rifing four or five years old, -when the graziers and drovers take them up in great numbers to the fairs in Norfolk and Suffolk, previous to the turnip-feed- ing feafon, from whence the greateft part are again removed in the winter and fpring, when fat, to fupply the amazing confumption of the capital, where they are readily fold at high prices; few or no cattle felling fo high in Smithfield market, from their being fuch nice cutters up, owing to their laying the fat upon the moft valuable parts; a great excellence in all feeding cattle. It is no uncemmon thing, in this refined market, fays he, to fee one of thefe little bul- locks outfell a coarfe Lincolnthire ox, though the latter be heavier by feveral {tones. And he has been informed, from good authority, that the polled cows are very good milkers, in proportion to their fize, and the milk of a rich quality, yielding much more butter from a given quantity of milk than the fhort-horns; and alfo that the oxen and fpayed heifers anfwer well for the draught ; whieh certainly adds to the value of this excellent breed. But though the generality of the cattle of the above diltriGt are polled, yet they have feveral with horns, which, they fay, are a baltard or mongrel breed, by croffing with long-homed bulls from Weitmoreland and Cumberland. They prefer the polled ones, and of thefe the black or dark brindled ones, to any other ; and all allow them to be the original breed of the country. The breeders in Galloway complain of their old breed being lott, or at leaft much worn out; probably by want of proper attention in the breeder. Mr. Lawrence fuppofes that the moors of AZonigaff and Glenloue are the only places where this fort of cattle at pre- fent exilt in their original purity, and that they are generally thinner in the hind quarters than thofe which have been crofled with other breeds. They are likewife prevalent in Dumfriesthire, efpecially on the Nithf{dale fide. There are frequently among the common Galloway cattle fome that are white faced and pied, with {mall grizzly horns, which is fuppofed to be from a mixture of Dutch or Englith fhort-horned bulls, and to ‘ detract 20 per cent. from the worth of the beaft.” In refpect to form, according to the above writer, this fort ef cattle are broad and fquare in the fhoulders, long and round bodied, but deep, ftraight and broad on the back, with a thick fhaggy coat, the legs of a middling length, with large feet. It is added, that the pelvis, or hinder part beneath the tail, and between the two bones, is frequently too narrow in the cows of this fort, from which they want affiflance, and occafionally fail in bringing forth their calves. The oxen of this fort, as well as the fpayed heifers, make middle fized beef, which is of an excellent quality. It is fuppofed that ail the calves of this fort are reared in their native diflri@, and more of the females {payed than of any Tsk. other breed, the operation being performed on the yearlings in the month of May. This fort of cattle are ufually fold at about two years and a half old, the graziers in England being fuppofed to take off 30,cco head annually. It is probable that this ufeful fort of neat cattle might be much improved in their native diftrid, by having better ac- commodation and protection during the feverity of the winter feafon, and a more abundant fupply of different forts of food. The Sufvlk dun breed is fo called from its being the prevailing kind’of neat cattle in the county of Suffolk, and which fome may think a diftin& fort, but which Mr. Culley is inclined to believe no more than a variety of the Galloway breed; which might eafily, he fays, take place from the great connection that has long fubiifted between the Scotch Gallowsy drovers of cattle and the Suffolk and Norfolk feeders or graziers of them. Botb kinds are in general polled; and though the Suffolks are almelt all light duns, while the others are of various colours, yet this might at firft proceed from a partiality to that colour. But from whatever place or caufe this variety took its rife, they are, hie fays, at prefent a very ufeful kind of little cattle, particu- larly for the dairy ; and great numbers of them are em- ployed in that line, in fome parts of Suffolk, where, perhaps, the beft butter and the worlt cheefe in the kingdom are made. The cows give great quantities of milk. Mr. Young aflerts that they give 1n common 24 quarts a day, which is nearly equal to the beft fhort-horncd cows. We find the cows cf this kind, like all other deep-milkers, very lean, very plain in their forms, and very big-bellied. The weight of this breed of cattle is about 50 ftone on an average. Thefe are faid to have a lighter colour, and to be fmaller and finer in the bone than the Galloway fort; and to be long, with a large carcafs,.clean throat, the neck tapering to the head, the tail thin, and the legs rather fhort. ‘They are excellent for the purpofes of milking, whether for the dairy, or private ufe; though the milk is probably lefs rich than that of either the Alderney or long-horned forts. It has been fuggefted that this breed is incapable of being rendered more valuable by the art of crofling. The Scotch breed of cattle are, according to Mr. Culley, ftill lefs in proportion to the polled cattle than they aré to the long-horns ; this breed are alfo covered with along clofe coat of hair, like the polls and long-horns; and, like thefe, their beef is fine grained, well favoured, and mixed or mar- bled, but not fo handfome on the outfide of the beef when killed, being not of fo bright a colour, and often {potted with black, even upon the beft parts, except when made very fat. When grazed, they feed very readily, their weight in general being from 20 to 35 ftone. The molt prevalent colour is black, fome are brindled or dun; but the breeders here, like thofe in Galloway, prefer the black ones. Thefe hardy animals are in poffeffion of al! that extenfive and moun- tamous country called the Highlands of Scotland, together with the weltern ifles, bounded on all fides by the fea and the Grampian hills; the latter of which begin on the north fide of the Firth of Clyde, and run eaflward into the fea near Aberdeen. This fort of cattle are frequently termed dykes in thefe parts of the country, probably from a diftriét in Ayrthire, called Kyle, where they prevail much. But all the lowlands of Scotland, except Galloway, have a mxcd breed of cattle ; towards Cumberland they are half long- horns, half polls; oa the borders of Northumberland they ~are mixed with fhort-horns uutil you reach Tiviotdale, where they become altogether a coarfe kind of fhort-horned, or what the Yorkfhire jobbers call runts, except a few pretty good fhort-horned cattle, bred in that pleafant and fae country, GA TrVweE country, the Tweed fide. This fame kind of runtith coarfe breed continues all the way to the firth of Forth. Crofling this narrow fea into Fifefhire, you would at. firlt imagine the Fife cattle a diftin@ breed, from their upright white horns, being exceedingly light lyered, and thin thighed; but he is pretty clear it 1s only from their being more nearly allied to the Kyloe, or Scotch breed, and confequently having lefs of the coarfe kind of fhort-horns in them. The cattle all along this coaft continue to change more and more, growing lull lefs, until upon the edges of the mountains they become quite of the Kyloe kind ; but {till much inferior to that pure, unmixed, valuable breed of Kyloes which we meet with on the more northern and weftern Highlands, and all the ifles ; but particularly in the Ifle of Skye, and that tract of country called Kintail. It is in thefe two diftriéis that you meet with the native breed of Kyloes: a hardy, induftrious, and excellent breed of cattle, calculated in every refpeé to thrive in a cold, expofed, mountainous country, and better adapted to the cold regions where they are bred than any other kind we are acquainted with. ‘Thefe cattle are driven to the fouthwards in great numbers every autumn; many into the weitern diftrits of Yorkthire ; but the greatett part are fent into Norfolk, Suffolk, Effex, and other parts in the fouth of England, where they are fattened, and either flaughtered at their home-markets or fent to Smithtield. The great demand for this breed in the fouthern parts of the ifland: has rendered its improvement more attended to than formerly, and attempts have been made by different {pirited breeders by crofling ifle of Skye cows with buils of the long-horned kind. ; Though it is allowed that the beef of the Kyloe fort is fu- perior to that of others, it is believed by fome that there is a deficiency in refpeét to quantity on the acre, fo that if it be the beit it is not the leaft expentive. The Highland cattle fometimes, however, rife to a confider- able weight, efpecially when croficd with the larger breeds. The bulls of the Ifle of Skye fort are held in high eftimation by the breeders and improvers of this kind of cattle, the principal diftinguifhing marks of which are fine eyes and horns, with a thick pile, and not thick-hided. They excel in the quality of the milk, but witl regard to the quantity, fhould be croffed with the Norman or fome other breed that is known to afford a large quantity of milk. This property is likewife faid to be increafed by croffing with the Vife fort. The Highland cattle are hardy, and very little fubject to dif- cafes of any fort. 3 The Orkney iflands are faid to contain a fmall breed that are good milkers, and which afford beef of a good quality ; but they are a badly formed fort. The Fifcfhire fort are of confiderable fize, being of a black colour, lively and uphorned. They feed with expedition, and are fitted for labour, being held in high eflimation by the graziers in the fouthern parts of the kingdom. As milkers, they are valuable for the quality of mitk and fleadinefs of continuing it, rather than the quantity. It is probable that they might be improved in this laft refpect by crofling with thofe {maller breeds that produce it in larger quan- tities. The Renfrew, Ayrfbire, or what are termed the Dunlop fort, are conlidered, in relation to their fize, the molt valuable for the purpofe of milking in the ifland, excelling equally in the quantity and quality. Mr. Lawrence fays they produce © from 34 to 7 gallons per day,”’ and that they “ have the character of being the belt poffible poor man’s cows,” from their ability to fhift on very feanty keep. In appearance they are, he fays, {mall and ill-looking, with the fhape and pile of Highlanders, yet bearing more rvefemblance to the Dutch Vor. VII, than to any native Scotch breed. Their horns, he adds, “are fhort and {mall, ftanding remarkably irregular and awkward ; the colour generally pied, or of a fandy red. ‘They appear unthrifty: and thin hke the Alderney, even in the bef pafture, and the few which are bred up to oxen make but a poor figure in grazing, {carcely reaching the common weight of Kyloes.’? He ‘‘ apprehends this milky race to be the re- fult of crofling the cows of the country with Alderney bulls; the cows, perhaps, ‘having previoufly a portion of Dutch blood.” The Aiderney or French breed of cattle is moftly to he met with, according to the author of the “ Treatife on Live Stock,” about the {eats of our nobility and gentry, upon ac- count of their giving exceedingly rich mitk. He imagines this breed to be too delicate and tender ever to be much at- tended to by Britifh farmers, becaufe they are not able to bear the cold of the ifland, particularly the northernmof parts of it. They are very fine-boned in general, light red or yellow in colour, and their beef generally yellow or very high-coloured, though very fine in the grain, and well-fla- voured. They make themfelves very Fat: and none.of them are In the leait fubje€& to lyer, orhave black flefh. He has feen fome very ufeful cattle bred from a crofs between an Alderney cow and a fhort-horned bull. See Arperney Carte. The Wild breed of cattle, from their being untameable, can, in the opinion of Mr. Culiey, only be kept within walls or good fences; confequently very few of them are at pre- fent to be met with, except in the parks of gentlemen, who keep them for ornament, and as a curiofity : thofe at Chil- lingham-Caltle in Northumberland, a feat belonging to the earl of Tankerville, are, he fays, invariably of a creamy white colour, with black muzzles; the whole of the infide of the ear, and about one third of the outfide from the tips downward, red; horns white, with black tips, very fine, and bent upwards: fome of the bulls have a thin upright mane, about an inch and a half or two inches long. The weight of the oxen of this breed is from 35 to 45 ftone, and the cows from 25 to 35 ftone, the four quarters, r4ib. to the ftone.—The beef is finely marbled,.and of excellent flavour. From the nature of their palture, and the frequent agitation they are put to by the curiofity of itrangers, it is fearcely to be expected that they fhould get very fat: yet the fix-years old oxen yield generally very good beef, from whence it may be fairly fuppofed, he thinks, that in proper fituations they would teed well. When the cows calve, they hide their calves for a week or ten days in fome fequettered fituation, and go and fuckle them two or three times a day. If any perfon come near the calves, they clap their heads clofe to the ground, and lie like a hare in form to hide themfelves : this is a proof of their native wildnefs. ‘The dams will not allow any perfon to touch their calves, without attacking them with an impetuous and favage ferocity. It would feem clear from the above general deferiptions of the different breeds of cattie, that ail the forts taken notice of are not equally profitable to the breeder, the rearer, the dairyman, the grazier, the butcher, or the confumer. Some have greater difpofition to fatten than others. Some, being cleaner boned and better formed, have .lefs offal. Some give a greater quantity of milk than others. In a word, fome of the particular propertics for which cattle are eftimable are more difcernible in one breed than in another. Whether, fays Mr. Donaldfon, thefe can be all united in the fame animal, or whether a breed of cattle, pofletling all the requifite qualifications, would be equally fuitable to all fituations, are queftions not eafy to be determined. In re- gard to the firlt, fays he, it feems vniverfally agreed, that R there GAT THEE. there are two properties for which cattle are efteemed valu- able, that cannot be united; that isa difpofition to fatten, and a tendency to yield a large quantity of milk. The form of the animal moit remarkable for the firlt is very different from that of the other; in place of beinz -flat in the fides, and big in the belly, as all great milkers are, it is high- fided and light-bellied: in a word, its body is barrel-formed, while that of the other is more fitted to embrace a horfe col- lar with the wide fide downwards. It is not probable, there- fore, that the properties of two brecds of cattle, fo oppofite in form and general appearance, can ever be united in the fame animal. If a large quantity of milk, whatever be its quality, is the objeét, the dairyman mult content himfelf with fuch plain ill-looking animals as have been defcribed above. And as the milk of all cows is well known not to be of the fame quality, it appears, he fays, highly probable that in proportion as the cows of the milking tribe exceed thofe that are more difpofed to fatten in quantity, in nearly the fame proportion will their milk be inferior in quality. If this fhould prove to be the cafe, the fuperiority of the quick feeders, one would fuppofe, fays he, to be completely efta- blifhed ; as while cattle of this defcription are .confefledly better for the purpofes of the graziers, the butchers and the confumers, they would, if this point were determined in their favour, be alfo more valuable for the dairy. No perfon will think of afferting, that a gallon or two of whey or of batter-milk extra (for the queltion, he thinks, comes to that) isa fufficient reafon for preferring a breed of plain- locking, ill-formed cattle, to one that, except in this particu- _ Jar, is more valuable in every refpe@. In a word, no perfon who pretends to a knowledge of the different breeds of cat- tle, will think of fupporting an opinion fo erroneous, as, that cattle which are difpofed to fatten quickly, and at an early age, that, from the fuperior excellence of their form, have a {mall proportion of offal, or what the breeders call non-eflentials, and that although they yicld not a large quantity of milk, yet make up that deficiency in the rich- nefs of its quality, are no more valuable than thofe which have nothing to recommend them, but the fingle property of being great milkers. It has been remarked by the author of the “ Treatife on Live Stock,”’ incomparing the breeds of long and fhort-horned cattle, that the long-horns excel in the thicknefs and firm texture of the hide, in the length and clofenefs of the hair, in their beef being finer grained and more mixed and marbled than that of the fhort-horns, in weighing more in propor- tion to their fize, and in giving richer milk ; but they are in- ferior to the fhort-horns in giving a lefs quantity of milk, in weighing lefs upon the whole, in affording lefs tallow when killed, in being generally flower feeders, and in beiz coarfer made and more leathery or bullifh in the under fide of the neck. In few words, fays he, the long-horns excel in the hide, hair, and quality of the beef; the thort-horns in the quartity of beef, tallow, and milk.—Each breed have long had, and probably may have, their particu- lar advantages in different fituations. Why not, the thick, firm hides, and long loofe-fet hair of the one kind, be a prote€tion and fecurity againft thofe impe- tuous winds and heavy rains to which the weft coaft of this ifland is fo fubjeét; while the more regular feafons and mild climate upon the eait coatt-are more fuitable to the conttitutions of the fhort-horns ?—When he fays the long- horns exceed the fhort-horns in the quality of the beef, he means that preference is only due to the particular variety of long-horns, fele&ted, improved, and recommended by that at- tentive breeder Mr. Bakewell: for, as to the long-horned breed, in common, he is inclined to think their beef rather in- 2 ferior, than fuperior, to that of the generality of (hert-horns 5 and there is little doubt, he thinks, but a breed of fhort- horned cattle might be feleGed equal, if not fuperior, to even that very kindly-Aefhed fort of Mr. Bakewell, provided any able breeder, or body of breeders, would pay as much attention to thefe as he and his neighbours have done to the long-horns, But it has hitherto been the misfortune of the fhort-horned breeders ‘to purfue the largeft and biggeft boned ones for the bett, without confidering that thofe are the beft that pay the moft money for a given quantity of food. However, the ideas of our fhort-horned breeders being now more enlarged, and their minds more open to conviction, we may hope in a few years to fee great improve- ments made in that breed’ of cattle. Such rapid im- provement has indeed lately taken place in the breed- ing of fhort-horned cattle, that he has reafon to think they muft foon furpafs their rivals the long-horns. But he adds that, notwithftanding thefe two breeds have hitherto been in poffeffion of the beft part of the ifland, he is inclined to think that the Galloway cattle, and even the Scotch or Kyloes, might be bred with advantage in many fituations, fo as to be more profitable than either the fhort- horns or the long-horns : he has a very high opinion of both thefe breeds of cattle, as true quick feeders, and being kind- ly-flefhed, or excellent eating beef; which charaéter they have eftabliflied in the firft market in the ifland. He is likewife of opinion that the Scotch or Kyloes are better adapted to cold, expofed, heathy, mountainous fitya- ations, than any other breed we have; and that particular breeds are probably beft adapted to particular fituations 5 on which grounds he recommends to breeders of cattle to find out which breed is the moft profitable and beft fuited to their fituations, and to endeavour to improve that breed to the utmoft, rather than try to unite the particular qualities of two or more diftin& breeds by croffing, which is a precarious pra¢tice ; for, fays he, we generally find the produce inherit the coarfenefs of both breeds, ard rarely at- tain the good properties which the pure diitin@ breeds indi- vidually poffefs. It muft be plain from what has been already advanced, that, in crder to have good cattle of any breed, particular re= gard mutt be paid in feleGing thofe that are the moft com- plete and perfect in their form, fhape, and other qualities, and to breed from them. Sce Breepinc, Butt, and Cow. The author of the Rural Economy of Yorkthire has well remarked, that the horn isa good criterion for diltinguilhing the different {pecies, if the term be applicable, of cattle. It is a permanent fpecific chara&ter. The colour, though not altogether accidental, is changeable; and neither the form nor the fleth is permanently charaGteriftic of any parti< cular fpecies. Good form and good flefh may be found in every {pecies; though they are by no means equaliy preva- lent, nor equally excellent in all; but a horn fix inches long was never yet produced by the Craven long-horn breed; nor one a yard long by the Holdernefs breed. And the middle-horned breed of Herefordfhire, Suffex, and other parts of the ifland, appears to be as diftin& a fpecies as either of the former. He is not, however, a bigot to horns of any fhape or length: as he wouid as foon judge of a man’s heart by the length of his fingers, as of the value of a bul- lock by the length of his horns. If his fiefh be good, and well laid on, and his effal be proportionably fmall ; if ke thrive well, fatten kindly at an early age, or work toa late one if required ; he would. much rather have him entirely without horns, than with any which enthufiafm can point cut. But the horn, asa permanent {pecific character of cattle, may, in varieties, C ATW. E. varieties, have its ufe asa criterion. Thus, favs he, fup- pofing a male and female of fuperior form and flefh, and with horns refembling each other as nearly as the horns of males and females of the fame variety naturally do, no mat- ter whether fhort or long, fharp or clubbed, rifing or falling ; and fuppofing a variety to be eftablihhed from this paren- tage, it is highly probable that the horns of the parents would continue for a while to be charaéteriltic of the true ‘breed, and might by inferior judges be depended upon, in fome degrce, as a criterion. But ftill, fays he, itis indifpu- table that horns remain the fame while the flefh and fatten- ing quality change; but every man of fuperior judgment will depend more upon the form and handle of the carcafs, than upon the length and turn of the horn. Vor it is a no- torious fa, that the individuals of a given variety may have exaétly the fame horns, without having exactly either the fame fafhion or the fame flefh. If, however, there be any criterion or point of a beaft which may be univerfally depended upon as a guide to the grazier, it is, he thinks, the eye, notthe horn. The eye isa mirror in which the health and habit of the animal, at lealt, may be feen with a de gree of certainty. In refpect to the rearing of cattle, different methods are purfued in different diltri€ts ; but it is obvious that the better they are fed, at an early period, the better ftock they will, in general, make. The rearing of cattle is become, in the opinion of Mr. Marthall, as ttated in the Rural Economy a Norfolk, a fubjeét of the firit importance to this country ; as an univerfal and growing fcarcity of neat flock is expe- rienced, more or lefs, throughout the kingdom — He has, therefore, paid more than common attention to the rearing of calves, (the firlt and mot difficult part of the bufinefs) in this diftri& ; not only as being a primary objeé in the Eatt- Norfolk fyftem, but becaufe the praétice there is, in many refpects, peculiar to the country. The number, he fays, varies with the quantity of meadow or other natural grafs- land belonging to a given farm; and fometimes, but not always, with the time at which the cows happen to come in. Some farmers “ bring up”’ all the year round ; rearing every calf they have dropt. Others rear in winter, only fattening their fummer calves for the ped-markets; or, at a diltance from them, for the butcher. Norfolk farmers, in ge= neral, begin early in winter to.rear their calves: fome fo early as Michaelmas; in’ general, if their cows come in before Chriftmas: not only as being fully aware of the advantage of rearing early, but in order that they may rear as many of their own calves as poffible; drove calves being always hazardous. and fometimes {carce. No diftin¢tion is made as to fex : males and females are equally objects of rearing, and are both, occationally, fubjected to caftration; it being a pre- _ vailing cultom to {pay all heifers intended to be fattened at three years old; but fuch as are intended to be finifhed at two ye2rs old are, he believes, pretty generally lett ** open,” as are, of courfe, fuch as are intended for the dairy. ‘There are two reafons, he oblerves, for this pra€tice: they are prevented from taking the bull too early, and thereby fruf- trating the main intention; and by this precaution they Jie more quietly ; and are kept from roving at the time of fattening. This may be one reafon why {payed heifers are thought to fat more kindly at three years old, and to be better flefhed than open heifers. The method: of treatment depends, in fome meafure, on the time of rearing. The railing of the young animals in wiater requires more milk than the later ones. The particular praQices that are followed in different places, in refpe&t to the treatment of calves in rearing them, have been deferibed more fully under the head to which they belong. See Catves, Rearing: of. In the management of young cattle, it is remarked by Mr. Donaldfon, that the method of managing them during the firft winter is pretty generally the fame in every part of the ifland. They are almoft always houfed : fometimes bound up to the flall; but more frequently allowed to re- main at freedom. The way of feeding them in England is chiefly with hay, or hay and itraw mixed ; and in Scotland, fometimes hay, but more frequently flraw and turnips. They are moltly turned out on fome of the inferior paftures on the farm the following fummer, and maintained the fecond winter on ftraw in the ftraw-yard, or in houfes or theds erected for the purpofe. Some farmers in the more northern parts of the kingdom, from being fituated at a dillance from any market at which they can difpole of {tall-fed beef, very frequently give a confiderable part of their turnip- crop to their young cattle. This is, he thinks, an excellent practice ; and one that ought to be followed even by thofe who, from being better fituated in regard to markets, can adopt other methods of ufing turnips to advantage. The benefit of green winter food for live ftock is fo great, that there is, probably, he fays, no way in which turnips can be ufed, by which the farm or the farmer would reap greater benefit, than by giving the young cattle a daily allowance during the firft two or three winters. There is but very little variation in the management of young cattle from this during the time they remain in the breeder’s pofleffion, which mutt be longer or fhorter, according to the peculiar circum{tances of the cafe and the nature of the farm. In fome diltricts, he further obferves, it is the ufval pradtice to allow the young heifers +o take the bull at, two years old ; in which cafe, thofe which are not neceffary for keeping up the ftock are difpofed of the following f{pring, before they drop their calves. And where the practice of ploughing with oxen is continued, or has been a fecond time intro- duced, young oxen are broken into work in the courfe of the fecond fummer ; this, however, is by no means common, as, he fays, probably nine-tenths of the cattle reared in Great ‘Britain remain in the breeder’s pofleffion till the {pring of the third year. The young cows are then dif- pofed of to the dairy-farmers, who often do not breed a {uflicient number to fupply themfelves ; or to the cottagers, who have the means of keeping a cow in fummer, but not in winter. And the young oxen are fold, either for the pur= pofe of fupplying the ox teams, where thele are fill kept ; or to the graziers, who fometimes fatten them for the butcher in the courfe of the grafs-feafon, but more fre- quently content themfelves with only putting them in con- dition to be {ftall-fed during the following winter. The premature age at which fuch cattle as are not employed in the operations of hufbandry are now fattened, is, he thinks, a politive evidence of the fcarcity of that fpecies of live ftock, LTxclufive of the cattle ufed in the plough or the cart, which are permitted to live a year or two longer, the oxen-in this country are, in general, killed before they are four years old ;—an age at which, it is well known, an ox does not fatten to the greatelt advantage. And Mr. Mar- fhall fays, that in Norfolk, when the lattermath and ftub- bles are finifhed, the yearlings, provincially * buds ;”? are put to turnips; either as followers to the bullocks, or have fome frefh turnips thrown to them: in either cafe, they fleep in the par-yard, and generally have a feparate par al- lotted them; though fometimes they are parred with the two-year-olds. In the yard, the belt of the ‘ ftover’’ is allowed thém, and, perhaps, a little ordinary hay ; it being R2 a maxim, CAT Pat. a maxim, pretty generally adopted among good farmers, to keep their young flock as well as they cau the firft winter. In fpring and fummer they follow the bullocks, aed run in the meadows; or, if thefe be wanting, are fometimes fent out to fummer grafs in the marfhes, or grazing-grounds. "Lhe two-year-olds run in the ftubbles, and broken grafs till Chrifimas, or until turnips can be fpared them ; when they generally foliow the bullocks. In winter they are always “ parred”’ at night; fometimes with the the cows; fome- times with the buds; fometimes alone. Good farmers generally keep them {eparate : if parred with the buds, they rob them ; if with the cows, they are liable to be * horned,” and are never at welt ; except while the cows are eating up the beft of the fodder. Some farmers, when turnips run fhort, “put out” their two-year olds in winter ; and others, when they are plentiful, “ graze,”’ that is, fat their twosyears- olds. In general, however, they are “ kept over-years,”’ on meadows or lays, or are fent to the marfhes or grazing- grcunds, as fituations and circumftaaces point out; and, at Michaelmas, are put to turnips as fattening cattle. The agiftment price for two-year-olds, from May-day to Mi- chaelmas, varies with the keep. On the management of young ftock it is alfo obferved, in the Rural Economy of Yorkshire, that they are invariably houfed the firft winter ; generally loof+, and mottly indulged with the belt hay the farm will afford. Their fummer patture is fuch as conveniency willallow them; frequently of a fecondary nature. In the opereticld flate, the common was generally their fummer patture. The fecond winter oat-{traw is the common fodder of young cattle; generally tied by the neck in hovels, or under fheds. ‘Their fummer patture, commons, woody wales, rough grounds, or what- ever beft fuits their owner’s conveniency. At two years old the teers, provincially ‘ itots,”’ are generally broke-in to the yoke ; but are not, by good hufbandmen, worked much at that age. At two years alfo the heifers, provincially “ whies,”’ are generally put to the bull. This, however, is net an inva- riable pratice. In the ttate of commonage they were fre~ quently kept from the bull until they were three years old: now, in the ftate of inclofure and improvement, and at the prefent high rents, they are frequently fuffcred to take the bull when yearlings, bringing calves at two yearsold. This, fays he, is an interelling fubject in the management of cattle. Farmers in every ditridt differ in their opinions refpecting it. The arguments for bringing heifers in at two years old are, that they come fooner to profit ; and that farmers can- not afford, at the prefent rate of rent, to let them run, un- profitably, until they be three years old. On the other band, the argument in favour of bringing them in at three years old is, that, not being flinted in their growth, they make larger, finer cows than thofe which are fuffered to bear calves at a more early age. But we have not yet met with any man who even attempts to prove which of the two is, upon the whole, the more profitable practice. The gar- dener, he remarks, feems to be weil aware that, fuffering a tree to bear fruit too early, checks its growth: and there may be fome analogy, in this retpect, between vepetables and animals. But even admitting this, if the cow receive no injury, as to thriving, ca'ving, milking, nor any other than that of being checked, in point of fize, the objection appears to fail. If, however, early produ€tion check not only the cow but her progeny likewife, an objeGion, no doubt, will lie againft it. He has long been of opinion that it is, in general, the farmer’s intereft to let his heifers take the bull whenever nature promptsthem. There is, undoubtedly, fome prefent profit anfing irom their coming in at an early age; and whether a middle-fized cow may not afterwards: afford as muchsneat profit zs ane of larger ftature, 1s certainly an undetermined point: Much, however, depends upon keep. A ftarveling heifer wiil not take the bull at a year old. Nor ought any yearling heifer, which has taken the bull, ever afterwards to be ftinted in keep. If fhe be ill kept, while with calf, there will be danger at, or after the time of her calving. If afterwards pinched, there will be danger of her not taking the bull next year. Hence, he thinks, we may infer, with a degree of fafety, that the propriety or impropriety of bringing heifers into milk at two years old depends principally upon foil and fituation. On a good foil, and in a genial climature, in which heifers do not ex- perience a check from the time they are dropt, they ought, he is clearly of opinion, to be permitted to take the bull whenever nature prompts them. But in lefs genial fitua- tions, where lean ill-herbaged lands are to be pattured with young cattle, it appears to him equally evident, that heifers ought not, in [trictnefs of management, to be fuffered tor come into milk before they be three years old. Neat cattle are capable of living a confiderable length of time, as fifteen or twenty years; but they are unfit for many purpofes of the farmer after they become aged, and efpecially that of being employed as grazing ftock ; hence they are ufually difpofed of before they have attained their ninth year. For the purpofe of breeding, they may, how- ever, be kept much longer. With refpe& to the males, or bulls, where the chief objeé of the farmer is having good cattle tteck, great attention fhould be paid to them, both in the rearing and their management afterwards, as well as to the form and kind. They fhould likewife be kept feparate in a paddock inclofed for the purpofe, and be cor- {tantly fed in the beft manner, and not be employed till they are three years old, when the cows fhould be feparately ad- mitted to them. Some farmers are, however, of opinion, that a little work does not in the leaft injure them, while it bas the tendency of rendering them more tame and gentle. But in other cafes, as mercly for the purpofe of the dairy, where rearing the produce is not praétifed, lefs attention is ne= ceilary with regard to thefe animals, it being of little confe- quence to the farmer, provided the cows be duly ferved. In thefe cafes the bulis are forthe moft part kept along with the cows, in fufficient proportion to the number of cows that may be kept. Under thefe cireumftances they are feldom kept in any better manner than the cows; but it 1s proba- ble that much lofs may often be experienced by the dairy- farmer on this account, as it would feem proper that they fhould conftantly be much better fed. In thefe inftances they are often employed while very young, being frequently caftrated, or what 1s termed fegged, in the third year of their age. ‘The ufe of fuch young.bulls is not, however, in general to be recommended. See Butt. In refpe@ to the management of the cows, it mutt of courfe vary in fome meafure according to circumftances, and the particular obje€ts of the farmer. Such as are in calf fhould conitantly have a fufficient f{upply of good food both during the fummer and winter feafons, and in the latter fhould be well protected from the feverity of the weather by proper houfes, fheds, or fold-yards. With the ftraw fome other forts of food fhould be combined, fuch as hay, turnips, cabbages, &e. as the firlt is infufficient for keeping them in proper condition, and they will repay the increafed expence of fuch keep, by their fuperior appearance, by the greater quantity and better quality of the milk, and by the better fize and form of the young-{tock. Under the con- I : trary ~v * from the inclemency of the weather. CATR EAE, trary circumftances they readily dwindle, and become lefs valuable. : : With regard to.the feafon of putting cows to the bull, it is different, according to the views of the farmer ; where his principal object is the milk, it is a matter of little confe- quence at what time thcy take the bull; but where the _calves are to be reared, it is a point of material importance to have them dropped when the feafon begins to be warm, and there is a {pring of young grafs, as at that feafon they can be reared with the Jeaft trouble and expence, and in the mot perfect manner. In the winter time this fort of bufi- - nefs is attended with great expence, and the animals are often injured by the feverity of the weather. There is another point that ought likewife to be regarded in this fort of ftock, which is, that the cows fhould not be too greatly exhauited by milking them too long, or too near the period of their calving ; but when they have good rich keep, they may be milked to a much later period without iajury, than under the contrary circumftances. It is ufual to let them become dry fix weeks or two months before the period of their calving ; but, with good keep, a month may be fufficient. Itis a bad practice to have bullocks in the fame place with cows, as much injury may be done both to themfelves and the cows, by their riding upon them. Some farmers think it a point of importance to prefent cows to the bull with full udders. It is of great utility in the management of cow ftock, that exaét accounts be kept of the periods at which they receive the males, as well as of the times at which the young are brought forth. In large concerns, a fort of lock dood fhould be kept for the purpofe of entering various me- morauda of this nature, as by fuch means accidents and uncertainty may be in a great meafure prevented. As the time of calving approaches, more {trict attention fhould be beftowed upon the cows, in order that, at the period of it, every neceflary afliftance may be afforded, and the welfare of the animals infured. It, however, rarely happens that any extraordinary aid is required where they are left wholly to themfelves. It is the practice of fome farmers to leflen the quantity of food fora little time before the cows calve, from the idea that they do not fucceed fo well when they are in too high con- dition; but this is mott probably a fuppofition whichis not by any means well founded, as cows that are kept in good order are, in general, the lea{t liable to accidents in thefe cafes. Itis of much confequence that, at thefe times, the cows be pro- vided with due thelter, efpeeially during the inclement parts of the year; as much injury is frequently done by letting them calve in expofed fituations without any prote¢tion See Cow. Such young cattle ftock as is intended for labour, fhould be gradually accuitomed to be handled from their infancy, and by that means be rendered perfetly tame and gentle, which will be of vaft advantage afterwards when they are brought into labour. See Oxen and Team. With regard to the management of cattle, there cannot be any doubt but that a large ftock in feeding demands confiderable and con{tant attendance, and that of iteady and capable hinds: as, unlefs a proper regard be paid in thefe refpeéts, much confufion mult occur, efpecially when fed in the fold-yard. Next to proper food, fays the author of the «¢ Farmer’s Calendar,”’ the two great points in feeding animals to proof are, regularity, and a particular care of the weaker individuals. On this aft account there ought ever to be plenty of trough or rack-room, that too many may not feed together, in which very common cafe the weaker are not only trampled down by the itronger, but they are worried, and become cowed and fpiritlefs, than which there cannot be a more unfavourable ftate for thrift; befides, thefe are ever compelled to thift with the worft part of the meat. ‘This domineering {pirit is fo remarkably pre- valent amongit horned cattle, that he has a hundred times obferved the mafter bea{ts running from crib to crib, and abfolutely negleting their own provender fer the fake of criving the inferior ones from theirs. This is, much oftener than fufpected, the chief reafon of that difference fo vifible in a lot of beafts, after a winter’s keep. It is likewife, he fays, a very common and very fhameful fight in a dairy of cows, to fee feveral of them gored and wounded in a dozen places, merely from the inattention of the owner, and the negle@t of tipping the horas of thofe that butt. The weaker animals fhould be drawn and fed apart ; and in crib-feeding in the yard it is a_good method to tie up the mafter-bealts at their meals. Where a:fufficient number of cattle are not bred upon the farm, they are generally bought in at the neighbouring fairs to fat at {pring, and about Michaelmas. Thofe bought in at fpring will be fat in July, Augutt, or September, according as they are forward, and there is keeping for them ; and thofe which are bought in at Augufl, September, or Otober, mutt be either for fale in winter or in {pring, and mut be forward in fleth.to be” improved the beginning of winter, and kept up in fleth during the winter with burnet, hay, turnips,carrots, or other kinds of food, to be fit for a good market whenever ic offers 3 or they mutt be young lean cattle, that may, by their growth, pay for their wintering, and be fit to fat the next fummer. Some, upon erdinary land, buy in young Welth heifers, which, if they prove with calf, they fell in {fpring, with a calf by their fide for the dairy: and thofe that are not with calf they fatten; all which ways frequently turn to good acceunt : but as moft commonly all meat, cither at Chrift- mas, or in the {pring, is one third part dearer than in fummer; as all have not the conveniency either of hay, turnips, &c. to fatten cattle with in winter; it is beft to have them ready for the markets about thefe times. The farmer who intends to graze cattle to the moft ad- vantage, fhould be particularly attentive to thefe three things: firft, to raife a good quantity of artificial grafs for hay and aftermaths. Secondly, to tum a good quantity of ground into rich pafture, by fceding it, dunging it, and lay- ing on it other manure, to make it fit for railing the bul- lock or heifer.in the fpring, when they come firft from hay to grafs, and to receive them with a vigorous aftermath, when other graffes, as clovers and other grafs aftermath, go off. Thirdly, to have hovels or other buildings inclofed with clofe walls, to fhelter the cattle in the winter from winds and rain. By adopting thefe methods in fattening cattle, the grazier, from having pleuty of hay, will be enabled to purchafe barreii beafts before the fpring grafs comes, when it is molt likely they will be cheap, and may be bought to the belt advantage, allowing for the value of the hay they may eat in confideration with the purchafe: and if, by winter-haying fome meadow-ground after it has been kept high in heart by feeding, &c. he can, early in the {pring, by April, or fooner, have a bite to take off fuch grazing- beails from hay to grafs, it will be very advantageous before clovers can be ready, which, in many places, are feldom fo til a week or a fortnight in May; and, by keeping fuch meadews for an aftermath, which, towards the end of fum- mer, are in very good heart, he may fapport his bullocks, and carry them on when the ftrength of other grafs fails. All fattening cattle, whether barren cows or oxen, require a proportional progrefiion from coarfer to better food, as they grow more and more into good ficth ; otherwife, when half GrAtT: TRAAKE: half fat, they will frequently go back, and the grazier will not, without great difficulty, be able to raife them again ; which mult be a great lofs. See Grazine. In regard to the fyftem purfued with oxen, they are in molt places, where they are worked, turned off to fattening at two feafons of the year, which, in feveral refpeéts, are very convenient. The firft is about May-day, when the la- bour is pretty well over for the fpring feafon ; the fpring corn being then generally all fown. The fecond is the be- ginning of winter, as, ‘from the firlt of October to the mid- dle of November, when the wheat and winter vetches are moftly put into the ground. In regard to the various kinds of food with which cattle are generally fattened, it may be reduced under the following heads; grals, turuips, grains, wafh from the diftilleries, oil- cakes, corn, cut chaff, and a few other kinds. The fattening cattle, according to Mr. Donaldfon, are ufaally put to grafs in May or June, according to the fea- fon and fituation in regard to climate. The period neceffary for fitting an ox for the butcher depends on feveral circum- {lances ; as the condition he was in when put to grafs, the nature of the pafture, and many others: but’in ordinary cafes, an ox will be completely fatrened in three months. There is, he fays, one method of fattening, connected with the grazing fyftem, that the farmers in England are enabled, from the fuperior excellence of the climate, to adopt with fuccefs, which can never, he thinks, be attempted with pro- priety in Scotland. It is very common, at the clofe of the grafs feafon, when the fattening ftock happens not to be fully in condition for the butchers, to render them fo, by giving them hay two or three times a-day in the field, or in hovels erected for the purpofe, into which they have accefs at pleafure. When turnips are employed for the purpofe of fattening this fort of ftock, efpecially if they are put up to the ftalls in proper condition, which, confidering the feafon of the year (November), muit, with ordinary attention, always be the cafe, from 10 to 13 weeks is fully fufficient to render them fit for market. It is obferved, that the fattening of cattle with grains may, in fome refpeCts, be confidered as a branch of the diltillery bufinefs ; but yet there are fome inftances wherein thofe who cultivate farms praGtife it with a double view of obtaining a profit on the fale of the cattle, and the acquilition of a va- luable treafure of ufeful manure. Mr. Adam, the renter of the farm of mount Nod, nezr Streatham, in the county of Surry, has ereéted a very complete building, for the pur- pole chiefly of fattening cattle on grains. In this building, fays he, may fometimes be feen feveral hundred head of cattle. And the method of fattening cattle with oil-cake, corn, cut chaff, &c. is praétifed in many of the Englifh counties, with a degree of fuccefs fufficient to warrant farmers in other parts of the ifland to follow the fame praétice. The cattle are commonly put up to fatten at the end of the grafs fea- fon. The ufual allowance of oil-cake, after it is broken in a large mortar, or, in the fruit diftri€ts, in a cyder-mill, is about half a peck per day, which is given, one half in the morning, and the other in the evening ; to which is added hay, and in fome cafes ground corn, that is, oats and barley of inferior quality, and cut ttraw, provincially “chaff.” As bullocks fattened in this manner, get regularly five, fome- times fix, meals a-day, it is fufficiently evident that, although it may be upon the whole an expenfive mode of fattening, yet it mult be both expeditious and effectual. But the fub- jet of fattening cattle in the ftall will be fully confidered in another place. See Starr feeding. Mr. Marthall, in fpeaking of a Cotfwold grazier, obferves, that his fattening cattle are ail tied up, fome in fingle, fome in double ftalls. His reafon for this pra€tice is not altoge- ther that of faving room ; he is clearly of opinion that they do better, fat fafter, than bullocks which are kept in loofe flalls. His reafoning is, he thinks, fair. Befides the indif. putable advantage of their not being liable, in this cafe, to foul their meat and water; he holds out another which is not fo obvious, but may neverthelefs, perhaps, be equally true: cattle, which are tied up, are more cadifh (tamer, lefs wild) than thofe which are kept in loofe ftalls. A loofe bullock (fome loofe bullocks at leaft), when a ftranger en- ters the {hed or any difturbance happens in it, will mfe and fly into the yard for refuge; while’a bullock which knows that he has not the power of flight will lie fhill and chaw his cud. Inthe yards, loofe bullocks are equally liable to dif- turbance; and quietnefs is no doubt effential to quick fatten= ing. Each bullock has two troughs, a {mall one for corn, a large one for hay, with a water trough, which runs the whole length of the fhed, and is covered by a board ; each bullock having a hole (large enough to admit the nofe) to drink at. The water trough (a hollow tree) forms, as it were, a top rail to the partition wall of the gangway. The others are beneath it, nearly level with the bed of the ftall. The corn is ground, and given to them, mixed among cut hay, two or three times a day, beginning with half a peck, and increafing to abouta peck a-day. The method of feeding with hay, which, in this inftance, is praCtifed, does, he fays, the practitioner infinite credit. He feeds his bullocks with hay as cart-horfes are ufually fed with corn ; giving it to them by handfuls at once; never more at a time than the two hands can grafp; continuing to feed them in this manner until they lie down, or till they refufe to eat. Thus they never have any hay to blow upon (the great objection againtt ty- ing up bullocks) ; even at night, they have not a mouthful left before them. The leading principle of this pra@tice is, that fattening cattle fhould never be cloyed with food ; but fhould always eat with an appetite. In the morning they are fed with the worlt of hay (if any difference) ; for, being then hungry, they eat it with an appetite. Thus the hay is eaten up clean, andthe bullocks are preferved in a thriv- ing habit ; while the extraordinary expence, where a num- ber of cattle are fatted at once, is inconfiderable. In this cafe it is proper to appropriate a man’s time-to their attend- ance; and he might as well be employed in feeding them by - handfuls, he thinks, until they lie down, as in cloying them with armfuls, and idling the reft of his time away. According to the author of the Agricultural Report of ' Lincolnhire, about Hauckthorn the larger farmers buy in beatts in. autumn, put them to eddifh, and then feed with cake; and fell from Chriftmas to May-day ; this is done for the fake of the dung, and it is thought if that is cleared that it anfwers well. Mr. Thorpe at Kirton, he fays, fattens many beafts every winter on cake; his landlord, Mr. Harrifon, having built him for that purpofe very convenient ftalls, in a double range, with a gangway between their heads. They are in the Hereford ttyle ; the beafts may be loofe or tied ; a pump fupplies water by troughs to ciflerns; the whole well exe- cuted. He has fold beafts from thefe to 381. a head, and fats 40 ina feafon. “Ihe fame farmer has, on his farm at. Owerfby, another bullock-houfe, in the fame form nearly ; here he fats alfo on oil-cake ; but the dearnefs of it induced him to fubftitate lint-feed, boiled and mixed with barley meal ; two quarters of barley, four bufhels of lint-feed ; and mixed, to give cold, in the form of a rich jelly :) this quan- tity will go as far as half a ton of cakes, cofting lefs, when barley is not extravagantly high, that is, 24s. a quarter:— half ~~ e ‘atti! mm, i ee CAT T OE. _ half a peck of lint-feed is boiled in four gallons of water. He inquired of Mr, Thorpe particularly if he had reafons adequate to the expence for not tying beafts in their {talls, inftead of giving them fo much room feparately ; and he is _elear they fatten much better: this neceffity, however, he fays, is not afcertained ; for the queftion can hardly be con- fidered as anfwered in any cafe where a farmer builds and a landlord pays. Mr. Thorpe buys his beafts at Lincoln: he thinks the Holdernefs too big for his purpofe; but there is ‘a very good crofs of long and fhort-horns about Spilfby, -which fatten kindly, and which he likes to buy. He is of opinion, from very confiderable experience, and {peaking of grazing in general, both fummer and winter, that middling fized beats will pay better than large ones, for inftance two of 50 ftone will anfwer better than one of 100; they do not teke fo much food to bring them to their weight ; and will do on worfe palture. It is added, that at Knaith, in the fame county, where the pafture is not of the firft quality, Mr. Dalton has fat- tened Teefwater beafts to 130 itone, at feven years old, and gaye only half a ton of cake to each. He prefers this breed to any other he has tried. His beafts of 80 ftone will be fat at five years from grafs, without any cake; and his regular return is feven a year, at four years old. The cows are - good milkers in their own country, but here are not equal to Lincolns. He is of opinion, in relation to the fize of tat- tening animals, that an ox of 80 or $5 ftone will not eat more than one of 50, and his bailiff thinks he will not cat fo much. At Bankfide, Mr. Webfter feeds his cows, and his team horfes, with fteamed turnips and cut chaff, with great fuccefs. Mr. Ellifon, at Sudbrook, buys in about 30 bullocks annually; from April to Midfummer; which are put to grafstill a fortnight after old Michaelmas; then he places part in ftalls, and part remains in grafs ti!l near Chriftmas.— In the ftalls, he feeds with cake and hay; they eat about 24 cakes a day, at 7lb. each, and about half a ton of hay each bealt; and are up about ro weeks, fome 12. They were bought in at 151. cach (1788) : and fold at about 261. In ge- neral, he reckons them to pay 1ol each, which anfwers well. He prefers the fhort-horned breed, and has tried long-horned Cravens, but they did not anfwer at all. His bailiff choofes the fineft boned ones he can get, clean heads and muz- zles, wide in the hips, out in the ribs, and deep in the fore quarter. The greateft fault in the Lincoln fhort-horns is, he thinks, being thin in the backs and chines ; it 1s not uni- verfal, but very common; but upon the whole they fatten kindly. He obferves, that the oil-cake dung is uncommonly rich, fo as by mixing to make the ftraw dung excellent. Mr. Moody, of Rifeholm, fattens many beafts upon oil-cake, even as far as buying 100 tons of cake in a year. He keeps them loofe in a {traw yard, and finds them do well without any hay, giving ftraw only in addition ; and has fold beaits thus fed at 4o guineas. The duke of Ancafter fattens many beafts; he buys in from Candlemas to Midfuinmer generally Scotch and Welth bullocks of from 34 to 5¢ tone, fjometimes larger ; {ells fat from Midfummer to December. He gives on an average, for the two lalt {prings, 81. Ss. or Ul. each, and felis at 13]. to 171. ‘They are kept through the winter in the park, and go off at Midfummer, twelve months after. They have no fodder, except in a blait. North Wales, Pembroke, and Highland Scots, are found very little different in advantage ; the Welth grow rather more, and come to greater weight. The Fifes grow more than any, when they happen to be bought, bet they require foddering. itis obferved by the author of the Rural Economy of orfolk, that the practice of fattening bullocks on turnips is now beginning to obtain in every part of the kingdom ; but it may be faid to.be ftill in a tlate of infancy every where except in Norfolk; therefore an accurate account of the practice of this parent country cannot fail of being nfeful to every other turnip-land ditti@. Impreffed with this idea, he fpared no pains, nor let flip any opportunity of making himfelf acquainted with the fubje&t. The only fpe- cies of cattle fatted in Eaft Norfolk, he fays, may be faid to be the home-breeds and Scots. Some Ivith beafts have at: different times, but not regularly, been brought into the country, and have generally done very well. In Weit Nor- folk, great numbers of Lincolnthire and Yorkhhire oxen were formerly, and fome few, he believes, are now fattened; but in this diftri€t they have always been confidered as much in- ferior to the Scotch and home-bred ftock. Home-breds confit of fteers, {payed heifers, open heifers, barren cows, and running calves. he laft is a fpecies of fattening cattle pe- culiar, perhaps, to this country. They are calves which are fuffered to run with their dams until they be a twelyemonth or more old; the cow being all the while at head-keep, of which the calf partakes, as well as of the mill of its dam: while herfelf, in the mean time, generally gets fat enough to be fent to Smithfield with her calf (perhaps as heavy as her- felf) by her fide. The Scotch cattle fatted in Norfolk con- filt of Galloway Scots, other Lowland Scots, Highlanders, and thofe of che [fleofSkye. ‘Phe Galloway Scotislarge, thick, fhort-legzed, moftly hornlefs, and of a black or brindled co- Jour; the flefh well grained, and the form altogether beautiful, chine full, back broad and level, quarter long and full at the nache, round barrel, deep girt, and the bone, head, and chap,. in general, fine. This, he apprchends, is the genuine origi- nal Galloway Scot, and a principal. part of the bullocks brought into Norfolk under that name is of this defcrip- tion; but the droves are generally adulterated with a mon- grel fort, the produce of a crofs with the long-horned breed. ‘This fpecies of adultery, he remarks, is faid to be committed and encouraged by the nobility and landed gentlemen of the counties they are bred in; but the fact appears to be, that they have already one of the fineft- breeds of cattle in the world upon their eftates; and it behoves them to hand it down to polterity as pure at leaft as they received it. In this age of improvement it might be laudable, he fays, to endeavour to improve it to the utmoft; not, however, by foreign admixtures, but by giving the moit beautiful females to the moft beautiful males of their own breed. They ap- pear to him to have much to lofe, but nothing to gain, from croffing, not even with the prefent long-horned breed of the inland counties. This {pecies of Scotch cattle appears, he fays, to be originally of the county of Galloway, which forms the fonthern extremity of Scotland; but they are now, it is faid, propagated in other parts of the Lowlands, efpecially in the rich land counties of Lothian, in the neigh- bourhood of Edinburgh. He has known them fattened to So ftone, and has been informed, from authority which he has no reafon to doubt, that they have even reached near 100 ftone, of 14 pounds each. Lowland Scots are the ordinary breed of black cattle in the Lowland counties, fize below the Galloways, and appear to be a mixture between thefe and the Highland Scots. Sixty ftone is a good weight for a Lowland Scot. In form and inclination to fat they partake of the’ Galloway breed ; the former, however, is {eldom fo near perfection as that of the true Galloway Scot. Lowland Scots are fome of them horned, fome of them polled ; their colour black, or brindled, or dun. . The Highland Scots feem to be a diftinst breed. The fize is beneath that of the Lowland Scots; 40 to so ftore is the ordinary weizht of a Highland Scot. In form, flefh, and fattening quality the Hiyhlanders refemble much the Galloway Scots, except that their backs in general are coarfer, ¢ A. T TA. E. coarfer, their bone proportionably larger, and in that they have in general, but not always, horns of the middle fize, and moftly bent upward, like thofe of the Welfh cattle, but finer. In general appearance there is a ftrong refemblance (their horns apart) between the Highland Sects and the black cattle of North Wales; but with refpeé to flefh and fattening quality, the main objeéts, the comparifon is greatly in favour of the Scotch breed, which the gentlemen of North Wales are faid to fetch annually out of Scotland, or to buy them up at the Englifh fairsto be fattened for theirown tables. Thofe of the Ifle of Skye appear to be only a variety of the Highland breed, contracted by foil or climature, or both. They are, in point of fize, the loweft in the gradation ; but with regard to flefh and fattening, and growth while fatten- ing, they may be faid to {tand foremott. He has known an Ifle of Skye Scot bought at 24 years old, for lefs than 4os., reach, in about 20 months, to 45 flone. At that age, fays he, their growch in England is altonithing ; owimg, perhaps, not more to their nature than to a change of climature anda -change of food. Much, however, depends upon their age. If they be intended for immediate fattening, the age of four yearsis the mof{t proper. An Ifle of Skye or a Highland Seot at two or three years will grow, but he will not fatten; at five or fix he will fatten, but he will not grow, while fattening, equal toa four-year-old bullock. At this age the weight of Iile af Skye Scots, when fat, varies from 29 to 4o ftone. Thefe are the four fpecies or varieties of cattle which are brought by the Scotch drovers to the Norfolk fairs. and which are bought up and fattened by the Norfolk farmers under the foregoing names. A comparative flatement of the procefs, expence, and profit attending the fattening of three different kinds of Scotch cattle grazed in Norfolk, is given by Mr. Burton in the Aopendix to the Agricultural Report of that county. The firit is a bullock bought at St. Faith’s ‘for about gi. turned of four years cld, in fuch condition as is fit to be put immediately to turnips. This buileck is fuppofed tobe brought to from 50 to 52 tone. He is put to turnips for about 24 wecks, the average expence of which, incliding turnips, carriage, and attendance, and in cafe of bad weather, when a little hay is ufually given, be- fides the ilraw, cannot be reckoned lefs than 45. per week ; this brings him to 13]. 16s.: and fuch a ballock generally wiil fetch about 5s. Gd. per fone of r4lb. which amounts to 14]. 16s. he fecond bulluck is bowsht quite lean, about the fame time as the former, for about 61. and is a year younger than the former. He is firlt put into ftubble or ordinary grafs till the ttraw-yard is open, and then he is put to ftraw at night, and eats the oflal turnips after the:better bealts in the day-tine; his keep in this way 24 weeks, till May-day, may be fet at is. 6d. per week ; he fhould then be put to marfh, or into good palture, uilta fortnight after Michaelmas, which, fay 2S wecks, at 2s. 3d. per week, is 3l. 3s.; he then goes to turnips, hke the former bullock, for 8 weeks, at 35. which is rl. 4s.; his aggregate charge is then 12]. 3s, His weigat may be expected to be 44 ttone, and walae a2i. 2s. Uhe third is fuppofed to be purchafed at Harlelton, in December, a Jean bealt of the fame age asin the firlt cafe, at 7]. which goes immediately to ttraw and oifal-turnips for about 8 weeks, atis.6d. which is 12s.; then goes to full keep- ing at turnips by day, and lies in the ftraw-yard at night, for about 10 weeks, at 2s. 6d. which is 11. 5s. It is then put into the fecond year’s lay, or good palture, till harvett, for about 20 wecks, at 3s. per week, which beings itto rl. 175.3 it willthen have attained in general about 46 itone, at 5s. Gd. which will amount to 121. 13s. On this it isremarked, that the firlt dedu@tion to be drawn is that the firlt pays 10 per cent. intereft upon the capital laid out, as well as a fair, priee for every thing that it con- r fumes. That the fecond returns no intereft for the original coft, but pays a fair price for what it confumes. That the — third pays 15 per cent. for the original fum laid out, befides paying asthe others for what is confumed. It is obvious that in this fyftem the principal advantage isin the large fup- ; ply of dung that 1s raifed. . "The author of Modern Agriculture has well obferved, that, 3 confidering the early period at which the cattle of this 4 country are generally flaughtered, it is not now of fo much importance to lay down rules whercby to afcertain their age with precifion, yet in many cafes it muft prove ufeful. The age of cattle, like that of horfes, is difcermble by their teeth. They lofe the firlt fore-teeth at the age of 10 or rz months; || thefe are replaced by others of a larger fize, and when about _ a year and a haif old, the teeth next to thofe in the middie drop out. ‘Thefe are alfo replaced by others; and at the age of three years the others are renewed in like manner, | They then appear white, even, and regular, and pretty long, | becoming gradually black. unequal,’aud fhort, as the animal advances in age. Another mark by which to determine the t age of cattle, is the appearance of the horn. Cattle fhed : their horns at the end of three years; and towards the root of the iecond fet of horns there*is a kind of ring or joint, — formed every year that the animal lives afterwards; fo that, { reckoning three years for the top or plain part of the horn, and one. for every iterval between the rings or joints, the — moit ignorant perfon may, with confiderable certainty, afcere tain the age of any ox or cow that has horns. See Ace of i Neat Cattle. The difeafes of cattle make the fubjeét of that art, called 7) by che ancients malo medicina, and veteratoria ; and by us | farrying. | The ancient riches confifted wholly in the number of — cattle; whence it is {uppofed to be, that the Romans called money by a name formed from that of cattle; pecunia from pects. By the 6th article cf the Union, no Scots cattle brought | i into England fhall be liable to any other duties befides thofe to which cattle of England are liable. 5 Ann. c.S. By 5 Geo. IIT. c. 10. made perpetual by 16 Geo. IIT. ¢. 8. forts of cattle may be imported from Ireland duty free. By 5 Geo. II. c. 43. Baltials may be freely imported from ci Ifte of Man. ‘ Factors, and thofe who fell cattle for others, are prohibited to buy any ox, fleer, runt, cow, heifer, or calf, and to fell — the fame again alive in the fame market or fair ;-on pain of forfeiting double value, half to the king, and half to him who fhall fue, Stat. 3 and 4 Edw. VI c.19. 3 Chil. c.g. 7 See Drovers. Stealing of cattle, or killing them with an intent to fteal any part of the carcafes, or affilting in fuch offences, are now made felony without benefit of clergy. See 14 Geo. IT. c.6. and 15 Geo. Il. c. 34. By cattle, in this aét is to be underftood any bull, cow, — ox, iteer, bullock, heifer, calf, fheep, and lamb, and no other cattle whatever. Stat. 13 and 16 Geo. II. ¢. 34. And every perfon who (hall apprehend and profecute to conviétion any offender, fhall have rol. reward. See alfo Brack 4a. Cattrre Farm, in Agriculture, is that fort of farm in _ which the principal object ofthe occupier is the profit of live flock in fome way or other. And from the different modes in which advantage 1s derived from this kind of ftock, it is obvions that they muit be of feveral different kinds, as breeding farms, where the chief objeét is that of raifing young animals of the feveral kinds for the purpofe of fale, dairy farms, in which the main object is that of either milk, butter, or cheefe, or the two latter ; the firit fort being fome- times called cow-farms; grazing farms, when the chief point CATTLE-SHED. point is the fattening of different forts of animals for the butcher; and fuckling farms, as where the principal point of attention is the fattening of calves for the market. See Farm. Carrre-Suep, in’ Rural Economy, is that fort of erection which is made ufe of for the purpofe of containing cattle while feeding or otherwife. Houfes of this kind are mott readily and cheaply conftructed when placed againft other buildings or offices, and are of very different forms according to circumftances and fituations. This fort of buildings may be ufed as cow-houfes or feed- ing-houfes, being built to anfwer either one purpofe or the other, and they are either fingle or double: in the latter way a great many cattle may be accommodated at a very {mall expence. _ The principal requifites in thefe buildings are, according to Mr, Beatfon, the following: ‘¢ ft. That they be capable of being well aired. 2. That they are fo conitructed as to require the leaft poffible labour in feeding the cattle and clearing away the dung. 3. That the flalls. be fo'formed as to keep the cattleas diy and clean as poffiblejwwith fufficient drains to carry away, and refervoirs to collect the urine and dung. . He obferves, with regard to the firft requifite, that a free ventilation is as neceffary in thefe buildings as in ftables. How often do we fee, fays he, on entering a houfe where there area good many cattle or cows, moft of them, perhaps, in the higheit ftate of perfpiration, and fmoking as if they had becn at the hardeft labour? at the fame time the whole timbers of the roof are completely wet by the con- denfed fumes arifing from the heat and breath of the cattle. “This can only happen in clofe buildings, which muft un- doubtedly be extremely unwholefome ; and, he fuppofes, mutt prevent the cattle thriving fo well as they might other- *wifedo. To a feeder of cattle, fays he, who looks eagerly forward to the profits he is to reap, and who eftimates every additional pound of weight that a bullock ought to take on each day, it would be well worth his attention to confider, whether any bullock, ina perfpirating ftate, can fatten fo well as when kept in a proper degree of temperature. He thinks ic ftands to reafon he cannot. When fuch buildings are in the form of fheds, they are not fo liable to this want of ventilation; but wherever the timbers above appear wet ' by the heat and per{piration of the cattle, it is an evident proof there fhould be fome additional air-holes, which, in his humble opinion, ought principally to be in the roof, as re- commended for ftables. If there are gable ends, they fhould, he thinks, have a window in each, as high up as poflible, with moveable boards, as in granary windows, which may, by means of a cord or {mall rod, be eafily opened or fhut at pleafure. The advantages of this free and wholefome venti- ation to the cattle mutt be very evident, and alfo to the pre- fervation of the timbers of the building ; for where the tim- bers are often wet in this manner, they cannot be of long duration, confequently the expence of repairing or renewing them would be greatly increafed. With refpect to the fecond qualification, there are many different conltruétions of thele buildings, but chiefly in the interior parts. ‘In many (he obferves) the cattle are faftened to flakes ranged along the wall at the diftance of about three feet from each other, with a fpace of 18 or 20 inches between the wall and the ftakes to lay their food in. This 3s a very general conftruction in many parts of the country ; but it is fomewhat remarkable (be fays) in this as well as in many other things, that the plan molt generally followed is the wery worit that could have been thought of : according to this eonitruction, except fometimes, when the cattle are fed from without, the feeder is obliged to go in among them to give Vor. VII. them their food, which occafionsa great wafte of time as. well as being attended with many other inconve- niences. No conltru€tion can, he fuppofes, be more com- modious than when a fufficient {pace is left beforg the cattle, for the feeder to go with a large wheelbarrow to diftribute their food. This may (he thinks) be obtained, either in fingle fheds, or in double ones, by making the cattle face each other, and leaving a free {pace of about four feet to admit a wheel-barrow,”’ in the foddering of them. He adds that the fingle ones may be formed as in Plate IV. fig. 3, Agriculture, in which A is the paflage-before the cattle, B the rack for their hay or ftraw, Ca place for laying fodder or litter in occafionally. Or it ray be con- ftructed as in fir. 4. D the paflage, E a perpendicular rack behind which are thin deals all along in the pofition F, for laying the hay upon; and under I" is a {quare hole G, oppolite each ftall, through which the cattle are fed from the paflage D. This is a very good cenflru@ion for this fort of {hed, and is taken from the new offices of Mr. Bifh- ton’s, of Kilfal in Shropfhire, where economy in labour and convenience have been much attended to. Double fheds may be conftruéted as in fig. 5, in which A is the pafflage ; B,B are the ftakes to which the cattle are bound; C,C are pofts or pillars to fupport the roof. It might, he thinks, be an improvement here to adopt Mr. Bifhton’s plan, and make fimilar racks, with holes below, as is fhewn in fig. 4. Another way of conftru€ting thele doubie fheds is fhewn in fig. 6, by which a very conve- nient loft may be obtained in the roof. A is the paflage be- tween the cattle, and B the loft above, which, if clole boarded, may ferve many ufeful purpofes. Thefe double fheds are, Mr. Beatfon fuppofes, perhaps the beft conftruc- tion for feeding-houfes, being not only the moft commodious, but requiring lefs building for the fame number of cattle’ than by having them all to face one way. [t is juftly remarked, by the fame writer, that where cat- tle are fed from the outfide through holes left for that pur- pofe, many inconveniences may arife, either in wet weather or ina fevere froft, or by a heavy fall of fnow. When they are fed within, no fort of weather can occafion any interrup- tion, efpecially if there is a proper place adjoining, to kee the provender in fecurity and under cover. In fingle fheds, it would be convenient to have a place above the cattle, as at B, fig. 6. for holding occafionally fome hay or ftraw. This place might be boarded, and made to open from without by covers {ufpended on hinges, which, when opened, will afford an eafy accefs for putting in the fodder from a cart. It would there lie ready for the feeder to throw into the racks when required. The roofis in this cafe to be fupported by poits or pillars about three or four feet high, on the top of the wall, and placed about eight or ten feet diftant from each other, asat A, A,A, &c. fig. 1. in Plate V. B,B,B, &c. are the hinges of the covers, and C,C,C, &c. the rings to raife them up. D is one of the cavers open, which may be held up in various ways, as by a catch, I’, fig. 2. moveable ona {mall iron pin, the heavieft end, E, being within the fixed boards, and I’ without to catch in a hole in the cover, when opened. ; ; In the third place, great attention is, he fays, neceflary to keep cattle clean and dry. ‘The common method of taking away the dung in wheelbarrows is attended with a good deal of labour, and where there are many cattle or cows will re- quire perhaps feveral men’s attendance. If this labour can, therefore, be abridged, and one or two men’s work faved by a proper conftruction of Sabena it will be a great advan- tage. This fhould be confidered in the original defign be- fore the building is begun, and muft be determined in a great Ss meafure CATTUESHEYD. meafure by the form and fituation of the ground. Ifa pro- per receptacle can eafily be had immediately behind the cat- tle, for throwing in the dung at once with a fhovel, without wheeling it, this would be the eafieft way, and will not only fave trouble and expence, but if properly contrived, the dung will be the better for it. By the common method, the dung is, he fays, in general fo fcat- tered about, and expofed to the weather, that a great part of its virtues is exhaled and loft; a matter of great im- portance tothe farmer; for it is not’merely the quantity, but the quality alfo of dung that is to be confidered. To preferve dung under cover would be attended with an expence in the contlruGtion of a proper place, that perhaps few would chofe to go to; at the fame time, there is no object of more confequence to the farmer than preferving the quality of his manure. ‘ ; It is added that the facility of keeping cattle clean and dry, depends very much on the conftru€tion and paving of the ftalls, of which there are various kinds. In many places, however, there is no fuch thing known as a ftall for cows or oxen, they being bound to ftakes, without any divifion whatever betwixt them. In fome parts again, particularly in Chefhire and Lancafhire, he obferves cows are bound in pairs, at leaft there is but a very fmall divifion betwixt them, as will be feen by_fig. 3. in Plate V. in which isa plan of thefe ftalls; A.A,A, &c. being the ftakes to which the cows are bound. In other parts they are not bound at all, but every cow or ox hasa feparate “ftall fo divided from the reft by rails of wood, that they cannot get out, and fo narrow that they cannot even turn about. At fg. 4. isa plan of thefe ftalls; S,S,S, &c. are the ftalls. Pis the paflace betwixt them ; T,T, &c. are the troughs out of which the cattle feed: At Jig. 5. i an elevation of the rear of thefe ftalls. RR is a rail that lifts out at the end of each ftall. Sometimes there is a little door that opens, asat G. ig. 6. is a feétion of thefe ftalls, in which it will be obferved there is a fhort rail or brace at A, to prevent the cattle touching each other with their horns. Seme people are of opinion, that cattle feed much better and quicker in ftalls of this kind than when they are bound. It is fuppofed that double ftalls may be made without the fhort divifion, as already mentioned. The divifion between them, however, ought to be fufficiently boarded at the top, to prevent the cattle feeing their neighbours in the next ftall. At each ftake fhould be a trough for holding meat, and between thefe two troughs, another common to both cattle, for holding water, with which it may be fupplied by a pipe communicating with a ciftern or refervoir without. Thefe three troughs may be of ftone, as in fg. 7. and all of one piece, if thought proper. A perpendicular rack for holding hay or ftraw may be placed over them, as reprefented in fig. 8, which is a fection or view of one of the ftalls, and jig. 3,is a plan, Perhaps it would be an improvement to divide them by a rail in the middle, as at AB, fig. 7. which would prevent the cattle turning too much about, and {preading their dung over the whole ftall, for the more they are made to dung in the fame place, the eafier it will be to keep them clean. But although the double ftalls here re- commended are a good deal ufed for milch cows in different parts of England, yet they have in general only one trough tor each cow, without any for water ; nor indeed has he feen any with this conveniency, except at Burleigh, in Rutland- fhire, a feat of the earl of Winchelfea, where offices and farm-houfes are on an excellent con{truction, being planned chiefly by himfelf. In paving ftalls for cattle, the fame author remarks, “ that there is generally too great a declivity made, which will § caufe them always to ftand uneafy and uncomfortable ; for, when feeding, there cannot be too much attention paid to their eafe and comfort, as well as to their food. 1f they are conftantly wet and dirty, or in pain by ftanding in an un- natural pofition, it is impoffible they can thrive fo well as otherwife they might. -Yet (fays he) how little attention is there in general paid to this. One would almoft be led to fuppofe it is the opinion of many, that if they ftuff their cattle quite full of food, whatever may be its quality, it is all that is neceflary. Sometimes they are chained fo clofe to a flake that they can hardly move, nay, it is a pra€tice in fome places to falten their heads between two ftakes, by which they can neither lie down in comfort nor can they have it in their power to deftroy or diflodge thofe tealing tormenting vermin which frequently prey upon them. Befides this, they are often fuffered to be befmeared on the back, and either fmok- ing with heat for want of ventilation, or thivering with cold. No animal can thrive well under fuch mifmanagement, Jet his focd be ever fo plentiful, or of ever fo good a quality ; for, as an ingenious author fays; to keep cattle clean and well littered, is to them half food. Cows are more eafily kept clean than oxen, for they do not wet their ftalls fo much ; but even oxen, when confined to ftand nearly in the fame place, cannot wet their ftall above half way up, if pro- perly conftructed, and that generally about the middle. It is therefore clear, that if the moiflure is immediately con- ducted away, and prevented from fpreading, the ox will be eafily kept dry. The beit way to do this is, (he thinks) in the manner defcribed for paving the ftalls of ftables.”? See STABLE. The ftalls of oxen or other cattle fhould, he fays, “be paved in the fame manner; but as their dung is of a more liquid nature than that of horfes, it would be proper to have fome commodious method to carry it off. Perhaps in fome fituations, where there is a proper declivity, this might be done by having an iron grating behind each ox or cow, immediately over the ftall drain, and as nearly as can be judged to the place where the dung will drop, which by con- tinuing the drain, or a wooden fpout, to a pit or refervoir without, and giving it a fufficient flope, will, with the affitance of the other moifture, run and empty itfelf therein. If it fhould require the aid of a rake or hoe fitted to the drain, that may be eafily applied, efpecially if thofe drains are made open and covered with a ftrong plank to take up when neceflary. The moift dung being thus carried away, the remainder will be eafily removed.—Something of this principle, fuited properly to the fituation of the place, would, (he thinks) fave a great deal of labour, and very much facili- tate the keeping of the cattle clean, and alfo be the mears of faving a great deal of litter when fearce or dear. The ad- vantage of proper drains to carry off the moifture from with- in the offices, and refervoirs for colle&ting it in, are therefore very obvious, as without fuch drains it cannot be expected that the offices or the cattle within them can be kept fuffi- ciently dry.” . But though thefe forms and modes of conftru@ing cat- tle-fheds and feeding-houfes are, probably, the moft fre- quently met with in different parts of the kingdom, they are often built on other places and in other forms, fuch as the circular and long fquare ; the firft of which, though ra- ther more expenfive in the conftrution, is probably the moft economical in refpeét to labour, and the mott convenient in the diitribution of the food, efpecially where a great num- ber of cattle are to be kept. In this cafe, the animals, con- trary to the ufual method, ftand all round having their tails to the out wall, by which much convenience is afforded in throwing out the dung through crevices left for the purpofe ; in CAT jn the wall into covered pits made on the outfide in order to receive it. "(he area or {pace within is converted to the ufe of feeding and attendance. There fhould be a room above in order to {tore up different forts of food that may be wanted for the animals, to renderthe plan complete. The paflage or gangway next the wall is left fufficiently large to permit the cattle to pafs to and from their ftalls; and the openings in the wall for the difcharge of the dung fhould be {, contrived as to be capable of being (hut up when the wea- ther is fevere. The long fquare likewife admits of much room and con- venience, and is a form in which many houfes of this de- feription have lately been erected. For this fort of fhed the lenoth of fifty or fixty feet affords room for a great number of cattle 3 the roof being made fhelving, having the height of fourteen feet in the highett part and fix or feven in the loweit; the large place deftined for the reception of the cattle being feparated from that where the dung is to be depofited by a wall or fome other convenient divifion. Tor the former the {pace of eighteen. or twenty feet on the infide is fufficient to afford good room, the ftalls being made each about twelve feet long, having the width of four feet, or four feet and a half ; the gangways at the heads and behind the cattle being made three feet, or three feet anda half in breadth, doors being fixed to each, one for the admiffion of the animals, and the otber for that of the perfons who attend them. And when the buildings are of great length, it may be convenient to have doors at each end. ‘There fhould likewife be troughs in each ftall for the reception of water, which, where it can be made to run through them, is of great advantage ; and boxes or mangers for particular forts of food, as well as racks for hay, are alfo neceflary to render them complete. The bot- toms of the ftalls may be formed of {trong planking laid fo as to have a very flight defcent, and be perforated with holes for the ready paflage of the urine into the refervoir for it. There fhould be openings made in the wall behind the cattle, for the purpofe of difcharging the dung, between every two ftalls of about two feet fquare, with proper fhutters fitted to them; and alfo a wooden window of about the fame fize to each ftall, to admit light and free ventilation, being placed as hizh as the honfe or fhed will admit. The refervoir for the dung and urine fhould extend the whole length of the fhed or building. i ; A fhed on this plan has been found ufeful in practice by a erfon who has beltowed much attention on the convenience of this fort of farm building. See Cow- Hon/e. CATTU-GASTURI, in Botany, Rheed. Mal. Hisiscus abelmofchus. CATTUPHUS, or Cossopnus, in /chthyology, a name given by Ariltotle and other Greek writers to a {pecizs of ‘Labrus ofa bluifh black colour; the meruta, and Turpus nicricans of fome Latin authors. It is rather uncertain which of the Linnean fpecies is intended by thofe writers. CATTUS, or Catus, cathoufe, was in ancient hiftory a fort of covered fhed, fometimes fixed on wheels for the pur- pofe of moving it, in fome refpeéts fimilar to the vinea and luteus. CATTU-SCHIRAGAM, in Botany, Rheed. “Mal. See Conyza anthelmintica. CATTUSE, in Geography, a town of America, in the ftate of Georgia; 12 miles W. of Tugeloo. CATTU-TIRPALI, in Botany, Rheed. Mal. Piper /ongum. CATUDAL, in Ancient Geography, a’ name given by Suidas to thofe who dug their habitations under ground ; {uch were the Troglodytes. CATUIACA, erroneoufly written catoluca, carluce, a See See CAT place of Gallia Narbonnenfis, between Alaunium and Apta Julia, according to the Itinerary of Antonine. : CATULENSIS, an epifcopal fee of Africa, in Mauri- tania Ceefarienfis. CATULLI-POLA, in Botany, Rheed. Mal. See PancraTium xeylanicum. CATULLUS, Carus Vauertus, in Biography, an eminent Latin poet, was defcended from reputable parent- age, and born at or near Verona, about the year of Rome 668, B.C. 86. At Rome, where he fettled at an early age, he formed an intimate acquaintance with fome of the principal perfons in that city, as Cicero, Cinna, and Plancus, to whom he recommended himfelf by his wit and gaiety, and by the beauty of his poetical compofitions, the ob{cenity and lafcivioufnefs of which feemed to have been no great. hindrance to his reception among the ancient Romans. In fome of his poems he attacked the private charaéter of Cxfar with feverity ; but a flight apology effected a reconciliation; and Catullus was again admitted to his table. Although he accompanied the praetor Memmius to Bithynia, Rome {eems to have been the place of his tated refidence ; where he lived under the character of 2 wit and a man of pleafure. He poflefled, however, afmall villa at Tibur, whither he oc- cafionally retired for relaxation, and he alfo {peaks with an amiable enthufiafm of his paternal feat on the peninfula of Scrinio, delightfully feated on the lake Benacus. He was much attached to a miltrefs, whom he has rendered immortal by the name of Lefbia, though her real name was Clodia. That the unreftrained lbertinifm of Catullus had not ex- tinguifhed in his breaft the amiable feelings of fraternal love and friendfhip, we have fufficient evidence in the tender lines which he addreffed to a friend on the death of a brother. The Eufebian chronicle has placed the death of Catullus in the year of Rome 696, B.C. 58; but as he alludes in a poem (Carm. ii.) to the confulate of Vatinius, in 707, he mult have furvived that period. In Blair’s tables his death is placed in the year of Rome 714, B.C. 40. Jofeph Sca- liger extends his life to 71 years, and confequently refers his death to the year of Rome 739, B. C. 15 ; but Mr. Bayle has examined his arguments for this date and refuted them. The rank of one of the principal Latin poets is afligned to Catullus by Ovid, who places him on a parallel with Virgil: ‘* Mantua Virgilio gaudet, Verona Catullo.”? Amor. I. iii. el. 15. Martial alfo acquiefces in the fame opinion; (lib. xiv. Ep. 195.), and modern critics reckon him one of the molt valuable examples of the golden age of pure Latinity. “ He isthe earlieft remaining writer who gives {pecimens of a great variety of meafures; and his fubjeéts and ftyles of writing are almoft equally various. His peculiar exce'lence is thought to confilt in the {weet and tender, combined with a fort of playful fimplicity, and no pieces have been more frequently repeated than fome of his fhort tributes of affec- tion to Lefbia. They have, indeed, by their endearing di- minutives, ferved as a model to a whole clafs of imitators. In other compofitions Catullus aims at a higher flight, and exhibits much ftrength of imagination and expreflion, not without fome of the harfhnefs of a mode of verfification not yet arrived at its due polifh and correctnefs. His epigram- matic picces are of various characters ; but fuch are the licen. tioufnefs of idea and freedom of language in molt of them, that nothing can be more offenfive to moral purity.” His amorous poems are likewife often in the extreme of warmth.’? OF his works we have extant, his ‘* Liber Epigrammatum variorumque Poematum,”’ dedicated to Cornelius Nepos. His poems are divided into a books, one of lyrics, another 2 of CIA of clegies, anda third of epigrams, which divifion appears in the edition of Venice, 1487, fol. The moft approved editions of Catullus are thofe of Voffius, Lond. 1684, 4to. with a commentary, and Utr. 16913 of Vulpius, Patav. 1710, 4to. with annotations and an index; of Corradini, Venet. 1738; the “ Variorum,” by Grevius, with the poems of Tibullus and Propertius, Utr. 1680; and Mattaire’s, in 1715, I2mo., andin the Corpus Poetarum, with Tibullus and Propertius, Lond. 1713, fol. A correct edition was printed a few years ago by an alderman of London ; but not fold; and in 1795 was publifhed. an Englifh tranflation, entitled <* The Poems of Caius Valerius Catullus, in En- glifh verfe, with the Latin text revifed, and claflical notes ;”’ prefixed to which are engravings of Catullus and his friend Cornelius Nepos, 2 vols. I'abr. Bib. Lat.T. 1. c. 5. p. 60. &c. Nouv. Dié&. Hilt. Gen. Di&t. Gen. Biog. CATULUS, in Schthyolozy, a name by which old au- thors have defcribedthe fpotted dog-fifh, sguaLus GATULUS of Linneus, which fee. CATURIGES, in Ancient Geography, a Celtic people, who inhabited the mountains of Gallia Lyonnenfis, or the Cottian Alps ; placed by Ptolemy between Ebrodunum and Vapincum. The country which they oceupied was called in Latin © Cottii regnum,”? and in) Celtic ‘¢ Cou-rich,”’ or * Catterich.”” Caruricrs, or Caruaica, a town of Gallia Lyonnen- fis, and the capital of the Caturiges, between Ebrodunum and Vapincum, according to the Itinerary of Antonine and the table of Peutinger, who names it Caturigomagus ;” its modern name is thought to be Chorges. CATURIGIS, a place of Gaul in Belgica Prima, N.W. of Nafium, on the route to Durocortorum. _ CATURRACTONIUM, a town of the Brigantes in Britain, which was unquettionably the prefent Cattarick near Richmond, in Yorkfhire. In the time of the Romans it ap- pears to have been a great city; and feems to have derived its name from a fort of cataraét in its vicinity. Here one of | the Roman highways croffed the river Swale. On its banks are the foundations of large walls, and a mount caft up to a great height. Many Roman coins and urns have been dug up here. The city was finally deftroyed by the Danes. CATURUS, in Botany, Linn. Mant. Clafs and order, wate triandria. Nat. Ord. Tricocce, Linn. Euphorbia, uff. Gen. Ch. Male. Ca/. tubular, three-cleft to the middle, vor three-leaved, permanent ; fegments egg-fhaped, acute, concave. Cor. none. Stam. filaments three, capillary, longer than the calyx; anthers roundwh. Female. Cal. from one to three-leaved ; leaves egg-fhaped, flat, permanent. Cor. none. Piff. germ villous; ftyles three, long, multifid, pinnated, coloured, {tigmas acute. Peric. capfule roundith, tricoccous, three-celled. Seeds folitary, round, 5 Sp. 1. C. fpicifforus, Linn. Mant. Mart. Lam. Illutt. Pl. 805. (Acalypha hifpida, Burm. Flor. Ind. 303. tab. 6r. fig.z. Watta-Vali, Rheed. Mal. 5. p.63. tab. 32. Cauda felis agreir alba, Rumph. Amb. 4. p: 84. tab. 37. fig. 2.) ‘* Spikes axillary, folitary, pendulous.” A fhrub.. Stem from 15 to 20 feet high; wood white and clofe; bark thick, dufky, unctuous, inodorous ; pith yellow. Branches diffufe.. Leaves alternate, petioled, nearly heart-fhaped, acute, bright green above; midrib pale, hairy, with a few lateral nerves. //owers in axillary, folitary, hifpid, pendu- lous fpikes ; but, according to Burman, the {pikes in moft of the plants brought from the ifland of Java are not pen- dulous. Fruit round, yellowith-green, infipid. A. native of 6 CAT the aft Indies, where a conferve of the flowers is ufed in diarrhoea, and all diforders ariling froma laxity of the veffels, From a comparifon of Rumphius’s figures in tab. 36:and 37. with thofe of Rheede and Burman, La Marck fufpects that feveral. fpecies are confounded together. 2. C. /candens, Mart. Lour. Coch. 612. ‘‘ Spikes axillary, upright; leaves oblong, fomewhat ferrated ; item climbing.”” An unarmed fhrub. Stem long, branched, climbing, but without tendrils, Leaves alternate, acuminate, veined, imooth. /owers very {mall, white, in clofe fhort fpikes, with awl-fhaped braétes ; calyx of the male flower three-leaved. A native of the woods of Cochinchina. Catuxus ramiflorus, Linn. Lam. ora. CATUS, in Geography, a town of France, in the departe ment of the Lot, and chief place of a canton in the diltriét of Cahors; 24 leagues N.N.W.of Cahors. The place con- tains 1344, and the canton 9907 inhabitants ; the territory includes 200 kiliometres and 10 communes. Carus pardys, in Zoology. See Fexis pardalis. Carus xibethicus, a name given by fome old writers to the civet, viVERR« civeffa of modern naturalilts ; called alfo by Gefner and others felis zibethi. The Englith name is civet, this being the animal which produces the perfume of that name: it ts oftentimes, though improperly, called the civet-cat. CATUSIACUM, in Ancient Geography, Chaours, a place of Gaul, in Belgica fecunda, at fome diltance N. of Duro- cortorum. CATU-TSIERN Narecam, in Botany, Rheed. Mal. See Limonta acidiffima. . CATWYCK, in Geography, a village of Holland, on the borders of the fea, near which the Rhine lofes itfelf in the fand. The Romans built a caitle near this fpot, and the ruins may be fometimes feen, when the fea retires more than ufual ; 2 leazues N.W. from Leyden. CATY, Cari, or Carti, an Eaft India weight, ufed efpecially in China. It ic equivalent to one pound five ounces and two drams Englifh. The caty is divided into fixteen taels, and the pic into an hundred eaties. The caty is alfo ufed in Japan, Batavia, and other parts of the Indies, where it weighs more or lefs, according as it contains a greater or lefs number of taels; the caty _ Java is equivalent to twenty taels; that of Cambaya to twenty- feven; the caty of Siam is double that of China, and amounts to about 150 French pounds. The Chinefe alfo give the denomination caty to the Siamefe /chan. Gary is alfo a {mall weight whereby the lapidaries of the Fait weigh their emeralds, equivalent to three grains. Cary is alfo a money of account, ufed in Java, and fome of the neighbouring iflands, amounting to about nineteen florins Dutch money. In the ifland of Sumatra, caty is faid to denote a piece of money valued at fix fhillings and eight pence fterling. CATZ, James, in Biography, an eminent Dutch ftatef- man and poet, was born at Brouwers-haven in Zealand, in 15773 and became fo much attached to literature, that he. refigned very elevated poits under the civil government for the fake of ftudy and repofe. He was prevailed upon, how- ever, by the States to undertake the arduaus office of am- baffador to England in the critical and tumultuous time of Cromwell. Qn his return he retired to one of his eltates at Sorgyliet, where he died in 1660. His poems in Dutch, almof all of which are on moral topics, have been ade ” c f 8 See BoEMERIA ramic CAV high eftimation by his countrymen, and have paffed through feveral editions. “The lateft edition was that of 1726, in 2 vols. fol. Nouv. Di&. Hitt. CATZENELNBOGEN,or Karzeneinsocen, Coun- ty of, in Geography, a county of Germany, in the circle of the Upper Rhine, which devolved to the landgrave of Hefle in 1479, after the deceafe of Philip, the laft count. It is compofed of many difti@s, which, if they were united, ‘would form a country 20 leagues long, and 10 broad ; but the city of Mentz, with its territories, infulated in this country, makes an interruption of ro leagues. The Mayn pafles through it, and divides it into Upper and Lower ; the Upper belongs to the prmce of Hefle-Darmftadt, and is called Darmftadt from the capital. The Lower county fell to the jandgrave of Heffe-Rhinfels in 1648, except the town of Catzenelnbogen, Breubach, and the caitle of Marfburg, which belong to Darmiftadt. CaTZENELNBOGEN, 2 town and caftle of Germany, in the circle of the Upper Rhine, feated on a mountain which gives name to a county belonging to the prince of Heffe- _ Darmftadt ; in its vicinity are mines of iron; 28 miles N.N.W. of Mentz, and 22 E.S.E. of Coblentz. CAVA, in Anatomy, is a name applied to fome large veins. : The fuperior or defcending vena cava is the veffel which returns the blood from the head, upper extremities, and chelt, to the right auricle of the heart. ‘The inferior or afcending cava receives the blood from the lower extremities, abdomen, and pelvis, and pours it into the right auricle. ; The ven cave hepatice are the returning veins of the liver, which join the inferior cava. For a defcription of thefe veffels, fee Veins and Liver. Cava, in Ancient Geography, a large village of Afia, mentioned by Xenophon ; and fuppofed to be in Bithynia. Cava, in Geography, one of the fmaller Orkney iflands, about a league S. from Pomona. ‘ oe Cava, La, atown of Naples, in the province of Principato Citra, the fee of a bifhop, immediately fubjeét to the pope. Since a new road has united the Sorrentine promontory with the Apennines, which pafles by Cava, it has brought to this city a concourfe of travellers and merchants. It has alfo been encouraged to traffic by many valuable privileges ; a cloth manufactory has enlivened it, and increafed its popula- tion; and it carries ona great trade in filk andlinens. It is diftant 24 miles N.W. from Salerno. | N. lat. 40° 26/. E. long. 14° 55’. : 4 ‘ CAVADO, a river of Portugal, which runs into the fea near Efpofenda. ‘ CAVZEDIUM, in Archite@ure. This term, derived from the words cava edium, fignifies a vacant {pace within the body of a houfe; it has therefore the fame meaning with our word court. Vitruvius has a chapter upon cavediums (lib. 6. cap..3.) which he divides into five kinds, called, from their various forms, Tufcan, Corinthian, Tetraftyle, Difplu- viated, and Teftudinated. The Tufcan cavedium was a fquare court, with a root projecting from the fides to fhelter the wails, and convey the rain water towards the middle. The Corinthian cavedium was fimilar to the laft, except that the roof, projecting further, was fupported by columns un- derneath. The Tetraityle was fo called, from having four columns {upporting the angles of the roof. The Dif- pluviated was entirely open, having no roof projecting trom the fides, and was therefore lighter and more agreea- ble for the windows of winter apartments to look into. The &ifth kind was covered over, being teitudinated or vaulted ; CAV this manner was ufed when the fpan was not very great 3 and the fpace above was ufed for chambers or other apart- ments. ‘ CAVAGIRO, in Ichthyology, a {mall fith found in the Mediterranean, which Ray defcribes as being fomething of the eel fhape; but thinner and flatter. The fame writer alfo calls it Tznia rubra, and Freggia. This is the Crpoza ‘Tena of recent authors, which fee. CAVAGLIA, in Geography, a town of Italy in the lordfhip of Vercelli; 16 miles W. of Vercelli. CAVAILLON, a town of France, in the department of Vauclufe, and chief place of a canton in the difltné of Avig- non, fituated on the Durance, in a pleafant and fertile coun- try, and abounding with remains of Roman magnificence ; 4 leagues S.E. of Avignon. The place contains 5192, and the canton 9875 inhabitants: the territory includes 115 kilometres and 6 communes. N. lat. 43° 52’. E. long. 4° 7". CavatLton, a town on the fouth fide of the fouth penin- fula of the ifland of St. Domingo in the Weft Indies, about three leagues N.E. of Les Cayes, and five W. by S. of St. Louis. CAVALA, La, a town of European Turkey, in the province of Romania; 30 miles E. of Emboli. CAVALCADE, a pompous proceffion of an affeme blage of peop!e on horfeback, with their equipages, &c. by ec parade in order to gracea triumph, a public entry, or the like. CAVALCADOUR, or CavarcapeEur, anciently de. noted a riding-mafter; but at prefent is difufed in that fenfe, and only employed to denote a fort of equerries, or ‘ officers who have the dire€tion of princes’ ftables. The French fay, ecuyer cavalcadeur of the king, the duke of Orleans, &c. Menage writes it cavalcadour, and derives it from the Spanifh eavalgador, a horfeman. CAVALCANTI, Barruotomew, in Biography, a learned Italian, the defcendant of a noble family, was born at Florence in 1503; and having been led by the difturb- ances of his country to affume the profeffion of arms, he dif- played his eloquence and his valour in an oration on liberty, which he pronounced in 15303 armed with a corfelet. Taking part againft the houfe of Medici, he was under a neceflity of withdrawing from his country after the af- faffination of Duke Alexander and the eleétion of Cofmo. He then fettled at Rome, where he was employed by Pope Paul II. and his grandfon Ottavio Farnefe, ‘in many im- portant negoeiations. He alfo faithfully ferved Henry IT. king of. France in the caufe of the Siennefe, as long as they were able to defend their liberties. After the termination of the war between France and Spain, he refided at Padua, where he devoted himfelf altogether to literature, and where he died in 1562. His “ Rhetoric,” firft printed in 1559, and feveral times reprinted, has been reckoned among the beft works of the kind in that age, when it was the common fault to regard Ariitotle as infallible. His « Lreatifes on the belt Forms of Republics ancient and modern,”’ printed in 1555, are alfo valued. He alfo wrote an Italian commen- tary on the firft books of Ariltotle’s Poetics, and tranflated into Italian the * Caftrametation of Polybius.’? Moreri. Gen. Biog. Cavatcanti, Guipo, one of the very early Italian fcho- lars, was born of a family of rank at Florence, in the 13th century; and became the difciple of Brunetto Latini, and an intimate friend of Dante. His father, having been a free {peculator in philofophy, was placed by Dante in his Inferno, among the condemned Epicureans in the lower re- gions ; CAV gions; and Boccacio intimates, that the fon was addicted to fimilar opinions. Guido was fond of a retired and con- templative life, and attained among his countrymen a high chara¢ter both as a philofopher and a poet. In his pilgrim- age to St. James of Compottella, he formed an amorous at- tachment to a lady at Touloufe ; but having taken part in the contentions of his country againft Corfo Donati, a prin- cipal perfon of Florence, was in danger of aflaffination in his pilgrimage. In the year 1300 he was banifhed to Serezano ; but on account of the unhealthinefs of the place, where he fell fick, he was allowed to return to Florence, and died there in that or the following year. His poems, for which he is chiefly diftinguifhed, are, allowing for the times, ele- gant and corret. They confift of fonnets and canzones, and were printed at Florence in 1527, ina colleétion of an- cient Italian poets. Gen. Dict. CAVALE, La, in Geography, a {mall town on the north- ern point of the ifland of Taffo, in the Archipelago, welt of the bight formed by Cape Afperofa: the town projects into the fea, and has fome refemblance of a horfe, whence its name. This town, which was formerly called BucepHara, was for along time in poffeflion of the Genoefe and Vene- tians; of late years it has become a very active point of the Levant trade; its harbour, though not very fafe, is frequent- ed by fhips which load there with corn, tobacco, and other commodities. CAVALER Maccrore, a town of Italy, in the princi- pality of Piedmont; 3 miles north of Savigliano, and 19 jouth of Turin. CAVALERI, a {mall ifland in European Turkey, in the Archipelago between the fouth-welt end of the ifland of Negropont, and the continent of Greece. N. lat. 38° 7’. E. long. 24° 17’. CAVALERIE, La, a town of France in the depart- ment of the Aveyron, and chief place of a canton in the dif- tri@ of Milhau, two leagues S.E. of Milhau. CAVALET, in the Gla/s Art, a {mall iron ring which furrounds the lumella, or hole in the center of the floor, in the tower of the reer, ufed for annealing glafs veflels. CAVALIA, a town of Africa, on the Ivory coatft. CAVALIER, in Military Language, a trooper, a man of warfare or foldier, that ferves and fights on horfeback. The appellation of maitre or matter, has fometimes been given tohim. ‘Thus they fay, cette compagnie elt de trente ou quarante maitres, non compris les officiers, this company conlilts of thirty or forty mafters, exclufively of the officers. This nameis very old. And they inherit it from the men of arms, the firft corps of cavalry that was raifed under Charles VII. of France. Thefe men at arms, who were gentlemen, carried each of them into the field with him three archers, one cutler, and one page or valet. The num- bers of each were diftinguifhed by fo many matters, fo many archers, fo many cutlers, and fo many pages. When thefe jaft were fent on detachments, by themfelves, fome of the gens d’armes commanded them. And the officers did not march but with the gens d’armes alone. This term was formerly confined or reitrained to a knight or miles, and had the fame import or meaning as that which the French at prefent annex to the word chevalier. The word now de- notes any foldier that ferves and combats on horfeback: and he is reckoned a good cavalier who takes particular care of his horfe and his equipage. Cavauier das, the fame ina military fenfz as Bachelier, which title was formerly given to a young cavalier, who had commenced his military career, ferved his firft campaign, and received the military cin€ture. é Cavavier,.aterm in Mortification, made ufe of to denote CAYWV a work raifed generally within the body of the place from ten to twelve or more feet higher than the reft of the works. Its moft common fituation is within the baftion, and nearly of the fame form. It is fometimes placed in the gorge of a baftion, and fometimes on the middle of a curtain, in which cafe it is ufually made fomewhat in the form of a horfe-fhoe, but a little flatter, or not quite fo much rounded, or circular. - ‘The principal ufe of cavaliers is, to command all the ad- jacent works, and the country around them. They are {eldom or ever made but when there 1s a hill or rifing ground, which overlooks fome of the works. Sometimes the earth of the rampart fills up the whole baftion, which is then called a full baftion; and fometimes” the rampart follows the mafler-line, or fir draught, running parallel to the parapet of the baltion, which 1s then called an empty or hollow baltion. The empty {paces in hollow baftions are convenient for magazines of provifion and ammu- nition, and for various other purpofes. But when the battions of a fortified place are full, and there are any eminences or rifing grounds near it, that command any parts of the works or outworks, terraces or mounds of earth, called ca- valiers, more or lefs raifed as there is occafion, are made in them, which are fometimes walled round, and always have, like other works, a parapet for covering the caunon placed in them for removing fuch exterior commands, or for defend- ing the faces of the oppofite battions, as well as the baftions themfelves, in which they are raifed, fhould the enemy make lodgments in them. Such a cavalier is called cavalier de baflion ; and, when made nearly of the fame figure with ene, forms a fort of double baition, which is often attended with great advantages. ‘To con{truét fuch a cavalier ina baftion, draw two right lines parallel to the faces of the bation, about twenty yards within, and diltant from the fame; and form, at this diftance, an interior baftion, with flanks either ftraight, or with orillons, fimilar to thofe of the outer baltion, or the battion itfelf, and you will get the magiftral line of the cavalier. Cavaliers are often made on the middle of the curtains, and near the parapet, in order to command a view of the field from the place, to difcover the enemy in his works, ard to double the fire which defends fuch parts of the town as may be attacked. At other times when any parts of the place or works are liable to be enfiladed, cavaliers are raifed to cover them again{t an enfilade. A work of this nature is fometimes ereGed in the-ditch of a fenny place, for the purpofe of covering a gate, or lodging a guard in it againft furprifes. It is then called a horje-fooe, and when very irregular, paté. Ever fince the invention of modern fortification, cavaliers have been in eftimation and ufe in may fortified towns, as appears from Palma-Nova, Orli-Noyo, the citadel of Turin, and various other places. hey are raifed confiderably higher than any other parts of the works ; and as they have different ufes, or anfwer different purpofes, they are alfo of different figures, being fometimes rectangular, fometimes round, fometimes oval, fometimes of the baftion form, &c. ; for which, fee Fortification, Pl. 1. fig. 2. : The principal advantages of cavaliers are thefe, that they moleft a befieging enemy as long as he is in the field, expofe him to the view of the befieged in his works and approaches, annoy him in his batteries, and oblige him to open his trenches at a greater diltance from the place than he other- wie would. They fubject him to this inconvenience, that to be under cover from them he muft perform more labour and make greater excavations to raife his trenches and other works a good deal higher than he need do, were it not for them, which, when there is but a fmall depth of foil and rock under CAV A LG WER. under it, 1s attended with much difficulty. At the fame time he cannot, but with extreme difficulty, raife works in the field fuflficiently high to command them. They ferve alfo for covering thofe parts of the works or place, that are expofed to an enfilade, and, when conveniently fituated, al- moft double the fire of the faces of the baltions. ‘They likewife anfwer for firing into the retrenchments from the moment the enemy makes a lodgment in the baftion. Some engineers difapprove of them, alleging, that they are of no great ufe or fervice, and do not contribute much towards the defence of a place, becaufe, being retired from the out-works, they cannot keep the enemy at a diftance. Then they obferve, that the height of thefe works «is attended with much inconvenience in different refpedts. Firft, in the raifing of them, as it is difiicult to heap up earth upon earth in this manner, and afterwards place a parapet at top of all; fecondly, that they are buts for the enemy to fire at ; thirdly, that, befides this, in time of need, and, when the enemy is near, they ferve in no ftead for the purpofes of defence, becaufe the men in them cannot point their cannon on objects near and below them, without either expofing themfelves, or greatly diminifhing the thicknefs of the parapet ; and, laftly, that they hinder the making of re- trenchments in the baitions, and that when the enemy once gets pofleflicn of them, he can turn them to a good account, and make ufe of them to great advantage. In anfwer to thefe objections, it may be very juftly ob- ferved, that feveral engineers of reputation have made ufe of them with great advantage, confcious that, when added to good fortifications, they affuredly render it much flronger. ‘Thus, although they are retired within the body of the place, their height remedies that defeét, enabling them to fee and command whatever is in front of them. That the difficulty of making them is not fo great as has been fup- pofed, as they are actually to be found in many places, and ' that it ought not to be objected to them, as they afford ad- vantages much more than fufficient to counterbalance it. And that as to their being buts for the enemy’s cannon to deftroy and batter down, it ought to be confidered that, for this purpofe, he mutt face his batteries, and raife them very high, during which operations he is liable to be greatly an- noyed and interrupted by the fire of the cavaliers, and to perform a great deal of labour before he can put his own in a condition to do them any eflential damage. And after he has made them, they are fubje& to be more fuddenly bat- tered down by the cavaliers, than the cavaliers are by them, as the one is compofed of earth well fettled and rammed, and the others of earth, loofe, and fuddenly thrown up. When there is but little foil on the out¥ide of a fortified place, the befieged may derive great advantages from fuch works, as they can raife them before-hand at their Icifure to what height they choofe, and may diminish the means and power of the befiegers to injure them, by bringing the earth from the outfide for that purpofe, which will compel the enemy to bring earth and materials from a diftance to raife his batteries and approaches fufficiently high to counteract the effe&ts, and cover him from the command and fire of the ca- valiers; an operation that muft be always attended with much lofs of time, as well as great labour and fatigue. Such works cannot fail to be ufetul by being high, fince when placed near the extremities of the curtains, they afford a defence to the oppolite baltions ; and not only commanding but firing to a diftance, they can greatly injure and annoy the enemy after he gets into the ditch, and compel him, when he is going to make the traverfe, to raife it very high, in order to put himfelf under cover. When they are thus placed, they do not interfere with the making of retrench- ments in the baftions, but furnith a very good defence for them. To fay that the enemy will be able to make ufe of them, after he once gets poffefion of them, as fo many cita- dels again{t the town, city, or fortified place, is no argument at all againft the conftrudtion and ufe of them. For on the fame ground, it might be alleged, that we never ovght tomake baitions. When it is conlidered, that after the befiegers fhall have taken all the baftions, and all the retrenchments within them, which they muit do before they can become matters of the cavaliers fo fituated, the place will hardly be able to defend itfelf, whether there be cavaliers or not ; and when there are fuch works there will ftill remain this defence after the great injury the enemy mutt have fuftained by them before he was akle to force all thefe other works. It may not be impropet to obferve, that it would not, however, be advifable to introduce cavaliers as a principal component part of the works of the body of a place, or to revete them like battions, and employ them as fuch. For when the Laflions of a fortification are at too great diftances one from another to furnifh a good mutual defenee, or when the curtains are exceflively long, it is better to place ravelins before them than to introduce cavaliers into the middles of them. The height of cavaliers above the level of the rampart, muft depend on convenience and the purpofes for which they are raifed or erected. It ought to be from 10 to15 feetor more. The length of one fhould be at the leaft 14 fathoms, in order to receive conveniently 4 or 6 pieces of cannon, and its breadth 6 fathoms, for them’to have room to recoil in, and to be ferved commodioufly. ‘The faid height in fuch works is exclufive of that of the parapet, which fhould look outwards, or towards the field, like that of the rampart, and ought to be q feet 4 inches high, and from 15 to 20 feet thick. On the part looking towards the town avery thin parapet is all that is neceflary, and the flope orafcent there, ior carry- ing the guns up fhould be from ro to 12 feet broad. When there are hills or eminences near the works, cavaliers are fometimes made fufficiently large to hold 10 or 12 guns each and are raifed much higher. Different forms of cavaliers are refpeCtively beft adapted to diflerent purpofes, and much depends in this refpeét on the judgment and knowledge of the engineer who conttruéts them. The round or circular form, however, is exceedingly good. Of ali figures under the fame periphery it contains the greateft area. ‘he fire from it is equally diftributed in every direétion, which is not the cafe with that from the reGangle, fquare, &c. A cavalier of this form is lefs ex- poled and lefs liable to be ruined or battered down in any particular place than one in the form of a reétilinear figure. The fame advantages are in a great meafure attributable to one of an oval form, as it differs but little from the circular. The exterior flope of the parapet ought always to be con- fiderable, particularly if it be made of loofe or bad earth ; and fo ought alfo that of the cavalier itfelf to be, wherever it is not faced with mafonry. Some are for placing them in the entrance or gorge of the baftiony between the two flanks. This pofition enables them to fee and to defend the faces of the oppofite baftions. But it interferes with the retrenchments in thefe works, and is too much retired from their faliant angles for commanding effeQtually the parts without the body of the place. Thofe in the citadel of Turin are thus fituated, but it is in order to command the town. Cavaliers placed near the extremities of the curtains neither hinder the erection nor occupy the places of otuer detences, but rather increafing them have a great command ot the traverfe, which the befiegers make for Appia the aftion, CLATV A’ IAEA? bation, Thefe fituations, therefore, feem to be very proper for placing them in. ; The capital ofa cavalier placed at the middle of a curtain, fhould:be at right angles to the fame. Its: faliant angle fhould ve nearly a right one, which will enable the faces con- taining it to furnith a pretty direét and good defence to thofe faces of the two baltions that are oppolite to them. The middle of the curtain is a bad pofition for a cavalier, when it is otherwife conftruéted. No cavalier, indeed, placed on the middle of a curtain ought to be raifed high above the rampart; for if it be, .its fire along the faces of the adjoining baltions will be too plunging to produce much effect. And, on the other hand, if it be kept low, it cannot command the field much better than the curtain it- felf. For thefe reafons the middle of the curtain does not appear to be an eligible or advantageous fituation for a cava- lier. That a plunging fhot ‘is not near fo deftru€tive and annoy- ing as a horizontal one, or one nearly fo, is a truth fo ob- vious, that it hardly {tands in need of demonitration. Fora fhot fired horizontally or from a very {mall elevation grazes and bounds along, and may hurt or injure fiftyobjeGts in its progrels, before its force is entirely fpent; whereas one fired froma confiderable height at an object at a moderate diftance, or from a {mall height at one very near, never rifes if it can bury itfelf. But let A K, fig. 3, reprefent the line of the horizon, A B the altitude of any place, work, or height above the fame, and let AD, A F, AM, A K, be different diftances on the horizontal line, from the foot, A, thereof, Now if E Gbe the height of an objet, at which a gun is to fire from B, G O be drawn parallel to A K, and from the points I, N, O, where G O interfe&s B D, BM, BK, right lines LH, NL, Oa be drawn parallel to A B, the relative degrees of the extent of offence in firing from B at an ob- ject of the height, EG, placed at the points E, H, L, a will be as ED, HF, LM, and aK refpeétively, or as the tangents of the angles ABD, ABF, ABM, ABK, to the radius E G. The chances then of hitting an object of a given height from B, at different diftances from A, will, ceteris paribus, be as the tangents of the angles, which lines drawn from B along the top of the object at thefe diftances to meet A K, form with AB, to the height of the object as radius. But if it be confidered that a fhot fired from B meeting the fur- face of the earth at D or F will bury itfelf if the ground ad- mit of it; whereas, meeting the furface at M or K it may shave a firft, {econd, and even third graze, in each of which it may hit and injure almoft a number of objects, it will be found, that the chance of doing mifchief is greatly beyond the foregoing ratio in favour of the fhot that is fired hori- zontally. Heights create dead parts for fome diftance in front of them, which is the caufe why troops in afcending them are generally expofed to but little danger from fire-arms and fultain as httle lofs. In maiitime places cavaliers are placed either in the baftions or on the curtains, according as their fituations are heft calculated for enabling them to command a vicw of the fea, and to fire on fhipping at a diftance. - Wherever a cavaher is placed within the body of the place, there fhould be a paffage of 6 or 8 feet between the parapet and it, for the convenience of the foldiers, and to prevent its ruins, when it is battered, from falling into the ditch. Some are for placing cavaliers without the body of the place, beyond the places of arms. But this feems to be a bad plan, as they mutt in fuch fituations be raifed very high, be reveted, and after all can furnifh no flanking defences to other work. Cavauier detranchée. rench-eavalier, is a work raifed by the beliegers, of earth, and fuch other materials as they } can molt conveniently procure, as gabions, .&c. fometimes half way between the termination of the glacis and thé co vert way ; fometimes only a third part of the breadth of the glacis diftant from the covert-way ; and fometimes clofe on the very creft or highelt part of the glacis. Itis difficule to eflablith {uch awork.. It cannot, indeed, well be done with- out batteries a ricochet to enflade completely the covert-way. But when the cavaliers de tranchée are once well efablithed, they prevent frequent fallies, and, foon compel the befieged: | ; > to retire within the body of the place. Vor it is then eaft to pufh on dire€t trenches or approaches to the faliaat ang] of the covert-way, ard to make at thefe angles {mall lodg- ments in the forms of circular arcs, by means of which the befieged may be driven entirely out of the places of arms, and from which the befiegers can extend their lodgments-to the right and to the left, in directions parallel to the branches of the covert-way,’or infide of the glacis, and about three 7 toifes diltant from the fame; which thicknefs of earth will ~ ferve as a parapet to their lodgments, and fhelter them from - } the fire of the cannon of the place. In order to oblige the befieg-d to abanden their cavaliers, or at leat to diminifh the brifknefs of their fire, itis necef. fary to keep almoft conflantly throwing large fhells into them. Thefe damage them materially, difmount the guns on the batteries in them, break the carriages, and prevent the befieged from re-placing, or re-eftablilhing them, with- out great lofs, if they perfilt in working on the cava- liers. 5 ; ‘ Tf the cavaliers of the belieged be reveted and in the baf- tions it is alfo neceffary tobatter them with heavy cannon, in order fo to fill up with the rubbifh and ruins that part of the rampart, which is at the foot of each, as not to leave fuffi- cient fpace for them to retrench themfelves to oppofe the affault or attack of the battions. When the miners once get fo far as to penetrate into the earth of the rampart, and into that of a cavalier, they. fhould make ufe of mines to throw as much as they can of the earth of both into the ditch, to affilt in filling it up. After that, they fhould continue working on the breach, to render it praéticable and of ealy accefs, after which the be- fieged having no retrenchments, either in the baftion or ia the cavalier, will naturally furrender, to avoid having the place ttormed or carried by affault. | Should the befiegers,’ however, be driven to the neceflity of ftorming the baition, they will as feon as they reach the | top of the rampart make {mal] lodzments at the feot of the — cavalier, on each fide of the breach to fupport that of the top of the breach in the cavalier. fc Cavaxiers a cheval. This is an appellation given by the Italians to the large {quare towers, which they make over the gates of cities tor the purpofe of placing cannon on them. The ancients raifed cavaliers or terrafles of wood-and earth again{ft the walls of towns they were befieging, ia order to throw fire, darts, &c. into them. CAVALIERI, Emiiro psx, a Roman gentleman, who firft fet the dialogue, of an oratorio, or facred drama, to narra- tive mufic, or recitative. This oratorio was entitled; Deil Anima e dell Corpo, and was performed at Rome in 1600, the fame year that Rinnuccini’s Orjo, the fir opera, was fet by Jucopo Peri at Florence; and performed to fimilar mn- fic: fo that the Italians themfelves are unable to determine EE ee lee, who was the inventor of the mutical decamation called rect. tative, which has been cultivated and continued in the mufi- cal dramas of Italy, facied and fecular, ever fince; and which CAV which, though attempted in other dialef&ts elfewhere, feems ro {uit no language but that of the country where it had its birth. See Recitative, Opera, and Oratorio. CAVALIERS, or Cavaresrs, in Lngli/h Hiflory, the “appellation given by one of the parties iv the diitraéted time of Charles [. called the Rounp-HEADS, on account of the fhort cropt hair which they wore, to another party com- pofed of reduced officers, and young gentlemen of the inns ‘of court, who offered their fervice to the king. Under thefe party names the different factions rendezvoufed, and figna- lized their mutual hatred. See Tories. CAVALLERI, or Cavarrertus, Bonaventura, in Biography, an eminent Italian mathematician, was born at Milan in 1508, and entered at an early age into the order of Jefuates or Hieronymites. In the courfe of his ttudies he manifetted fuch talents, that his fuperiors, after he had taken orders, thought proper to fend him to Pifa in order to enjoy the advantages of the univerfity eftablifhed in that city. Cavalleri at firft regretted this change of fituation ; however, it was to this circumitance that he owed the celebrity which he afterwards acquired. Here, with the advice of Benediét Caitlelli, the difciple and friend of Galileo, he applied to the fludy of geometry, in order to relieve the pains of the gout to which he was fubje& ; and in this fcience he made fuch progrefs, and acquired fuch an accurate acquaint- ance with the ancient geometers, that Caftelli and Galileo concurred in prediéting the eminence at which he after- wards arrived. Soon after this peried he invented his method of indivijibles. In 162g he communicated to fome ingenious perfons and to the magiltratis of Bo- logna, his treatife of indivifibles and another on the co- nic {eétions; and-thus he obtained the henour of fuc- eceding Maginus as profeffor in the univerlity, in the year ¥629. See Inpivisistes. Befides his celebrated work on indivifibles, entitled, ** Geometria Indivilibilibus continuo- rum nova quadam Ratione promota,” and published at Bo- logna in 1635, 4to. and again in 16533 he alfo publifhed a treatife of conic feCtions, «under the title of * La Spechio Ultorio overo Trattato delle Settioni Coniche,’”? or “ De Speculo Ultorio, &c.”? Bologn. gto. 16325 a fyflem of tri- gonometry under the title of * DireGtorium generale Ura- Nometricum,” 4to. 1632, including an account of logarithms, together with tables of the logarithms of common numbers and trigonometrical tables of natural fines, and logarithmic fines, tangents, fluents, and verfed fines; of which a new and enlarged edition was publifhed at Bologna in 1643, 4to. entitled, ‘*Trigonometria Plana ac Spherica, Linearis ac Logarithmica, &c.;?? a Compendium Regularum de Tri- angulis ;”? and a “ Centuria Problematum A ftronomicorum.” He was alfo the author of a treatife of aftrology, entitled ** Rota Planetaria,”? and publithed under the appellation of Sylvius Philomantius; and this publication was the move furprifing, as he was an enemy of judicial altrology. The laft of his works was entitled ‘ Exercitationes Geometric fex,”” 4to. Bonon. 1647, and contains exercifes on the me- thod of indivifibles ; anfwers to the obje€tions of Guldinus ; the ufe of indivifibles in Coffic powers, or Algebra, and in ‘confiderations about gravity: with a mifcellaneous collec- tion of problems. Towards the clofe of this year, 1647, he died a martyr tothe gout, which had deprived him of the ule of his fingers. Montucla, Hift. des Math. vol. ii. p. 37, &c. CAVALLERIA, among the Ancient Spaniards, a kind of tax, or impofition on the inhabitants of great towns and cities, for the fupport of horfemen. CAVALLEROS, in Geography, atown of North Ame- rica, on the north-weit part of the bay of Panama; 75 miles S.W_ of Panama, Vor. VII. CA: Vi CAVALLES, a clufter of fmall iflands in the Southern Pacific ocean, near the coaft of New Zealand; 3 leagues N.W. from Point Pocock. r CAVALLI, Francesco, a'Venetian dramatic compo- fer, who furnithed the theatres of Venice, between the year 1639 and 1666, with 35 operas. OF his genius, {cience, and fertility, we are now unable to judge, except by Lrifino- na, one of his operas that has been preferved in England, and which having examined, we find the mufic as good as that of any of the time and kind. And indeed, the number of his operas is a ftrong éloge upon his genius, in a city where the mufical drama was more cultivated in the 17th century, than in any other part of Italy. Cavarii Marini, in Natural Hifory. Thefe are de- feribed by old writers as being little dried animals about the length of a man’s thumb, found on the fea-coaft near Puzzuoli. The head, they obferve, refembles that of a horfe, and the body terminates in a tail like that of a fhrimp. Women, it is faid, ufe them to increafe their milk ; and ap- ply them 2s an anodyne for the breaft. Bruifed with vine- gar and honey they are applied as'a plafter to the part bit- ten by a mad dog. ‘This fpecies of fifh is alfo found on the other fide of Italy, along the coaft of the Adriatic ; but notin fuch abundance. The marine animal, fo curioufly de- fcribed, is no doubt the {mail {pecies of Syngnathus, or pipe+ ith, known among modern naturalifts by the name of Hippocampus, See Syncnaruus Hippocampus. CAVALLINI, Pierro, in Biography, a hittorical pain- ter of the thirteenth century, was born at Rome in 1279, and became the difciple of Giotto. The number of his paintings is faid to have amounted to 13¢0, and his piety was no lefs extra- ordinary than his affiduity as an artift, in confequence of which he has been eftcemed as a faint. His principal works are at Rome, where he affifted Giotto in the celebrated pi€ture in Mofaic, which is over the grand entrance into the church of St. Peter: but his performance in frefco was in the church of Ara Cali at Rome; in which he reprefented the Virgin end child above, furrounded with glory, and below was the figure of O&tavian, and alfo that of the fybil, dire@ing the eye and the attention of the emperor to the figures in the air. It has been fuggefted by Mr. Vertue (fee Anecdotes of Painticg, vol. i. p. 17) that the fhrine of Edward the Confef- for, and the croffes erected to the memory of queen Eleanor, were conftruéted from the defigns of Cavallini by Abbot Ware; and he fuppofes Cavallini to be the inventor of Mo- faic, alleging that Giotto was 20 years younger than the other. But this appears, by the téltimony of Vafari, and of other writers, to be an anachronifm; as Giotto was three years older than Cavallini, and was, in reality, his inftru€tor in the art of Mofaic. Befides, the abbot Ware died in 1282, when Cavallini was only four years old, and eight years be- fore the death of queen Eleanor, who died in 1291. Pil- kington. CAVALLO, in Geography, a fea-port town of America in the provice of Venezuela,on Terra Tirma, or ifthmus of Darien, 25 miles N.E. of St. Jago de Leon. It is well fortified, and in a former war was unfuccefsfully attacked by Commodore Knowles. S. Jat. 10° 15’. W. long. 689 ra’, CAVALLOS a?’ Fam, two {mall iflands in rhe Atlantic near the coaft of Portugal, about half a icague S.S.W. of Efpofenda. N. lat. 41° 50’. W. long. 8°63’. CAVALQUET. ‘This isthe name given to a particular found of the trumpet, which the cavalry make ufe of on approaching towns or pafling through them. CAVALRY, in French cavalerie, or cavallerie, in Milt- tary Language, a body or bodies of troops, who ferve and fight on horie-back. Of thefe there are different defcrip- “ tlens CAVAL® Y. tions in almoft every country. In this, independent of the yeomanry and volunteer cavalry, we have two regiments of fife-guards, one of horfe-guards, feven of dragoon-guards, tive of dragcons, and nineteen of light-dragoons. The two regiments of life guards, in confequence of the reduction of the horfe-grenadier guards, are kept for the pur- pofe of guarding the metropolis and of efcorting his ma- jelly. They are generally called the firft and fecond life- guards. Each of them confifts of fix troops and a kettle drum. The royal regiment of Horfe- guards, which is commonly called the Oxford-blues, from having been originally raifed by the earl of Oxford, conlills of nine troops. The quarter- matter of this corps holds his appointment under the fign manual, and is, in this refpect, an exception to the general yegulations, that affect the quarter-mafters of all our other regiments of cavalry, who hold theirs only by warrants. The order of precedence among our cavalry is the follow- ing. Firlt, the life-guards; fecondly, the horfe-guards ; thirdly, the dragoon-guards; fourthly, the dragoons; and laftly, the light-dragoons. Horje is alfo a general term, as well as cavalry, for mount- ed foldiers. In Iveland there are four regiments of horfe- guards. The firlt troop of horfe in our fervice was railed ww 1660. The dragoons, though regiments of horfe or cavalry, differ from the reft in this circumfance, that they are liable to be difmounted, and are obliged, when neceflary, to fight on foot as well as on horfe-back. The firlt regiment of dragoons was raifed in 1681. Light-horfe is an appellation given by us to all cavalry in general, that is compofed of {mall and lightly accoutred men mounted on light and fwift horfes. Ours were firft raifed in 1757. Hungarian cavalry, now commonly called Hufars, wear a fhort waiftcoat, with a pair of breeches and ftockings in one, with fhort light boots, generally red or yellow, and a doublet, that has five rows of buttons, which hangs loofely on the left fhoulder. . The men wear large fur-caps adorned with cock’s feathers. But the officers have eagles’ or herons’ feathers in theirs. They are armed with long crooked fabres, light carbines, and piftols. Before they begin an attack they lay themfelves fo flat on the necks of their horfes, that it 1s almoft impoffible to difcover their force or number. But when they come within pifol-fhot diftance of their enemies, they raife themfelves up with altonifhing quicknefs, and charge with fuch vivacity and alertnefs, that it is extremely difficult for thofe they attack, to preferve their order. Being dextrous horfemen, when they find it ueceffary to retreat, they move with fo much celerity, in confequence of their horfes being fo capable of enduring fa- tigue, and their equipage being fo light, that no other ca- valry can pretend to follow or keep up with them, as they leap over ditches and fwim acrofs rivers with furprifing eafe and facility. Molt of the German powers have cavalry under the name of Huflars, as well as France, into which they were firft introduced by Louis XIII., and were called Hungarian cavalry ; which circumftance fhews that this ap- pellation was prior to that of Hu/ffars. ‘Cuiraffers 1s a term made ufe of to denote a fort of heavy cavalry armed with cuirafles, as moft of the German horfe are. The feveral German powers, particularly the emperor and the king of Pruffia, bave regiments of cuiraMfiers. And the late king of France had ane. But there have been no cavalry of this defeription in England, fince the time of the revolution. The Auitrian cuiraffiers are reckoned the em- peror’s beit troops. Of the French cavalry. i Before the year 1678 the regiments of French cavalry confilled of two, three, or four fquadrons; each {quadrony conlilted of three companies, and each company of a cap- tain, a lieutenant, a marfhal des Logis (quarter matter) and fifty maitres (troopers). During the war of 1688 their ancient regiments were divided into f{quadrons, and every {quadron conlilted of four companies. A company confifted of 49 maitres, and had four officers, as formerly. The new regiments confilted cach of four {qudrons, of which each had three companies. And each company was conipofed of 50 maitres and four oflicers. During the war of 1701 the fquadrons contilicd each of four companies ; and each company had 35 maitres and four officers. ; Before the breaking out of the war of 1741 each regi- ment of their cavalry confilted of four fquadrons; each {quadron of four companies, and each company of 25 mai- tres. During the war the companies were increafed each to 35 men. ‘The regiment de Royal Allemands, and that de Rofen, confilted each of fix {quadrons, and each f{quadron of three companies of 50 men each. The regiment of Fitz- james had four fquadrons, and each f{quadron three com= panies of 46 men each. That of Naffau had the fame num- ber of {quadrons and companies, but each company had 5o men. ' The ordinance of the 15th of March 1749 reduced th cavalry to 129 {quadrons, confilting each of four companies, and each company of 30 men. The ordinance of the 25th of March 1776 made each re- giment confift of four {quadrons of cavalry, and one of light horfe, of one company each. By the sith article of that ordinance there was attached to each regiment of cavalry a fquadron under the title of an auxiliary {quadron, fer the purpofe of replacing, in time of war, the men, that might be deficient or wanting in the fquadrons of cavalry or light- horfe. The ordinance of the Sth of Auguft, 1784, made fome alterations in this arrangement, and made each regiment of cavalry confift of four {quadrons, and each fquadron of one company. By it both-a peace and a war eltablifhment was prefcribed. But in both the one and the other the number of officers and non-commiffioned officers of all ranks, was to be the fame. By it alfo the fix regiments of light-horfe were reunited to the cavalry, and every regulation for them was prefcribed. And they were to retain the rank they then held among themfelves, and with regard to the other regiments of cavalry. The offenfive arms of the cavalry are, the piftol, the ca- rabine, the blunderbufs, the fufee and bayonet, the {word and the fabre. The defenfive arms of the cavalry are the calotte or lea- ther cap, the cafque, and the demi-cuiraffe,.or half cuirafs. As the Franks, before they conquered Gaul, had but very little cavalry, it is probable they employed in their ar- mics by degrees the Gallic cavalry, which poffeffed much reputation, and for a long time had formed the molt nu- merous part of the Roman cavalry. Clovis, at the battle of Tolbiac, fought at the head of his cavalry, and in 537 Theodebert carried. fome with him on his expedition into Italy. At the battle of Tours, in 732, we are told, that the French army conlilted of 60,c00 foot, and 12,000 horfe, which lait-mentioned body had neither boots nor defenfive armour, and had no other offenfive weapon than the lance or javelin. Under Pepin, in 768, the number of their cavalry was 2 augmented, a me CANAL R-Y. augmented, Under Charlemagne its number almoft cqual- ed that of their infantry. This probably was owing to the vat extent of his empire and the infurreétions, that were conftantly taking place in it, which required prompt and expeditious movements from one place to another. In his time the horfemen or cavaliers were armed with fwords, and coats of mail made of {mall rings, inter-wrought or connected like links together. Towards the end of the fecond race of French monarchs, and the beginning of the third, their armies were almott en- tirely compofed of cavalry ; a circumftance which arofe out of the nature of their fituation. Not willing to confide the defence of their country to the body of the people, who were then ferfs or flaves, it was left in a great meafure folely to the nobleffe, who would not ferve but on horfeback. They, accordingly, formed a corps of cavalry or horfe, to which the name of gendarmerie was given. he gendarmes were armed with cuiraffes, braffets, cuiffes, greaves, gauntlets, helmets, with the lance, the fword, andthe hatchet. Their horfes were covered with plates of iron, or with thougs of leather. The infantry were employed in going after forage, raifing up the wounded gendarmes, and in performing fimilar fervices. The cavalry, that got the name of fight, was compofed of the vaffals whom the feigniors or noblefle carried along with them. They had not all the arms of the gendarmes, and did not fight in the fame line with them. ‘They were fur- nifhed with very little defenfive armour; they carried the hatchet, the club, and {word, and ferved nearly as huffars do. Louis le Gros, having elftablifhed communities, formed from that militia, in 1108, fome light horfe. But there was no regular formation or eftablifhment of cavalry in France before the time of Charles VII., who made one under the name or appellation of compagnies d’ordonnance, and one of infantry, at the fame time under that of Francs-archers. Then the cavalry affumed a more regular form, and fought in {quadrons ; whereas, before that time they had not been accultomed to fight but in a fingle rank, becaufe no one of the nobles that compofed it chofe to ftand behind ano- ther. The gendarmerie is the firft corps of French cavalry next to that of the AZai/on du Roi, and has always been remark- ably diftinguifhed for its valour and intrepidity. Charles V. having applied to Francis I, in 1552, to lend him a fum of money, and that illultrious corps, to affift him in repulfing the Turks, by whom he was at that time hard prefled, re- ceived for an{wer from the French monarch to the firlt of his demands, ** that he was not a banker ;”’ and to the fecond, * that his gendarmerie never fought but with their king at their head.” In 1445, Charles VII. obferving the difficulties he ex- perienced in affembling the nobleffe, who then compofed the French cavalry, the continual wars they were engaged in having exhaulted their means of fupporting the expence, and -wifhing, for various good reafons, to have a corps of cavalry that fhould be conftantly engaged in his fervice, and which ‘he could difpofe of at all times, and on all occafions, as he might think proper, created or formed fifteen companies, to whom he gave the name of sommes d’armes d’ordonnances i Roi. Thefe companies were compofed of the braveft and molt experienced men in military fervice then in the king- -dom. Each of thefe companies confifted of roo lancers, or hommes d’armes, and. each homme d’armes had five followers or aids, viz. three archers, one cutler, and one page or valet. Each company then contained 600 men, all mounted on horfeback ; and the fifteen companies formed together a body of gooo cavalry, This was the commencement of a ftanding army in Europe. That fagacious king fet the ex- ample to other monarchs, and pointed out to them the mott effectual method of not only counterbalancing, but elfo of lowering, by degrees, the exorbitant power of their nobles. The officers of thefe companies were all feigniors of the firft diftin@ion. The sommes d’armes, or maitres, themfelves were gentlemen, and their followers were obliged to wear the livery of the captain of the company to which they be- longed. Tor this purpofe they ornamented their coats with the colours that compofed it. This uniformity of drefs in each company was eftablifhed thac they might be known in action, and when they were guilty of any irregularities ; whence proceeded that uni- formity in cloathing that has been fince eltablifhed among troops in every nation. ‘Thefe companies afterwards dimi- nifhed, in regard to the number of men in each, but always retained their reputation for valour. This diminution was occafioned by the eftablifhment of a confiderable body of light horfe or cavalry, in which feveral of the gendarmes ac- cepted of employment; fo that under the reign of Henry IV. the armour cap-a-pie having been abolifhed, the gendarmes ceafed to be diltinguifhed from the other cavalry but by their name and prerogatives. At laft under the reign of Louis XIV. at the time of the peace of the Pyrenées, alt thefe ancient companies were reduced to the four firlt, of which the king chofe to be captain, and to fome others that belonged to the princes of the blood. Thefe Jaft were fuppreffed as the princes died. The fame king afterwards, however, augmented that corps to the number of fixteen companies, at which eftablifhment it was continued. The Scotch company of gendarmes du Roi was the only one that remained of the fifteen which Charles VII. efta- blithed in 1445. It had the appellation of cent lances, or the hundred lances, and was unquefticnably the oldeit troop in the kingdom. It pofleffed fome privileges fuperior to thofe of the Scotch body-guards, though thefe held the firft rank, and wasalways held in fuch high ettimation, that, fo long as 1t was compofed of Scotchmen, it was com- manded by Scotch noblemen of the firlt qualifieation, and even by feveral of the blood-royal. The fons even of the kings chofe to bear the title of captain of that company, which, of right, belonged to them, as appears from feveral treaties, and the example of the duke of York, afterwards king of England, under the title of James II. ; who was captain of it in 1667. And it was not till after he refigned the command of it, that it was commanded by a French feigneur. Under Henry IV. there were carabins, who did not form a feparate corps, but were put by fifties into the companies of light horfe, and had no other captains or cornets, than the captains and corncts of thefe companies. ‘hefe cara~ bins, under Louis XIII., formed regiments, and were dif- pofed of in feparate corps, in the fame manner as the cara- bineers, who were diftributed among the regiments of light cavalry, were, in the reign of Louis X1V., formed into re- giments of carabineers. Since his time the French cavalry has confilted of different badies. Some were in companies, others in corps or regiments. The body guards of the king, the gendarmes, the light horfe, the mufqueteers, have been on the focting of companies, and have not formed re- giments. The relt of their cavalry have been diftributed ia regiments commanded by colonels, and gone under the general name of light cavalry, which, however, is diftin& from the compaguies des chevaux legers d’ordonnance. The Spanith cavalry is naturally good. And were it properly difciplined and taught to make the bett ufe of its 2 rerce, CAVAUR YY. force, there are hardly any troops that could {land its fhock. The Turks, the Tartars, the Arabs, and even the Moors themfelves, or the people of the kingdoms of Tez and Morocco, have excellent horfes for cavalry as well as the Spaniards. But their fabres, though of a good temper, are not fo ufeful or fo well calculated for doing ex¢écution, as the Spanifh fword, or even the {words of the Germans. Befides the advantage of good and fleet horfes, they fit fo fhort on the ftirrup, that they can ftand up quite ftraight at a full gallop, and, fupporting themfelves with their {tirrups, can make a better ftroke than thefe who ufe long ones, and at a greater diltance. The Turkifh cavalry owes its origin to the Scythians, a race of people, that were always fond of making war on horfeback, and tran{mitted that paffion to the Turks. The Sultans fo tyrannifed over their new fubjects, after conquering them, as even to deprive! them of their lands, and appropriate them to the maintenance and fupport, not only of the Serratculy infantry, and the marine, but alfo to that of the cavalry. At the fame time they left the con- quered countries divided into and diilinguifhed by the names of kingdoms, provinces, great and {mall departments; and iffued for each of thefe diftricts precife and diftin& orders, touching the prompt raifing of the militia and the fupport of the cayalry. Their cavalry is not all on the fame footing in regard to pay. It is divided into the cavalry capiculy, the ca- valry topachly, the cavalry ferratculy, and the cavalry de éribut. The cavalry capiculy or fpahis, poflefs no lands, but are paid by the grand fultan, and ferve as a guard to his perfon. ‘Their number amounts to about 15,000, one half of whom are called /ilhataris, and are diftinguifhed by a yellow ftand- ard or cornet, and the other half are called /pahis glanis, or fpabaoglari, who are diftinguifhed by a red cornet or ftand- ard. Originally thefe laft ferved the firft. But having in an engagement given aftonifhing proofs of valour to the fhame and difgrace of thofe, whofe fervants they had been, they were formed into a feparate and diftinét corps. ‘Their of- fenfive' armour confilts chiefly of the fabre and the lance, which they call mifrack. They frequently alfo carry bows and arrows, and fometimes piftols and carbines. And they make ufe of the long dart or javelin, called gerit, which they handle with much addrefs and dexterity, catching it up from the ground, when their horfes are even at full [peed, if they mifs their aim in throwing it at the enemy. When the grand feignior takes the field in perfon, it is cuftomary to make a prefent of 5009 afpres to each fpahi to enable him to purchafe bows and arrows, ‘When the {pahis are on a march, they follow their fland- ard without obferving any certain order, advancing in a con- fufed manner in {mall bodies, fometimes in the van of their own corps, and foractimes in the rear. Befides thefe two bodies of {pahis, there are four others, who are not called on to ferve but when the urgent necefh- ties of the ftate render their fervices abfolutely neceflary. The firlt of thefe are called /ag-ulefigi, and carry a itandard red and white; the fecond /o/-ulejigi, and carry a ftandard white and yellow; the third /ag-gurcha, with a green itand- ard, and the fourth /o/-gurcha, with a white one. All thefe {pahis receive a daily pay, from 12 to 20 afpres, and are hable to perform every kind of fervice. There are likewife {pahis called ¢imariots, who are obliged to ferve at their own expence as foon as the beiglerdeys or governors of provinces command them, in confequence of the lands they poflefs, the revenues of which are appropri- ated to this fervice. Of thefe there are two kinds, the one called tezkerebirs and the others tezkeretis. The Tezkerebirs receive the grants of their timars from the court of the grand feignior. But the greateft revenue of one of them mult not exceed 1999 afpres. The Tezkeretis take their letters patent from the begler~ bey; and the revenue of one of their fimars is commonly from 3090 to 6020 afpres. The Chiaous alfo form a branch of the cavalry capiculy. They are people of the court as well as of war, carrying, like aides-de-camp or adjutants, the orders of the fultan, the vi- zier, or other general, to the officers of the army, whether thefe be verbal or in writing. ‘They efcort the couriers difpatched on affairs of importance, and ferve themfelves when it is neceffary. ‘They are always within reach of the vizier, and affeét to pafs for inferior agas. Their cheif, called CAéiaous-La/ey, is immediately about the vizier. The cavalry topachy or topachly is, properly fpeaking, that which the officers of the countries {ubjeé&t to the Ottoman empire fupport out of the revenues of the lands called Maly-mukata. Thefe officers not only pay this cavalry, but alfo furnifh them with provillons under the name of u/ciur, which exaétly fignifies tithes. The cavalry /erratculy is a militia deftined to guard the frontiers. They are obliged to remain on the confines of the Ottoman empire, both to prevent incurfions by the ene- my and to aé as efcorts when wanted. The horfemen of this corps, on the frontiers of Hungary between the Imperialifts and the Turks, were the choiceft and very bravett men. They are commanded by one or more officers called alaybech, who arrive at thefe com- mands by their valour and experience in war. They are, for the moft part, natives of the environs of the frontiers, that, from their knowledge of them, they may be the more ex- pert in guarding them againft inroads orincurfions. Befides the Turkifh they fpeak the Hungarian and Sclavonian lan- guages. The cavalry de tribut, or tribute cavalry, is fo called from its being furnifhed by provinces, where the people are not only tributary to, but even flaves of the empire, as they can have no particular prince to govern them, but thofe only who are entirely fubje&, in all refpects, to the will of the porte. The government can change them, depofe them, and nominate them at pleafure. Thefe princes are moreover obliged to acknowledge the fultan as their abfolute fove~ reign, and to do homage to him as his -vaffals. Beffarabia, Moldavia, and Walachia, are ef this number. Of the advantage, ufe, and application of cavalry. In open, plain, extenfive, and level countries, or in thofe that are interfected with deferts, there always have been, and ever mutt be, a confiderable proportion of cavalry employed. on all enterprizes, and on operations, both of offence and de- fence, on account of their fingular utility and the neceffity of making ufe of them. They are fingularly ufeful in pro- tecting the wings and centre of an army ; for engaging in an open plain; for furnifhing detachments; for efcorts; for forming blockades; for intercepting fupplies intended for places befieged ; for foraging ; for fcouring a country; for procuring intelligence ; for the fpeedy conveyance of dil- patches; for haraffing and fatiguing an enemy’s army ; for covering a retreat; &c. &c. Cavalry, indeed, is fo peculi- arly ufeful and neceflary for a great variety of operations, in countries where it can a fuccefsfully, and to advantage, that it has in all ages been held by the greateit generals in high eftimation. The very fuccefsful fervices, which troops of this defcription have performed, the vaft number of de- cifive CAVALRY. cifive advantages, that have been obtained by means of them, in the moft important battles, of which hiftory, ancient and modern, furnifhes the details, the unanimous teltimony in their favour of authors regarded as judges of military affairs, and matters in the art of war, prove beyond the poffibility of contradiétion, that cavalry is not only ufeful, but abfolutely neceflary in armies. The great Turenne ufed to fay, that it was with good cavalry that one could fo moleft and harafs ‘an enemy’sarmy, as to ruin it by degrees. It is, however, often attended with inconveniences to have a great number of cavalry, as you cannot take the field with a numerous body of them till there is grafs or green forage for the herfes, The Turks, whofe military force confilts greatly in cavalry, on this very account, open their campaigns later than other people, and retire from the field fooner. Befides a very great number of cavalry occafions fuch a prodigious con- fumption of forage as fometimes to compel a general to quit an advantageous camp or pofition contrary to his inclination, or fooner than he withes, hoa other confiderations. It onght alfo to be remembered that open and level coun- tries only are favourable for the operations of cavalry. And they cannot be maintained but at agreatexpence, Accord- ingly in mountainous countries, and ftates that were but {mall and at the fame time not very fertile, rich, or wealthy, there have generally been but few cavalry. The military force of Switzerland has for the molt part confifted chiefly of infantry. In the ftates of Greece, if we except Theffaly, a great part of which was level, rich, and fertile, their cavalry formed but an inconfiderab!e proportion of their forces. The Theffalians were dextrous horfemen, and carried the difcipline and arms both offenfive anddefenfive of their cavalry to great perfeGtion. ‘The other parts of Greece imitated them. And from the Greeks the Romans borrowed the arms and armour for their cavalry, who, as Polybius exprefs- dy informs us in his fixth book, were in his time armed ex- aétly as thofe of the Greeks. His words on this fubje& are the following. « The manner in which thefe troops (the Roman cavalry), are armed, is at this time the fame as that of the Greeks, Butanciently it was very different. Tor, firft, they wore no armour upon their bodies; but were covered in the time of, action with only an under garment. In this method they were able indeed to defcend from their horfes, or leap up again upon them with greater quicknefs and facility. But as they were almoft naked, they were too much expofed to danger in all clofeengagements. ‘The fpears alfo, that were in ufe among them in former times, were in a double refpe& wery unfit for fervice. Firft, as they were of a flender make and always trembled in the hand, it not only was extremely difficult to dire& them with exaétnefs towards the deftined mark, but very frequently even before their points had reached the enemy, the greateft part of them were fhaken into pieces by the bare motion of the horfes. Add to this, that thefe {pears not being armed with iron at the lower end, were formed to ftrike only with the point, and when they -were broken by this ftroke were afterwards incapable of any farther ufe. Their buckler was made of the hide of an ox, and in form was not unlike to thofe globular difhes that are ufed in facrifices. But this was alfo of too infirm a texture for defence. And as it was at firft not very capable of fer- vice, it afterwards became wholly ufelefs when the fub{tance of it had been foftened and relaxed by rain. The Romans therefore having obferved thefe defects, foon changed their weapons for the armour of the Greeks. For the Grecian {pear which is firm and ftable, not only ferves to make the firit push or ftroke with the point in jutt direction and with fure effect, but with the help of the iron at the oppofite end, may, when turned, be employed agaiuft the enemy with equal fteadinefs and force. In the fame manner alfo the Grecian fhields, being ftrong in texture and capable of being held ina fixed pofition, are alike ferviccable both for attack and for defence. Thefe advantages were foon perceived and the arms adopted by the cavalry. For the Romans above all other people are excellent in admitting foreign cultoms that are preferable to their own?’ It was by uling both ends of fuch a {pear that Philopzmen killed Machanidas the tyrant of Sparta at the battle of Mantinea. The fame judicious hittoriau in his remarks. on the battle of Cann, in which the Romans left 70,oco men on the field, obferves that the Carthaginians on that cccafion, as well as in the other battles they fought under Ha :inibal with the Romans, were chiefly indebted for the victory to the numbers of their cavalry ; and that hence fucceeding ages would be able clearly to perceive, that in time of war it is far “more advantageous to have a great fuperiority of cavalry, with no more than half the infantry, than an army that is in all its parts equal to that of the enemy. In that aétion the Romans had eighty thaufand Foot and fomewhat more than. fix thoufend Horfe; and the Carthaginians had fomewhat more than forty thoufand infantry, including the Gauls and: Spaniards, and about ten thoufand cavalry. At the battle of Trebia, Hannibal had upwards of ten thoufand cavalry, the Gauls included, whereas Tiberius had only about four thoufand. On the other hand Hanni- bal had only about 20,000 infantry, whereas ‘Tiberius had 36,000. In the action near the Ticinus between the Roman andi Carthaginian cavalry and light infantry, Hannibal had a fu- perior number of horfe. There is a circumitance, however, that ought not to be loft fight of, namely, that Polybius, in making thefe obfervations, fuppofes the armies to be acting in an open country or in one favourable for the opera- tions of cavalry. For he exprefsly tells us, that Publius, after his defeat near the Ticinus as the country round him was all: flat and open, and the Carthaginians fuperior in their cavalry, marched in hafte through the plains, repaffed the Po, and then went and encamped near Placentia, a colony of the Ro- mans. Healfo informs us, that at the battle of ‘Prebia, the ground that lay between the Roman and Carthaginian camps, was a fmooth and naked plain; but that the banks of the river were confiderably high and covered with clofe fhrubs and bufhes, which fuggefted to Hannibal the idea of an am- bufcade. We likewife learn from-bim, that the country where the battle of Cannz was fought, was all plain and open, and that on this very account, and the fuperiority of the Carthaginians in cavalry, the conful A2milius thought it would be prudent to decline a general engagement till he could draw the enemy to fome other ground where the infantry might bear the chief part in the ation. For the fame rea- fon, the prudent and fagacious Fabius kept along the fides of the hills, obferving the motions of the enemy, without defcending into the open plains. The battle of Zama, too, was fought in an open and level country. And Scipio Africanus was chiefly indebted for the victory he there gained over Hannibal, which terminated the obflinateand long contefted ftruggle between Rome and Carthage, for the fovereignty of the world, to his fuperiority in cavalry. It muft therefore certainly be allowed, that a fuperior number of good cavalry is of prodigious moment in a country or in fituations where it can act to advantage. But on the other hand it mutt alfo be allowed, that in a woody, mountainous, broken, abrupt, and uneven country, where it cannot a& to advantage, it is very little ufeful, and leaft of all in an enclofed country like Great Britain, which in this refpect is widely sa ni i ror C Ay from the continent of Europe or indeed any other country. Any perfon acquainted with military manceuvres, or accultom- -ed to refleé&t on them attentively, mut be fenfible that cavalry cannot be employed toadvantage in eitherattacking or defend- “ing this country, andthat theretore for the purpoles of national defence, a very {mall proportion of them indeed is neceflary. He mutt alfo be equally fenfible, that neither the Pruffian nor German tadtics can be of any-utility, or even be made ufe of in carrying on military operations in this country ; and that therefore is defending it, that very cenflitutional, and at the fame time very contiderable part of onr force, called the volunteers, as wel! as the militia, if properly employed and difpofed of in the moment of invafion, fhiould it ever arrive, will be equal, if not fuperior to our regular forces, particularly in thety own counties. The fame reafoning will extend to our numerous horfe-artillery, which in moft fituations could, in cafe of invation, be of little orno ufe in defending this very and fingularly enclofed country, in which -no operation, of even feries of operations of an invading enemy can prove de- cilive, if we only adopt a proper mode of defence. It was anciently the cuitom of the Romans to choofe their cavalry as well as their infantry, and to add two hundred horfemen to every four thoufand foot. But in the time cf Polybius, the citizens from whom the cavalry was taken or felected were firft enrolled, having been before appointed by the cenfors according to the rate of their revenue. And three hundred of them were affigned to every legion, which then coafifted of 4209 foot. The number of the Roman cavalry then in his time bore but a fmall proportion to that of their infantry, being to it in the ratio of only 3 to 42 or 1 to 14, whilft the cavalry of the allies was to their infantry in the ratio of 1 to 7. Scipio Africanus, after taking New Carthage in Spain by ftorm, paid great attention to his cavalry before he took the field with them, and even introduced among them a new fyltem of evolutions, difcipline, and exercife, which is defcribed by Polybius in his tenth book, and is well deferving of the molt ferious attention of cavalry-officers even at this day. The order of battle now generally adopted and praétifed in Europe, is to place the cavalry on the wings, and the in- fantry in the-centre, each to be futtained or fepported by itfelf alone, inftead of arranging them in fuch a manner as to make them furnith mutual fupport and affiftance to each other. The placing of the cavalry in a line with the infantry on its flanks certainly retards the motions of the whole, as no part of the line can advance unlefs the whole does. Marfhal Saxe in his order of battle therefore places {mall bodies of cavalry, not only behind his infantry in the centre of his firlt and fecond lines, but alfo in the referve, at the dif- tance of about thirty paces; and half way between his two lines of cavalry, on the wings, battalions armed with pikes and formed into fquares with large intervals between them, for the free movements of the horfe and forthe facility of their rallying under cover of and behind thefe battalions in {quare, if broken or repulfed. He alfo places tranfverfely between his two lines of infantry and nearly in the dire€tions of right lines joining their extremities, battalions drawn up in the ufual depth to flank thofe in {quare, and to cover the flanks of his infantry. General Lloyd being decidedly of opinion, that cavalry fhould never appear till the moment it is brought into action, places none of it in the wings, but the whole of it in two lines behind the infantry. This laft he forms in fuch a man- ner as to leave an interval of 150 yards between every two battalioas. His firft line of cavalry is placed in feparate {quadrons at a proper diltance behind his mfantry, and oppo- fite to the intervals between the battalions. And his fecond line of cavalry is, in like manner, placed in feparate fquadrons at a proper diltance from and oppofite to the intervals be- tween thofe of thefirft. His flanks he covers with battalions in the reGangular form, armed with pikes, and at right angles to his line of infantry. In front of his army he has two lines of {quare redoubts with one angle of each towards the enemy; and in front of each of his battalions he has an epaulement, leaving however fufficient intervals for the whole to manaurre on. CAVAN, in Geagraphy, an inland county of the province of Uliter, Ireland, ftuated midway between the Atiantic ocean, and the Irifh fea, the extremities of the county being but 14 miles diftant from either of thefe waters. Tt is bounded on the north by the county of Fermanazh ; on the north-ealt and eaft by Monaghan, on the fouth by Meath, Weflmeath, and Longford, and on the weft by Lei- trim. Its greateft length from eatt torweft is 40 Infh miles (51 Englifh); and its greatelt breadth from north to fouth 22 miles (28 Englifh). Its area is 470 fquare miles (755 Englifh) or 391,000 acres (483,573 acres, Erg- lif) meafure) of which about 23,000 may be ranked as mountain, bog, or water. The number of houles in 1791 was 18,139, from which we may ellimate the population at about go,oco, which is 5 to a houfe, and much lefs in pro- portion to the number of acres than that of fome other northern counties. ‘The number of parifhes, according to Dr. Beaufort, 1s 30, of whieh 26 with 24. churches are in the diocefe of Kilmore, 3 in the diocefe of Ardagh, and one in that of Meath. It fends only the two county members to the houfe of commons, the boroughs of Cavan and Belturbet having loft the privilege of being reprefented in confequence ofthe union. ‘Che face of the county is very irregular, be- ing entirely hill and dale without any extent of level; in fome places it is rocky, but excepting the mountains and water very little under actual wa{te. To the north and welt the profpect is bleak, dreary, and much expofed, but in the other parts, efpecially on the banks of the Erne, it is not well fheltered and woody, but the fcenery is highly pic- turefque and engaging. Numerous lakes of great extent features of the country are ftrikingly difpofed for orna- mental improvements. The barriers of the county on the north and weit are highly marked by Slicbh-Rouffcli, and the mountains of Ballynageeragh ; and Bruce Hillis a ftriking feature in the fouthern extremity. The climate is cold, chilly and boifterous, but not unwholefome, and the inhabi- tants, inured to it, are a hardy race, remarkable for good health and longevity. The foil is not fertile, though confi- derably engaged in tillage ; it is chiefly a ftiff brown clay, over heavy yeilow argillaceous fubftrata, and produces natu- rally acoarfe rufhy pafure. Wheatis very little cultivated, but there is great abundance of oats. The mountainous parts contain feveral minerals ; in Quill mountain isa rich iron mine, and there are alfo found lead ore, manganefe, coal, fullers’earth, pipe-clay, and other fubftances which may hereafter be turned to a good account. There are alfo fome © mineral waters, efpecially the fulphureous one at Swanling bar. See Swantinc-Bar. The principal river is the Erne which croffes the county from fouth to north, and receives fome fmall itreams in its way to the celebrated lough of the fame name in the coun- ty of Fermanagh. The lakes are numerous ; fome of them very extentive fheets of water, which cover feveral hundred — acres. Many of them are dry in {nrmmer, and others confi- derably lefs than in winter; fo that by proper management — much land might be reclaimed, and the falls are fuch that a_ conliderable fupply of water might be conveyed to a canal that | EE f { and beauty adorn the interior, and, generally fpeaking, the | CAV | Cc AU that would conae& Coote-hill and Cavan with Lough Erne. Such a canal, belides the conveyance of manufactures, would facilitate the carriage of lime-{tone, which is much wanted for manure. ‘Uhe linen manufacture is carried on in this couuty, and the average fale of linen manufactured in it is valued at about 109,000]. The principal bleach-greens are in the neighbourhood of Coote hill, aud Killefhandra. ‘The average value of land is about 15s. the acre. ‘Uhis county was formerly called La/? Prefiney, and allo O’ Reily’s coun- ty, from the Irifh family which poffefled it. It was forfeit- ed at the beginning of the reign of James I.; when it was divided amongtt Englith and Scotch undertakers, fervitorsy and natives. Some changes were made by Oliver Cromwell, but many of tine allotments are at prefent poffeffed by the defcendants of James’s fettlers.. The aflizes are -held, and other public butinefs tranfadted at the town of Cavan. Coote’s Stat. Acc. of Cavan, Beaufort’s Memoir, Tranfac- tions of Dublin Society, &c. Cavan, the affize town of the preceding county, is a polt and market town, but has no manufa€ture, nor ts it in any way of importance, There is an endowed fchool with an income of eight hundred a year in lands, fet in the fame manner as bifhops’ lands, fecured to it at the time of fetthng the county, and the prefentation to. which is with govern- ment. Until the act of union Cavan returned two mem- bers to parliament. Diftance N.W. from Dublin 54 Irifh miles. N. lat. 54°. W. long. 7° 16’. Cavan, a place in the county of Donegal, Ireland, near Lifford, where Mr. Mafon erected a temporary obfervatory by appointment of the Royal Society in 1769 for the pur- pofe of obferving the tranfit of Venus. From a number of obfervations made during 2 refidence of near eight months, he determined the longitude of this place to be 7° 23’ W.; and the latitude to be 54° 51’ 41” N.; and thus afforded an important datum for the conftruction of future maps of the county, of which Dr. Beaufort has availed himfelf. CAVANA, or Canana, in Ancient Geography, a town of Arabia Felix, according to Ptolemy. CAVARES, or Cavari, in Ancient Geography, a people ef Gallia Narbonnenfis, who inhabited the bank of the Rho- danus oppolite to that occupied by the Volce. Prelemy affigns them the colonies of Araufio and Cabellio, and fome others. Strabo reprefents them as a very powerful people, who held in fubjeétion feveral others. They poffefled the diftri&ts of the towns of Orange, Avignon, Cavaillon, and Carpentras. CAVATINA, J/ta/. cut off. This term in Mujfic, which in times of Da Capo, when almoft every opera fong had a fecond flrain in a different key from the firlt, implied a fhort Air without a fecond part, is now feldom ufed as a feétion of an air, but as an entire air of fhort duration. CAVATUM Sal, in the Materia Medica, a term ufed by fome of the old Roman writers, as a name for the finelt fort of fal Gems. CAVAZATES, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Cuba; 120 miles E. of Havanna, CAVAZION, or Cavasion, called alfo Cavinc, m 4r- chite@ure, the underdigging, or hollowing of the earth, for the foundation of a building. Palladio fays, it ought to be the fixth part of the height of the whole building. See Founnation. CAUB, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the pala- tinate of the Rhine; {cated on the Rhine; 20 miles S. of Coblentz, and 28 W, of Mentz. CAUCA, a ecu the ilthmus of Darien, which has its fource in common with La Magdalena, in the lake Papos, cAU near the Sth degree of S, latitude, and which falls into this lait river. Cauca, in Ancient Geography, Coca, a town of Hither Spain, S.W. of Rauda. Appian {peaking of the treatment which this place received from Lucullus, againit the faith of treaties, calls the glory which the Romans derived from it “hateful glory.” The emperor ‘Vheodorus was a native of this city. The Itineraries place it on the route of Se- govia. According to Appian, it feems to have been fituated. between the Tagus and Darius. The pofition of the modern Coca is that which has been above affigucd to It. CAUCADA#, a people of Afiatic Sarmatia, placed by Pliny near the river Lagous. CAUCALIS, in Botany, (xavnad;; Theoph.) Tourn. Clafs 7. §. 6. gen. 2. Linn. gen. 331. Schreb. 464. Willd. 529. Juli. p. 224. Vent. vol. ili, p. 31. Gert. g4. Clafs and order, pentandria monogynia. Nat. ord. Umbellate, Linn. Unbellifere, Jufl. Vent. Gen. Ch. Caf, Umbel univerfal, unequal, with very few rays; umbel partial with more rays, the exterior ones larger. Inyolucre univerfal; leaflets generally the number of the rays, undivided, lanceolate, membranous at the edge, egg-fhaped, fhort ; fometimes none. Jnv. partial, with fi- milar leaflets, longer than the rays, often five. Perianth proper, five-toothed, protruded. Cor. univerfal irregular, radiate; florets of the difc generally abortive. Cor. proper of the dife male, tmall; petals five, inflexed-cordate, equal s. of the ray, hermaphrodite ; petals five, inflexed-cordate; un- equal, outer one the largeit, bifid. Stam. Filaments five, capillary ; anthers {mall. :?. Germ oblong, fcabrous, interior ; ftyles two, awl-fhaped ; {tigmas two, fpreading, obtufe. Peric. Fruit ovate-oblong, longitudinally ftriated, hifpid with rigid briftles. Seeds two, oblong, convex on one fide, flat on the other. Ef. Ch. Leaflets of the involucres undivided. Corolla radiate ; flowers of the difc male. /ruit fomewhat egg- fhaped, ftriated, armed with rigid briftles. Sp. 1. C. grandifiora, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1. Mart. 1.-Lam. 1. Willd, 1. Gart. tab. 20. fig. 5. Lam. Illuf. Pl. 192. fig. 1. Jacq. Auf. tab. 54. (C. umbellis planis; Hal.-helv. 740. C. arvenfis echinata magno flore; Bauh. pin, 152. Tourn. 323. Morif. hilt. tab. 14. fig. 3. Echinophora flore magno; Riv. pent. 25. E. pycnocarpus ; Column. Ecphr. 1. p. gt. tab. g4.) ‘¢ Each involucre five-leafed ; one leaf double the fize of the reft.”? Linn. ‘* Umbels flat; exterior pe- tals very large; involucres of about five leaves.” Lam. Root annual. Stem a toot high, channelled, branched. Leaves twice or thrice winged, finely cut, pale green, flightly villous. Uimdbels more than two inches in diameter, confifling of from five to eight rays. /Yowers white ; inner ones with very {mall petals; outer ones with a bifid petal four or five lines long ; fo as to make the general umbel, but not the partial ones, appear completely radiate. Leaves v the involuere membranous, and whitifh. at their edges. am, Seeds fomewhat compreffed, having four thick dor- fal ribs, each of which is armed with rigid, afcending, pungent fpines placed fomewhat alternately or in pairs ; and between thefe three elevated furrows, furnifhed with f{mall, fhort, briftle-faaped prickles, divaricated and incurved up- wards. Gert. A native of corn-fields in the fouth of Eu- rope, flowering.in July and Augult. 2. C. daucoides, Linn. Mant. p. 351. Syit. nat. 2. Smith Engl. Bot. 197. Jac. Auft. tab. 157. Gart. tab. 20. (C. leptophylla; Hudf. Flor. Ang. iit Ed. but not of Linnwus. C. parviflora: Lam. Conium Royeni; Lion. Sp. Pl. 350, Echinophora tert. CAV tettia leptophy!lon purpurea, tab. 97. fig. 2. Yive-leaved bur-parfley) {mall bur-parfley. “General umbels trifid, without an involucre; partial ones with about three fertile flowers, and a three-leaved involucre, Jueaves thrice com- pound.” Root annual, [pindle-fhaped, {mal]. Stem branch- ed, zigzag, divaricated, leafy, angular, a little rough at the angles. eavesalternate, triply winged ; leaflets pinnatifid, fmooth, prickly underneath, on the nerves, Umibels lateral and terminal ; peduncles longer than the leaves, divaricated, furrowed ; general onze, of tcarcely more than three rays ; but fometimes with one or two more, which are {maller and barren; partial ones of about five, almott feffile flowers, of which three only perfe& their feeds; petals fometimes quite white, but generally reddifh, nearly equal. Dr. Smith. Seeds oblong, nearly femi-cylindrical, having four thick dor- fal ribs which are armed with rather remote, rigid, {preading, prickles ; the intervals between them flightly grooved, and fometimes belet with minute {pines or hairs. Gert. A na- tive of England and other parts of Earope, chiefly on a cal- careous foil, flowering in June. 3. C. latifolia, Linn. Sytt. Nat. 7. Mart. 3. Lam. 6. Willd. 3. Eng. Bot. tab. 199. Jacq. Hort. tab. 128. Gert. tab. 20. fig. 5. (Tordyhum latifolium ; Linn. Sp. Pl. Hudf. Flor. Ang. aft Ed.) Great bur-parfley. ‘* General umbel trifid, involucred 5” partial cones with five fertile flowers ; leaves pinnated, ferrated.” Root annual. Stem three feet high, erect, -branched, angular, rough with extended or afcending briltles. Leaves alternate, unequally pinnated; pinnz lanceolate, decurrent, oppofite, acutely ferrated, rather glaucous, feabrous. Pe- duncles oppolite to the leaves or terminal, very long, f{ea- brous; general rays rarely four, Rout, angular, rough ; leaves of the involucre three or four, egg-{haped, fhort, membra- nous at the edge; partial umbels of feveral nearly feffle flowers, flowers red, a little radiate; leaves of the partial involucre fimilar to thofe of the general one, fometimes muri- ested at the keel. Fruit egg-fhaped, muricated with pur- ple {cabrous briftles. Dr. Smith. Seeds two, rather large, egg shaped, gibbous on one fide, and muricated with feven mbs; three broader and thicker, generally armed with a double feries of rigid, pungent {pines ; the other four fur- nifhed with only a fingle feries of {pines; flattifh on the other fide, and marked in the middle with an elevated line, which is channelled near the bafe. Gert. A rather rare native of England, found in Hampfhire, Cambridgefhire, Bedford- fhire, and Derbythire, flowering in July. 4. C. mauritanica, Linn. Sp. Pl. 3. Mart. 4. Lam. 9. Willd. 4. Mehr. E.N.C. 1742, vol. vi. p. 401. Walth. Hort. 127. ‘* General in- volucre one-leafed ; partial one three-leaved.’? A native of the coaft of Barbary. 5. C. maritima, Lam. §. Poiret itin. 2. p. 16. 8. Cav. ic. 2. tab. 101. (C. pumila; Willd. 5. Vahl. Symb. 2. p. 47. Gouan. Fl. monfp. 285. Bauh. pin. 153. Tourn. 323. C. involucro univerfal-diphyllo; Ger. Prov. 237. tab. ro. Morif. tab. 14. fig. 7. Lappula canaria; Bauh. hift. 3. p.1. Daucus muricatus &. Linn. Mant. 352.) “ Stem low, pubefcent ; fegments of the leaves rather obtufe ; um- bels involucred ; fruit egg-fhaped, thick, befet with unequal yellowith prickles.” Lam. It varies in the number of the leaves of the general involucre, which has occafioned a dif- crepance in authors with refpect to this chara¢ier. Root annual, fimple, Jong, white, with few fibres. Stems from three to five inches long, a little cylindrical, pubefcent, and almott foft to the touch. Leaves petioled, villous, yellowith green, rather thick, twice winged, with {mall, fomewhat ob- tufe fegments. Peduncles long, pubefcent. Umbels bifid in the plants, defcribed by Gouan, Gerard, and Morifon ; mul- tifid, i. e, from three so five, or even feven-leaved, in thofe € AV , of Vahl, Bauhin, and Tovrnefort. J/oqwers reddith. A native of the fea coall in the fouth of Europe and in Barbary. 6.C, orientalis, Linn. Sp. Pl, 5, Mart. 5. Lam. ro. Willd, 6. Pallas It. 3. p. 522. Bellon. It. tab. 200. C. orientalis altiffima, folio ferule; Tour. Cor. 23. Umbels fpread- ing, partial leaflets thrice compound, laciniated ; lait divifians linear.’ Lian. Obf. Martyn, La Marck, and Willdenow, have all quoted this fpecific character without a comment ¢ but theterm partial leaflets is furely obfeure, 1f not inaccurate, referring, not as may be thought at firtt fight, to the leaflets of the involucre, but to the proper leaves of the plant. Root biennial. Sven two or three fret high, cylindrical, a little branched. Leaves thrice winged, finely cut. Umbels terminal, loofe, very large; confifting of from twelve to fifteen rays, two or three inches long; partial umbels very {mall, of mne or ten fhort rays. General and partial involucres very fhort, many-leaved. Seeds rough with briftles terminated by a {mall vifcous gland. A native of the Eaft. 7. C. capenfis, Lam. 12. (C. africana, Willd. 7. Thunb. prod. 49?) “ Stem very low, rough; general and partial involucres generally five-leaved ; fruit globular, muricate.”” Lam. ‘+ Umbel trifd ; partial umbels five; leaves twice pinnatifid, hairy.’ Thunb. Stem two inches high, flender, angular, zig-zag, with one or two branches. Leaves {mall, twice winged ; fegments linear, acute. Umbels terminal, of four or five rays, very rough. Sowers white,.a little radiate. Fruit fmall, globular, befet with fhort points, La Marck, froma dried {pecimen communicated by Sonnerat. A native of the Cape of Good Hope. 58. C. /eptophylla, Lam. 6. Willd. 8. Ger. Prov. 236. Hoff. germ. 93. (Eehinophora tertia leptophyllon purpurea; Col. 1. p. 96, tab. 97) ‘¢ Leaves thrice winged, very flender; umbels generally tri- fid, without an involucre; little umbels three-leaved, threes feeded.”? Lam. ‘ General involucre almoft always none 3 umbels bifid; partial involucres five-leaved.”? Willd. Root annual. Stem from eight inches to a foot high, branched, flightly angular, a little villous on its upper part. Leaves more finely cut than in any other fpecies of the genus, trian- gular, thrice winged; fegments fhort and fine. Unmbels three, fometimes four and even five-rayed. Seeds largey rongh with long points. La Marck, from a living plant. A native of the South of France. Dr. Smith obferves (Eng. Bot. 197) that it is not certain what plant Linneus origi- nally intended by his leptophylla. 9. C. piatycarpos, Lam, 7. Willd. 9. Gouan fl. monf. 285. Roth. Beytr. 1. p. 122. (C. monfpeliaca echixato, magno fruétu, Bauh. pin. 153. Tourn. 323. Morif. hilt. 3. tab. 14. fig. 2. Echinophora al tera afperior platycarpos, Col. Ecphr. 1. tab. 94.) “¢ Umbel trifid; general and partial umbels three-leaved.”? Root an- nual. S¥em a foot and half high, a little branched, angular, befet with a few fcattered hairs. Leaves large, green, twice winged. Peduncles very long. Umbel very fhort, rarely of four rays; one of the leaves of the involucre fometimes gafhed; partial umbels with from feven to ten flowers, of which feldom more than two are fertile. Fruit large, oval, flightly compreffed; rough, with long, unequal, purplifh points. Lam. A native of Italy and the fouth of France. According to La Marck Linneus confounded this plant with Daucus muricatus. ‘10. C. infefa, Curtis Flor. Lond, fafc. 6. tab. 23. Smith Flor. Brit. 4. Eng. Bot. pl. 1314. Relh. Flor. Cant. 108. (C. arvenfis, Willd. 10. Hudfon. Wither- ing, Hull, Sibthorp, Abbot, Lightfoot. C. helvetica, Jacq. hort. Vind. vol. ii. tab. 16. C. fegetum minor, Anthrifco hifpido fimilis, Rai. Syn. 220. Scangix infeita, Linn. Syf. nat. ed. 12. Herb. Linn.) {preading*hedge-parfley. ** Um- bels of many clofe rays. General involucre almoft always A none, CcCAU none. Leaflets pinnatifid. Branches fpreading.’”? Smith. Root annual, tapering, white. Svem about a foot and a half high, ereét, leafy, round, furrrowed, rough, divided into nu- merous alternate, divaricating branches; terminal leaflet elongated. Leaves alternate, rough, pinnate, deeply cut, and fometimes almott bipinnate. Umwdels terminal, erect; gene- yal umbel fometimes of one leaf; partial ones of feveral fharp rough leaves.. Flowers fomewhat radiate, white, or ercam-coloured, rarely flefh-coloured ; anthers yellow, fome ‘times purplifh. #ruit rather large, ovate, rough, green or reddifh, but not tipped with purple. . A native of fields and way-fides in England, Germany, Switzerland and France ; flowering in July. Nearly allied to the next fpecies. 11. C. anthrifcus, Mart. 8. Willd. 11. Curt. Lond. Fafe. 6. tab..22. Fl. Dan. tab. gig. (C. afpera, Lam. 2. Tordy- lium anthrifcus, Linn. Sp. Pl. Jacq. Ault. tab. 261.) Up- right hedge-parfley. ‘* Umbels of many clofe rays. Invo- lucre of many leaves. Leaflets pinnatifid. Branches rather ere&t.”? Smith. Root annual, tapering, yellowifh. Stem almoft three feet high, ereét, leafy, furrowed, rough, with clofely deflexed hair; branches alternate. Leaves al- ternate, {cabrous ; terminal leaflet elongated ; common pe- tiole dilated, channelled. U%mbe/s terminal, erect ; involucre of many awl-fhaped, fcabrous leaflets, much fhorter than the ray; partial umbels cluttered, flat ; partial involucres about the length of the pedicels. Flowers white or reddith, fmall, but little radiate ; anthers violet-coloured ; ftyles divaricate, reflexed. Fruit egg fhaped, larger than that of the preced- ing fpecies, armed with incurved briftles, violet at the tip. ‘A native of England, and other parts of Europe, in hedges and waite places ; Howering in July. 12. C. japonica, Willd. 12. “ Involucres many-leaved: feeds egg-fhaped; leaves twice compound; leaflets wedge-fhaped, pinnatifid; ftem hairy.’ A native of Japan. 13. C. hifpanica, Lam. 11. Hebr. Ifnard. & Vaill. MSS. * Umbels compound, fef- file, lateral; leaves thrice-winged, finely divided, whorled at the flower bearing knots.’ Stem fearcely a foot high. Leaves petioled, three together in a whorl, occupying the plece of the general involucre. Unmbels generally of five rays, two of which are fo fhort that the partial umbels appear feffile ; partial involucres two or three, generally fimple, but fometimes refembling the leaves of the plant. 14. C. nodo- fa, Mart.9. Willd. 13. Rai. fyn. 220. Fludf. Fl. Ang. 114. Eng. Bot. tab. 199. (C. nodiflora, Lam. 3. Tordylium no- dofum; Linn. Sp. Pl. Jacq. Ault. app. tab. 24.) Knotted ftone or baftard parfley. ‘ Umbels lateral, fimple, nearly feffile ; ftems proltrate.”? Root annual, {mall. Stems branch- ed, leafy, ftriated, roughith with reflexed hairs. Leaves fomewhat glaucous, twice-winged; pinnules pinnatilid and gathed. Umibels oppolite the leaves, folitary. Flowers white, or reddifh, fmall, cluftered, on fhort peduncles, furrounded by the linear hairy leafiets of the involucre. Sceds fmall ; outer ones muricated with longifh, flraight, rough, rigid hairs; inner ones rough with warty points. Whcther the latter are abortive has not yet been determined. Dr. Smith. A native of England and the fouth of Europe on the bor- ders of corn ficlds, and on banks; flowering from May to Auvgvtt. Caucauis carota, Roth. See Daucus Carota. Caucatis major daucoides tingitana, Morif. Ray. Daucus muricatus. Caucauis fanicula, Crantz. Roth. See Sanicura. Cavcatis /candix, {cop. —Scandicina, Withering Flor. % ¢ See Dan. Sce Scannix anthrifcus. Caucauis peregrina, Bauh. pin. See Torpytium pere- grimun. , P } Caucauis maxima, Bauh. pin. See Torpytium maxi- mum. Vou, VII. CcCAU CAUCANA, in Ancient Geography, a port of Sicily, Beauenes by Ptolemy, and placed 200 ftadia from Syra- cufe. CAUCANTHUS, in Botany, Lam. Encyc. Bofc. Nouv. Di&. Forfkal. Clafs and order, decandria trigynia. Gen. Ch. Cal. one-leafed, bell-thaped, five-cleft. Cor. Petals five, fix times larger than the calyx, ciliated and curled on one fide. Stam. Filaments ten. Pifl, Germ fupe- rior, oval, villous: ftigmas truncated. There is only one known {pecies. A fhrub. Leaves cluttered at the top of the branches, oppofite, orbicular, en- tire. Flowers white, in terminal corymbs. tail either very fhort, or none? ciavicles, or collar bones, none. Ersleben, Buffon, Gmelin, and other authors, deferibe the following fpecies of the cavia genus: C. Paca, Acufchy, Aguti, Leporina, Americana, Aperea, Cobaya, Patacho- nica, or Magellanica, and Capybara. F Cavia Paca, the {potted cavy, is tailed ; the feet five- toed; and the fides lineated with yellowifh. Erxleben.— Mus Paca, Linn.—Cuniculus Paca, Brifl.—Paca, Maregrave. — Laubia, Bancroft. This f{pecies is near two feet in length: the form thick and clumfy, and bearing fome refemblance to that of a pig, for which reafon it has been fometimes called the hog-rabbit- The name paca is of Brafilian origin, being pronounced Pag by the natives of that part of South America: the French fettlers in Surinam call it /iewre aguatique, or the water hare. The head is round ; the muzzle fhort and black ; the upper jaw longer than the lower; and the lip divided like that of the hare: the noftrils are large ; the whifkers long ; the eyes large and prominent, and of a brown colour ;. the ears fhort, moderately large, round, and naked ; the neck thick; the body very plump, largcr behind than before, aad covered with coarfe, fhort, thinly {cattered hair, of a duf brown colonr, deepeit on the back : the throat, breait, infides of the limbs and belly, dingy white; and on cach fide of the body are five longitudinal feries of roundifh, or flightly angular {pots, fituated conticuous to each other. ‘The legs are fhort, and the feet have five toes, four of which are armed with {trong and fharp claws; that on the fifth toe being very fmall. The tail confifts merely of a {mall conic projection not more thaa half an inch in length. The {potted cavy ishabits Guiana, Brafil, Paraguay, and other parts of South America, and appears to be common throughout thofe countries, with the exception of Paraguay, where, according to M. D’Azara, this animal is very rare. It lives principally in burrows which it forms in the banks of rivers, refiding in its hole during almoft the whole day, and venturing out in queft of foodin the night. The flefh of the paca is of a good flavour, and is held in efteem in Sonta: America as an article of food, but is very fat. Tt is ealily domefticated, and in this ftate readily feeds on almoft every kind of vegetables. ‘Phe female is faid to produce but one young at a birth. A variety of the paca entirely white has been found near the river St. Francis. Cavia Acufchy, olive cavy. Tailed, with olive-coloured body. Erxleben and Schreber—Acouchy, Buffon.—Olive Cavy, Pennant. This {pecies, which is about half the fize of a full grown rabbit, inhabits the woods ef Guiana. By fome writers the acouchy is confidered as a variety of the aguti, from which it differs in being fomewhat {maller, rather thinner, and en- tirely of an olive colour, paler, or more inclining to whitifh beneath: the tail alfo is rather longer than in-the aguti.. Both animals are natives of the fame parts of South Ame- rica, and their manners are fimilar, except that, according to M.'de Borde, it does not attempt the water like the aguti. M. de Borde obferves that the acouchy produces but one young at a birth. Its voice refembles that of Cavia cobaya,. or guinea-pig. This kind is eafily tamed, and the flefh is eatable. See Axouscuy. Cavia Aguti, Jong-nofed cavy. Tailed; body tawny brown; belly yellowifh; Exxleben and Schreber.— AJus Aguti, CAV Aguti, Linn.—Caniculus agouti, Brif.—Agouti, Buffon.— Long-nofed Cavy, Pennant. The agouti is an inhabitant of South America, and the Welt Indies. It is the fize of a rabbit; the body plump, and thicker behind than before; the head rather {mall and fomewhat compreffcd laterally; {nout long and rather fharp ; nofe divided at the tip, and the upper jaw longer than the lower; ears fhort, broad, naked, and rounded ; neck rather Jeng, but thick; legs thin, almott naked and blackifh ; the hind legs longer than the anterior ones, and furnifhed with only three toes ; tail extemely fhort, naked, and fometimes fearcely viible ; the whole of the animal covered with hard, {lrong, and fhining hair, in general of a rufous brown co- Jour with blackifh freckles ; rump orange-coloured. Buffon obferves that the agouti has the hair, grunting, and voracious appetite of the hog; and when fully fatiated hides the remainder of its food, like the fox, in different places. It takes delight in gnawing and fpoiling whatever it comes near. When irritated, it bites fiercely ; its hair ftands ereét along the back, and it {trikes the ground vio- lently with its hind feet. It does not, he remarks, dig holes like the rabbit, but lives in the hollows of trees. Roots, potatoes, yams, and fruits are its principal food, It ufes its fore paws, like the fquirrel, in carrying food to its mouth; runs fwiftly up hill, or on even ground, but its fore-paws being fhorter than its hinder ones, it is in danger of falling upon a declivity. The ficth of the aguti being nearly as good as that of the rabbit, and the fkin of fuch a du- rable quality, as to form an excellent upper leather for thoes, the hunting of thefe animals is an object of attention among the Indians and negroes. They commonly go in fearch of them with dogs, or take them in traps; the natives know alfo how to allure them by whillling or imitating their cries, and kill as many as they pleafe. When they go among the fugar-canes they are eafily taken, for finking at every flep in the ftraw and leaves which cover the ground, a man may eafily overtake and kill them with a fick. When in the open country, it runs with great fwiftuefs before the dogs; and having gained his retreat nothing can force him to come out but fmoke; for which purpofe the hunters burn faegots and ftraw before the mouth of the hole, but the animal feldom quits the place of his concealment till the lait extremity. ‘The young agouti is eafily tamed. When in a wild {tate they generally dwell in the woods, where the fe- male chooles the molt obfcure parts, and there prepares a bed of leaves and grafs for her young. She ufually brings forth two or three at atime, and ina day or two afterwards, fhe carries them in her mouth like a cat, into the hollow of fome tree, where fhe fuckles them for a fhort {pace of time, for they are foon in a condition to run zbout and provide for themfelves. They multiply as falt as rabbits, producing three, four, and fometimes five young ones, during every fea- fon of the year. When ina domettic ttate they never re- move to any great diltance, and always return to the houfe ; but conftantly retain fumewhat of their wild difpofition. In general they remain in their holes during the night, unlefs the moon fhines bright, but run about molt part of the day. See Acurt. Cavta keporina, 8 of Gmelin, a fuppofed variety of the aguti, is deleribed by Erxleben as having a tail, and the body of a rufous colour above, beneath white—Mus leporinus, cauda albreviata, palmis tetradadylis abdomine albo. Lion. Syft. Nat. 12, —Cuniculus javen/is, &c. Bullion. — Fava kare, Catefby.— Favan cavy, Pennant. This differs from the aguti chiefly in being of a reddifh colour above, with the breall and belly white; the legs are long 5 the pofterior part large, and the tail very fhort. It CAV is the fize of a hare, and is a native of Surinanr and other parts of South America. Dr. Shaw obferves that thisis al- together ay American animal, and notwithftanding its eom- mon title of the Java hare, is not found either in that, ifland, or in Sumatra as erroneoufly fuppofed by fome. See AGuTt. Cavia Americana, y of Gmelin. —Cuniculus Americanusy Seba.—Cuniculus, &c. Briflon, A variety of the aguti very clofely allied to the preceding, and perhaps not diftin from it. Marcgrave, and other authors after him, fpeak of the aguti having fix toes on each of the polterior fect inttead of three. A variety is alfo fpoken of with a yellowih belly, with four toes on each of the anterior feet, and three on thofe behind. See Acurtt. Cavia Aperea, rock cavy. Taillefs; body above tawny ahh, coloured beneath, white.—Cavia Aperea, Erxleben.— Cuniculus Brafilienfis, Aperea dius, Marcgrave.— Rock cavy, Pennant. This animal is a native of Brafil. The length is one foot ; its circumference, feven inches. The general colour is the fame with that of our hares, and its belly is white ; its up- per lip is divided in the fame manner, and it has the fame large cutting teeth, and whifkers round the mouth, and on the fides of the eves, but its ears are rounded like thofe of the rat, and fo fhort as not to exceed a finger’s breadth in height ; the fore legs are about three inches in length, and the hind legs a little longer; on the fore feet are four toes covered with a black fkin, and armed with {mall fhort claws ; the hind feet have only three toes, the middle one of which is longett ; the head is fomewhat longer than that of a hare, and its flcth like that of the rabbit, which animal it refembles in its manners of living. his kind retires into holes and clefts in the rocks, whence its name of rock cavy. A va- riety of this {pecies is defcribed of a black colour {potted with tawny: other varieties differing only in colour are like- wife mentioned by authors. Cavia Patachonica. Vail fhort and naked: nofe with tufts of curly hair; body ferruginous-grey above ; beneath, and patch on each thigh, white ; ramp black.—Cavia Pata- chonica, Shaw Zool.—Cavia Magellanica, Turt. Gmel. Sytt. Patagonian cavy, Penn.—-Hare, Narborough’s Voy. to Magell. p. 33. Sir John Narborough appears to have been the firlt difco- verer of this fpecies. He calls it a hare, and informs us it inhabits Patagonia, where it is by no means fearce. _In fize this curious animal exceeds the common hare; Mr. Pennant relates in his Hift. Quad. that it has been known to weigh more than twenty-fix pounds. Its colour above refembles that of ahave; the under parts whitifh ; breaft and fides tinged with ferruginous; on each thigh is a large oval white patch, and the rump or region round the tail is black : the ears are long, rather broad, and fharp-pointed. On each fide of the nofe is a tuft of fhort foft hair, exclufive of the vibrif- fe, or whifkers. The legs are long ; the claws long, ftraight, fharp, and of a black colour ; they are four in number on the fore feet, and three on the pofterior ones. ‘Tail as in the aguti, a naked ftump. The flefh is white and delicate, and is confidered as an excellent food. This curious fpecics of cavy is defcribed from a fine fpecimen in the late Leverian Moufeum. Cavia Cobaya, Guinea cavy. Variegatetl cavy. Guinea pig- ‘Caillefs, variegated with white, rufous, and black, Schreber.— Mus Porcellus, cauda nulla, palmis tetradadylis, plantis tridadylis, Linn.—Cuniculus indicus, Nieremb. Briff. &ce.—Cavia cobaya, Marcgr. braf,—Cochon d’Inde, Buff.— Guinea pig, Ldwards.—Reflle/s cary; Penn. Though a native of South America, the Guinea cavy lives and breeds in temperate, and even in cold countries, X2 provided CAV provided it be taken care of, and fheltered from the incle- mency of the weather. This animal is frequently reared in Europe, and though very prolific, the attention they require is but poorly rewarded by the profits derived from them. The fkin is of little or no value, and their fleth, which is in- deed eaten by fome people, is notwithftanding very indif- ferent. Buffon conceives this obje€tion might be removed by rearing. them in warrens, where they might have air, {pace to range in, and an agreeable choice of herbs. Thofe kept in houfes have the fame kind of bad tafte with the houfe rabbit, while the fleth of thofe. kept in gardens during fummer is lefs difagreeable though {till infpid. They wil- lingly feed on a great variety of vegetable {ubftances, and may be fuccefsfully reared on parfley, cabbage, and fow-thif- tles. In winter they may be fed with bread, carrots, and various kinds of grain. The guinea pig is an animal of very warm difpofition, being in heat fo early as five or fix weeks old; their growth, however, is not completed before the end of eight or nine months. The females go with young three weeks, and they have been known to bring forth at the age of two months. The firft litter confifls only of four-or five, the fecond of five or fix, and afterwards they will fometimes have eleven or twelve. The female does not fuckle her young more than twelve days, and when the male returns to her, which he never fails to do three weeks after the has lit- tered, fhe drives them from her, and if they perfift in follow- ing fhe often kills them. Thus thefe animals bring forth at leaft every two months, and as their young produce in the fame period their multiplication is aftonifhing. In one year, fays Buffon, a thoufand might be produced from a fingle couple, but their confequent increale is checked by various means of deftru@ion. They have no diftin@ fenti- ment but that of love, and when difputing for a particular female, they will thew themfelves fufceptible of anger, fight bitterly, and are fometimes killed in the conteft before they will yield. In their quarrels they not only bite, but kick each other like horfes with their hind feet. They pafs their lives in eating, fleeping, and love: their fleep is fhort but frequent, they cat every hour, night and day, and indulge in their amours almoft as eften as they eat. It has been ob- ferved that the male and female feldom fleep at the fame time; but feem alternately to watch each other, one fleep- ing while the other is feeding. They fublift on all kinds of herbs, efpecially parfley, which they prefer to either grain or bread ; and they are alfo fond of apples and other kinds of fruit. Like the rabbit they eat little at a time, but preci- .pitately and very often. They grunt like a pig; make a chirping noife when pleafed with their females, and have a fharp loud cry when hurt, or irritated. They are very deli- cate in their conftitution, and fo chilly that it is difficult to preferve them through the winter, the place where they are kept during that feafon mutt be therefore warm and dry. When they feel cold, they aflemble and prefs clofe together, and in this fitnation are fometimes found dead. They are naturally of a mild difpofition, and in their manners are remarkably neat: they are frequently obferved in the a&t of fmoothing and drefling their fur in the fame manner as 2 cat. This little animal is very eafily rendered tame, but is feldom obferved to fhew any very lively attachment to. its benefaGors ; neither is it diftinguifhed by any remarkable degree of docility. Cavia Capybara, river cavy. Taitl-fs; anterior feet three-toed and palmated, Schreber.—Sus Hydrocharis, Linn. —Skydrochoerus, Brifl.— Cavia capybara, Pallas. —Cabiai, Buffon.—Thick-nofed tapir, Penn. ‘The capybara inhabits the eaftern parts of South Ame- CAV rica, but is faid to be more common in Brafil than in any other regions. This animal grows to the length of two feet and a half, and weighs fometimes one hundred pounds. It feeds not only on various vegetables, and particularly on fugar canes, but alfo on fifh, in which particular it differs from moft animals of the Géires tribe. The habits of the cepybzra are adapted to its mode of life; it frequents fenny” woods near large rivers, [wimming with the fame facility a6 the otter, and, like that animal. dragging its prey out of the water and eating it on the bank. Its excurffons in queft of prey are made principally during the night. In general, the capybara is confidered as an animal of a gentle difpofition, and is readily tamed and made familiar. The female produces but one young at a birth. Thefe ani- mals are faid to go in pairs, and are naturally fhy and timid. Their voice refembles the braying of an afs. The capybara runs but indifferently, on account of the length of the feet, and therefore commonly makes its efcape by plunging into the water and {wimming to a great dillance. Buffon fup- pofes from the number of its teats this to be a prolific ani- mal ; but this is contradicted, and it is afferted to produce but one at a birth. The fiefh has a rank and fifhy tafte, which renders it but an indifferent article of food. ‘lhe capybara has a large head, and a thick divided nefe, with ftrong and large whifkers on each fide; the ears are {mall and rounded; the eyes large and black; the upper jaw longer than the lower; in each jaw are two very large and ftrong cutting teeth; and the grinders, which are eight in each jaw, are divided into three flat furfaces on the upper part ; the neck is very fhort ; the body fhort and thick, and covered with coarfe brown hair; the legs fhort; feet long, the foremoft divided into four toes, conne@ed to each other by means of a {mall web at the bafe, and tipped with thick claws or rather hoofs at the extremities; the hind feet are formed in a fimilar manner, but are divided only into three toes. This animal fometimes, while feeding, fits up, in the manner of a {quirrel, holding its food between its paws. It is faid to commit confiderable devaftion in gardens during the night time, efpecially among the efculent vegetables. Cavia Hudfonis of Kiein, is the quadruped called Hystrix dorfata, by Gmelin, Schreber, and other late authors. Cavia Capenfis of the twelfth edition of the Linnzan Syit. Nat. and of Pallas, is Hyrax capenfis of Gmelin, and Schreber. CAVIANA, in Geography, an ifland of the North Atlan- tic Ocean, under the equinogiial line, formed by the two mouths of the river Amazons, which furroundit. W. long. 0° 30’. ; CAVIANO, a town of Naples, in the province of La- vora; 7 miles N. of Naples. CAVIDOS, or Casipos, in Commerce, a Portuguefe long meafure, ufed in the menfuration of cloth, linen, and the lke, equivalent to two feet eleven lines, Paris meafure. CAVIL, cavillatio, is defined by fome a fallacious kind of reafon, carrying fome refemblance of truth, which a per- fon, knowing its falfehood, advances in difpute for the fake of victory. The art of framing fophifms or fallacies is called by Boe= thius, cavillatoria. CAVILLARGUES, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Gard, and diitri& of Uzes; 8 miles N.E. of Uzes. CAVIN, in Military Language, a hollow place or {pot ef ground fit for covering a body of troops or favouring the ap- proachestoa places Cavins neara place befieged are of great advantage Cy advantage to the beficzers, as by means of them they can open the trenches nearer to it, conftruét places of arms, and ftation parties of cavalry for the protection of the workmen under cover from the fire of the place. A commandant or governor of a place, who attends to his duty and underftands it pro- perly, will know how to turn cavins to the difadvantage of the enemy, from the moment he perceives that the place she commands is menaced or in danger of being attacked. CAVING. See Cavazion. CAVINGS, in Agriculture, aterm provincially applied to the rakings or coarfe materials, as fhort ftraws, ears of grain, &c. collected from the corn in chaff, while thrafhing. CAVING Cuarr, the coarfe chaffy {traw or other fimilar material rakedoff from the grainafter the operation of thrafhing. CAVING Rake, the tool or implement employed in the above operation, and which is a fort of barn floor rake with a fhort head and teeth of confiderable length. CAVITA, in Geography, a port town ofthe ifland of Lugon, or Luconia, 3 leagucs S. W. from Manilla, the capital of the ifland. It was formerly a very confiderable place; but as the great towns in the Philippine iflands, as well as in Europe, exhault the fmall ones, there now remain “in this place only the commandant of the arfenal, a contador or accountant, two port lieutenants, the commandant of the town, 150 foldiers in garrifon, and the officers belonging to that corps. of mulattoes, half black, or the immediate offspring of a white man with a black woman), belonging to the arfenals, and form, together with their families, which are generally very numerous, a population of about 4000 inhabitants divided between the town and the fuburb of St. Roch. There are two parifhes, and three monafteries for men, each occupied by two ecclefiaftics, though 30 might eafily be accommo- dated. The Jefuits had formerly a very fine houfe, of which the trading company, eltabiifhed by the government, has obtained poffeffion. In general, nothing is now feen here but Tuins: the ancient edifices of ftone are deferted, or occu- pied by Indians, who never repair them ; and Cavita, the fecond town in the Philippine iflands and capital of a pro- vince of the fame name, is now only a‘paltry village, un- inhabited by Spaniards, except the military officers, and thofe of the civil adminiftration. In the port belonging to this town, the commander has eftablifhed an order and dif- cipline which give it great reputation. La Peroufe’s Voyage, vol. i. p. 269, &c. CAVITY, in Anatomy, is a term applied to feveral hol- low {paces, lined by membranes and containing the different vifcera of the body. As the extent of thefe cavities is bounded and defined by the membranes, which line them, and they have no external communication, they are fre- uently called the circumfcribed cavities of the body. hefe {paces are’ in every inflance completely and accu- rately filled by the contained vifcera ; which generally have their furface covered by a refle&ted portion of the mem- brane which lines the cavity. The furface of the vifcera is in conta&t with that of the lining membrane, but is prevented from becoming aétually adherent, by the fecretion of a fluid from the exhalent arte- ries, by which the oppofed furfaces are conftantly preferved in a moilt ftate. Hence it will be feen that the anatomical term cavity, in the fenfe which we have now mentioned, does not denote any void or empty {pace, and that it differs in that refpe&t from the common acceptation of the term. The following cavities of this kind are found in the body : Cayity of the Abdomen; Pelvis; Pericardium ; Thorax ; All the other inhabitants are metis (a {pecies’ CAU and Tunica vaginalis teltis ; for a particular defcription of which the reader is referred to thofe articles—The various joints of the body prefent examples of fimilar cavities; they are lined, and circumfcribed by the capfular ligaments. The word cavity 1s alfo frequently employed in ofteology : where it is not only applied to largerand more circumfcribed {paces, as cavity of the cranium, cavity of the orbit, but alfo to the comparatively fuperficial nnpreffions which contri- bute to the formation ot joints, and which are denominated articular cavities of the bones. The fame term is applied to the {pace included in any hollow part of the body: thus we have cavities of the heart, of the arteries and veins, of the ftomach, inteflines, &c. &c. CAUK, or Cawx, formed probably of the German haalg, {par, is uled by miners in the Peak, to denote a coarie fort of {pars being a vitriolated ponderous earth, or marmor metallicum, generally found near lead mines, which will draw a white line like chalk, or the gala€tites. Phil. Tranf. N° rro, p. 226. Ibid. N° 39, p. 770. It is unfo- luble in acids, and fufible by fire. See Eartn, ponderous. It is properly no other than a fparry matter, rendered very coarfe, by being mixed with a large portion of earth. In fome places it is found more clear and tranfparent than in others: it approaches in this flate to the nature of cryftal, and is called baltard cauk, and bright cauk.. Philof. Trauf. N° 407. There is a fingular procefs mentioned by Dr. Lifler, which is that of vitrifying antimony by its means. This is done with great readinefs and {peed by it, and the glafs, thus made, will produce fome effect on other metals, which no other glafs will, nor indeed any other preparation of anti- mony. The method of preparing it is this; take a pound of antimony, flux it clear; have in readinefs an ounce ortwo of cauk inalamp red hot ; put it into the crucible to the melt- ed antimony, and continue it in fufion: then calt it intoa clean mortar not greafed, decanting the clear liquor from the lump of cauk. ‘This procefs gives more than fifteen ounces of glafs of antimony, like polithed fteel, and bright as the mott refined quicktilver. The cauk, in the mean time, is found to be diminifhed, not increafed in its weight, and will: never flux with the antimony, though ever fo itrong fire be givenit. This isa very odd mineral, and this learned author {uppofes it to be allied to thofe white, milky, and mineral juices which are found in mines. The effe& of both is evi- dently the fame; for the milky juice of lead mines vitrifies the whole body of antimony, in the fame manner that the cauk does in this experiment. Phil. Tranf. N° 10. That there is fomewhat very peculiar in the cauk is plain from this effe& on antimony, which no other thing of this: kind is poffeffed of ; for lapis calaminaris, fulphur vivum, galaGtites, mundiéa, alum ore, f{par, and many other things, have been tried with antimony in the fame manner, but not one of them has this effet. CAUKING, in Architeure, fignifics dove-tailing down. See DovE-TAILING, CavuxinG time, in Falconry, a hawk’s treading time. Cauxine, or CarkinG a fhip. See Caurkine. CAUL, in Anatomy, is the part generally defcribed under theterm omentum. See Perironeum. Caut, or Caure, among Mineralifts, a reddifh pink- coloured ftone, found in the {trata of the tin-mines. See Tin. CAULCI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Germany placed by Strabo towards the ocean. CAULEDON, from xavro;, a flem, in Surgery, is applied to fractures which happen tran{verfely, wherein the parts of the Gj AU the broken bone ftart afunder, fo as not to lie dire@ly againh each othicr. CAULESCENT, in Botany, a terin applied to fuch plants as have a ftem. CAULIAC, Gut pz, or Guipo pe Cauriaco, in Biography, a celebrated reftorer of the art of fur- gery, was born at a {mall town in the Gavandon, on the frontiers of the province of Anvergne, in the early part of the fourteenth century. te ftudied medicine at Montpellier Wader Raimond de Molieres, and made fuch progrefs that he was early appointed teacher in furgery in that univerfity. He was thence fent for to Avignon, and made phyfician to Pope Clement the Sixth. This was in the year 1248, at which time a dreadful peltilence broke out, which vilited every part of the then known world, and de- ftroyed, it was thought, nearly a fourth: part of its inhabit- ants. Under this prince, whofe confidence he gained by his diligence and fill in the performance of his duty, he ac- quired confiderablé wealth ; and with this wealth, fuch repu- tation for his abilities, that he was retained in his office of chief phyfician to the court, under Innocent the Sixth, and Urban the Fifth. It was during the pontificate of Urban, m the year 1363, that he compofed or completed his * Magnam Chirurgiam,” which gained him fuch reputation, that Fallo- pius does not hefitate to compare him to Hippocrates. Cauliac not only reftored the furgery that had becn taught by the Greeks and by the Arabians, but, what Carpus did in anatomy, he improved what he found, and added contiderably from his own ftock. He firft, Douglas fays, taught that i- cilions over the eyebrows fhould be made longitudinally in the direGtion of the fibres of the mufcles. He alfo deferibed more accurately than had been done before, the lower end of the humerus, and the joint of the elbow. He revived the ufe of the trepan, and invented feveral inflruments, of which he gave the figures; among them, a pair of forceps, to take up wounded arteries. His work may be confidered, Haller fays, as an abridgment of all that had been done on the fubject of furgery before his time ; it alfo contains the names and the praétice of feveral writers on the art, whofe works have perifhed, and who are not noticed by any other writer. His work, originally written in the Latin language, has been printed many times, and tranflated into all the mo- dern languages. The firft imprefiion of it appeared at Ve nice, in the year 1499. in folio ; an Englith tranflation of it was publifhed in 1541. fol. A copy of this edition was in the hbrary of Sir Hans Sloane, now in the Britth Mufeum, Laurence Joubert publifhed a tranflation of it into the Preach language, with explanatory notes and obfervations, at Ly ons, in the year 1585. 4to. Haller Bib. Chirug. Eloy. Dict. Hitt. CAULIAS, an appellation given to the juice drawn from the ftalk of the filphium, contradiftinguifhed from that drawn from the root of the fame plant, which is called rhizias. Schroder makes the caulias the fame with our affafectida. CAULICL, in Ancient Geography, the name of a nation which inhabited the coaft of the Ionian fea. Steph. Byz. CAULICOLES, Cauticuut, in Archite@ure, denotes thofe eight leffer branches, or talks, in the Cormthian capi- tal, which {pring out from the four greater principal caules, or ftalks. The word comes from the Latin caulis, the ftalk, or ftem of a plant. The volutes of this order are fuftained by four caules, or primary branches of leaves ; from which arife thefe caulicoles or lefler foliages. Some authors confound the caulicoles with the volutes CiAr U themfelves; fome with the helices in the middle, and fome with the principal ftalks whence they arife, CAULIFEROUS nerss, are fuch as have atrue caulis, ftalk, or trunk, which a great many have not ; as the capilla- ries, &c. They are fometimes divided into cauliferous, and acaulofe. The former are either perfeGily cauliferous, as cabbage ; or imperfeaily, as moffes. CAULIFLOWER, in Botany. See Brassica OLERA- CEA. CAULIFLOWER, in Gardening, an efculent plant belonging to the genus Prafica. It is faid to have been firlt brought to this country trom the ifland of Cyprus. By cultivation, this fine vegetable has lately been much improved in fize, as well as in its other properties, and become com- mon at our tables curing the greateft part of the fummer menths, and even in the beginning of the autumn. See Brassica. CAULINE, in Botazy, a term applied to the leaves, &es of plants when they procecd from the flem, in contradif- tinction to thofe which proceed from the root or branches. CAULINIA, (in honour cf Filippo Cavolin', a Nea- politan gentleman, atthor of feveral works on botany and zoology,) a genus feparated from Najas by Willdcnow, and deferibed by him in a diflertation publifhed in the memoirs of the Royal Academy of Berlin, 1801, and republithed in the Annals of Botany, vol. 2. Clafs and order, monacta monan- dria. Nat. Ord. Znundate, Linn. Naiades, Jull. Gen. Ch. Male. Cal.none. Cor. none. Stam. filament none: anther odlong, dehifcent at the tip. Female. Cai. none. Cor. none. Piff. germ egg-fhaped: ttyle filiform, caducous ; fligma bifid. Peric. capfule oblong, one-fveded. Seed oblong, egg-fhaped. Sp. 1. C. fragilis. Willd. Ann. Bot. vol. ii. tab. 1. fig. 2. (Najasy. Lien. Sp. Pi. N. Minor. Aliion, Pedem. 2106. Schkuhr Bot. Hand. 3. tab. 296. Fluvialis minor. Micheli gen. tab. 8. fig. 3.) ‘¢ Leaves ternate or oppofite, linear awl-fhaped, recurved, prickly-toothed, rigid.””? Roots filiform, quite fimple, very long and perpendicular, Stem from one to feven inches long, branched from the bafe, diffufely afcending ; branches dichotomous, f{mooth, compreficd. leaves av inch long or more, acute, proceeding from a roundifh membranous fheath ; teeth alternate, mucronate. Llowers axillary; fligmas one, two or three. The whole plant is very brittle ; fo much fo that when frefh, the alk and leaves will break to pieces if touched by the hand. A na- tive of lakes and rivers in Italy, France, and Germany. 2. C. indica. Wild. Ann. Bot. tab. 2. “ Leaves ternate or op- polite, linear, awl-fhaped, repand; younger ones briltly-tooth- ed.”? Stem a foot and half or two feet long, {wimming, round, filiform, dichotomoufly branched. Leaves ipreading, itraight. Flowers axillary, {effile: germ oblongs ftyle filiform: ftigmas two, fimple. It differs from the preceding fpecies in being large, flexible, and.not in the leaft brittle : its leaves are not recurved ; when young, they have harp, briftle- fhaped teeth, which afterwards drop off, whence the full grown leaves become finuofe at the border. A native of Tranquebar. 3. C. flexilis. Willd. Ann. Bot. tab. 1. fig. 1. “ Leaves in fixcs, linear, toothed at the tip, {fpreading.”? Stem a foot long, fomewhat dichotomous, branched, filiform, round, Leavesin whorls, fheathing quite entire towards the bottom. Lowers axillary, {eflile; germ oblong; ftyle filiform ; ftizmas two, fimple. A native of Pennfylvania. The whole plant in all the {pecies is conftantly immerfed in water. CAULIS, . CcCAU CAULIS, in Botany, xavr0s, Gr. as defined by Theo- phraitus, is that part of a plant which rifes above the ground in a fingle ftock, ard is common to annuals and perennials, though, as the venerable botanilt obferves, in trecsit has a pe- Jiar name, and ts called czr¢xos, or trunk, in the common Englifh fenfe of the word. The Latin writers fcem to confine the term to the ftem of herbaceous plants. According to Linnzus, in his Philofophia Botanica, it is a fpecies of trunk ‘in its moft extenfive fignification ; denoting, in the language of the great Swedifh botanift, the organ which multiplies the plant, or, in plainer language, that part in every plant which rifes above the ground, and fupports the parts of fruétification, either with or without branches and leaves. See Trunk. The caulis or ftem, in the Linnzan fenfe of the word, is the moft common kind of trunk, that which fupports fome of the leaves, as well as the fru@tification: but Willdenow, in his Principles of Botany, confines the term to herbaceous plants, and confiders the trunk as peculiar to trees and fhrubs. Stems are diftinguifhed from each other as they are, 1. Simple, or proceed in a fingle unbroken form nearly to the fummit of the plant. In this point of view they are either quite entire, i. e. without branches ; or nearly fo, i. e. furnifhed with only a comparatively few branches, and thofe fo fmall as not to deitroy the integrity of the flem. 2. Compound; fo fubdivided as nearly to lofe the appearance of a ftem. 3. Dichotomous ; always divided into pairs as in vifeum album, mifletoe, valeriana locufta, corn fallad, &c. 3. Flexucfe, er bending in a zigzag manner, fo as to form a number of alternate curves or very obtufe angles. Climbing, ({candens;) too weak to fupport itfelf, and therefore feeking fupport from other bodies. 5. Twining, (volubilis ;) afcending in a fpiral direétion round the ftem or branches of another plant, or any kind of foreign prop. In fome plants, asin humulus, helxine, Jonicera, and tamus, the dircétion is fromlefttoright, i.e. according to the courfe of the fun as feen by a {pectator in our hemifphere with his face to the fouth : io others, as convolyulus, phafeolus, &c. from right to left, or oppolite to the courfe of the fun. 6. Ered; nearly perpen- dicular. 7. Nodding ; with the upper part bent outwards towards thehorizon. $. Jncurved; with the upperpart bent in- wards. 9. Declining ; bentdownwards fo as toform anarch. 10, Afcending ; growing firlt in an horizontal dire@tion, and after- wards curving upwards. 11. Procumbent ; feeble and refing on the ground. 12. Decumbent ; upright near the root, but afterwards bent down, fo that the greateft part of it is pro- cumbent. 13. Creeping, (repens) ; running along the ground, and here and there throwing out roots. 14. Sarmentous ; filiform, almoft naked ; or having leaves in bunches only at joints or knots where it ftmkes root. 15. Rooting, (radicans) ; throwing out lateral radicles, by which itattachesitfelf toother plants for fuitenance or fupport ; as in cufcuta, and hedera helix. 16. Parafitical; growing entirely on other plauts ; as vifcum, epidendrum, tillandria, 17. Articulated ; having joints at certain diftances. 18. Kaotty, (nodofus); {wollen at the joints. 19. Geniculaied ; knee-jointed, bending at the joints fomewhat in the manner of the human knee. 20. Round, (teres); cylindrical, without angles. 21. Half round, (femiteres) ; round on one fide, and flat on the other. 22, Comprefed ; having two oppolite flat fides. 23. Ancipital ; two-ecged, compreffed with tharp edges. 24. ngular ; hav- ing more.than two angles feparated by angular or curved hollow fpaces. 25. Triquetrous, &c. three-fided, &c. having the {paces between the angles perfeGily flat. 26. Trigonous, &c. having the {paces between the angles convex. Linnaus is by no means clear in his definitions of the laft three terms, and is differently underftood by different authors. We have 6 GAD endeavoured to confiruét ours fo as to convey diltin and pre- cife ideas: premiling however, that an attention to the etymo- logy of the words is more likely to confousd than to enlight- en; bat for this we are not anfwerable. 27. Winged, (alatus); with a membranous dilatation on each fide. 28. Furroqwed, (fulcatus) ; fluted or grooved, marked with deep, broad, lon- gitudival channels. 29. Striated or freaked; {cored with thallow, flender, longitudinal lines. 30. Even, (levis) ; with a level furface, i. e. not furrowed or {triated. 31. Rugged or Jeabrous ; rough with tubercles, or prominent ftiffith points. 32+ Muricated ; armed with fharp awl-fhaped points. 33. Smooth, (glaber); with a polifhed {urface, free from every kind of roughuels, 34. Tomentous ; covered with foft hairs fo in- terwoven as to be f{earcely difcernible. 34. Villous ; covered with foft clofe hairs, forming a fine nap or pile like velvet. 35. Hifpid; befet with {liff briftles. 36. Sheathed, (vaginatus); {urrounded with the lower part of the leaves. 37. Perfoliate; palling through the leaves, as ia bupleurum rotundifolium, exprefsly called in Englih thorough-wax.. CAULKING, Caukine, or Carine, in Ship Build- ing, the operation of driving a quantity of oakum, or old ropes untwilted and drawn afunder, into the feams of the planks, or into the intervals where the planks are joined to cach other in the fides or decks of the fhip, in order to pre- vent the entrance of water. After the oakum is driven very hard into thefe feams, it is covered with hot melted pitch or refin, to keep the water from rotting it. The firft among the ancients, who made ufe of pitch in caulking, were the inhabitants of Pheenicia, afterwards called Corfica. Wax and refin appear to have been commonly ufed previous to that period; and the Poles, at this time, ufe a fort of unc- tuous clay for the fame purpofe. Kennet derives the word from the barbarous Latin ca/ciatura, foueing. é Caurxine frons, are iron chiffels for driving the oakum into the feams. Some of thefe irons are broad, fome round, and others grooved. ; CAULNE, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of the North Coalls, and diftriét of Dinas; 34 leagues S.W. of Dinas. CAULON, Cavutonia, or Vattonia, in Ancient Geo- graphy, a {mall town of Italy, fituate on the eaft coalt of Brutium, N. of Locri, and S.W. of the promontory Co- cintum. It was founded by a colony of Achwans, and for a time made a part of the territory of the Locrians Epizo~ phyxians. This city was demolifhed,. and its inhabitants tranfported into Sicily by. Dionyfius the tyrant abont 4oo years B.C. Ovid and Virgil mention it; but it did not fubfift in the time of Ptolemy. CAUM, a place of Spain, marked, in the Itinerary: of Antonine, between Ofca and Mendiculeia. CAUMANA, one of the branches of the river Indus, near its mouth, according to Arrian. CAUMONT, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Calvados, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of Bayeux ; 4 leagues S.S.W. of Bayeux. The place contains 2151, and the canton 11,836 inhabitants: the territory includes 170 kiliometres and 20 communes. CAUNE, La, a town of France, and principal place of a diftriét in the department of the Tarn; 7 leagues. E.N.E. of Cattres. The place contains 2488, and the canton 7351 inhabitants: the territory comprehends 285 kiliometres and 8 communes. CAUNES, Les, a town of France, in the department of Aude, and diftriG of Carcaflonne ; 7 leagues W.N.W. of Narbonne, and 34 N.E. of Carcaffonne. CAUNENUS, in Ancient Geography, a fee of Afia Mi- nor; in Lycia, CAUNGA, CATV CAUNGA, in Botany, Rheed. Mal. techu. CAUNGLASS-Pornt, in Geography, a cape on the fouthern coat of Dingle bay, county of Kerry, Iveland. N. lat. 51° 58’. W. long. 10° 8’. CAUNI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Mauritania, according to Ptolemy. CAUNIA, the inhabitants of Caunus. CAUNSRA-HeEap, in Geography, a cape of the county of Kerry, Ireland. N. lat. 52° 8’ 30”. W. long. 10°. Ole CAUNUS, (Sphinx) in Zntomology, a variety of the Fa- brician Spuinx Andromacha, is delcribed by Cramer under this name. CAUNUS, in Ancient Geography, Moncaio, a mountain of Spain, placed by Livy in Celtiberia.—Alfo, a town in the ifland of Crete. Steph. Byz.—Alfo, a town of /Bolia— Alfo, a town of Alia Minor, in lonia—Alfo, a town of Caria, on the fouthern fide of the Doride, called ** Rhodi- eorum’’ or of the Rhodians. It was fituated at the foot of mount Tarbelus, W. of the {mall gulf of Glaucus. The air was proverbially infalubrious in {ummer and autumn, on account of the extreme heat, and-the evil was increaled by the abundance of its fruits. Steph. Byz. fays, that this .*) CAYSTE R, in Ancient Geography, now Minderfeare, and * ealled alfo by the Turks Coutchouk-mindre, that is, the Little Meander, or the Black Meander, a river of Afia Minor, which hadits two fources N. and S. of the mount T'mo- lus, aed having bathed Lydia, and traverfed the plain between the mountains Gallefius and Coriffus, it difcharged itfelf into the A®gean fea near Ephefus. This river was celebrated by the poets for the fwans that frequented its banks, and the lakes formed by it on the plain. To this purpofe Virgil fays:— «¢ Jam varias pelaci volucres, et que Afie circum, Dolcibus in ttagnis rimantur prata Cay ftri.”” Georg. l.i. Tt is alfo faid to: have almoft as many windings as the Meander itfelf. From this refemblance feveral of our mo- dern travellers have been led to miftake the one for the other. CAYSTRIUS Campus, or Caysrrum, a plain of _ Afia Minor, in Tonia, between mount Gallefius to the north and mount Coriffus to the fouth, on which was feated the city of Ephefus. The Cayfter traverfed it from the eaft to the weft. Pliny fays that this plain was formed by the fuc- ceflive depofitions of the river. CAYSTROPEDIUM, avery populous city of Afia, in Phrygia; where Cyrus remained five days and was joined by Epyaxa, wife of Syennefis, king of Cilicia. CAYUGA, in Geography, a beautiful lake in Onondaga county and ftate of New York, in America, from 35 to 40 ~ miles long, about 2 miles wide, in fome places 3, abounding with falmon, bafs, catfifh, eels, &c. It lies between Seneca and Owafco lakes, and at the north end empties into Scayace river, which is the fouth-eaftern part of Seneca river, whofe waters run to lake Ontario. ‘The refervation lands of the Cayuga Indians lie on both fides of the lake at its northern end. CAZAL, a town of Arabia, 80 miles N.E. of Medina. CAZALLA. See Cacaura. CAZALS, a town of France, in the department of the Lot, and chief place of a canton in the diftri& of Cahors ; 3 leagues S.W. of Gourdon. The place contains 1046, and the canton 7947 inhabitants ; the territory comprehends 1424 kiliometres and 7 communes. CAZARES, a town of Mexico.. See ANGELO. CAZAUEBON, a town of France, in the department of the Gers, and chief place of a canton in the diftri& of Con- _ dom; 6leagues W. of Condom. The place contains 2275, and the canton 12,174 inhabitants; the territory includes 2874 kiliometres and 18 communes. CAZ-DAGLI, or Caz-pancri, a diftri@ of Afia Minor, lying between Anatolia and Caramania, which the Turks believe to have been the country from which the Englith firft drew their origin, and on this account, it is faid, that they never fail to claim kindred with the Englith wherever they meet, efpecially if they ftand in need of their affittance. CAZECA, in Ancient Geography, a maritime town of the Tauric Cherfonefus, between Panticapea and ‘Theodofia, according to Arrian. Vou. VII, CAZ CAZEMATE, in Fortification. See CASEMAtE. CAZENOVIA, in Geography, a new and thriving towns fhip of America, in Herkemer county and ftateof New York, 49 miles weitward of Whiteftown. By the ftate cenfus of 1796,,274 of its inhabitants are eleftors. CAZERES, a town of France, in the department of the Upper Garonne, and chief place of a canton in the diftri@ of Muret ; 2 leagues S.W. of Rieux. The place contains 2023, and the canton 30,975 inhabitaats; the territory comprehends 222% kiliometres and zo communes. CAZERNS, in Fortification. See Casrrns. CAZES, Perer-James, in Biography, an eminent French painter, was born at Paris in 1676, and having dif- covered an early inclination for defign, he was placed under the inftruGion firft of Ferou, and afterwards of Houafle fenior. ‘The manner of Houaffe being too mechanical for his tafte, he received leffons of Boullogne the elder, and be- came his beft fcholar, fo that he obtained feveral academical prizes. In 1703, he became a member of the Royal Academy of painting, and from this time began to diftinguifh himfelf. His firt performances were fabulous fubjeGts in the gallery of the marquis de Clerambaut ; but his reputation was efta~ blithed by a large picture difplayed at the church of Notre Dame on every firtt of May, reprefenting the Woman with an Iffue of Blood. He then opened a fchool, which was much frequented. Being of mild and polifhed manners, and of an enlarged underttanding, he acquired the friendfhip of feveral perfons of tafte. By the Academy his merit was fo much noticed, that he was advanced through the gradations of adjun&, profeffor, governor, and director, to that of chan- cellor. His particular walk of painting was that of hiftory 5 and his compofitions are grand and well-ftudied, marked by elevated conceptions, large and flowing draperies, correét drawing, and a good ftyle of colouring. In his church pic- tures there is much dignity, and grace in his fabulous fub- jects ; and he equally excelled in great and fmall works. He is principally deficient in expreflion, and in fome of his later pieces, efpecially, the coldnefs of age is perceptible. He loft his faculties fome time before his death, which hap- pened in 1754. His works are numerous in Paris, and its vicinity, and they are alfo found at Abbeville, Amiens, and other places. His eafel works are met with in feveral cabi- nets. ‘The king of Pruffia has two excellent ones, which for their beautiful finifh are compared to the works of Corregio. Argenville. Gen. Biog. Cazes de Mondenard, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Lot and diltri€&t of Montauban; 3 miles S.E. of Lauzerte. CAZIC, or Caziqus, a general title given by the Spa- niards to the petty kings, princes, and chiefs of the feveral countries of America, excepting thofe of Peru, who are ftyled curatas. The French cail them cafigues, a deno- mination which they alfo give to the chiefs of the Tartarian hords. . The cazics in fome places do the office of phyficians, and in others of priefts, as well as captains. The dignity of cazic among the Chiites, a people of South America, does not defcend to children, but muft be acquired by valour and merit. One of the prerogatives annexed to it is, that the cazic may have three wives, while the other people are only allowed one. Mexico comprehended a great number of pro- vinces and iflands, which were governed by lords called Hal zigues, dependent on and tributary to the emperor of Mexico; thirty of thefe cazigues or vaffals are faid to have been fo powerful, that they could each of them bring an army of an hundred thoufand men into the field, Aa CAZIMI, CEA CAZIMI, among the Arabian Aftronomers, denotes the dife of the fun. A planet is faid to be in cazimi, when it 1s not diftant from the center of the fun more than 16’, the femidiameter of the fun’s difc. CAZOULS, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Herault, and diftrict of Beziers; 5 miles N.W. of Beziers. CAZZOLA, a {mall ifland in the Adriatic, near the coaft of Dalmatia. N. lat. 43° 8’. E. long. 16° 44’. CAZZONS, in Rural! Economy, a term provincially ap- plied to fignify the dried dung of cattle, which is employed as fuel... It is a fort of fuel frequently made ufe of in fome parts of Yorkfhire, as about Holdernefs. CEA, in Geography, a towa of Portugal, in the province of Beira, 7 leagues S.S.E. of Vifeu. CEADAS, or Czapas, in Ancient Geography, a name given by Paufanias and Strabo to a place of Peloponnefus, in the vicinity of Sparta, in which was a deep cavern, into which they precipitated thofe who were condemned to death for very atrocious crimes. CEANIDES, or Ceantines, in Natural Hiftory, a name given by many of the ancients to the {tone more gene- rally known under the name of enchymonites. Ut was the fame with our {parry incruftations on the walls and roofs of fubterranean caverns: and, from the opinion of the times, that thefe ftones brought forth young ones, which was founded on their finding little ones daily produced among them, it became a cultom to give this internally to women in labour, as a thing that would, by a fort of fympathy, haiten the time. CEANMHARRA, in Geography, a hill in the Scots ifland of Tiree, remarkable for numerous caves, to which fea-fowl, eagles, and ravens refort ; fome of the caves are more than 50 yards deep. CEANOTHUS, in Botany, xsavw0os, Gr. a name given by Theophrattus to a prickly plant, fuppofed by Columna to be ferratula arvenfis of Linneus, but by Adanfon to be a fpecies of cirfium.) Linn. gen. 267. Schreb. 361. Willd. 412. Lam. Ill. 358. Gert. 615. Juff. p. 380. Vent. vol. iii. p. 472. Clafs and order, pentandria monogynia. Nat. Ord. Dumofe; Linn. Rhamni; Jufl. Rhamnoidee ; Vent. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth one-leafed, top-fhaped, perma- nent, five-cleft ; fegments acute, nearly clofed. Cor. Petals five, equal, clawed, awl-fhaped, inferted into the calyx be- tween its divifions. Stam. Filaments five, awl-fhaped, ered, oppofite to the petals, the length of the corolla; anthers roundifh. Pi/?. Germ fuperior, trigonous ; ftyle cylindrical, femitrifid, the length of the ftamens ; ftigmas obtufe. Peric. Capfule (dry berry ; Linn.)!obtufe, three-grained or three- celled. Seeds folitary, egg-fhaped. Ef. Ch. Calyx five-clett. Petals five, clawed, cowled, oppofite to the ftamens. Cap/ules three-grained, three- eeded. Sp. 1. C. americanus, Linn. Sp. 1. Mart. 1. Lam. 1. Willd. 1. Lam. Ill. pl. 129. fig. 1. Gert. tab. 106. fig. 4. (Celaftrus; Gron. Virg. 23. Evonymus; Com. Hort. tab. 86. Pluk. alm. tab. 28. fig. 6.) New Jerfey tea. ‘ Leaves egg-fhaped, acute, ferrated, three-nerved at the bafe ;_pani- cles axillary, on long peduncles.” A fhrub, three or four feet high. Stems feveral, flender; branches cylindrical, fmooth, reddifh. eaves alternate, deciduous, on fhort petioles. Flowers {mall, white, very numerous. Cap/ules about the fize of a pepper-corn. A native of New Jerfey, Virginia, Carolina, and other parts of North America. An infufion of the dried leaves is ufed by the common people inflead of tea; particularly in the fouthern ftates, where, CEA from its Indian name, it is commonly called pongpong tea. It flowers from July to O€tober, and from the profufion of its bloffoms is a very ornamental fhrub. 2.C. macrocarpus, Willd 2. Cav. ic. 3. p. 38. tab. 276. ‘* Leaves cordate- roundifh, obtufe, three-nerved; corymbs axillary.’ ruit nodding, large. Sufficiently diftinét from the preceding, both in its infloreicence, and its leaves. A native of New Spain... 3. C. microphyllus, Lam. Illuft. 2681. Leaves oblong- elliptical, diltantly toothed, frmall; panicle terminal, com- pofed of alternate peduncled cymes.’? Stems about nine inches high, flender, much-branched. Found by André Michaux in Florida. 4. C. aftaticus, Linn. Sp. Pl. 2. Mart. 2. Lam. Enc. 2. Ilutt. 2632. Pi. 129. fig. 2. Willd. 3. (Rhamnus afiaticus; Poiret in Encye. Art. Nerprun.Gloffu- laria; Burm. zeyl. ni. tab. 48. Katapa; Rheed. Mal. 5. tab. 47. Carpodetus ferratus ; Schreb. 360. Willd. 410, Mart. Forft. prod. 111. gen. p. 33. tab. 17.) ‘ Leaves egg- fhaped, fomewhat ferrated, three-nerved at the bafe ; pedun- cles axillary, branched, many-flowered, fhorter than the leaves.”?’ Lam. SS BERS a BS { | o Lol N rn ‘ o.0 Ber ees ita ans a z oa] pe ° oP = Z B27 2. oO Zs & Cad oOo 4 a O'o; ~ aor o pais? S iss] 523 ES rh ie aw Ea: < “ 3 = & ze - aed = Pa 5 ° 4 Lad ie} Pig “ D Ea eens yeq ayy wh yoryar The ftudy of the Wel/h language was firft encouraged in this country by Henry VIII. But the beft body of materials for the knowledge of the Celtic dialeéts will be found in Lhwyd’s Archzologia Britannica. CELYDNUS, in Ancient Geography, ariver of Macedonia, in the Oredtide territory. It had its fource in the Cecroce- 2. The Ancient 3. The Ancient Irisu. "HSINYOD *E— *HSIYy ‘I—— *yooog puelysipy 10 Sasuqy *z—— “ueyAT JO AY] 24} Jo asenZury 10 ‘sunvyy *f— raunian mountains, and ferved as a boundary between Orefti- des and Chaonia, according to Ptolemy. CEMA, a mountain of the Gauls, forming a part of the chain of the Alps. ‘ Amnis Varus,” fays Pliny,” ex Al- pium monte Cema profufus.”” The mountain whence this {mall river flows, ig at prefent called Caillole. 6 CEMAS, cEM CEMAS, Cemas Aeliani et Herodoci, in Zoology, fynonymous with Antilope Rupicapra of modern writers, Bochart, &c. Belon conceives the Cemas, or Kemas of the Grecks to be this {pecies. CEMBALO, Italian, in Mufic, at prefent implies a harpfichord ; but in the time of Boccaccio, it was the title given to the tambour de bafque: inffrumento da donne ; which in the Crufca di€tionary is defined, im/frumento da fonare; che é un cerchio d’affe fottile alla larghozza d’un tommefio, &c.—covered with parchment like a drum, fur- rounded with bells or bits of tin, and beaten with the hand. Madonna, Pio aveffe un Cembalo, io direi, &e. We not only meet with Arpicordo and Clavicembalo in Zarlino, 1562, bit among keyed inftruments, deferibed by Ottomarus Lufcinius in 1535, under thre three feveral Latin names of Clavicitherium, Clavichordium, and Clavicemba- dum; but in the coarfe wooden cuts by which he repre- fents them, the fhape feems only that of a {pinet or virginal ; which fee. In Varchi, the contemporary of Zarlino, the harpfichord is called Gravicembalo. And in another Italian writer of a more early period, we are told, that Tintoret the-painter had a. daughter called Marietta, who, befides other accomplifh- ments, played on the Gravicembalo, or harpfichord, and paint- ed extremely well. See OxGan, HarpsiCHORD, SPINET, and PIANoO-FoRTE. CEMBANI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Arabia Felix, who dwelt in the vicinity of the Agreeans, accord- ing to Pliny. CEMBRA, in Botany. See Pixus Cembra. CEMELANUM, Cemenettum, or CemMENALIUM, Cemecion and Cemetum, Cimiez, in Ancient Geography, a town of Gallia Narbonnenfis, N. N. W. of Nicea, and near it. It continued to be the capital of the Maritime Alps to the clofe of the 4th century, and was very confiderable for the number and quality of its inhabitants, and the beauty of its edifices. The firft officers of this province made this the place of theirrefidence. It had three colleges, one of which was probably that of the priefts ; and a fenate which allowed an affembly for deliberating on the conftruction of a monument in honour of M. Aurelian Mafculus, prefident of the Maritime Alps. This Roman had fupplied the city with corn ina time of famine, and re-eftablifhed the ancient aqueducts, the ruin of which had occafioned a want of water. The town of Cimiez was deftroyed by the Lombards towards the year 737. The inclofure of its amphitheatre is {till in good prefervation. It was the capital of the Vediati, and was jituated on the Aurelian way. M. D’Anville difcovered this ancient name in that of the church, called ‘* Notre- Dame de Cimies’’ to the right of Paillon, and 14 mile N. of Nice. CEMENTATION, in Chemifiry. Camentiren, Germ. This term is applied to a procefs in the dry way, fimilar to digeftion in the moift, and means the expofure of any fubftance to a regular furnace-heat in a crucible, ftratified or otherwife covered with fome kind of powder which is in- tended to produce a chemicai change. Thus iron bars are converted into tteel by being cemented with a powder of bone-afh, and other materials: copper into brafs by cementation, with a powder of calamine and charcoal ; and the like. The powder ts, in this cafe, called Cement- ewer. CEMENT-COPPER. The copper procured from the fulphat by precipitation with iron is fo called. See Corrrr. CEMENTS and Lures. Under this article may be mentioned the receipts for preparing fome of the molt ufe- 2 C:EM ful fubftances of this kind, that are required in common che- mical operations. ‘The ufes of lutes aad cements are either to clofe the join- ings of chemical veffels to prevent the efcape of vapours and gaffes during the proceffes of diftillation, fublimation, and the like, or to proteét vefcls from the aétion of the fire which might crack, or fufe, or calcine them: or fometimes to repair flaws and cracks, and for a varicty of other {maller purpofes. The fubjcét of calcarcous cements, {uch as mortar, tarras, and other fubttances ufed to clofe the joinings of bricks or ftones in buildings, will be mentioued in the following article. When a lvte is applied over the whole furface of a veffel, (as to a giafs retort when it is intended to be heated red hot) the procefs is termed, Jorication or evating. Ivon furnaces are alfo Aned or coated on the infide with earth, to prevent the iron from being deftroyed by the conftant action of the fire. From the vaft variety of receipts for lutes and cements of different kinds, the following may be feleéted, which will anf{wer molt of the purpofes of the experimental chemiit. To prevent the efcape of the vapours of water, fpirit, and liquors not corrofive, the fimple application of flips of moiftened bladder will anfwer very weil for glafs, and paper with good patte for metal. Bladder, to be very adhcfive, fhould be foaked fome time in water moderately warm, till it feels clammy; it then flicks very well. If fmeared with white of egg, inttead of water, it adheres ftill clofer. Another very convenient lute is linfeed meal, moiftened with water, toa proper confiltence, well beaten, and applied pretty thick over the joinings of the vefiels. ‘This im- mediately renders them tight, and the lute in fome hours dries to a hard mafs. Almond patte will anfwer the fame purpofe. - ‘The ufe of the above lute is fo extenfive, that no other is required in clofing gla{s veflels in preparing all common dif- tilled liquors ; and it will even keep in ammonia, and acid gaffes, for a longer time than is required for molt ex- perimental purpofes. It begins to fcorch and fpoil at a heat much above boiling, and therefore will not do as a fire Jute. It is itill firmer, and dries fooner when made up with milk, or lime water, or weak glue. A number of very cohelive cements impervious to water and moft liquids and vapours, and extremely hard when once folidified, are made by the union of quick-lime with many of the vegetable or animal mucilaginous liquors. The variety of thefe is endlefs. We may firit mention the following, as it has been extenfively employed by chemifts for centuries. Take fome whites of eggs with as much water, beat them well together, and {prinkle in fufficient flaked lime, to make up the whole to the confiltence of thin palte. The lime fhould be flaked by being once dippedin water and then fuf- fered to fall into powder, which it will -do fpeedily with great emiffon of heat, if well burnt. This cement fhould be {pread on flips of cloth, and applied immediately, as it hardens or iets very [peedily. While hardening it may be of ufe to fprinkle over it fome of the lime in fine powder. This cement is often more fimply and as conveniently managed, by f{mearing flips of linen on both fides with white of egg, and when applied to the joining of the veflels fhaking fome powdered lime over it. It then dries very fpeedily. Another lute of the fame kind, and equally good, is made by ufing a flrong folution of glue to the Kme inftead of the whte of egg. It fets equally foon, and becomes very hard. A mixture of liquid glue, white of eggy and lime, makes ; the CEMWE WT s. the ut d'ane, which is fo firm, that broken veffels united with it, are almolt as {trong as when found. None of thefe Jutes, however, will enable thefe veflels to hold liquids for any great length of time. Milk or flarch, with lime, make a good, but lefs firm lute. A very firm and fingular lute of this kind is made by rubbing down fome of the pooreft fkimmed milk cheefe with water, to the confiftence of thick foup, and then adding lime, and applying aa above. It anfwers extremely well. © Lime and blood, with a {mall quantity of brick-duft, or broken pottery, flirred in, is ufed in fome places as a very good water-cement for cellars and places liable to damp. Paris-plafter, mixed with egg, milk, gluc, ftarch, or any mucilaginous liquor, alfo makes a good lute. Some artills mix other earths with the above materials. Thus a very good cement is made with equal parts of clay and lime, about 4 of flour and white of egg; or, as is uled by many of the aqua fortis-makers, a mixture of colcothar lime and white of egg. All the above-mentioned cements, with lime, become very hard, by drying, infomuch that they cannot be fepa- rated from glafs veffels without the help of a tharp knife and fome violence ; and hence delicate veflels, and long thin tubes cemented with it, are apt to break, when the apparatus is taken down, and fometimes even by the mere force of contraction in fetting. It is a great advantage, however, that they may be applied immediately to any accidental crack or failure of the lute already on, notwithflanding a itream of vapour is burlting through; and in large diltilla- tions it is of advantage always to have fome of tle materials at hand. ; Thefe Jutes will not confine very corrofive acid vapours perfectly, for a great length of time, but will anfwer for other purpofes, particularly where a complicated apparatus is to be kept fteadily united and airtight. ‘Chey will bear nearly a red heat without material alteration. Ancother kind of lute, which is the molt perfe& for con- fining acid vapours for any length of time, and which never hardens to an inconvenient degree, is the fat lute, as it is called. This is made by taking any quantity of good clay, tobacco-pipe clay, for example, thoroughly dry, but not burnt, powdering it in an iron mortar, mixing it gradually with drying linfeed oil, and beating them together for along time to the confiltence of thick palle. Much manual labour is required, and it fhould be continued ull the mafs no lon- ger adheres to the pettle. Then make the, edges of the glafs or other veflel, where it is to be ufed, perfectly dry, and apply the lute carefully, and it will ftand the Jongeft procefs without failing. This grows firm enough to retain its place, and to hold the veflels together, but may readily be feparated by a knife. This lute much improves in adhefivenefs by long keeping, which fhould be in a covered pan ina cool cellar. When wanted, it regains fuf- ficent ductility, merely by beating for a minute or two, or by the help of a few drops more of the oil. Good glaziers putty, which is made of chalk, beat up with drying linfeed oil, much refembles the fat lute in quality. Another {pecies of lute is that which is commonly applied round glafs retorts, when dittillation with a full red heat is wanted, to proteét them from the fudden ation of the fire, and to give them frmnefs, and to enable them to bear this heat without flattening or falling together, when red-hot, or melting with the fuel. A glafs veflel, fo prepared, with a thick earthen coating, may be confidered as an earthen veflel glazed on the intide. The fubitance ufed is a mix- ture of fand, with juft fufficient clay to make it adhere to- gether, beat up with fome kind af fibrous matter, fo as mecha- nically to increafe the tenacity. A natural earthy mixture of the kind is Windfor loam, or an equally good one may be formed with coarfe fand and clay, or better with frag- ments of pottery coarfely ground, (the fine part being fepa- rated by lifting, and rejected, ) mixed with more or lefs clay, according to the quality, fo that it will juft mould together when wet. For the fibrous matter, fome ufe horfe-dung, which appears to be the beft, others chopped flraw or chaff, others chopped horfe, or cow-hair, or tow, all of which anfwer the fame purpofe. A {mall quantity of thefe will fuffice. Beaumé recommends about an ounce of cow’s hair to five pounds of the earthy mixture. A good deal of water fhould be added, when the materials are mixed, and much manual labour is required to diffufe the hair equally through the mixture. To apply it to a glafs veffel, a re- tort, for example, take a fufficient quantity of the lute, {pread it cut flat on a table, lay the bottom of the retort on the middle of the mafs, and then turn up the edges of the flat cake, and bring it over the reft of the glafs, prefling it down with the fingers, till it applies uniformly and clofely. . By this method the lute is without feam, and is much more hkely to dry in the fire without cracking. Or elfe, bring the Jute, with fufficient water, to the confiftence of thick foup, dip the retort in, and it will come out thinly coated. Turn it round before the fire, and, when dry, dip it again in the lute, to give a fecond coating, and fo on, to the required thicknefs, which may be from J to 2 an inch. A lute fimilar to this is ufed as a lining to iron furnaces, to confine the fire, and prevent the iron from confuming by the conttant heat. ‘This lute is juft fo fufible as to begin to agglutinate in a full red heat; and hence, if it remains found till thus hot, it will form an impenetrable coating to the glafs within, from which it cannot afterwards be de- tached. The covers of crucibles and other veflels intended to bear fire may be luted with this earthy mixture. Ir is rendered {till lefs liable to crack on the firft heating, if, when thoroughly dry, it is fmeared with linfeed oil. Sometimes, however, a ftill more fufible compound is wanted, particularly where very volatile and penetrating fub- flances are diftilled from an earthen veffel.-. Thefe veflels are neceflarily porous, to a-certain degree, independent of any cafual cracks, from which the larger earthen veflels are feldom entirely free. When phofphorus, for example, is prepared, by ftrongly heating charcoal and phofphoric acid in one of thefe retorts, the vapour of the phofphorus pene- trates through the pores, when thoroughly red hot, and much of it iy loft. Nor will the laft-mentioned luting en- tirely prevent this, fo that it is a great faving to cover the retort firlt with a thin coat of a fufible glazing, which will melt on the furface as foon as red-hot, and clofe every opening. This glazing may be made by. a variety of fluxes added to the proper dofe of clay and earth, and mixed into a thin palte and applied to the retort with a brufh. The following management is recommended by Mr. Willis, a practical chemilt, (Repertory, vol. i.) in ditllation with large earthen retorts. Diffolve one ounce of borax in half a pint of boiling water, and add as much flaked lime as will make it into a thin pafte. Spread it over the retort with a brufh, and, when dry, apply over the whole a lute of flaked lime and linfeed oil, beaten till it is perfeétly plaftic. This becomes dry in a day or two, and is then fit for ufe. Stone retorts may thus be uled feveral times with fafety, (always renewing the oil and lime-lute} ; whereas, in the common way, and even with the clay and hair-lute, they generally crack when cooling, or on being heated a fecond time. If, during the operation, the retort fhouid crack, Mr. Willis advifes to fpread tome of the oil compolition thickly on the part, CEMENTS. part, and fprinkle fome flaked lime 6ver the whole, which will prevent the further efcape even of the penetrating va- pour of phofphorus, and may be fafely applied even when the retort is red-hot. When prepared fomewhat thicker, it is very proper as a general lute for a variety of purpofes, and will never harden fo as to break the veffel. Often a fire lute is required to join the covers to crucibles, or for fimilar purpofes, fo as to keep them air-tight when hot. A very valuable compofition of the kird is made of glafs of borax, brick-dult and clay finely powdered together, and mixed with a little water when ufed. No very great nicety is required in the proportions, but about a tenth of borax is quite fuflicient to bring the earths to that tlate of femi-vitrification which is defired. Litharge may alfo be ufed inftead of borax, but the latter is by far the belt, as it promotes that thin fpreading fufion which is beft calculated to be equally applied over an uneven furface ; and befides, if a portion of the litharge lute were to drop into the crucible it might poflibly be reduced, and lead introduced into the refults of the experiments. A cement, faid to be ufeful to ftop cracks of iron veffels intended to be ftrongly heated, is made of fix parts of clay, one of iron filings, and linfeed oil enough for the mix- ture. Another fpecies of cement is what is termed by the French Majflich chaud, and confifts of different kinds of oily and refinous fubftances, liquid when hot, and which become more or lefs folid by cooling. They are ufeful for a va- riety of mifcellaneous purpofes, for experiments with gaffes over water or mercury, and others where only a very mode- rate warmth is ufed, and where it is of importance to keep out air and water. Thefe will alfo confine acid vapours, but not the vapours of alcohol, turpentine, or effential oils, which diffolve molt refinous fubftances. Mott of them will ftick very well to glafs. Common fealing-wax is one of the moft ufeful of thefe cements. A cheaper and lefs brittle cement is made fimply by melting bees wax with about one eighth of common turpentine. ‘This may be made up into fticks to be ufed when wanted, being firft melted or {pread evenly with a hot iron, A greater proportion of turpen- tine renders this lute fofter and more fufible, but fomewhat pliable. A\ very firm cement is made by four parts of rofin, one of bees wax, and when melted, one part of fine brick duft, flirred in. This adheres with extreme firmnefs. Table knives are cemented to their handles by this mixture, and turners ufe a fimilar compofition in fome fine works to fix them to the lathe. Chaptal found, after many trials, that the penetrating vapours of fulphureous acid in the manufaéture of alum were completely confined in a wooden chamber lined very carefully with a mixture of equal parts of pitch, turpentine, and wax boiled till all the effential oil was diffipated (which was known by the ceflation of the bubbles) applied melted to the wood, and fpread with a hot trowel! over the joints. Vintners ftop leaks in their cafks with melted fuet rubbed over when cooling with fifted wood-afhes, or previoufly mixed with the afhes in melting. The ufe of gum arabic diffolved in water, for cementing paper labels to bottles, and a great variety of mifcellaneous purpofes, is known to every one. A {ull better cement for the fame ufe is ifinglafs diflolved in vinegar to a pretty thick confillence when warm. ‘This congeals on cooling, and be- fore it is ufed it fhould be gently warmed. Many of the varnifhes and oil paints are employed in ren- dering veffels air and water tight. ‘Thus when canvas bags are faltened to a ftop-cock tube for air-holders, the joining is made perfeatly tight by tying over it Hips of cloth or bladder foaked in f{pirit varnifh. The following cement is faid to be*very ufeful in joining together giafs or fteel. ‘T'ake of maftich five or fix bits as big as peas, diffolve in as much alcohol as will render them liquid. In another veflel diffolve as much ifinglafs (pre- vioufly foaked in water) in brandy or rum, as will make two ounces by meafure of a ftrong glue, warm it, and incorporate with it by rubbing two or three {mall bits of galbanum or ammoniacum and then the matlich folution. Keep the ce- ment in a bottle well ftopped, and gently warm it before ufe. Thofe fufible metal compounds ufed to unite pieces of metal form another totally diftin@ f{pecies of cements. Thefe are termed Sotpers, under which they will be de- {cribed. See Cement. Cements, calcareous. In this article it is propofed to give an account of the various cements ufed in building, into which lime enters as an effential conftituent part ; and in order to treat the fubjeét with a degree of clearnefs, in fome meafure correfponding to its importance, it will be advifable to arrange every kind of calcareous cement under one or other of the following three divifions: firit, fimple calcareous cements: fecondly, water cements: thirdly, maf- tichs or maltha. § 1. Simple calcareous cements. This fection includes thofe kinds of mortar which are employed in buildings on land ; and generally confift of lime, fand, and frefh water. It is well known that calcareous earths are converted, by burning, into what is called quick lime, which fubftance being wetted with water falls into a powder with great extrication of heat, and then acquires the property of uniting with fand, and various other fubitances, and forming a folid mafs which becomes as hard and durable as mott building {tones. We have no means of afcertaining by whom or at what time this valuable property of lime was difcovered ; but among the nations of antiquity the Romans appear to have made the moit ufe of, and to have been molt {killed in cementitious building. The various kinds of marble, chalk, and limestone, as far as regards their ufe in cements, may be divided into two fpecies; the firft being pure or nearly pure carbonat of lime ; the fecond containing befides from 3, to +5, of clay and oxyd of iron. Previous to burning or calcination, there are no external charaéters by which the fimple lime-ftones can be diltinguifhed from the argillo-ferruginous ones ; but the tor- mer, whatever may have been their colour in a crude {tate, become when calcined of a white colour, while the latter poflefs more or lefs of a light ochery tinge. The brown lime is by far the belt for all kinds of cements ; but the white va- rieties being more abundant, and allowing of a larger propor- tion of fand, are generally made ufe of. It was an opinion of the ancients, and is {till commonly received among builders, that the hardeit lime-{tone, ceteris paribus, furnifhes the beit lime; thus mortar was faid to grow as hard as the lime- {tone of which it was compofed, and hence marble was con- fidered as fuperior to common lime ftone, and this latter to chalk. The experiments of Dr. Higgins and Mr. Smea- ton, however, fhow that this is entirely a miftake ; common chalk, and the hardeft Plymouth marble, when fimilarly treated, affording cements of equal firmnefs. When carbonated lime has been thoroughly burnt, it is deprived of its water, and of all, or nearly all of its carbonic acid: if, in this ftate, it is plunged into water, and imme- diately taken out again, the water which it has abforbed will CEMEN T §&. will occafion the mafs to crack and become exceffively hot, and at length to fall into an impalpable powder, much of the water being carried off in the form of iteam during the procefs. When lime has been thus flaked, if it is beaten up with a little water into a very ftiff pafte and allowed to dry, it will be found that the white limes, whether from chalk or marble, never acquire any degree of hardnefs, that the brown limes become confiderably indurated though not ' fo much fo as when mixed with fand, and that fhell lime (procured by calcining fea fhells), concretes into a firm, hard cement, well qualified for dry buildings, although it falls to pieces in water. Lime-ftone lofes about 4 of its weight by burning, but fhrinks in an inconfiderable degree 3 upon quenching, when fully burnt, it falls freely, and will produce fomewhat more than double the quantity of powder or flaked lime, in mea- fure, that the burnt lime-ftone confifted of. Quick-lime, by expofure to the air, abforbs carbonic acid with greater or lefs rapidity, as it is of a clofe and hard, or foft and fpongy texture; thus it gradually lofes its cementing properties and at length becomes totally unfit for the purpofes of mortar. Hence, though ftone-lime and chalk-lime are equally good, when perfe@tly burnt, and ufed frefh from the kiln, there is an important practical difference between them, as the chalk-lime abforbs carbonic acid with much the greateft facility. A proper felcétion of fand is of great importance in the compolition of mortar; the fharper and coarfer it is the better ; as it requires a {maller proportion of lime, and makes a ftronger cement than when fine grained and round fand is made ufe of. Sea fand requires to be well wafhed in freth water to diffolve out the falt with which it is mixed, other- wife the cement into which it enters never becomes thorough- ly dry and hard. The moft advantageous proportions of lime and fand in the compofition of mortar is a point by no means fettled. The Roman builders were accultomed to allow three parts of pit fand, or two parts of river or fea fand to one of lime. In general, it may be affirmed, that it will be advantageous to ule the largeft quantity of fand that can be introduced, preferving the neceflary degree of plafticity. Mortar, in which the fand predominates, requires lefs water in preparing, and therefore fets fooner; it is harder and alfo lefs liable to crack on drying than that in which lime prevails. Smea- ton obferves, that there is fcarcely any but what, if well burnt and beaten, a load or meafure of unflaked lime will take two loads or meafures of fand. On purfuing this fub- je& he foon found that, by good beating, the fame quantity of lime would take in one meafure of tarras and three of clean fand, which feems to be the greateft ufeful proportion, for on a further increafe of the quantity of fand, the mortar required fo much more beating to bring it toa proper con- fitence and toughnefs, that the labour became of more value than the faving of materials. Thefe obfervations agree very nearly with the experiments of Dr. Hutton. The weaknefs of modern mortar compared to the ancient is a common fubje& of regret, and many ingenious men taking for granted, that the procefs ufed by the Roman architeéts in preparing their mortar is one of thofe arts which are now loft, have employed themfelves in making experiments to recover it, inftead of attending to the direGions left us in the works of Pliny and Vitruvius, which, when illuftrated by the aétual praétice of builders in various parts of Europe, feem to leave little or no doubt on the fubjeé. The charaGteriftic of all modern artifts, builders among the reft, feems to be to fpare their time and labour as much as poflible, and to increafe the quantity of the articles they Vor. VII. produce, without much regard to their goodnefs; and per- haps there is no manufacture in which this is fo remarkably exemplified as in the preparation of common mortar, efpe- cially in London and its neighbourhood. The peculiar badnefs of London mortar is to be attri- buted, both to the faulty nature of the materials, and the carelefs and hafly method of ufing them. The lime em- ployed is the foft chalk-lime of Effex and Kent, which in- fufficiently burnt at firft, is conveyed a diftance of ten or twenty miles and kept many days, without any precautions to prevent the accefs of the external air; and thus before it is ufed, it has time to abforb fo much carbonic acid as nearly to lofe its cementing properties. kt hes been before obferved, that though chalk, when perfeétly burnt, is equally good as the hardeft lime, it poffefes fome praétical difad- vantages; it will fall inte a coarfe powder on the applica- tion of water, when it is only partially calcined, which ftone- lime will not, and the cores or unburnt lumps may be broken down by a blow with the {pade, and are therefore very feldom rejeéted as they ought to be. Sand, which is fearce and dear in London, is equally de- fective. This is pit fand, but very different from the kind recommended by Pliny and Vitruvius; inftead of bein clean, large-grained, and fharp, it is compofed of {mall round grains, and foiled with a large mixture of clay. Its finenefs and {moothnefs cannot be amended, but by wafhing it well in running water the clay might unquettionably be got rid of, and this would be no trifling improvement, for Smeaton has fhown, by direét experiment, that mortar of the beft qua- lity, when mixed with a {mall proportion of unburnt clay never acquires that hardnefs and drynefs which, without this addition, it would {peedily have attained. Screened rubbifh and the fcrapings of the roads, confifting chiefly of gravel reduced to fine powder, are alfo ufed as fubltitutes for fand with flill greater impropriety. The method of preparing common mortar is alfo ex- tremely imperfect. The lime being flaked by the addition of water, and the unburnt lime being broken down and mixed with the reft, a quantity of dirty fand is added, and the whole being incorporated by means of a {pade, is reckon- ed to be fit for ufe; thus the principal point in the making of mortar, namely, beating the ingredients together, fo as to mix them thoroughly, is flurred over in a haity carelefs manner, and the refult, as might be expeGed, is a crumbling mafs fearcely fit for ufes ‘The Roman builders, on the other hand, after they had mixed together the materials employing for this purpofe a fmaller proportion of water than is cuftomary at prefent, put the mafs into a large wooden mortar, and beat it till it ceafed to adhere to the heavy wooden or iron peftle which was ufed on the occa- fion; a practice, which has long been followed by the Dutch with complete fuccefs, as will be fhewn in the next feGtion. ‘ Frefh made mortar, if kept under ground in confiderable mafies, may be preferved for a great length of time without injury ; and the older it is before it is ufed the better : the builder taking the precaution to beat it up afreth, previous to ufing it; for it not only feta fooner, but acquires a great. er degree of hardnefs, and is lefs apt to crack. A fact re- lated by Mr. Smeaton, remarkably illuitrates thefe points Having had occafion to take up a large flat ftone of a eere grain, of about five feet {quare, that had probably lain above a century at the bottom of a malt ciftern, he found that it had been well bedded in mortar, which had become coagu- lated to the confiftence of cheefe; but having never eines a perfect drynefs, it fo far retained its natural humidity that he found it might, with irae pains, be beaten up to mortar without GE ME N'T 8. without any addition of water; and afterwards being fulfered to dry in the air, it fet to a itony hardnefs, and appeared as good mortar as any which that part of the country pro- duced. Pliny informs us, that the ancient Roman laws pro- hibited builders from ufing mortar that was lefs than three years old; and to this circumftance he exprefsly attributes the remarkable firmne(s of the oldett buildings in the city. A fimilar cultom prevailed, and we believe ftill prevails in Vienna, requiring the mortar to be a year old before it is employed. But there is nothing which fhows, in fo ftriking a point of view, the advantage and neceflity of beating mortar, and that the effe& produced is owing to fomething more than a mere mechanical mixture of the ingredients, as the prepara- tion of grout, or liquid mortar. ‘This differs from common mortar only in containing a larger quantity of water, fo as to be fufficiently fluid to penetrate the narrow irregular in- terftices of rough ftone walls, and is generally made by di- luting common mortar with water, either cold or hot. It not unfrequently kappens, that this grout refufes to fet, and at all times it is a long while in acquiring the proper hard- nefs ; but if, inftead of common mortar, that which has been long and thoroughly beaten is employed, the grout will fet in the fpace of a day, aud foon after acquires a degree of hardnefs much fuperior to what is made in the common manner. § 2. Water Cements. Although a well made mortar, compofed merely of fand and lime, if allowed to dry, becomes impervious to water, fo as to ferve for the lining of refervoirs and aqueduéts ; yet if the circumiflances of the building are fuch as to render it im- practicable to keep out the water, whether frefh or falt, a fufficient length or time, the ufe of common mortar muft be abandoned ; for lime and fand, if mixed together in any pro- portions, and put, while foft, into water, will in a fhort time fall to pieces. Among the nations of antiquity the Romans appear to have been the only people who praétifed building in water, and elpecially in the fea, to any great extent. The bay of Baiz, like our fafhionable watering places, was the fummer refort of all the wealthy in Rome; who, not content with ereCting their villas as near the fhore as poflible, were ac- cultomed to conftru& moles, and form {mall iflands, in the more. fheltered parts of the bay, on which, for the fake of the grateful coolnefs, they built their fummer houfes and pavilions. They were enabled to build thus fecurely in the water by the fortunate difcovery, at the neighbouring town of Puteoli, of an earthy fub{tance, which, from this circum- ftance, was called pu/vis Putcolanus (powder of Puteoli.) Puteolan powder, or as it is now denominated puzzolana, isa light, porous. friable mineral, of a red colour, and is generally fuppofed to derive its origin from concreted vol- canic afhes, thrown out from Vefuvius, near to which mouu- tain the town of Puteoli is fituated. It feems to confift of a ferruginous clay, baked and calcined by the force of volcanic fire, and when mixed with common mortar, not only enables it to acquire a remarkable hardnefs in the air, but to become as firm as ftone, even under water. The only preparation which puzzolana undergoes, isthat of pounding and fifting, by which it is reduced to a coarfe powder ; in this itate being thoroughly beaten up with lime, either with or without fand, it forms a mafs of remarkable tenacity, which fpeedily fets under water, and becomes at lealt as ftrong as good free- ftone. It has been before obferved, that a compofition of pure lime and {and alone will not harden under water, but limes containing a portion of clay poffefs this property in a. con- fiderable degree, and are therefore generally vfed in water buildisg. The cement ufed by Mr. Smeaton, in the cons ftruction of the Eddyttone lighthoufe, was compofed- of equal parts by meafure of flaked Aberthaw lime and puz- zolana. The peculiar difficulties of this undertaking, ex- poled to the utmoft violence of the fea, rendered thefe pro- portions advifubles but for works that are lefs expofed, fuch as locks and bafons for canals, &c, the quantity of puzzo- lana may be confidcrably diminifhed. A compolition of this kind, which has been found very effeétual, is 2 buthels of flaked Aberthaw lime, 1 buthel of puzzolana, and 3 of clean fand ; the whole being well beaten together will yield 4.67 cubic feet of cement. The Dutch have praétifed building in water to a greater extent than any other nation of modern Europe; and to them is due the difcovery of a cement admirably well adapt- ed for this purpofe, and called tarras or trafs. This is nothing more than wakke, or cellular bafalt, and is procured chiefly from Bockenheim, Frankfort on the Maine, and An- dernach, whence it is tranfported down the Rhine in large quantities to Holland. This fubftance being, by grinding and fifting, reduced to the confiftence of coarfe fand, is ufed in the compofition of mortar, with the blue argillaceous lime from the banks of the Scheldt, in the following method. They take of the quick-lime about the quantity which will be wanted during a week, and {pread it in a kind of bafon in a ftratum of a foot thick, and fprinkle it with water. It is then covered with a ftratum of about the fame thicknefs of tarras, and the whole fuffered to remain for two or three days, after which it is very well mixed and beaten, and formed into a mafs, which is again left for about two days; it is then taken in fmall quantities, as it is wanted for daily confumption, which are again beaten previous to ufing. Thus is compofed the celebrated tarras mortar with which the mounds and other conitruétions for the purpofe of pro- te€ting the lowlands of Holland againit the fea are ces mented. Tarras is frequently ufed in this country, being imported from Holland for that purpofe. The proportions of the materials of the tarrss mortar generally vied in the conftruc- tion of the bett watcr works 1s tie fame as the Dutch prac-- tile. One meafure of quick-lime, or two meafures of flaked lime in the dry powder, is mixed with one meafure of tarras, and both very well beat together, to the confiltence of a pafte. ufing as little water as poffible. Another kind, almoft equaily good, and confiderably cheaper, is made of two mea- fures of flaked lime, oue of tarras, and three of ccarfe fand 5 it requires to be beaten a longer time than the foregoing, and produces three meafures and a half of excellent mortar. When the building is conftruéted of rough irregular ftones, where cavities and large joints are to be filled up with ce- ment, the pebble mortar may be mott advantageoufly applied 5 this was a favourite mode of conftruétion among the Ro- mans, and has been ufed ever fince thetr time in thofe works in which a large quantity of mortar is required. Pebble mortar will be found of {ufficient compainels if compofed of two meafures of flaked argillaceous lime, half a meafure of tarras, or puzzolana, one meafure of coarfe fand, one of fine fand, and four of {mall pebbles, {creened and wathed. It is only under water that tarras mo: tar acquires its proper hardnefs ; for if fuffered to dry by expofure to the air, it never fets into a fubftance fo firm as if the fame lime had: been mixed with good clean common fand, but is very friable and crumbly. Ash mortar is reckoned to be fuperior for works that are fometimes wet and fometimes dry, but tarras has the advantage when conitantly under water. Tarras mortar when kept always wet, and confequently in a fate moit favourable to its cementing principle, throws out 2 I fubltance CEMENTS. fub ance fomething like the concretions in limeftone caverns called ftala€tites, which fubftance acquires a confiderable hardnefs, and in time becomes fo exuberant as to deform the face of the walls. Although the cellular bafalt is the only kind admitted into the preparation of Dutch tarras, yet it appears from fome good experiments of Morveau on the fubject, that the com- mon compact bafalt, if previoufly calcined, will anfwer nearly the fame purpofe. Great Britain is at a confiderable annual expence in purchafing tarras from Holland ; it may be worth while, therefore, to point out fome of our domettic treafures of the fame material. The compaét bafalt abounds in all the ditriéts where coal is raifed, and may therefore be pro= cured eafily, and calcined with the refufe coal, fo as to be fold at a cheap rate. ‘The Calton hill, adjoining to Edin- burgh, confifts almoft entirely of cellular bafalt, and being but at a fhort diftance from the port of Leith, offers an in- exhauftible abundance at a {mall coft. _ In fome parts of the Low Countries coal athes are fubfli- tuted for tarras with very good effe& ; of which the valuable cendrée de Tournay is a ittriking inftance. ‘The deep blue argillo-ferruginous limeftone of the Scheldt is burnt in kilns with a flaty kind of pit-coal that is found in the neighbour- hood. When the calcination of the lime is completed, the pieces are taken out, and a confiderable quantity of dult and {mall fragments remains at the bottom of the kiln. This re- fufe confifting of coal afh mixed with about’one-fourth of lime dutt, is calied the cendrée, and is made into a mortar with lime in the following method. Abouta bufhel of the materials is put in any fuitable veffel, and fprinkled with water juft duf- ficient to flake the lime; another bufhel is then treated in the fame way, and fo on till the veffel is filled. In this ftate it remains fome weeks, and may be kept for a much longer time if covered with moift earth. A {trong open trough, containing about two cubic feet, is filled about two-thirds full with the cement in the above ftate, and by means of a heavy iron peftle, fufpended at the end of an elaflic pole, is well beaten for about halfan hour: at the end of this time it becomes of the confiftence of foft mortar, and is then laid in the fhade from three to fix days, according to the drynefs of the air. When fufficiently dry, it is beaten again for half an hour as before, and the oftener it is beaten the better will be the cement ; three or four times, however, are fufficient to reduce the cement to the confiftence of an uniform {mooth palte ; after this period it is apt to become refractory on ac- count of the evaporation of its water, as no more of this fluid is allowed to enter the compofition than what was at firft employed to flake the lime, The cement thus prepared is found to poflefs the fingular advantage of uniting in a few minutes fo firmly to brick or flone, that {till water may be immediately let in upon the work without any inconvenience, and by keeping it dry for 24 hours, it has nothing further to fear from the moft rapid current. A compolition very fimilar to the preceding in materials, which are coal cinders and lime, though feldom prepared with any attention, is the blue mortar, commonly ufed in London for fetting the coping of buildings, and other works much expofed to the weather. Afh-mortar is uled in fome parts of England. It is pre- pared by flaking two bufhels of frefh burnt meagre lime, and mixing it accurately with three bufhels of wood afhes: the mais is to lie till it is cold, and is then to be well beaten; in this {tate it will keep a confiderable time without injury, and even with advantage, provided it is thoroughly beaten twice or thrice before it ts ufed. The fcales of black oxyd, which are detached by hammer- ing red-hot iron, and are therefore to be procured at the forges and blackfmiths fhops, have been long known as an excellent material in water cements; but we believe that Mr. Smeaton was the firft perfon who made any accurate experiments on their efficacy, compared with other fub- ftances. The feales being pulverifed and fifted, and incor- porated with lime, are found to produce a cement equally powerful with puzzolana mortar, if employed in the fame quantity. Indnced by the fuccefs of thefe experiments, Mr. Smeaton fubftituted roafted iron ore for the {cales, and found that this alfo gave to mortar the property of fetting under water ; it requires, however, to be ufed in greater pro- portions than either tarras or puzzolana; two bufhels of argil- laceous lime, two of iron ore, and one of fand, being care- fully mixed, produce 3.22 cubic feet of cement fully equal to tarras mortar. If the common white lime is made ufe of, it will be advifable to employ equal quantities of all the three ingredients. With refpec to the water ufed in the preparation of water cements, that of rivers or ponds where it can be had ecafily, is to be preferred to {pring water ; but for works expofed to the action of the fea, fuch as piers, light-houfes, &c. it is ufually more convenient and equally advantageous in, other refpects to ufe falt water. Pumice ftone, brick, and tile dult, are alfo recommended for water cements, but their only advantage feems to be an abforbent quality, which caufes the mortar made with them to fet fooner, and therefore acquire a greater hardnefs in the fame time, than mortar compofed of fand and lime alone, for they have no power of hardening under water. The Loriot mortar is a compofition which has acquired confiderable celebrity in France, and has been employed in fome large works. It was invented about 40 years ago by Mr. Loriot, who imagines that he has difcovered the procefs ufed by the Romans. The principle of this invention con-~ fills in adding to any quantity of mortar made in the ufual way with lime and fand, but prepared rather thinner than ufual, a certain proportion of quick lime, in powder. The lime powder being well incorporated with the mortar, the mafs heats, and in a few minutes acquires a confiftence, equal to the beft Paris plafter, and is as dry at the end of two days, as an ordinary cement after feveral months. It alfo, when the ingredients are well proportioned, fets without any cracks. The quantity of lime powder to be added, varies from $ to % of the other materials, according to the quali- ties of the lime; too much burns and dries up the mafs, and with too little, it lofes its peculiar advantages ; thus the pro- portions, a point of the utmott importance, can only be de- termined by experiment. It.is its fpeedy deficeation which rendered the Loriot mortar ufceful as a water cement, for under water it has only the common properties of a compofi- tion of lime and fand of equal folidity ; indeed for this pur- pofe various fubftances, commonly ufed in cements, are re- commended to be added, fuch as brick and tile powder, and forge fcales. The following is an approved receipt. One meafure of bricks exaétly pounded, two meafures of fine river fand, old flaked lime in tufficient quantity to make a mortar in the ufwal manner and fufliciently liquid to quench the lime powder which is added in about the fame quantity as the pulverifed brick, It is fufficiently extraordinary, that a procefs, perfealy fimilar to that of M. Loriot, is deferibed in a * Treatife on Building in Water, by George Semple,” printed at Dublin, 1776. In difcourling on the good qualities of the roach- lime of Ireland, Mr. Semple remarks. that, * it has fome ufeful qualities not much known among the generality of workmen, as, for inftance, our lime-itone will make exceed- ing good tarras for eee for which purpofe, you are Y12 to c.EM to prepare it thus. Get your roach-lime brought to you hot from the kiln, and immediately pound, or rather grind it, with a wooden maul, on a dry, boarded floor, till you make it as fine as flour; then, without lofs of time, fift it through a coarfe hair or wire fieve, and, to the quantity of a hod of your fetting mortar, (which, on this account, ought to be poorer than ordinary,) put in two or three fhovels-full of this fine four of the roach-lime, and let two men, for expedition fake, beat them together with fuch beaters as the platterer make ufe of, and then ufe it immediately. This, I can affure you, will not only ftand as well, but is really preferable to any tarras.” The memoir of M. Loriot was publifhed in 1774, only two years previous to this treatife of Semple, who appears to have been a man rather of practice and experience than of reading; and, befides, in the book quoted from, he exprefsly, though in- cidentally, mentions his ignorance of the French language. We are juttified therefore, in ftating, that the knowledge of the advantages of mixing quick-lime powder in mortar was not confined to M. Loriot, though it might be an original invention in him, and he was the firft who drew public at- tention to the procefs, and ufed itin any confiderable works. § 3. Malha, or Maftich. Under this term we include thofe calcareous cements of a more complicated kind, whole hardnefs appears to depend on the oily or mucilaginous fubitances that enter into their compofition. The ufe of thefe is at prefent very limited, at leaft in Europe, but they were highly efteemed by the an- cients, efpecially for ftucco. The maltha of the Greeks Seems to have been more fimple than that employed by the Roman architeéts ; at leaft we are informed that Panenus, the brother of Phidias, lined the infide of the temple of Minerva at Elis with a ftucco, in which the ufual ingre- dients, fand and lime, were mixed up with milk inftead of water, fome faffron being alfo added to give it a yellow tinge. The Roman maltha, according to Pliny, waa pre- pared in the following manner. ‘Take frefh burnt lime, flake it with wine, and beat it up very well in a mortar with hog’s lard and figs: this cement, if well made, is exceflively tenacious, and, in a fhort time, becomes harder than {tone ; the furface to which it is to be applied is to be previoufly oiled, in order to make it adhere. Another kivd, almott equalty ftrong, and conliderably cheaper, was prepared by beating up together fine flaked lime, pulverized iron-fcales and bullock’s blood. In the preparation of maftichs, as well as of every other kind of mortar, fo much depends on the manipulation, and efpecially on the care which is taken to incorpo- rate the ingredients by /cng beating, that thofe countries in which labour is of the leaft value poffefs, in general, the belt mortar. Hence, no doubt, principally arifes the unrivalled excellence of the mortar made by the Tunifians and other mbhabitants of the northern coaft of Africa, which, according to Dr. Shaw, is prepared in the fol- lowing manner. One meafure of fand, two of wood- afhes, and three of lime, being previoufly fifted, are mixed together, and fprinkled with a little water; after the mafs has been beaten fome time a little oil is added : the beating is carried on for three days fuccelflively, and, as the evapora- tion in that hot climate is confiderable, the cement is kept at the proper degree of foftnefs by the alternate addition of very {mall quantities of water and oil, The cement being completed, 1s applied in the ufual manner, and fpeedily ac- quives a ftony hardnefs. The laft {pecies of maltha that we fall mention is the celebrated chunam of India, where it has been ufed from time immemorial. The method in which it is prepared at Madras is as follows. CEM Take 15 bufhels of pit fand, and 15 buthels of flone-limes flake the latter with water ; and when it has fallen to pow-~ der, mix the two ingredients together, and let them remain untouched for three days. In the mean time diffolve 2clbs. of molaffes in water, boil a peck of gramm (a kind of pea), to a jelly, boil a peck of mirabolans alfo to a jelly, mix the three liquors, and incorporate part of the mixture very accu- rately with the lime and fand, fo as to make a very fluid ce- ment: fome fhort tow is now to be beaten very well into it, and itisthen fit for ufe. ‘The bricks are to be bedded in as thin a layer as poflible of this mortar; and, when the workmen leave off, though but for an hour, the part where they ree commence working is to be well moiftened with fome of the above liquor, before the application of any freth mortar. When this is ufed for ftucco, the white of four or five eggs, four ounces of butter or fefamum oil, and a pint of butter+ milk, are to be mixed up with every half buthel of cement, and the compofition is to be applied immediately. It is to be regretted, that no experiments have been in- ftituted to afcertain the caufe of the induration of calcareous cements. Itis attributed by Dr. Higgins to the abforption of carbonic acid ; but feveral circumttances contradiét this fup- pofition. In numerous inftances the cement hardens long before the lime is faturated: in the different kinds of mal- tha the lime combines with the albumen, mucilage and oil with which it is in contact, and in all probability takes up little or no carbonic acid ; and, if it be true, that the lime in old mortar cannot by burning be re-converted into quick lime, this would imply a chemical union of the ingredients ; and it may reafonably be queftioned whether, even in the fimple calcareous cements, carbonic acid acts fo important a art as is ufually attributed to it. CEMETERY, Cemeterium, a dormitory, or facred place fet apart for the burial of the dead. Chorier obferves, that under cameterium, respnrrgiov, from xoraw, T fleep, anciently was comprehended, not only the {tné& dormitory, or place where the dead were difpofed; but all the lands which encompaffed the parifh churches, and were contiguous to the real churches.—Perhaps it might be added, that all the church domains were comprifed un- der cameterium. This will beft account for that confifcation of the cemeteries, charged on Valerian. - In the early ages, the Chriftians held their affemblies in the cemeteries, as we learn from Eufebius and Tertullian ; the latter of whom calls thofe cemeteries where they met to pray, arez. Valerian feems to have confifcated the cemeteries and places deftined for divine worfhip, which were reftored again to the Chriftians by Gallian. In the refcript of that emperor, which is preferved by Eufebius, cemeteries and places of worfhip are ufed as fynonymous terms. It being here the martyrs were buried, the Chriltians chofe thofe places to have churches in, when leave was given them by Conftantine to build. And hence fome derive that rule which {till obtains in the church of Rome, never to confe- crate an altar without putting under it the relics of fome faint. See Buriat. The heathen writers frequently upbraid the primitive Chiiltians for their meetings in cemeteries ; as if they ferved other purpofes befides thofe of religion. The council of Elvira prohibits the keeping of tapers lighted in cemeteria, during the day-time; and by another canon, the women from pafling the night, watching in cemeteria. The practice of confecrating cemeteries is of fome anti- quity : the bifhop walked round it in proceffion, with the crozier, or paftoral ftaff, in his hand, the holy water- por being carried before, out of which afperfions were made. CEMMENUS, in Ancient Geography, the name of a mountaia, cEN mountain, which, branching from the Pyrenées, advanced far into Gaul, according to Strabo. It was the mafs of moun- tains which Ptolemy calls ‘* Cemmeni montes,”? and which, he fays, was inhabited by the Segufiani, found in that chain which formed the Cevennes. CEMPSI, a people of Spain, who occnpied the foot of the Pyrenées, according to Dionyfius Periegetes. CENA, a fmall river of Sicily, which at prefent bears the name of * Fiume delle Cane.”’ CENABUM. See Gexasum. . CEN/EUM, a promontory of the ifland of Eubcea to- wards the welt and oppofite to Thermopylae, according to Strabo, Pliny, and Ptolemy, feated on the Maliac gulf; now called Cabo Litar, or Canaia, It had a temple of Jupiter Ceneus. CENAPATAM, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in the country of Myfore; 34 miles N.E. of Seringapatam, and 28 S.W. of Bangalore. CENCHR A, a town of Afia Minor, in the Troade. Suidas fays that it was the country of Homer.—Alfo, a town of Italy. Steph. Byz. CENCHRAMIDIA, in Botany, Pluk. rofea, and Busroma Guazima. Cencnramus, in Ornithology, one of the names given by authors:to the fnow bunting, EmBeriza nivalis. CENCHREA, in Ancient Geography, a port of Corinth, fituate on the bay of Saron. This was a fortrefs built on the frontiers of Arcadia, towards the fource of Phryxus, and S.W. of Argos. It defended the way that led from Argos to Tegea. Near this place, towards the fouth-ealt, lay the tombs of thofe Argians, who, according to Paufanias, chal- lenged an army of Lacedemonians near Hyfie, under the archonate of Pififtratus. CENCHREA, a port town of Corinth, which lay towards the eaft upon the gulf. It derived its name from Cenchrias, the pretended fon of Neptune, when his brother Leches had given his name to Lecheum. Thefe were the only two havens ; and indeed the only two cities of any note, next to Corinth, that belonged to this territory. They were fo well fituated for naval commerce, and fo near the metropolis, that they made ample compenfation for the barrennefs of the foil. Thefe two naval reads, which opened a way into the Ionian and /&zean feas, might eafily have gained them a fuperiority, if not a command over all Greece, if this advantageous fitu- ation had not inclined them more to commerce than war. That Cenchrea was a diftin@ city from Corinth, at leaft in St. Paul’s time, we may infer from Adis xviii. 18, and from his epiftle to the Romans, ch. xvi. 1.3 though it had the epithet of Corinthiaca in the poets, from its being one of the havens of that little ftate, as Corinthus had that of Bimaris, from its being fo conveniently fituated between two feas. Upon the road from Cenchrea acrofs the ifthmus there was a temple of Diana, and at Cenchrea a temple of Venus, with a fine ftatue. At the end of this road was a Neptune in bronze; and on the other fide of the port were two temples, one of Neptune, the other of Ifis. In the vicinity was a {pring of hot water, faid by Paufanias to be falt, and called the bath of Helena. The water fell from a rock, and pre- cipitated itfelf into the fea. Along the coaft, towards the north-ea(t, there was another port, mentioned by Strabo and Prolemy. Pliny and Strabo fay, that it was fituated in the mott fecure place of the ifthmus. Cencurea was alfo a name given generally to the ifthmus of Corinth, diftant 70 furlongs from it, where were cele- brated the Ifthmian games; whence the apoftle in his epiftle to the Corinthians fo frequently alludes to thefe games, See x Epifk. ix. 2 Epilt, iv. 7, 8, 9, See CLusia C.E N CENCHREIS, a fmall ifland of Greece, towards the bottom of the Saronic gulf, according to Pliny. CENCHRIS, in Ornithology, a name given by Gefner, Aldrovandus, and others, to the kind of hawk known in England by the title of Kelftril, Stannel, or Windhover hawk, Fatco Tinnuncurus of Linneus. Cencuris, in Zoology, the name of a {pecies of Boa that inhabits South America, and which is ciltinguifhed by hav- ing 265 abdominal plates, and 57 caudal. Linn.— Boa flavefcens ocellis albidis, iride grifea, Boddaert. Boa cenchris is a ferpent of large fize, though inferior in this refpe€t to either the boa conftrigtor, or the {potted boa. The prevailing colour is yellowifh-ferruginous, darkeft on the back, where it is marked by a continued feries of very large blackith circles extending from the head to the tail: the fides are marked with a number of kidney-fhaped black- ith fpots, many of which are ocellated with whitifh: the head is of a lengthened form, and is marked by a black jon- gitudinal and two lateral bands. CENCHRIUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Afia Minor, in Ionia, which had its courfe through the territory of the city of Ephefus, according to Tacitus and Paufa- nias. GENCHRUS, in Botany, (xeyxpo:, Theophratt. Diofcor.) Linn. gen. rr4g. Schreb. 1574. Willd. 119. Gert. 503. Jui. p. 30. Vent. vol. ii. p. 102. (Panicaftrella; Mich. 31. Racle, Ir.) Clafs and order, polygamia monacia, Linn. Tri- andria monogynia, Willd. Nat. ord. Gramina, Linn. Grae minea, Juff. Vent. Gen. Ch. Cal. involucre varioufly divided, often echi- nated, containing from two to four flowers ; or, if wanting, the defeét compenfated by echinated calyx-glumes; calyx- glumes lanceolate, concave, acute, fhorter than the corolla, generally about two-flowered; one of the flowers often male. Cor. Glumes concave, lanceolate, acuminate, awn— Jefs; one fhorter than the other. Stam. filaments three, capillary, the length of the corolla; anthers arrow-fhaped. Pit. germ roundith 5 flyle filiform, the length of the fta- mens; ftyles two, hairy, oblong, {preading. Sveds round- ith, enclofed in the permanent corolla. Eff. Ch. Involucre varioufly divided, often echinated ; or, if wanting, the defect compenfated by echinated calyx- glumes; ftyle one, bifid. ‘ * With an involucre. Sp. 1. C. echinatus, Linn. Sp. Pl. 4. Mart. 5. Poir. 2. Willd. 3. Pluk. Alm, tab. 92. fig. 3. Schreb. gram. g, tab. 23. fig. 1. Gert. tab. 80. Lam. Iluf. tab. 838. tig. 1. (Panicaftrella americana major, Mich. gen. 36. tab. 31. Elymus caput. Medufe, Forfl. Flor. Agyp. p. 25.) * Spike oblong, conglomerated.”? Rootannual. Stems from eight to ten inches high, bent at the lower joints, {mooth, {triated, comprefled, almoft angular. Leaves from four to five lines broad, long, fmooth, ftriated: fheaths loofe, {mooth, flightly tomentous at their orifice. Spike two or three inches long; fimple, upright; fpikclets on fhort peduncles, feattered or alternate, at a fmiall dif- tance irom each other; involucre large, entire at the bafe, cut at the edge into feveral ftiff, awl-fhaped, feta- ceous, yellowifh or fomewhat violet fegments; flowers from two to four in each involucre, very fmall. Seeds almoft elliptical, flat, a little convex, without a fur- row. A native of Jamiaca and the coalt of Barbary, defcribed by Poiret from a living plant in the botanic garden at Paris, cultivated in England by Doody, in 1691. It is one of the moft common grafles in the open pattures of Jamaica, and is efleemed a wholefome and pleafant food fox all forts of cattle. 2. C. tribuloides, Linn. Sp. Pl. 5. Mart. 8 CEN «. (Panicafrella minor, Mich. Gen. 37. * Ox. tab. 5. fig. 4. Sloan. Jam. Soike nerated ; female glumes glo- d with {pines, hirfute.”” Linn. Root annual, , jeinted, {meoth, ftviated. Leaves often 1, two or three lines broad, ftriated, ttle pubefcent at its upper part ; orifice ; fetaceous, whitifh hairs. Spike fheath a li i with a tuft of fin \ native of Virginia and Jamaica. Mant. 302. Mart.3. Poir. 5. (Panicum fquarrofum, Retz. Obf. tab. 1. Willd.) ‘Spike muricated; fcales various, fharp-pointed.”” Root annual. Stems from eight to ten inches high, procumbent, branched. Leaves of a mode- rate fize, foft, enveloping almoft the whole of the culm by their fheaths. Spikes on long filiform peduncles, flender, naked, almoft unilateral, very clofe; rachis zig-zag, jointed, furnifhed on each fide with a rather large mem- brane. Lowers feffile, {carious ; involucres compofed of various feales, large, {titf, fometimes a little twifted, oval or lanceolate, {mooth. hard, awl-fhaped or mucronate ; calyx- glumes ciliated at the edges, containing one or two flowers. The difpofition of the flowers gives it the habit of a tnp- facum. It is alfo in fome refpeéts allied to panicum, under which Retz and Willdenow have placed it. A native of the Ealt Indies. 4. C. hordeiformis, Willd, 3. Thunb. prod. 24. (C. afperifolius; Poir. 7. Desfont. flor. Atl. vol. ii. p- 388. Alopecurus hordeiformis ; Linn. Sp. Fl. Mart. and of this work.) “ Leaves rough backwards; involucres brif- tle-fhaped, four times as long as the flower, villous towards the bottom, white, enclofing one or two flowers.”? Desf. Root perennial. Stems two or three feet high, upright. Leaves about a line broad, rolled in, fmooth, awl-fhaped, ftiff. Spikes five or fix inches long, whitifh, not interrupted ; involucres compoded of numerous filky filaments. Flowers feffile ; rachis villous. A native of the Eaft Indies, of the Cape of Good Hope, and of mount Atlas near Bugie. Nearly allied to C. rufefcens, and C. ciliaris. 5. C. rufefcens, Poir. 10. Desf. Flor. Atl. vol. ii. p. 388. ¢ Leaves fmooth ; {pike elongated ; involucres crowded, briftle-fhaped, rufef- cent, villous towards the bottom, three times as long as the flower; calyxes about two-flowered.”? Desf. Stems almoft procumbent, firm, jointed, rufh-like. Leaves {mooth, rolled in, rough at their edges; orifice of the fheaths furnifhed with a lacerated membrane. Spie four or five inches long, clofe; briftles of the involucre filky ; calyx-glumes mem- branous; thofe of the corolla violet-coloured. A native of fandy foil in Barbary near Mafeal. 6. C. ramojifimus, Poir. 11. Stem frutefcent; branches dichotomous ; involucres briftle-thaped, foft, naked ; fpikelets about four flowered.”’ Poir. Stems very high, feveral times branched, fmooth, Leaves {mooth, long, acute, ftriated, a little fcabrous ; fheaths naked and ferrated at their orifice. Flowers termi- nating the branches and forming cylindrical {pikes two or three inches long; fpikelets, feffile, fcattered, alternate, in- volucres compofed of numerous, fine, filky, almoft filvery hairs, a little longer than the flowers; calyx-valves obtufe. A native of Egypt, defcribed from a dried fpecimen in the herbarium of La Marck. 7. C. ciliaris, Linn. Mant. 302. Mart. 7. Poir. 12. Willd. 5. Gifeke ic. tab. 23. Lam. Itluf. tab. $38. fiz. 3. “ Involucres briftle-fhaped, ciliated, enciof- ing four calyxes.”” Root perennial. Stems afoot and halt high, flender, a lictle bent at their joints, naked at their upper part. Leaves narrow, fomewhat villous; fheaths flriated, CEN ciliated. Spike two or three inches long, cylindrical, a little interrupted; f{pikelets alternate, feffile, involucres compofed of fine filky hairs, of a purple colour, ciliated at their bafe, two or three tines longer than the valves of the calyx ; ca- lyxes two-flowered, one male, the other hermaphrodite ; glumes membrazous, unequal! ; ftigmas violet-ccloured ; ra- chis zig-zag. A native of the Cape of Good Hope, of Barbary and /zypt. 8.C. parviflorus, Poir. 13.‘ In- volucres brifile-(haped, naked; fpikelets generally one- flowered, very {mall.’? Stems from one to two feet high, flender, filiform, fmooth. caves long, narrow, very acute, rough to the touch; fheaths {mooth, rather loofe, naked at their orifice, furnifhed with a fhort reddifh membrane, a little torn at its fummit. Spite lanc-olate, fomewhat comprefled, greenifh or purplifh ; {pikelcts feffile ; involucre compofed of Jong, ftiff hairs. A native of Porto Rico. 9. C. purpu- rafcens, Mart. 11. Poir. 15. Willd. 9. Thunb. Linn, Tranf. vol. ii. p. 329. (Panicum hordeiforme y; Thunb. Jap. 38.) “ Spike fimple ; florets furrounded with very long awns; ftem ereét.”? Stems about two feet high. Leaves longerthanthe culm. Spike fix or feven inches long, loofe ; {pikelets in two rows; peduncles as long as the fpikelet ; briltles of the involucre purple, five or fix times longer than the flowers. A native of Japan. ro. C. /eto/us, Mart. 10. Willd. 6. Swartz. prod. 26. ‘ Spike hhnear-oblong ; in- volucres briftle-fhaped ; interior bnitles with ciliated hairs at the bafe; glumes even.”” A native of the Welt Indies. 11. C. geniculatus, Willd. 7. Thunb. prod. 24. ‘ Raceme fpiked, fimple; involucres many-leaved, fcabrous; culm geniculated.”? A native of the Cape of Good Hope. ** Without an involucre. 12. C. inflexus, Poir. 6. ‘* Leaves lanceolate, villous ; racemes lateral, inflexed, on long peduncles ; fpikelets feffile, florets in a fingle row.” Stems branched, cylindrical. Leaves entirely covering the ftem, an inch and half long, about four lines broad at their bafe, lanceolate, almoft heart-fhaped, finely ttriated, moft villous on the fheath and at the edges. Peduncles from the axils of the upper leaves, fix or feven inches long, fimple, fmooth ; each terminated by a fpike of {cffile flowers, fo curved at its infertion as to make nearly a right angle with the ftem; fpikelets lanceolate, narrow, very acute; calyx one or two-flowered ; outer valve echi- nated with fpiny points, ciliated at its edges, very acute ; inner one fhort, villous; corolla one-valved, much fhorter than the calyx, flat, {mooth, cbtufe. Seed naked, fhining, oblong, cylindrical. A native of Cayenne. Defcribed by Poiret from dried {pecimens in the herbarium of Juffieu and La Marck, but not fo perfe& as to make him quite certain that the plant may not more properly be referred to fome other genus. On account of its one-valved corolla, it appears to us to be truly an alopecurus, and might have been placed very conveniently next to A. monfpelientis of Linnzus, if that plant had not been determined by Schreber and Dr. Smith to have really a two-valved corolla, and therefore re- moved to phleum. Its rachis refembles that of pafpalum. 13. C. ovatus, Poir. 8. Lam. Ill. 838. fig. 2. “« Leaves quite {mooth, rather firm; fpike denfely egg fhaped.” Stems tiff, {mooth, cylindrical. eaves ftiff, acute, rolled in at their edges ; fheath cylindrical, long, narrow, furnifhed at its orifice with a {mall tuft of fine whitith hairs. Flowers in a thick branched {pike ; outer calyx-valves echinated with ftiff, whitihh hairs; florets fmooth, oval, mucronate ; two or three in each calyx. Gathered by Sonnerat at the Cape of Good Hope, preferved in the herbarium of La Marck. 14. C. tamentofus, Poir. g. Leaves tomentous-woolly on ther upper furtece, itriated underneath; {pikes oblong-egg fha+ ped.” Stems upright, imooth. Leaves itiff, narrow, flat, a little CEN alittle rolled in at their edges; fheaths cylindrical, ftriated. Spike very clofe, fometimes interrupted at its bafe; outer valves of the calyx echinated with fhort, (tiff, unequal points ; florets three or four in each calyx, oblong; valves very acute. A native of the Cape of Good Hope, preferved in the her- barium of La Marck. 15. C. caroliaianus, Walt. Flor. Car. p. 79. ** Spike glomerated ; glumes globular, muri- cated with f{pines, even.” Obf. In conformity with Poiret’s ideas on the fubje&, we have extended the generic character fo as to include the Jait four fpecies, which would be excluded by it, as it was originally conftru@ed by Linnzus; without, however, being perfe€tly fatisfied that they may not be better otherwife dif- pofed of. 16. C. frutefcens, Linn. Sp. Pl. 6. Mart. g. Willd. 10. (Arundo graminea aculeata; Alp. exot. tab. roy. Gra- men crientale, {picatum fruticofum, f{pinofum ; f{picis echi- natis in capitulum congeftis; Tourn. cor. 39.) “ Heads lateral, feffile ; leaves mucronate; ftem fhrubby.” Linn. Root perennial. A native of Armenia. La Marck afferts, on the authority of Tourncfort’s fpecimen preferved in the herbarium of the mufeum at Paris, that its leaves have no fheaths, and that therefore it cannot be a gramineous plant. He has no doubt, notwithftanding the fingularity of its habit, of its being really an eryngium. See Encyc. vol. iv. p. 756, and vol. vi. p 53. Cencuarus capitatus; Linn. Mart. Willd. Poir. See Ecuinaria. Cencurus /appaceus; Linn. Mart. Willd. Poir. See Panicum /appaceum. Cencurus racemofus; Linn. Mart. Poir. See Lap- PAGO. Cencurus granularis ; Linn. Mantiffa, Mart. See Ma- NISURIS. _Ass thefe four plants are deftitute of an involucre, they were improperly placed by Linneus under his cenchrus ; and as they have not an echinated calyx glume, they are equally excluded from our fecond ie@tion. CENDEVIA, in Ancient Geography, a marth of Afia, in Pheenicia ; placed by Pliny at the foot of mount Carmel. CENEDA, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the Tre- vifano, belonging to the itate of Venice, the fee of a bilhop, fuffragan of Udina, deftroyed by the Huns and Goths ; 20 miles N. of T'revigno. CENDRILLARD, in Ornithology, the name given by Buffon to the St. Domingo Cuckow. Cuculus dominicus, Gmelin. CENDRILLE, the cinereous Lark, Alauda cinerea of Gmelin, is fo named by Buffon in his Nat. Hift. des Oif. CENEGILD, in the Saxon Antiquities, an expiatory mul&, paid by one who had kilicd 2 man to the kindred of the deceafed. The word is compounded of the Saxon cinne, i. e. cognatio, relation, and gild, folutio, payment. CENEONTLATOTI, in Ornithology, the name by which Nieremberg defcribed the Polyglot or American mocking Thrufh; a bird celebrated for the different modula. tions of its notes, which excel thofe of the nightingale in melody. CENERIUM, in. Ancient Geography, a {mall town of the Peloponnefns, in the Elide, according to Strabo. “ CENESPOLIS, a name given by Polybrus to a town of pain. ‘CENESTAM, a town placed by Ptolemy towards the middle of the ifland of Corfica ; which was an epifcopal fee. CENETA, a town of Venetia, N. of Tarvifium. CENGOTTO, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Medi- terranean ; 24 miles N.N.W. of Candia, N, lat. 36°71’. E. long. 41°, CEN CENIA, in Botany, (xevos, empty), a geans formed by Juffieu for Cotula turbinata of Linnzus, with the following character; JYoqwers radiate ; florets four-cleft, tetrandrous ; ligelate ones about twenty, very fhort; calyx top-fhaped, empty under the receptacle ; border fhort, eight-cleft 3 feeds comprefled 5 receptacle convex. See Lancista. Cenia, in Geography, a river of Spain, which runs into the Mediterranean, § miles N.E. of Peonifcola, fk parating in its courfe the provinces of Catalonia and Valencia. CENION, a river of Britain, the mouth of which is fuppofed to be Falmouth haven; fo called from the Britifh word “gene,” a mouths and of which there is thil fome veltige in the name of ancighbouring town, Tregonny. CENIS, in Lntomology, Phalena Cenis of Cramer, is the {pecies defcribed by Fabricius as Phalena cenaria, which fee. Cents, in Geography, a fummit of the Weillern Alps, which feparates the marquifate of Sufa from Maurienne, and over which is the famous paflage from Savoy to Piedmont. At Lafnebourg on the Savoy fide of the mountain, prepara~ tions are made for croffing it, which is ufually performed in about 5 hours. The inns at La Ramaffe and La Grand Croix, fo called from the crofs near it, which is a boundary between Savoy and Piedmont, affording but very uncom- fortable entertainment, in cafe, by any accident, perfons were obliged to fpend the night on the mountaim, the baggage and chaifes which are here taken to pieces are forwarded upon mules and affes. The Vetturini, or carriers, have generally their chaifes ftanding on each fide of the mountain, which fave the trouble and expence of taking their carriages to pieces. The horfes which they take with them become by degrees as well acquainted with the road over the mountainsy, as the mules of the country ; fo that betwixt Lafnebourg and Novalefe in Piedmont, one may fafely give them the rens. From La Grand Croix to Novalefe travellers take thofe carriers whom they hire at Lafnebourg. In coming from Piedmont, the journey up the fteep mountain from Novalefe to La Grand Croix, and likewife acrofs to La Ramaffe, where the Novalefe carriers take up. the travellers, and forward them to Lafnebourg, is performed on mules. Down hill the mules are not fo fure-footed, neither does the rider fit fo well upon them as upon an afcent, which renders it necef- fary to be carried by men. From Lafnebonrg to the fum- mit of mount Cenis is a league, the climbing of which takes up. a fuli hour : the two /eagues from thence to La Grand Croix, being over a plain, are travelled in an hour and a half: here commences a declivity of two leagues more; one to Fer- tiere, and another to Novaicfe. In winter, when the fnow is on the ground, the plain on the top of mount Cenis is crofled on fledges, drawn by a horfe and a mule. The def- cent from La Grand Croix to Novalefe muit, at all times, and even in winter, be pafled'in chairs ; the large ftones, the winding ways full of holes, and the dangerous precipices not admittmg of fledges. But the defcent from mount Cents to Latnebourg is performed in another manner.. On the {pot where the declivity begins is a houfe called la Ramafie, from whence one is carried in a fledge down to Lafnebourg, which is about a lcague further, in feven on eight minutes, the rapidity of the motion almolt taking away. the breath. Thefe {ledges hold:only two perfons, the traveller, and the guide who fits forward fteering witha flick. On.each fide he has an iroa chain ; which he drops like an anchor, either to flacken the courfe ofthe fledge, or to ftop it.. his, like the carrying in chairs, is called “ Ramaffer les.gens, aller & ramafle.”” The horfe-road from Lafnebourg up to the Ra- mafle-houfe is very ferpentine ; the mules and affes are fo ufed to it, that they are at no lofs in fele&ting the beft tracks and avoiding the ftones,, fo that the rider may truft himfelf CEN himfelf to them. That the inhabitants may not exaét upon Rrangers, the king has iffued an order to regulate the price, which is generaily ftuck up in the poft-houfes. From Laf- nebourg to Novalefe are two roads, the old and new; the laftis the worlt, but the fhorteft, and always chofen by thofe who travel on mules or in chairs. The Lafnebourg chair- men are very aGive and expeditious in performing their la- bour; but notwithftanding their alertnefs and the extreme faticue that feems to attend it, they attain, in the ufe of the mott fimple diet, a confiderable longevity. In order the better to fecure their footing, their fhoes are without heels, and the foles are rubbed with wax and rofin. The ma- chines -in. which travellers are carried down hill are a kind of ftraw chairs, with low backs, two arms, and inllead of feet a little board hanging down by a cord for refting the traveller’s legs. he feat, which is made of bark and ropes twilted together, is fattened to two poles, and carried, hke a fedan, with broad ftraps. On the fummit of mount Cenis is a plain, of rather a long wneven valley betwixt very high mountains, whofe tops, even in fummer, are covered with {now ; and in winter and {fpring, when vat quantities of fnow fall from the hill into the valley, the journey over mount Cenis is rendered not a little dangerous. There are huts built up aud down along the mountain for the herd{men, who come hither in fummer with their cattle: fine grafs and feveral forts of flowers being produced here, in the months of July, Auguft, and Sep- tember. This mountaia, like fome other parts of the Alps, abounds with chamois, wolves, marmottes, and hares. Half- the mountain is a lake about a league in circum- way up ference, which is faid to be in the middle almoft unfathom- able. In this lake is fine trout, fome of which weigh 16 pounds. It is conftantly fupplied with water from {prings iffuing from the adjacent eminences, which are always co- vered with fnow, and often with clouds ; and out of it flows a river, which being augmented by other fprings falls down in very delightful cafcades: this river is by fome called Se- mar, by others St. Nicholas; and near Sufa it lofes itfelf in the Petite Doire or Dura. Keyfler erroneoufly afferts, that the mountain of Roche-melon, on the left hand of Cenis, betwixt Fertiere and Novalefe, is reckoned the higheft of all the Italian Alps; it is 11,977 Englith feet above the fea; and little mount Cenis is 9956; whereas mount Rofa exceeds 15,500; and mont Blanc is, according to fir George Shuckborough, 15,662, and according to De Luc 15,304. Keyfler’s Travels, vol. 1. CENNABA, in Ancient Geography, ca, in Mauritania Cefarienfis. CENNING, Cenninca, or Kenninga, in.our Ancient Books, denotes notice given by the buyer to him of whom he had bought, that the thing purchafed was claimed by another, that he might appear and avow, or warrant his bargain. - The word is formed of the Saxon cennam, audorem advo- care, to call an author. Du-Cange. CENO, or Zeno, in Geography, a river of Italy, which runs into the Taro; 8 miles $.S.W. of Parma. CENOBITE. See Cornosirte. CENOMANI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Tranf- alpine Gaul, belonging to the Aulerci, whofe country cor- refponded to the diocefe of Mans. The Cenomani alfo were a people who originally came from Gaul, where they inhabited the country called by moderns le Maine, and fettled themfelves in Italy, a little after the year 600 B.C. Their principal towns in Italy were Brixia, Cremona, Man- tua, and Verona. CENOTAPH, compounded of xe@-, empty, and rxFes, a mountain of Afri- CEN tomb, an empty tomb, or a monument without a body under it ; ereGted only by way of honour to the deceafed; and dif. tinguifhed from fepulchre, in which a corpfe is a€tually de- pofited. . Cerotaphs are honorary tombs, ere€ted either to perfons buried in another place, or to thofe who have received no burial, and whofe relics cannot be found, as being killed in battle, loft at fea, or the like. Among the ancients the fame privileges and religious regard were allowed to thefe ¢umuli inanes &S honorarti, as to realtonbs. Card. Norris has a treatife exprefs on the cenotaphs of the Cefars, Caius and Lucius, which are ftili feen at Pifa. Lamprid. in Alex. cap. 63. CENSAL, in the Mediterranean parts, denotes a regular or eftablifhed broker, authorifed to negociate between mer- chant and merchant. CENSER, in Antiquity, a kind of veflel where incenfe was burnt to the gods. Cenfer is chiefly ufed in fpeaking of the Jewifh worhhip. Among the Greeks and Romans it is more frequently called thuribulum, asGevorsz, apd acerra, which fee. The Jewith cenfer was a {mall fort of chafing-dith, covered with a dome, and fufpended by a chain. Jofephus tells us, that Solomon made twenty thoufand gold cenfers for the temple of Jerufalem, to offer perfumes in, and fifty thoufand others to carry fire in. Censer, the fame with Ara. CENSIO, in Antiquity, the a€ or office of the cenfor. See Census. Cenfio included both the rating or valuing of a man’s eftate, and the impofing of muléts and penalties. Censto haflaria, a punifhment infli@ed on a Roman fol- dier for fome offence, as lazinefs or luxury, whereby his hafa, or fpear, was taken from him, and confequently his wages, and hopes of preferment ftopped. CENSITUS, a perfon cenfed, or entered in the cenfual tables. See Census In an ancient monument found at Ancyra, containing the actions of the emperor Oétavius, we read, “ Quo Juftro civium Romanorum Cenfita funt capita quadragies Centum millia & fexaginta tria.” Censitus is alfo ufed in the Civil Law, for a fervile fort of tenant, who pays capitation to his lord for the land he holds of him, and ts entered as fuch in the lord’s rent-roll. In which fenfe, the word amounts to the fame with capite cenfus, or capite cenfitus. See Cavite Cenfi. a CENSOR, in Antiquity, one of the prime magiftrates in ancient Rome; whofe bufinefs was to furvey and rate the people, and to infpeé&t and correct their manners. ; The word is derived from cenfere ; becaufe he affeffed and valued every man’s eftate; regiltering their names, and pens them in a proper century, that the Romans might now their own ftrength; though others fay, the cenfors were fo called on account of their other office ; viz. as being comptrollers or correctors of manners and policy. The cenfors had all the enfigns of the confuls, except the lic- tors. There were two cenfors firft created in the year of Rome 311, upon the fenate’s obferving, that the confuls were too much taken up with matters of war, to be left at leifure for looking near enough into private affairs; fo that the cenfus had been intermitted for 17 years. The two firft were Pa. pirius and Sempronius: their authority extended over every - perfon ; and they had aright to reprehend the higheft. At firft they were taken ovt of the fenate ; but after the ple- beians had got the confulate open to them, they foon ar- rived CEN rived at the cenforfhip. M. Rutilies was the fir; who, having been twice conful and once difiator, in the year 402 demanded the office of cenfor. ‘The cuflom was to ele& two; the one of a patrician family, the other a plebeian ; and upon the death of either, the other was dijcharged from his office, and two new ones eleted; but not till the next juftrum. In the year 414, a law was made, when Publilius Philo was di@ator, appointing one of the cenfors to be al- ways elected out of the plebeians; which held in force till the year 622, when both cenfors were chofen from among the people, viz. Q. Cecilius Metellus, furnamed Macedonicus, and Q. Pompeius; after which time, it was fhared between the fenate and the people. The laft cenfors, viz. Paulus and Plancus, under Auguftus, are faid to have been private perfons; not, indeed, that they hhad never borne any public office, before, but by way of diftinGtion from te emperor; all befides him being fo CEN Wedge between ftriking-plates for lowering thecenter. Double king-potts to confine braces. , Apron pieces to ftrengthen rib of center. , Bridings laid on the back of the ribs Blocks between bridgings to keep them at equal dif- tances. _ I, Small braces to confine the ribs tight. K, Iron fraps bolted to king-polts and apron-pieces. L, Ends of the beam at the feet of king-polls. M, Principal braces. In ftriking the center of a large arch, the be{t method is to let it down a little allin a piece, by eafing fome of the wedges; it is there let to reft for a few hours or days, to try if the arch makes any efforts to fall, or any joints open or ftones crofh or crack, that the damage may be repaired before the cen- ter is entirely removed, which is not to be done till the arch ceafes to make any vifible efforts. Center of Atiack, in French centre d’attaque, or attaque du centre, in Military Language, is an attack on an exten- five front, from the fecond parallel upon the works of a ftrong place that is befieged, according to the rules or principles of a regular attack. Center of Aitradion. See Center of Gravitation. Center of abaflion, in Fortification, is themiddle point of its gorge, or angular point of the interior polygon, or the point where the two adjacent curtains would meet when produced. Center, or Centre, of a battalion on parade, in Military Language, is the middle of it, where an interval is left for the colours; and fo on. CENTER of cavity, in a /hip, is the center of that part of the fhip’s body which is immerfed in the water ; and which is alfo the center of the vertical force exerted by the water to fupport the veflel. See Bavvasr. Center of a circle is a point in the middle of a circle, or circular figure, from which all lines drawn to the circum- ference are equal. Euclid demonftrates, that the angle at the centre is dou- ble to that at the circumference ; i. e. the angle made by two lines drawn from the extremes of an arch to the center, is double that made by two lines drawn from thofe extremes to a point in the circumference. CenTER of a conic /edion is the middle point bifeGting any diameter, or the point in which all the diameters interfect and bifeét one another. This point, in the ellipfis, is within the figure; and, in the hyperbola, without, or between the conjugate hyper- bolas ; and in the parabola, it is at an infinite diftance. CENTER of converfion, in Mechanics, aterm firft ufed by M. Parent. [ts fignification 1s thus conceived: if a ftick be laid on ftagnant water, and drawn by a thread faftened to it, fo that the thread always makes the fame angle with the flick; the ftick will be found to turn on one of its points which will be immoveable ; which point is termed the center of converfion. For the greater eafe the thread may be conceived faltened to one end of the flick. This effeé& arifes from the reliftance of the fluid, and the manner wherein it divides: for, imagine the firft moment of traction, it is certain, here, the refiftance of the parts of the fluid to be difplaced tends to turn the flick around the point to which the thread is faftened, as ona center; fo that in the prefent inftance, the ftaff would defcribe precife- by the quadrant of a circle: after which the fluid would no longer bear the flick lengthwife ; but in a particular mo- tion, in fuch manner, as that the free end of the flick, and the parts neareft it, would deferibe larger arcs of circies than the reft, and have a greater velocity. The refiitance, there- fore, of the fluid, which tends to imprefs a circular motion eo the flick, around the point to which the thread is fal- Vit. THE .R. tened, tends to imprefs a greater velocity on the parts next to the other extremity ; or, which is the fame thing, thofe parts require a greater velocity to furmount the refiftance of the fluid, fo that the {tick will not have that circular motion around the point to which the thread is faened ; or the refiftance of the fluid ts greater towards the free extreme of the ftick, and fti!] leflens towards the other extreme. Now all the columns, or threads of water, which refift the ftick, muft be fuppofed of the fame length or the fame mafs. One may therefore find on the ftick fuch a point, as that taking a great number of thofe threads on that fide which refifts the leaft, and a lefs number on that fide where they refitt the molt, there will be an exact compenfation, and the forces be equal on each fide: this point is the center of con- verfion. And as the famereafoning has place in all motions of tra€tion made 1m the fame manner, this center is always the fame pomt. ‘The grand queftion here arifing is, to know precifely in what point the center of converfion is found: this M. Parent has determined by much laborious calculation, If the ftick drawn by one extremity be a ftraight line divided into twenty parts, reckoning from the thread, the center of converfion he finds will be nearly on the 13th. If it be not a line, but a furface or a folid, there will be fome change in the fituation of the center of converfion, according to the furface, or the folid. See Mem. of the Acad. of Sciences, abridged, vol. i. p. 191. If in lieu of a body {wimming in a fluid, we fuppofe it laid on a rough uneven plane: the refiftance of this plane to the motion of the body will always be divided in the fame manner, and determine the fame center of converfion. This refiltance is, precifely, what we call fridion, fo pree judicial to the effeéts of machines. See Center of rota- tion. Center of a curve, of the higher kind, is the point where two diameters concur. When all the diameters concur in the fame point, fir Ifaac Newton calls it the general center. M.lAbbé de Gua, in his “ Ufages de |’Analyfe de Defcartes,’? has given a method for finding the general centers of curves, and fuggefted fome important remarks on the definition of gene- ral centers given by Newton. The ingenious abbé calls the ge- neral center of a curve a point of his plane, fuch that all the right lines which pafs thither have on one fide or other of this point equal portions terminated by the curve; and he obferves: 1. That this definition correfponds with fufficient exaétnefs to the ordinary acceptation of the word center :—2. That the definition of Newton is comprifed in his own: and 3. That by adhering to his definition he has arrived at thofe conditions which Newton affigns to curves, which, accord- ing to him, have a general center; and hence it feems to follow, that Newton had in view the definition of M. ? Abbé de Gua rather than his own, when he determined thefe cen- ters. M. Cramer, in his ‘ Introduction a l’Analyfe des Lignes courbes,” gives a very exaét method for determining thefe general centers. Center of a dial, is that point where its gnomon or flyle, which is placed parallel to the axis of the earth, interfeéts the plane of the dial; and trom thence, in thofe dials which have centers, all the hour lines are drawn. If the plane of the dial be parallel to the axis of the earth, it can have no center at all; but all the bour-lines will be parallel to the flyle, and to one another ; the center being, as it were, at an infinite diftance. Center of an ellipfis, is that point where the two diame ters, the tranfverfe and the conjugate, and alfo all other dia- meters, interfecét each other. Center of the equant, in the Old Aflronomy,a point in the line of the aphelion; being as far diitant trom the center li of CHEN! T EVR. of the eccentric towards the aphelion, as the fun is from the center of the eccentric towards the perihelion. Center of equililrium, is the fame with ref{pe& to bodies immerfed in a fluid, as the center of gravity is to bodies in free {pace : or it is a certain point on which, if the body or bodies be fufpended, they will reit in any polition. More geverally, in a fyftem of bodies, it is the point about which they will be in equilibrio ; or it is a point fuch that if the fy item of bodies were fufpended or fuitained by it, the faid fy fem would remain in equilibrio. Thus, the fulcrum of a lever is its céntre ef equilibrium. For a method of deter- mining the centre of equilibrium, fee Emerfon’s Mechanics, prep. 92, p. 134. Center of fridion is that point in the bafe of a.body, on which it revolves, into which, if the whole furface of the bafe and the mafs of the body were collected, and made to revolve about the center of the bafe of the given body, the angular velocity deftroyed by its friGion would be equal to the angular velocity deitroyed in the given body by its fric- tion in the fame time. To find the center of frifion. Let F GH (Plate IV. Me- chanics, fig. 21.) be the bafe of a body revolving about its center C, and fuppofe about a,,c, &c. to be ‘indefinite- ly {mall parts of the bafe, and let A, B,C, &c. be the cor- refponding parts of the folid, or the prifmatic parts, having a,b,c, &c. for their bafes; and Pthe center of fri€tion. It is manifeit, that the decrement of the angular velocity mutt vary as the whole diminution of the momentum of rotation caufed by the friction dire@/y, and as the whole momentum of rotation or effe@ of the inertia of all the particles of the folid inverfely ; the former being employed in diminifhing the angular velocity, and the /atfer in oppofing that diminution by the endeavour of the particles to perfevere in their mo- tion. Hence, if the effeét of the friction variesas the effect of the inertia, the decrements of the angular velocity in a given time will be equal. Now as the quantity of friction docs not depend on the velocity, the effect of the friGion of the elementary parts of the bale a,b,c, &c. will be as. ax aC,b x bC,c x cC, &e. and alfo the effect of the inertia of the correfponding parts of the body will be as A x aC?, B x bC*, C x cC?, &c. Now when the whole furface of the bafe and mafs of the body are concentrated in P, the effe& of the frition will be asa + 6+ ¢ + &c. x CP, and of the inertiaas A+ B+ C+ &e. x CP; confequently 2 x aC + 5x 6C + ¢ x cC + &c. tatbdte+ &. xCP::Axa+BxdIC?+eC x eC? + &.:A+B+C+4 &c. x C P*; and hence cope AXA HBXP HC XC + Be x at Z Lae 4 BIS Le pecCras Ker x AG &6+c¢+ &c. B+C+ &c. particle into the {quare of its diftance from the axis of mo- tion, T = the fum of the products of each part of the bafe into its diftance from the center, s = the area of the bafe, Sx-s Lest the motion of bodies affeéted by fri€tion, in the Philof. Tranf. for 1785, vol. Ixxv. p. 186. Center of gravitation, or attra@ion, in Phyfics, is that point to which bodies tend by gravity; or that point to which a revolving planet or comet is impelled or attracted by the force or impetus of gravity. Center, in Ma/anry, denotes a wooden mould by which toturnanarch. See Cenrer in Archite@ure. CENTER of gravity, in Mechanics, is a point withina body, i = (if S = the fum of the produdts of each See Vince on # = the folid cantent of the body) through which if a plane pafs, the fegments on each fide will equipondcrate, i.e. neither of them can move the other. Hence, if the defcent of the center of gravity be prevented, or if the body be fufpended by its center of gravity, it will continue at relt in eguiliéric, in any pofition. ‘I'he whole gravity, or whole matter, of a body may be conceived united In its center of gravity ; and therefore, in demonitrations, it is ufual for the body to fubititute the center. Through the center of gravity pafles aright line, called the diameler of gravity: the interfection, therefore, of two fuch diameters determines the center. The plane whereon the center of gravity 13 placed is called the plane of gravity : fo that the common inter{cétion of two fuch planes determines the diameter of gravity. In homogental bodies, which may be divided lengthwife into fimilar and cqual parts, the center of gravity is the fame with the center of magnitude. If, therefore, a line be’ bifeéted, the point of bifeCtion will be the center of gravity. The center of gravity ef a parallelogram, or cylinder, or any prifm whatever, is in the middle point of the axis: and the center of gravity of a circle, or any regular figure, is the fame as the center of magnitude. Alfo, if a line can be fo drawn as to divide a plane into equal and fimilar parts, that line will be a diameter of gravity, or will pafs through the center of gravity ; and it is the fame as the axis of the plane. Thus, the line, drawn from the vertex perpendicular to the bafe of an ifofceles triangle, is a diameter of gravity ; and thus alfo the axis of an eilipfe, or a parabola, &c. is a dia= meter of gravity. The centre of gravity of a fegment or arc of a circle is in the radius or line perpendicularly bife&- ing its chord or bafe. Likewife, if a plane divide a folid in the fame manner, making the parts on both fides of it per- feGtly equal, and in all refpeéts fimilar, it will be a plane of gravity, or will pafs through the center of gravity. There- fore, as the interfe€tion of two fuch planes determines the diameter of gravity, the center of gravity of a right cone, or fpherical fegment, or conoid, &c. will be in the axis of the fame. See the fequel of this article. To find the center of gravity of a body. Let A,B,C,D, &c. ( Plate 1V.. Mechanics, fig. 22.) be particles of the body, and finding the centers of equilibrium, f and g, of A and B, Cand D refpettively (fee Batance and Lever); let A + B be placed in , and C + D ing, and their center of equi- librium, G, will be the center of gravity of the particles A, B,C, D,&c. Becaufe the force of gravity acts upon the particles in parallel directions, the efficacy of A to communi- cate motion to Gis A x AG, and that of Bis B x BG, or A X Ap + pG, and B x Bs + pG, which are equiva~ lent to them, or A + B x {G, fince A X Apand B x Bp are equal and oppofite, and confequently deftroy each other. The fum of the momenta of C and D is found, by a fimilar procefs, to be the fame as if they were placed in g > and confeqnently G, which is the center of gravity of A +B. and C + D, placed in p and q refpedtively, is the center of gravity of A, B,C, D, placed at the points A, B, C, D, &c, Hence it follows, that the particles of the body cannot be in equilibrio about any other point except G; for, if poffible, let X be fuch a point, and it is plain that the efforts of A and B to move X = A + B x pX, and of C and D = C + D Xx gX; confequently the point X is kept in equi- librio. by two forces, A + B x pX, and C + DX gXs. not aéting in oppofite directions, which is impoffible. More= over, in every fituation of the body compofed of the particles. A, B,C, D, &c. ifthe point G be fupported, the body wilt be at reft; for the force of gravity ating always in parallel. direGtions upon the partickes, their momenta, or efforts to move CENTER. G, will always be as A x AG, B x BG, &c. which, by the procefs ufed in this propofition, will always be reduced to two forces that are equal and oppolite. Farther, if A +- B+C-+D, &c. be equal to Q, and the preffure of each in parallel dire@tions be equal to g, a force, asQ x g, acting at the point G in a direétion oppofite to that in which the particles prefs, will remove their preflure. Or, if A, B, C, &c. be deftitute of gravity, and only refift the action of a force. by their inertia, a force at P aéting at G will communi- cate equal velocities to every particle ; becaufe their refift- ances, being exerted in directions oppofite to that of P, and therefore parallel to each other, vary as their diftance from G, and confequently the fums of the refiftances on each fide of G are equal. And, vice verfa, if Q be moving and without gravity, a force applied at G (the center of iner- tia) equal to the momentum of Q, will deftroy all mo- tion. The center-of gravity of a fhip is always before the point, which is the middle of her abfolute length ; for the fore part, having greater capacity than the after part, muft of courfe have alfo greater weight: and, therefore, it carries the cen- ter of gravity forward in proportion to its greater weight (which in large fhips is from 50 to So tons), and alfo to the interval between every center of gravity of each particular part, both forward and aft. When a fhip is at fea, and loaded, the center of gravity may well be fuppofed not to change, unlefs the cargo be moved. But experience fhews, that the fore or after part of the bottom of a fhip plunges and labours more and more, in proportion as the wind aéts with more or lefs force on the fails: becaufe fhips are gene- rally not matted according to the ‘ point velique;”” fo-that a fhip which has the center of the effort of her fails ill-placed, draws always more water forward or aft, when the impulfe of the wind upon her fails is very powerful, than when fhe is at eafe under her burden. Obf. From the center of gravity of the floating line of a fhip let a perpendicular be raifed, and continued till it be interfe€ted by the direction of the impulfe of the water on the bows, in failing directly before the wind ; and, where thefe two lines cut each other, that point is the point velique,’? and where the center of effort of all the fails fhould be placed. CENTER, common, af gravity of two bodies, is a point fo fituated, in the right line joining the centers of the two bo- dies, as ‘that, if the point be fufpended, the two bodies will equiponderate, and reft in any fituation, Thus, the point of fufpenfion in a common balance, or in a Roman fteelyard, where the two weights equiponderate, is the common center of gravity of the two weights. When any number of bodies move in right lines with uniform motions, their common center of gravity moves likewife in a right line with an uniform motion; and the fum of their motions eftimated in any given dire&ion, is precifely the fame as if all the bodies, in one mafs, were earried on with the direGion and motien of their common center of gravity. Nor is the center of gravity of any number of bodies afle€ted by their collifions or a€tions on ach other. 1. Lf one or more of the bodies, A,B,C, &c. (Plate lV. Mechanics, fig. 23.) move uniformly in the fame right line, with welocilies equal to a,b,c, Ec. their common center of gravity will move uniformly. For, let A and B move uniformly in the fame or an oppofite cireétion, P be their center of gravity, and D their diftance ; then, becaufe the motions of A and B are uniform, D either continues the fame, or increafes and Bb Jas o} A+B’ quently varies as D, and P moves uniformly. decreafes uniformly; but AP = and confe- If another body, C, move uniformly in the fame right line, and R be the center of gravity of A, B,C, the diftance, C P, either continues the fame, or increafes and decreafes uniformly, be- CPixiC .. A+B+C’ and confequently varies as CP, or R moves uniformly. Hence it follows, that the velocity of the center of gravity is Aa + Bb + Ce A+B+C porary pofitions of P, R, and the bodics, and (by what we fhall demonftrate in the fequel of this article) A x Ap, or x Aa + ap ee ewes or xbpt BH=AtTB x x Aa+tB x BA Pp, and Pp = —— ae : Bxébp=o. And, placing A + Bin P, and repeating the above procefs, it appears that Rr = the'velocity of R Ax Aa+Bx BB+CxCc Sg a yo aca ferred, that the velocity of R is uniform; becaufe Aa, Bd, Ce, are conftant, and confequently their fum, or difference, multiplied into the fame given quantities, or the velocity of R, is always the fame. Moreover, becaufe A + Bee x Rr=A x Aa+B x BU+C x Cz, the velocity of the center of gravity is fuch as would be communicated to the fur of the bodies ated upon by a foree equalto A x Aa + Bx BB+C x Ce 2. [fone or more bedies, A,B,C, &c. (fiz. 24.) moveuniforme ly in right lines, either in the fame or different planes, their coms mon center of gravity, S, will move uniformly in a right line. Let B defcribe Bé uniformly in the time "T, and P, Q, be the centers of gravity of Aand B; and A +B: B:: AB SAPs: Ad : AlQiey Bs:: PQ (Eucl. 1. vi. pr. 5-), and : BLx B PQ is parallel to Bd, and equal to rer and varies caufe C and Pmoye uniformly ; but PR = equal to ; for, let p, r, a,b,c, be contem- , becaufe A x ap — Hence again it is in+ therefore as Bé, or uniformly. Let A defcribe Aa unifarm- ly in the time T, either in the fame plane with Bd, or not, and R be the center of gravity of A, and B placed at 4; and QR, the path of the center of gravity, will appear, by the fame procefs with the above, to be parallel to Aa, and equal AaxA A+B uniformly, When both bodies move at the fame time, the point P will have two motions, P Q and QR; and will confequently defcribe the diagonal PR uniformly in the time T. Leta third body be added, and the common cen- ter of gravity be S, and CS produced will pafs through the center of gravity of A and B. Then, from the nature of the center of gravity, A+ B+C:A4B::CP:CS yu, 2CQ: CP OP 2:81; ands T = —+ a Sf, and varies as Q P, or uniformly ; and for the ace reafon TV, the motion of ‘I’ arifing from A’s motion, is equal to , and confequently it varies as Aa, or increafes RXA PB : to a 7a re and therefore varies as QR, or uniform. ly. When A and B move together, the motions $'T, T V; will be combined into one, SV; and if C deferibe Ce uni- formly in the time T, the common center of gravity will z = 5 D P, defcribe V Y, and this new motion, combined with S V, will make it defcribe S Y uniformly in the time 'T. This propolition may be otherwife demonftrated in the fol- lowing manner. Cafe 1. Let two bodies move, in the fame plane, in the direétions D E, A B, (fig. 25.); and let D and A, Eand B, be contemporary pofitions, and H, K, the cen- ters of gravity in thofe pofitions, refpeétively ; and taking Liz Br CENTER. BP = AD, joining EP, and drawing DL parallel to HK, DE: AB in the given ratio of the motions of the bodies ; and, becaufe the angle E D P-is given, all the an- gles of the triangle ED P are given, and D P is to PE in a given ratio; and, becaufe all the angles of the triangle D P Lare given, the angle PD L is given, and L is always inDL. By the nature of the center of gravity, DA: DH: BB: BN: P Bor DA: 1K; therefore DH = LK, and DH K Lisa parallelogram, H K is parallel to DL, and the angle B H K is given, and the center of gravity K is always in the right line HK given in pofi- tion. And, becaufe all the angles of the triangles DP L and DLE are given, the lines DP, DE, DL, that iss AB, DE, HK, are in a given ratio, and confequently the point K moves uniformly in HK. The demonftra- tion is the fame if one of the bodics moves from B to- wards A. Cafe z. Let the paths of the bodies, A B and DE, (fig. 26.) be in different planes; and through A B draw a plane Bde parallel to D FE, and through DE draw the plane det perpendicular to Bde; produce BA to d, and let Dd, Ee, be perpendicular to de, and the planes Dd A, Ee B, will be perpendicular to the plane ed B. Let A and D; Band E, be contemporary pofitions of the bodies. If the body at D were to move in de, the center of gravity would move uni- formly in fome line H K (cafe 1.); theugh H K ereé& the plane H K £4 perpendicular to H BK. From fimilar tri- angles, and the nature of the center of gravity A+: 5D :: AH: Hd:: BK: Ke:: BE: £E} therefore 42 is the path of the center of gravity of the bodics moving in A B, DE. And, becavfe Dd: H/:: Ad: AH:: Be: BK:: Ee or Dd: Ké, HA = Ké, and £4 is equal and parallel to H K ; therefore the center of gravity of the bodies, moving uni- formly in A B, D E, moves uniformly in £. Cafe 3. The common center of gravity of two bodies and a third body is either at reft, or moves uniformly in a right line; for two may be placed in their common center of gravity, which was proved to move uniformly, and the center of gravity of the three or more bodies is proved, by the fame procef{s as before, to move uniformly. From what has been above demonftrated, it is evident, that the path of the center of gravity, arifing from the motion of any one body, is always parallel to that of the moving body: PQ and ST (fg. 24.) are parallel to BB; QR and T V are parallel to Aa, and V Y to Ce. Moreover, the cen- ers of gravity of two, three, &c. bodies will defcribe poly- gons or curves fimilar to that of the moving body to which their motion is owing; and if the velocity of the body be variable, the velocity of each center will be variable accord- ing to the fame law. Allfo, the velocity of the center of gravity of two, three, &c. bodies is the fame as if they were placed in it, and acted upon by forces equal to the momen- ta of the moving bodies, in their refpe€tive planes and di- reGions: for B x BB = A+ BxX PQ, and Ax Aac= A+ Bx QR; and if A + B were placed at P, and acted upon by forces equal to B x Béand A x Aa in the planes and dire€tions of Bd and Aa, they would defcribe the diagonal PR. 3. The common center of gravity of two or more bodies is not affedied by any aiticn of the bodies upon each other. For, let A and B (fg. 27.) be two bodies in a fyem, a@ing upon each other, G their common center of gravity, and Aa, Bé, the velocities loft by A and gained by B refpe€fively In op- ofite direAions; and A x Aa =B x Bé, or A: B:: 6: Aa:: BG: AG:: bg: aG, or A: B:: B’s diftance from the center of gravity : A’ diftance from it; and con- 3 fequently the fame point, G, is ftill the center of gravity of A and B, or it has been immoveable. What is proved of thefe two is true of every two bodies, and therefore of al!. Hence, if two parts of a fy{tem, A and B, attraé or repel each other, or moving with unequal re¢tilineal motions, dil- turb each other’s motion: by the force of their inertia, the center of gravity will not be affected by their mutual action. CENTER of gravity, laws of the. 1. Jn two bodies, whofe maffes of matter are equal, the center of gravity is equaily diftant from their tuo refpedtive centers. For thete are like two equal weights fufpended at equal diftances from the point of fuf- penfion ; and in this cafe they will equiponderate, and reft in any pofition. 2. If the centers of gravity of two bodies, A and B, (Plate IV. Mechanics, fig. 28.) be joined by the right line A B, the dis frances, BC and CA, of the common center of gravity, Cj from the particular centers of gravity, B and A, are recipro- cally as the weights ¥ and A. See this demonitrated under Bacance and Lever. Hence, if the gravities of the bodies A and B be equal, the common center of gravity, C, will be in the middle of the right line, AB. Again, fince A: B:: BC: AC; it follows that A xX AC =B x BC;, whence it appears, that the powers of equiponderating bodies are to be eitimat- ed by the product of the mafs, multiplied into the diltance from the center of gravity 3 which produét is ufually called the momentum of the weights. Further, fince A: B:: BC: AC,A + B:A:: BC + AC (or AB) : BC: orA + B:B:: BC + AG (A B): AC. ‘Therefore the common center of gravity, C, of two bodies, will be found, if the product of one weight, A, into the diftance of the feparate centers of gravity, A B, be divided by the fum of the weights, A and B. Suppofe, eg A=12,B = 4, AB= 243 therefore BC = 24 xX 12 +16 = 18; and AC = 6. If the weight, A, be given, and the diftance of the particular centers of gravity, AB, together with the common center of gravity, C; the weight of B will be found = toA x AC + BC; that is, dividing the momentum of the given weight, by the diftance of the weight required from the common center of gravity. Suppofe, A = 12, BC = 58, AC = 6; then Be=6 x 12 = 18 = 4. 3. Todetermine the common center of gravity of feveral given bodies or points, a, b, c, d, (fig. 2g.) in the fame right line, AB. Find the common center of gravity of the two bodies, aand 4, which fuppofe in F ; conceive a weight, a + 4, applicd in F ; and in the line, F E, find the common center of the weights, @ + 6 ande¢; which fuppofeinG. Latftly, in BG, fuppofe a weight a + 4 + < applied, equal to the twoa + band c; and find the common center of gravity between this and the weight d, which fuppofe in H; this H will be the common center of gravity of the bodies, a, 4, c,d. And in the fame manner might the common center of gravity of any greater number of bodics be found. Other- wife: take the diftances of the given bodies from fome fixed point, as V (fig. 30.), calling the diftance VA = a, VB=8,VC=c, VD = d,and the diftance of the cen- ter of gravity VS =x; thnSA=x—a,SB=x-—4, §C=c—x, SD =d-— x; and by the property of the lee, AxXxx—a+Bxx—-b=Cxcec—x+Dx d—x; hence Ax + Bx + Cx + a Aa+ BB+Ce+ Aa BS + Ce d Dd, and x = SF eran EKG Sn — ah") S, the diftance fought ; which is confequently equal to thefum of all the mo- menta, divided by the fum of all the weights in the bodies. Or . CENTER. Or thus: when the bodies are not in the fame ftraight line, connect them with the lines, A B, CD; then find, as be- fore, P, the common center of A and B, and Q the common center of Cand D ; and conceiving A and B united in P, and Cand D united in Q, find S, the common center of P and Q. which willbe the common centerof the whole. Or, the bodies may be all reduced to any line, VA B, &c. drawn in any direction whatever, by perpendiculars, BB, CC, &c. and then the common center in this line, found as before, will be at the fame diltance from V as the true center is; and confequently, the perpendicular from s will pafs through S, the real center. From the preceding general cx- Aa + BS + Ce, &c. A+ B+ C;&e. * gravity of any fyftem of bodies, we may deduce a general method for finding that center; for A, B, C, &c. may be confidered (as above ftated), to be the elementary parts of any body, whofe fum or mafsis M= A +B+C, &c., and Aa, Bé, Cc, are the feveral momenta of ail thefe parts, viz. the product of each part multiplied by its diltance from the fixed point, V. Hence then, in any body, find a general expreffion for the fum of the momenta, and divide it by the content of the body, and the quotient will be the diftance of the center of gravity from the vertex, or from any other fixed point, from which the momenta are eltimated. The applicati.n of this principle will appear in the fequel of the article. M. Lhuilier has, in the fourth volume of = for the center of preffion, viz. x _ the New Adis of the Academy of Peterfburg, given the demonttration of a very general theorem concerning centers of gravity ; the following expreffion is a particular example of the general propofition: Let A, B, C be the centers of gravity of three bodies ; a, 4, c, their refpective maffes ; and their common center of gravity. Let righz lines, Q A, QB, QC, be drawn from the common center to that of each body, and the latter be connected by right lines, A B, AC, and BC; thnQA’*xa+QBxb+QC xe D A ab AC ac ya =AB CK re @ K Gages 2 Be x bc ath+e 4. Two weights, DandE, (fig. 3 r.) being fufpended with- out their common center of gravity in C, to determine which of them preponderates, and how much Multip'y each into its diltance ‘rom the center of fufpenfion ; that fide on which the product is greateft will preponderate ; and the difference between the two will be the quantity whcrewith it prepon- derates Hence, the momenta of the weights, D and FE, fufpended without the center of gravity, are in a ratio com- pounded of the weights, D and FE, and the diftances from the point of fufpenfion. . Hence, alfo, the momentum of a weight fufpended in the very point, C, will have no cffeé& at all in refpeét of the reft, D, E. ' 5. To determine the preponderation where feveral bodies, a, b, ¢, d, (fig. 32.) are fufpended without the common center of gra- vityinC. Multiply the weights, ¢ and d, into their di- ftances from the point of fufpenfion, C E and C B; the fum will be the momentum of their weights, or the ponderation towards the right : then multiply the weights, a and 4, into their diflances, AC and CD, the fum will be the pondera- tion towards the left ; fubtraGting, therefore, the one from the other, the remainder will be the preponderation required. 6. Any number of weights, a, b, c,d, being fifpended without the common center of gravity in C, and preponderating towards the right ; to determine the point, ¥, from whence the fum of all | the weights being fufpended, the ponderation jlill continues the fame &@s in their former fituation. Find the momentum wherewith the weights, ¢ and d, preponderate towards the right ; fince the momentum of the fum of the weights to be fufpended in F is to be equal to it, the momentum now found will be the produ@ of CF into the fum of the weights: this, therefore, being divided by the fum of the weights, the quotient will be the diftance, CF, at which the fum of the weights is to be fufpended, that the preponderation may continue the fame as before. 7. The fam, or difference, of the produdls, which refults from muitiplying cach particl, A, B,C, D, into its perpendicular diflance from any plane, LN, as they are on the fame or different Sides of the plane, is equal to the produd of all the particles multi- plied into the diflance of their center of gravity, G, from that plane. Sce figs. 33, and 34. Let P and Q be the centers of gravity of A and B, C and D, and drawing right lines through P, Q, G, parallel to the plane, which interfect the perpendiculars drawn from thofe points refpcctively ; and A: B:: BP: AB:: Ba or Bb — Pp: Am or Pp — Aa; and A x Pp — Aa B x Bb — Pg, or A x Aa+BxPb=A-+ Bx Pp. By a fimilar procefs it appears, that C x Cc + Dx Dd =C+Dx Qgy. ButA+B:C+D::QG: PG:: Gu or Gg= Qq: Px or Pp — Gg, and A + B x Pop—-Gg =C+D x Gg+Qq; or, by tranfpofition and fubftitution of equals, A x Aa + BX BO+tC x Coa DX Dd = A+ B+C+ Dx Gg; in which expreffion the higher or lower figns are to be ufed, as the bodies are on the fame, or a different, fide of the plane. Hence it appears, that, if the particles be placed upon the fame right live, or, (as in fr. 35.) Aa, Bb, Cc, Dd, Gg be- come Ag, Bg, Cz, Dg, Gg refpectively, A x Ag + B x Bge+CxCg+D x Dge=A+B+C+4+D-x Ge; i.e. the fum, er difference, of the products refulting from the multiplication of each particle into its diftance from any point, g, as they are on the fame, or a different fide of that point, iscqual to the produ of their fum multiplied into the diltance of their center of gravity from that point. More« over, the whole momentum of a body, acting upon a lever, being equal to that of every particle, or to the fum of the produts which refults from the multiplication of each par- ticle into its diltance from the center of motion, is equal therefore to the product of the whole body into the diftance of the center of gravity from the center of motion, and is confequently the fame as if it were collected in the center of gravity. The demonftration of this propofition obtains therefore when A, B, C, D are collections of particles or bodies, whofe centers of gravity are the points A, B, C, D. And to find the center of gravity of a fyltem of bodies, it is evident that in the propofition, introducing this article, bo- dies, whofe centers of gravity are A, B,C, D, &c. may be fubltituted for particles, Farther, if A, B, C, D (fg. 33 and 34) be bodies ating upon any plane, LN, in parallel directions, the fum of their efforts to move itis the fame as if they were colleéted in their center of gravity ; for, if A, B, C, D be the refpective centers of gravity of each body, this fum is equalto A x Aa +B x Bb+CxCc+D x Dd=A+B+C+D x Gg; or, if they be placed upona lever, the fum of their efforts to make it revolve is the fame as if they were placed at G. When the center of gravity, therefore, is in the plane, or at the fulcrum of the lever, the plane and-lever are quicfcent. And if any point, Z, be taken inNL, A x aZ + Bx dZ+CxcZ+DxdZ= A+B+C+D x gZ}.for if a plane pals through Z, the proof is the fame as that of this propofition, Allo, the diltance. CENTER. diflance of any plane from the common center of gravity of -a mi Se A xAa+ Bx Bo+ A,B,C, D, &c. or Ggis equal to 7a CxCe+D x Dd ="C + D, &e. ; and its dillance from a plane paffing Ax Za+ Bx Zb+ AS ie Bak: through any point, Z, is equal to Ly ee Tl a = — in which expreffion the lower figns are to be ufed for thofe bodics that are not on the fame fide of Z with Aand UV. It follows alfo, thata right line drawn from A (jig. 36.) through the center of gravity, G, of any number ot bodies, A, B, C, D, &c. will pafs through the center of gravity of the remainder; for B x Bb +D x Dd = C » Ce; and confequently the center of gravity of B, C, D is inthe plane paffling through A G; and if this plane revolve, their center of gravity is always in the plane paffing through AG, and confequently it muft be in the line A G produced, which is the common interfeétion of the planes. If rbe this center, B + C + D x Gr =A x AG, andif the bodies be equal, and x their number, A G = 2 -1 x Ge. It appears farther, that if a circle or {phere be defcribed about the center of gravity, G, of any number of bodies, A, B, C, &c. (fg 37+) and any point, P, be taken in the peri- phery of the circle or furface of the fphere, PA* x A + PB x B+ PC? x C, &c. is a given quantity; for, drawing G P, and the perperdiculars to it Az, Bb,Cc, A x Ga = 8B x Gb + C x Ge, or by fubftitution of equals, GAt=PA?+GP _ PB?— BG*— GP? Ax NER te =r ig Gee ee Oe cor Re) ge Ne ee B ; 2GP +6. xP C=:A x GA?4:G PP + Bix G B= GP +C x GC? + GP’; and this fide of the equation is in- variable in whatever point of the periphery or furface P be laced. : 8. Jf A, B,C, D, &e. (fg. 38.) be particles of a body urged by forces in parallel directions, whofe magnitudes are Aa, Bb, Ce, Se. the fum of their weights is equal to the weight of A+B4C, Ge. aded upon by a force whofe magnitude ts Gg. For the weights of A, B,C, &c. being A x Aa, B x BJ,C x Ce, &c. the fum of their weights will be equal toA +B+4C, &c. x Gg; but this prodv& is the weight of A + B + C, &c. acted upon by the force Gg. Hence, if the forces Aa, Bd, Cc, &c. be equal to each other, Gg is equal to one of them, or if the particles A, B,C, &c. be acted upon by the fame force, their weight is the fame as if they were colleGted in their center of gravity, and ated upon by that force. The tendency, therefore, of a body to de~ fcend is the fame as if it were colle€ted in its center of gravity, and, confequently, if a line drawn from that center perpeu- dicular to the horizon fall within the bafe of that body, it cannot fall; and if without the bafe, it cannot fland. See Gravity. g. Lf any number of bodies, A, B, C, Se. (fig. 39-) move in parallel diredions, with any velocities, the center of gravity ill defcribe a right line parallel to them. Let A and B, aand 4, be contemporary pofitions of the bodies A and B, and G.g, their centers-of gravity, and through g¢ drawa line, xy, parallel, and confequently equal, to AB. From the nature of the center of gravity, A: B:: BG: AG:: bg: ag:: yg xg (by fimilar triangles); and the point g divides the parallel and equal lines A B, xy, in the fame ratio, and Gg isa right line parallel to Aa or BS. If H he the center of gravity of A, B,C, it is proved in the fame manner that it cuts the parallel and equal lines, GC, uv, in the fame ratio, and H/ is confequently a right line parallel to Gg. Hence, if any number of bodies, A, B,C, &c. (fig. 33.) afcend or defcend in parallel right lines, the fum of the produéts refult- ing from the multiplication of each body into the {pace de- feribed by itis equal to the produ of their fum, and the {pace defcribed by their center of gravity G; for, let a, 4, ¢, g, be contemporary pofitions of A, B, C, G, and, drawing any plane NL, A x Am + Bx Ban4+CxCg=A-+ B+C x Gd; and Axam+Bxbe+Cxcecg= A+B +C X g4; and confequently by addition A x Aa+ Bx BB+C xCc=A+B+C x Gg. More- over, if any number of bodies move in parallel direétions with any unequal velocities, or they be placed upon the lever X Y (figs. 39. and 40.), and receive unequal impulfes from any force at the fame time in parailel dire@tions, the center of gravity will, in the beginning of its motion, move uniformly — in a right line parallel to them, and its velocity is equal to the products of each body into its velocity, divided by the — {um of the bodies; for the fpaces Aa, Bd, Cc, Gg are de- {cribed in the fame time, and vary asthe velocities; and Gg, A x Aa +Bx Bb+C x Ca A+B+C. ‘ See Parkinfon’s Syftem of Mechanics, &c. ch. ix. to. Lb find the center of gravity in a right line AB(PI. VI. Mechanics, fig. 41.) All the particles that compofe this line — may be contidered as fo many very {mall weights, each equal — to x, which is therefore the fluxion of the weights, or of the { line denoted by x. Multiplying therefore the {mall weight x by its diftance from A, viz. x, and xx will be the momen tum of that weight <; or, in other words, xx is the fluxion — of all the momenta in the line A B or x; and, therefore, its — fluent $x? is the fum of all thofe momenta; which, being — divided by x the fum of ail the weights, gives 1x or LAB for 1 P or velocity of G, = the diftance of the center of gravity C from the point A 3 _ that is, the center of gravity of an homogeneous line is in the middle of that line. In any body, having found a general f expreffion for the fur of the momenta of all the parts, if this i be divided by the content of the body, the quotient will he the diftance of the center of gravity from the vertex, or y from any other fixed point, from which the momenta are ef- timated. 11. To find the center of gravity in a parallelogram and pa=_ rallelepiped. Draw the diagonals A D and EG, (jig. 42.) ; likewife CB and HT; fince each diagonal, A D and CB, divides the parallelogram ACD B into two equal parts, — each pafles through the center of gravity ; confequently, the — point of interfeGtion, I, muft be the center of gravity of the — parallelogram. In like manner, fince both the planes, CBF H, ~ and A D GE, divide the parallelepiped into two equal parts, each pafles through its center of gravity; fo that the com=— mon interfe€tion, I K, is the diameter of gravity, the middle — whereof is the center. After the fame manner may the center of gravity be found — in prifms and cylinders; it being the middle point of the — right line that joins the center of gravity of their oppofite” bafes. The center of gravity of a parallelogram, &c. may be very — eafily found by the method of fluxions. Let the axis or length A B of the paralleiogram (fig. 43.) be = x, and its” breadth D E = 43 and if de be drawn parallei and indefle — nitely near to DIE, the areola d D Ee =4x will be the flux- ion of all the weights, which multiplied by its cians x rom CENT BR. from the point A gives bx * for the fluxion of all the mo- nenta, and confequently the fluent $ bx? is the fum of all thofe momenta themfelves ;. which, being divided by bx the fum of all the weights, gives $x = ZAB for the dittance of the center C from the extremity at A, and ts therefore in the middie of the axis, as we have above fhewn. The pro- cefs aud conclufion will be precilely the fame for a cylinder, or any prifm whatever, makive 4 to denote the area of the end or of a tranfverfe feGtion of the body. 12. In regular polygons, the center of gravity is the fame with the center of the circum{cribed parallclogram. 13. To find the center of gravity of a cone and a pyramid. The center of gravity of a cone is in its axis AC (jig. 44.) Ifthen A P = x, AC =a, C D =r, the periphery of the bafe = , and PN = y, we thall have, by the well known property of circles, rz pi: y: te = the periphery of the circle, whofe diameter is MN, which being multiplied by J Py But, by es = the area of the fame circle. 2r will give . ze x“ 2 fimilar triangles, y: xt: ra, therefore y = pe and y* 24.2 : =—; confequently the area of the circle, whofe radius a rie 4 ta will 2a? be the fluxion of the mafs, or of the content of the cone at a3 a the term M N, and gr = * will be the fluxion of the mo- r 2 is P N, kecomes equal to p —; and therefore 2a 2a 4 mentum, whofe fluent is i » which, being divided by oa” : x 3 ane a , the fluent iS Std the fluxion of the mafs, will 6a 2a? give 3x =3AP, for the diflance of the center of gravity of the portion A MN from the vertex A; and when A P becomes equal to AC, x will be equal to a; and therefore the center of gravity of the whole cone is diftant from the vertex of AC. And in the fame manner is found the diftance of the center of gravity from the vertex of the py- ramid 2 AC: and therefore all pyramids of the fame alti- tude have the fame center of gravity. 14. To determine the center of gravity in an ifofceles triangle BAC (fig. 45.) Draw the right line AD, bifeting the bafe BC in D which will be alfo perpendicular to it ; fince A BAD=A DAG, each may be divided into the fame number of little weights, applied in the fame manner on each fide to the common axis A D; fo that the center of gravity of the A BAC, will be in AD. To determine the pre- cife point in that, let AD =a, BC =), AP=x, MN= y; thenwilAP:MN:: AD: BC; or, x2 gas b Confequently yx x, which reprefents b> Hence, y = —. the fluxion of the mafs at the term M N, divided by y x ex- prefling the fluxion of the area AMN, will be equal to ifs 3 a Ee dee $2 * ===; the fluent of which quantity will a a xx care) be = a =, and at the term BC, whenx = AD, ax de A D ; and therefore the diftance of the center of gravity of the A from the vertex, wil! be found 2 a. In the very fame manner the ceater of gravity of any other plain triangle will appear to be at } ofa line drawn from one angle to bifect the oppofite fide, er the diameter of gra- vity, from the vertex. The fame center may be ctherwife afcertained without fluxions, thus. Since a line drawn from any angle to the middle of the oppofite fide pafles through the center of gra- vity, the point of interfection of any two fuch lines will be that center: fo that the center of gyavity isin the line A D, (fig. 46.) and it is alfo in the line CG bifeQing A B; and confequently in the point of their inter{eétion, S. In order to determine the diltance of S from any angle, as A, produce CG to mect BH parallel to AS in H; then the two tri- angles AGS, BGA are mutually equal and fimilar, be- caufe the oppofite angles at G are equal, and alfo the alter- nate angles at H and S, and at A and B, and the line AG = BG;; therefore the other fides BH, AS are‘equal. But the triangles CDS, CB H are fimilar, andthe fide CB = 2CD; therefore BH or its equal AS =2DS; that is AS =7AD, the fame as before. And in like manner Cs = OG. 15. To determine the center of gravity of a trapezium. Di- vide the figure (jig. 47.) into two triangles by the diagonal AC, and find the centers of gravity E and F of thefe trian- gles; join EI’, and find the common center G of thefe two by this proportion, viz. ABC: ADC:: FG: EG, or ABCD:ADC:: EF: EG. Ina fimilar manner, the center of gravity may be found in any other figure, whatever be the number of fides, by dividing it into feveral triangles, and finding the center of gravity of each; then connedting two centers together, and finding their common center as above ; then connecting this and the center of a third, and finding the common center of thefe; and foon, always con- necting the taft found common center to another center, till all are included in the procefs; end thus the la!t common center will be that which is required. 16. For the center of gravity in a parabola (fig. 48.) Let AE=a4,5H=4,AP=x,PN=y. Then will 2x be the fluxion of the whole weight; but from the nature of the parabola, and the parameter being a con{tant quantity, Ix=y?; whence xt =y, and 2xt= zy: fubftituting 2x4 inftead of 2 in the above expreffion, we fhall have 2xkx 2. for the fluxion of the mafs, whofe fluent 4°? will be the mafs itfelf. Then, multiplying 2x3x by x, we fhall have ax4ixx or 2x3x% for the fluxion of the momentum, whofe 5 ~ Divide this by e) the whole weight, and the quotient 12~{—3=2-x, will be the diftance of the center of gravity of the {pace NA ZP from the vertex A; and when A P becomes equal to A E, or x =a, 4a, or 3 AE, will be the diftance of the center of gravity of the whole parabolic fpace from the vertex A, Now ym = 1x, being a general equation for all kinds of pa- I I x : ee fluent 4 will be the momentum itfelf. rabolas, we fhall have y = ees andthereforex™ will be 1 =—— fT the fluxion of the whole mafs, and x ™ the momentum: I x the fluxion of the fluent of this. laft expreffion, viz. T m y 2 . os m. re "being divided by the duent of x” % or I ae. ae Saws give aa x, for the diftance of the cen- m+itl 2m+t ter of gravity of the fpace ZA N from the vertex A, and m1 -——a will be the diftance of the center of gravity of the 2m+1 whole parabolic fpace from A, When m = 2, as in the common GEN T-E-R. common parabola, this expreffion will be 2a. If m = 3, as in the cubical parabola, then the expreffion will be $ a ; when m = 4, as in a biquadratic parabola, we fhall have } of the axis for the diftance; and ina furfolid parabola, when m = 5, the expreffion will give ;% @ for the required dif- tance. If m= 4, which is the property of the concave or fupplemental {pace, then the axis becomes a tangent to tne vertical point, and 2 a will be the diftance required, In the exterior parabola A ST’, as may be eafily found, by reafon- ing on finilar principles, the center of gravity is at the dif- tance AL, equal to 3 AQ. In the cubical parabola, ¢ AQ. In a biquadratic parabola, $ AQ. Ina furfolidal parabola, $ AQ. 17. The center of gravity of the arc of a circle, as ABD ( Sig 49.) confidered as a phyfical line, having gravity. “Itis evident that the center of gravity, G, of the arc, will be fomewhere in the axis, or middle radius BC, C being the center of the circle, which is confidered as the point of fufpenfion. Suppofe F indefinitely near to A, and F H parallel to BC. Put the radius Bion AC = rv, the femi-arc A B = x, and the femi-chord A E = x3 then AH = x, and A F =5, the fluxion of the weights, and therefore CE x “ABD = CG, the diftance of the center of gravity from the center C of the circle; and it is manifettly a fourth proportional to the given arc, its chord, and the radius of the circle. When the arc becomes the femi-periphery A BK, the ah see 7 — =.6366 cB 1.5708r 1.5708 ii viz. a third proportional to a quadrant and the radius. 18. Let ABDC (fig. 49.) be ¢ circular fedor ; and the center of gravity will be fomewhere in the axis or middle radius, BC, as in the former cafe. With any leffer radius defcribe the concentric are L MN, and put the radius AC or BC =r, the arc ABD =a, itschord AED =«¢, aad the aia r : ao. ga [tate by x, the weight, gives —= aboveexpreffionbecomes variable radius, C L, or CM, = y; thenr:y::a@ ies the are LMN, andr: y::c¢: the chord LON; and alfo by the laft-article the diltance of the centre of gra- ..CMx LON CM x AED weottncan L MN Sem. ABD = £2; hence the arc L MN or multiplied by j gives a re ayy , the fluxion of the weights, and this multiplied by r —, the diftance of the common center of gravity, gives a 39 ; ; : -2— the fuxion of the momenta; the fluent of which, viz. Tt ry? .. ay : 3 acy — divided by ——, the fluent of the weights, gives — Fs = 3 3 aie : : for the diftance of the center of gravity of the fector CLEN from the center C: and when y = 7, it becomes a “= CG for that of the {eG@or C ABD propofed ; be- a ing 3 of a fourth-proportional to the arc of the fector, its chord, and the radius of the circle. Hence, when the fec- tor becomes a femi-circle, the laft expreflion becomes = Le? ‘ ‘ = ae or $ of a third proportional to a quadrantal arc and the radius: or, it is equal to + center C, where p = 3.1416. 19. Lo find the center of gravity of an hemifphere, ABO (fg: 5°)- Fee the ae ane a D a DP e and M P, parallel to the bafe, = y. Then PMD being a right-angled triangle, we have MP? = MD? — DP?,1.¢. y7 = a’ — x*. And putting ¢ for the circumference of a circle whofe diameter is unity, the circumference of a circle whofe diameter isM E, or 2, will be 2cy, and its area willbe 2 cy x Zy, viz. cy’, or (by fubftituting for y y its value as above found, 1.e. a? — x7) ca? — cx; and this is a feGion of the hemifphere parallel to the bafe. Then, ca® —cx* xX xisone of the infinitely fmall weights into which the hemifphere is fuppofed to be divided; and its CNX — is the fum of all thofe weights. Alfo, o fluent ca® x — ca? — cx? X xx is the fluxion of the momentum of the Cx cixt ; ; Age ; fmall weight; the fluent of which, viz. — — isthe 2 fum of all the momenta. And, when x is equal to the whole : ca 3ca?—ca* axis A D, thofe two fluents become (ca? — oe Sees cat ¢ at 3 and (= - — 2 _, 26a cat vw Then, dividing the latter cat. 2¢60 8 3ca 3 =- ie Nee a 4 8 ca 8 is diftant from the point D, §ths of the axis, or of the ra- dius A D. The centers of gravity of other bodies may be found in a fimilar manner. Thus the altitude of the fegment of a {phere, or fpheroid, or conoid, being x, the whole of the axis itfelf being a, the diftance of the center of gravity in each of thefe bodies from the vertex will be as follows: viz. we x in the {phere or {pheroid. gx in the femi-f{phere or femi-fpheroid (as above). 2x in the parabolic conoid. 4ay3xe -. —- xi Ou +.3% Thefe, and fuch cafes, however, are more opcrofe, and alfo more uncom:non, and we fhall therefore refer for a more ample account of the center of gravity to writers on this fubject ; among whom we may reckon Archimedes, Pappus, Guldinus, Wallis, Cafatus, Carre, Hays, Wolfius, Hodg- 2ca* — ca‘ ) 4 4 4 fluent by the former, we have fo that the center of gravity the hyperbolic conoid. fon, Simpfon, &c. &c. To find the value of any furface or folid by means of the center of gravity ; fee Cenrrosarye Method. 20. To determine the eenter of gravity in any body mecha- nically, Lay the given body HI (fg. 51.) on an extended rope, or on the edge of a triangular priim F G, bringing it this and that way, till the parts on either fide are in cq:nli- brio; the plane, whofe fide is K L, paffes through the cen- ter of gravity. Balance it again on the fame, only chang- ing its fituation ; then will the chord, or the ide MN, pais through the center of gravity ; fo that the interfection of the two ines M N and K L determines the point O in the furface of the body required. ’ The fame may be done by laymg the bo tal table (as near the edve as is a = .4244r from the ; CEN TE R. in two politions, lengthwife and breadthwife : the common interfection of the two lines contiguous to the edge will be its center of gravity. Or it may be dove by placing the body on the point of a ftyle, &c. ull it reit in equilibrio. It was by this method that Borelli found the center of gra- vity in a human body to be between the nates and pubes; fo that the whole gravity of the body is there colle@ed, where nature has placed the genitals: an inftance (fays Wolfus) . of the wifdom of the Creator, in placing the membrum virile in that place which of all others is the moft convenient for copulation ; neverthelefs, this law does not take place in the greater number of animals. Or thus. Sufpend the body by any point ; then a plumb- line hung over the fame point will pafs through the center of gravity; becaufe that center will always defcend to the Joweft point when the body comes to ret, which it cannot . do except when it falls in the plumb-line. Therefore, marking that line upon it, and fufpending the body by an- other point, with the plummer, to find another {uch line, the interfection of the two will give the center of gravity. Otherwife. Hang the body by two ttrings from the fame tack or nail, but fixed to diflerent pots of the body } then a plummet, hung by the fame tack, will fall on the center of gravity. Center of gyration, is that point of a body revolving about an axis, into which, if the whole quantity of matter were colleGed, thefame moving force would generate the fame angular velocity in the body. This point differs from the center of ofcillation, becaufe, in this latter cafe, the motion of the body is produced by the gravity of its own particles ; but in the cafe of the center of gyration, the body is put in motion by fome other force acting at one place only. Let a body, f, revolve about C, (Plate VIL. Alechanies, fig. 52. and let a force aé&t at D to oppofe its motion. ‘Then the momentum of varies, as p x its velocity, or as p x pC, which may be confidered as a power acting at £, in oppofi- tion to the force at D; but this power aéting at the di- ftance, p C, from the center of motion, its effect to oppofe a force at D muft (by the property of the lever), be asp x pC x pC=p x pC This effet of p to perfevere in its motion, or, which is the fame, to prevent any change in its motion, is called its ‘‘ inertia.”’ To find the center of gyration of a body. - Let a body be conceived to be made up of the particles A, B,C, &c. whofe diftances from the axis are a, b, c, Sc. and let x be the diftance of the center of gyration from the axis; then, by the preceding obfervation, the inertia of A, B, C, &c. willbe as A x a’, B x 0, C x c*, &c. and the inertia of all the matter at the diftance x, willbe as A+ B+C+4 &c. x x*: and as the moving force is the fame in both cafes, the inertia muft be the fame when the fame angular velocity is generated; hence, A+ B+C4 &e. x x? =Axa@e?+Bxwh+C x 24+ &c.; therefore, x = : that is, if § be the fluxion of the body at the diltance = from the axis, NY Eas s E. G. 1. Let the flraight line, CA, (fig. 53.) revolve about C; to find O the center of gyration. Put z = Cp, then sa %, ands = &, and therefore z? ¢ = x? x, whole fluent is $23 = (whenz = CA) 3} CA; hence, CO = WV 3 CA? =CA V4. 2. Leta circle, A B, (fg. 54.) revolve in its own plane about its center C ; to find O, its center of gyra- tion. Put p = 6.28318, &c. the circumference of a circle Vor. VII. whofe radius = 1, « = Cp; then the circumference pg = p%, and p x = = $3 hence, the fuent of x? 3, or of pziz is 4 p2t = (whenz = CA =r) prt. Alfo, the area of the circle = Zpr*; hence, CO = VIF =rwvi, The fame mult be true for a cylinder revolving about its axis ; as it is true for every feGtion parallel to the end. 3. Let RADB bea {phere revolving about the diameter, RD ; to find O, its center of gyration. Draw C A perpendicular, and spr parallel to RD; put Cr = r, Cp = 2, then pr =VPr— z*s and if p = 6.28315, &c. the furface of the cylinder, generated by s7 revolving about RD, is pzx2 V P22; hence} = 2pxre/P— sy andes = 2p235 Vy. In order to find this fluent, put P?7—2? = 42, then x* = r* — y?, and xt = rt —2 57 y? + yt; therefore zi — yy + 93 ji; hence, 26232 V r — 2? — 2p x ry + x? 3, whole fluent is 2px —1 7 gets ys and when = = 9, this fluent ought to vanifh, but y is then =r; and the fluent becomes 2p x — 2 4; herce, the correct fluent is 2p X 7>r5— fry? 4+ 1955 and the whole fluent, when < = r (in which cafe y = o), will be apr. And as the content of the {phere = 3 p73; hence, = / . eileen F CO= V2r=r v2, Vince's Principles of Fluxions, 2 p- 98, &c. Center of heavy bodies is, in our globe, the fame with the center of the earth towards which all heavy bodies at or near the furface have a kind of tendency. It fhould be obferved, however, that the tendency of heavy bodies towards the center is ftri@tly applicable only to the earth, confidered as perfe&ly {pherical ; but as the earth is flatted towards the poles, or an oblate fpheroid, heavy bodies will not be found to tend exactly towards the fame point. Neverthclefs, ag the figure of the earth does not differ much from that of a {phere, the deviation of the tendency of heavy bodies from the fame point is not very confiderable ; and in common lan- guage the center of the earth may be regarded as the center of heavy bodies. Center of an hyperbola, is a point in the middle of the axis, or of any other diameter ; being the point without the figure, in which all the diameters interfc4@ one another ; and it is common to all the four conjugate hyperbolas. CENTER of the magnet, and Magnetic center. See Macner. Center of magnitude, is that point which is equally dif. tant from all the external parts of a body. In homoge- neous bodies that can be cut into fimilar and equal parts, ac- cording to their length, as in a cylinder or prifm, it is the fame with the center of gravity. CENTER of motion, is a point round which one or more heavy bodies, that have one common center of gravity, re. volve; v. gr. If the weights, P and Q (fg. 55.) revolve about the point, N, fo that when P defcends, Q afcends N is faid to be the center of motion. * It is demonftrated in mechanics, that the diftance, IN, of the center of gravity of any particular weight, from the common center of gravity, or the center of motion, N, is perpendicular to the line of direétion, I P. The center of motion of a fhip is the point upon which a veffel ofcillates or rolls, when put in motion. Center of ofcillation, is that point, in the axis or line of fulpenfion of a vibrating body, into which, if the whole was contraéted, the angular velocity, and the time of vibration would remain unaltered. Hence, ina compound pendulum, its diltance from the point of fufpenfion is equal to the length of a fimple pendulum, whofe ofcillations are ifochronal with thofe of the compound one. CENTER of ofcillation, laws of. Kk Trom what we thall-de- monitrate CEN monftrate under Center of percuffion it will appear, that in the cafe of two bodies conneGted together, the product of the body on one fide of the center of ofcillation multiplied by both its diftance from the point of fufpenfion and its dif- tance from the center of ofcillation is equal to the produé of the body on the other fide of the center of olcillation, mul- tiplied both by its diftance from the point of fufpenfion, and its diltance from the center of ofcillation. The reafoning from which this theorem is deduced may alfo be applied to a pendulum confilting of more than two bodies connected together, or to the different parts of the fame pendulous body ; and hence may be deduced the following general law: viz. if the weight of each part of a fimple or com- pound pendulum be multiplied both by its diitance from the center of fufpenfion, and its diftance from the center of ofcil- lation (or percuffion), the fums of the products on each fide of the center of ofcillation will be equal to each other. In order to illuftrate this law, and the mode of applying it, let a pendulum confift of any number of parts or {mall bodies A, B, C, D, E, joined together ; let a, 4, c, d, ¢ reprefent their refpeétive diftances from the point of fufpenfion, and let x be the diftance of the center of ofcillation from the point of fufpenfion. ‘The diltances of thofe parts or bodies, from the center of ofcillation, will bex a,x—b,x—c,d—x,e- x3 D and E being fuppofed to be farther from the point of fuf- pention, thanthecenterofofcillation is. By multiplying every one of thofe bodies, both by its diftance from the center of fufpenfion and its diftance from the center of ofcillation, we have, agreeably to the above-mentioned law, the equation Aax Aaa+Bbx—Bbb4Cex—Ccc=Ddd—Ddx+ Eee—Eex; which, by tranfpofition and divifion, is refolved into the following ; viz. ’ Aaa + Bbb + Cce + Ddd + Eee v—" Aa+ Bb+ Cc+ Dd + Ee Should any of the bodies, as for inftance A and B, in the preceding inftance, be fituated above the center of fufpen- fion, then their diftances will be negative, viz. — a, — b, though their fquares aa, bb, are always pofitive. In this Aaa + Bhs + Cece + Ddd + Eee- — Aa — Bb + Ce + Dd + Ee Since the center of gravity of a body, or fy {tem of bodies, is that point wherein all their matter may be conceived to be condenfed, therefore the produ& of all the matter or fum of the different weights A, B, C, D, E, multiplied by the diftance of the common center of gravity from the point of {ufpenfion, is equal to the fum of the products of each body multiplied by its diftance from the point of fufpenfion, Hence the above {tated value of x becomes Aaa + Bb + Cece + Ddd + Eee divided by the produ& of the whole body or fum of the weights, multiplicd by the diitance of the center of gravity from the point of fufpenfion. Andbeing expreffed entirely in words, it forms the following general Rule 1. ‘* If all the bodies or parts of a body, that forms a pendulum, be multiplied each by the {quare of its diltance from the point or axis of fufpenfion, and the fum of the pro- duds be divided by the product of the whole weight of the endulum, multiplied by the diftance of the center of gra- vity from the point of fufpenfion; the quotient will be the diftance of the center of ofcillation or percuflfion from the oint of fufpenfion.” The fituation of the centre of ofcillation may alfo be found by means of another rule, which we fhall likewife lay down, and fhall demonftrate ; fince in fome cafes this rule will be found preferable to the firit. Rule 2. “1f the fum of the produéts of all the parts or weights, multiplied each by the {quare of its difance from cafe the value of x is = CER. the center of gravity, or froma line paffing through the center of gravity parallel to the axis of vibration, be divided by the produé& of the whole mats or body, multiplied by the diftance of the center of gravity from the point of fufpenfion, the quotient wi!l be the diltance of the center of cfcillation from the center of gravity ; which being added to the dif. tance of the center of gravity from the point of fufpenfion, will be the diftance of the center of ofcillation from the point of fufpenfion.” Let CAB (Plate VII. Mechanics, fig. 56.) reprefent any fort of body regular or irregular, fufpended at C ; Orts centre of ofcillation; G its center of gravity; COB its axis or right line, paffiog through the point of fufpenfion, and centers of gravity and ofcillation. This body may be conceived to confilt of an indefinite number of extremely {mall parts or weights. Let W be one of thofe {mall weights ; join W C and WG, and from W drop W F per- pendicular to CO. Then the product of W, by the fquare of its diftance from C, is W x C W2\. But (Eucl. p. 47, B.1.) CW} = WF} + CE}; and GW = Ore WF) (Eucl. p. 7. B. ii.) CG) + Gtl!= 2CG x GF+ CF)‘; and by tranfpofition GriAHiGilly + CG eC G x GF. Then by fubftitution (viz. by putting in- ftead of C ¥}}, its equal GE. CG) 22C Gace F) the above ftated equation becomes CW? = WF? + G FR cu GE] 2CGxGF= (putting G WF for its equal Gil + WFPY)GWP+CG" 2CGx GF. And multiplying both fides by W, we have the fum of all the pro- du&s W x CW)? = the fum of all the W x GW? 4 all the W x C G]?— the fum of all the W x 2CG x GF But by the nature of the centre of gravity the fum of all the W x G Fis =09; for thofe which are on one fide of the axis muft balance thofe which are on the other fide; and of courfe all the W x 2CG x GF alfo become = q, Therefore there remains the fum of all the W x Cwrs fum of all the W x GW)? + fum of all the W x CG}? = fum of all the W x GW)? + the whole body x CGF. Or, (taking away the fum of all the W x GW} from both fides of the equation) the fum of all the W x CGF = the whole body x CG}. fum of all the W x CW)? ThnCO= na wholebedp eae ul (by rule the fum of all the W x G Ww) af) 0G © bri reeenale body x CG * ‘nd laftly, {um of alltheW x GW)? |. GO=Cc0O-—-CG= he sieEed ee which is rule the 2d. In the application of the above-mentioned rules, it is fre. quently very difficult to find the fum of the produ@s of all the weights multiplied by the fquares of their refpective dif. tances. The method of fluxions is undoubtedly the moft extenfive, as it may be applied to all fuch figures or bodies as have fome regularity of fhape, or fuch as may be exprefs- ed by an algebraical equation. But in fome cafes the irre- gularity of form is fo very great, that the center of ofcillation can only be found out by means of the mechanical method fubjoined. In order to find the fum of the weights, &c. you muft confider an indefinitely {mall part, or increment, or fluxion of the figure, as being a {mall weight, and multiply it by the {quare of its diftance from the center of fufpention or axig of vibration, according to ne the sft, or elfe multiply ir, by. ‘4 CEN by the fquare of its diftance from the center of gravity, or from a line pafling through the center of gravity, and pa- rallel to the axis of vibration, according to rule the 2d.; then the fluent of that expreffion will be the fum of the products of all the weights, multiplied by the fquares of their refpec- tive diltances, either from the axis of vibration, or from the center of gravity, &c. Laftly, this fluent muft be divided by the product of the whole body (to be had by common menfuration) multiplied by the diftance of the center of gra- ' vity, from the point of fufpenfion; and the quotient will be the diftance of the center of ofcillation either from the point of fufpention, or from the center of gravity, according as the operation was performed either by rule the firft, or rule the fecond. Before we proceed to ftate and apply another me- thod for invettigating the center of ofcillation, it will be ne- ceffary to premife the following lemma. Suppofe two exceeding fmall weights, C and P, a&ing on each other by means of an inflexible line (or wire), PC, to vibrate in a vertical plane, RO PC M, about the center O ; and it be re- quired to determine how much the motion of one is affected by the other. Let C H and P Q (Plate VII. Mechanics, fig. 57.) be perpendicular to the horizontal line O R ; and let P B and CS be perpendicular to O P and OC refpetively. If the force of gravity be denoted by unity, the forces acting in the direGtions CS and P B, whereby the weights, in their de- f{cent, are accelerated, will, according to the refolution of and OP: the velocities are always in the ratio of the radii O C and O P, if the aforefaid forces were to be in that ratio, or that OFF forces, be reprefented by OG Moreover, fince OH OP OO; of P was to become Oc x roreu inftead of OP in that cafe it is plain, that the weights would continue their motion without affeGting each other, or ating at all on the line of eommunication PC (or PB). Whence, the excefs of OQ, OH OP | Op wore oc X Oc muft be the accelerative force whereby the weight, P, acts upon the line (or wire), OC, in the direction PB; which multiplied by the weight, P, gives 00 OH x OP eee —— for th Bin Gi ate or the abfolute force in that direétion; which, therefore, in the perpendicular dire¢tion OQ Ox OP, ..OP NB, is P x mae * OP Hm Oe). + OR” part acting upon C being to the whole as OB to OC, is OHx OF truly defined by P x oe Sa . If Pbe fup- pofed to a&t upon C by means of FC (inftead of PB) the conclufion will be in no refpeét different. For, let I’ denote Oo "Ove v CrP the force (P x — — : )in the direGtion P B, found above ; then the action thereof upon PC (according to the principles of mechanics) will be exprefled by F x Radius Cotine CP B whereof the ; which, therefore, in the diretion SC, per- : é Radius 5.PCO _ pendicular to OC, is F x Got CPR * Rade 7 S.P CO. 5.PCO —=Fx oe the fame as before. CeCPB ~ S;oOPRe (Oe To determine the center of ofcillation of a body. Lket LMS (Jig. 55.) be a fe&tion of the body by a plane, perpendicular to the horizon and the axis of motion, pafling throvgh the center of gravity, G, and the point of fufpenfion, O; and TE R, fuppofe all the particles of the body to be transferred to this fection, in fuch places of it as they would be projected into (orthographically ) by perpendiculars falling thereon. (Nov does this fuppofition at all affeét the conclufion, the angular motion continuing the fame.) Moreover, let C be the cen- ter of ofcillation, or that point in the axis, O S, where a par- ticle of matter (ora {mall weight) may be placed fo as to be neither accelerated nor retarded by the aétion of the other particles of matter fituate in the plane. Then, if from C, and any other point, P, in the plane, L M S, two perpendi- culare, C H and PQ, be let fail upon the horizontal line, OR, the force of a particle (or weight) at P to accelerate the weight at C, will (according to the preceding lemma) be OQ OHx OP reprefented by P x : which, fup- GC ROC 2, poling GN perpendicular to O R, will alfo be expreffed by OQ) OM OP. OQ x OG a : “oc OG * Oc M its equal P x 0G C-—ON : seinen hese . Inthe fame manner the force of x OG any other particle, P’, will be reprefented by P’ x OQ x OG x OC—ON x OP” idan kane OCXRGG: jaa a : quently, the forces of all the particles deftroying each other (by hypothefis), the fum of all the quantities P x OG x OQ x OC-ONx OP? +P’x OG x OQ x OC — ON x OP”, &c. &c. muft be equal to nothing. Whence Px OG xi0Q x OC+P’x OGx OV x OC, &c. &. = P x ON x OP? + P’x ON x OP” &. &c. and confequently OC = = x POG LFS OP? + &c. ew O04 ke. But the fum of all the quantities P x OQ_ +P’ x OQ’, &c. is equal to the content of the body, mul- tiplied by the diftance, ON, of the center of gravity, G, from the line LM, (perpendicular to OC) ; whence O Cis alfo — ON . Px OP? +P x OP", &c. &c. ~ OG ON x the body PX Ol Pe P< OP, &er &e! hich i = ES SO ———_———_ |; may O @acte hae ; wh expreffion continuing the fame in all inclinations of the axis, OS, the point, C, thus determined, is a fixed point, agreeable to the definition ; and appears to be the fame with the CenTeER of percuffion. Hence it follows, that if PD, P’D’, &c. be perpendicular to OS, the numerator of the fraétion, found above, will be- come P x OG? + GI?—20G x GD +P x 0G + GP? +20G x GD’ + &c. &c. (fince O P? = O G* + GP?—20G x GD, &c.); which, becaufe all the quantities P x —20G x GD+P x 20G x GD, &c. or P x —GD + P’ x GD, &c. (by the nature of the center of gravity) deftroy one another, and be barely =PxO0G@+4+GP+P x OG + GP’ 4, &e. &e. =P4+P4,&. x OG? + Px GP? + P’ x GP” +, &c. = mafs x OG?+ Px GP? + PF’ x GP? 4+ . fs x &c. Whence it is evident, that O C is, alfo, (= aes a ) Gt PR oaGi Be + Pi x oG ER Oot Sate ot + &e. &e.) = OG aA a Px Gert Pibad Pil 7s Be and confequentl pt Sp DL Sb ee < 3 equently mats x OG Kke CG CENTER. 2 Ln va CG ah Gr Crt? padi om poieeaie: Whence mais x OG it appears, that, if a body be turned about its center of gra- vity, in a direGlion perpendicular to the axis of the motion, the place of the center of ofcillation will remain unaltered ; becaufe the quantities P x G P*, P’ x GP” are no way affeGted by fuch a motion of the body. Italfo appears, that the diftance of the center of gravity from that of ofcillation (if the plane of the motion of the body remains unaltered) will be reciprocally as the dittance of the former from the point of fufpenfion. Confequently, if that diftance be found when the poiut of fufpenfion is in the vertex, or fo pofited, that the operation may become the moft fimple, the value thereofin any other propofed pofition of that point will like- wife be given by one fingle proportion. Tn order to fhew how thefe conclufions may be reduced to practice, let it be obferved, that the produét of any par- ticle of the body by the {quare of its diftance from the axis of motion is (here) called the force thereof, (its efficacy to turn the body about the faid axis being in that ratio). According to which, and the firft general value of OC, it appears that, if the fum of all the forces be divided by the produ& of the body into the diftance of the center of gravity from the point of fufpenfion, the quotient thence arifing will give the diltance of the center of,percuffion, or ofcillation, from the faid point of fufpenfion. In the following examples, let the diltance of the center of gravity from the point of fufpenfion be g, andthe diftance of the center of percuffion, or ofcillation, from the fame point, be C. 1. To find the center of ofcillation of a right line, OS, (fig. 59-) fufpended at one of its extremes. If the part, OP, confidered as variable, be denoted by x, the force of x par- ticles, at P, will be exprefied by + X x*; and $ x’, the fluent of this quantity will exprefs the force of all the par- ticles in O P, or the fum of all the produéts, under each article, and the {quare of its diftance from O, the point of Fafpenfon. This quantity, when x becomes = O5, being divided by OS x 3 OS, according to the rule above tated, 2083 ¢ will give ete = 2 OS for the value of C, the true dif- 2 tance of the center of ofcillation (or percuffion) from the point of fufpenfion. 2. Let AB, (fig. 60.) be a line, vibrating in a vertical plane, having its two extremes, A and B, equally diflant from the point of fufpenfion,O. If OG, perpendicular to A B, be put =a, an P =», the force of x particles at P, will be denoted by + x a + x7 = * x OP’; and the fluent of this quantity, divided by 2x, or PG x OG, will @x+ ix ive ——_—_——- = a4 po OG+ 3a ae 30G = C, when ax becomes = GB. 3. Let APSQ (Plate VIII. Mechanics, fig. 61.) be a cir- cle, vibrating in a vertical plane; any diameter of which isPQ. Thus O P? + OQ? being = 2 OG* + 2 PG’, the fum o the forces of two particles at P and Q (putting OG = a, and AG =r) willbe = 2° + r* x 23 whence the fum of all the particles, in the whole periphery, will be expreffed by their number, multiplied by a? + r°, or by a + r* x periphery A PSQ; which, if pg be put = 3.141, &c. will rig o x be =a@ir X 2pr=2par+2pr%. Hence the force of the circle itfelf is alfo given, being equal to the fluent of 2pa’r+ 2prP xr =part+tpor= ww +irx circle APSQ. If the two expreffions thus found be divided by a x periphery APS Q. anda x cir- I cle APSQ refpeGively, we fhall have a + ", and a + -, for the two correfponding values of C. 4. Le AH BE, fg. 62.) be a circle, having its plane (al- ways) perpendicular to the axis of fufpenfion GO. Let AGB be that diameter of the circle which is parallel to the axis of motion RS; and let EF be any chord parallel to AB and RS; whofe diftance, G P, from the center of the circle may be denoted by x; and put OG = a, and AG =r. Then, bythe nature of thecircle, EF =2V/r* x3, whofe diftance, O P, from the axis of motion, RS, is alfo _ given = / a* + x*. Hence it appears, that the force of all the particles in the line, EF, will be reprefented by Oo eX 2 Poe Confequently, « x a +x? x 2 Wr — x? is the fluxion of the force ef the plane ABFE ; whofe fluent, whenx=7, is =a° + 477 x area AEF BG; which, if p be put for the area of the circle whofe radius is unity, will be = a? + 47° x 3 p7*; whereof the double (pa? r? + 4 pr*) is the force of the whole circle AEFH 5 whofe fluxion, 2 parr + pr x (fuppofing r variable), being divided by 7, we likewife get 2pa@r+pr(=a+ir x periphery AE FH) for the force of the periphery AEFH. But the center of gravity, whether we regard the circle itfclf or its periphery, 1s in the center of the circle ; therefore the diftance of the center of ofcillation from the point of fufpenfion will, in thefe two cafes, be exhibited by a+—anda+ — refpeGtively. If the circle, inftead of a 2a being perpendicular to GO, either coincides, or makes a given angle with it, the value of C will be exaétly the fame, provided that the diameter, A B, ftill continues parallel to the axis of motion, RS. we } 5. Let the propofed figure be a curve, A » (fig- 63. moving, as it were, flatwife, fo that the plane deferibed by the axis OAS may be perpendicular to that of the curve. Tere, putting AP = x, PN ='5, AN=z, OA= 2, OG = g,and AG = 4g, the force of the particles in MN wil} be expreffed by 2+ d + x|.. Confequently the fluent of 2y% x d+ x)’ will be as the whole force of the plane, NAM (or AEF, when x = AS), and, confequently, Flu. d + a x yx : ’ ——————~; which, therefore, when the point xX pe ~ Flu. d+ x ; Flu. y x? z of fufpenfion is in the vertex A, will become C = soit eC Flu. yx x Let this value be denoted by ~; then, the diftance of the centers of gravity and ofcillation being v — a, we have axXwv-—a . a , the diftance of the fame cen- 2.02 2 = 4): Ey ; ters, when the point of fufpenfion is at O ; and confequently, @ Xx *—*; which form will be found in moft cafes more commodious than the foregoing. After the fame manner the value of C, with refpe&t tothearc, AEF, C, in that cafe, = g + ; Flu. d+ x)?x z axv—a will appear, to be ==—————————— = é . Flud+x xz &; Flu. x? & fuppofing v = hice The preceding theorezn may be exemplified in the fol~ lowing inftances. Firff, let E A F be confidered as an 1fof~ celes triangle; in which cafe A P (x) and PN (y) being in a con- CENTER, b: a conftant ratio, we have y = — (fuppofing SF = 4, and AS=c). Hence, C ( Fluo@x z+ 2dex +294 Fai + Rdx + $2 - Flu. dx % + x? x7 = td+ 4x 2 mn 2 pat 3 lio st Si or, according to the fecond form, 6d+4x a ee 2 ' becaufe v cS) = = and a is known to be = Flu. yx # 4 2% axvu-—a x —, we have C (= gt ) =g+t+ ee £(=d+a)=>d+ Fx are in a conftant ratio, we alfo hav Again, becaufe = and x _ Ee d+ox«Pxe * Fi d+x Xz Flu. d+ xf x F_ MP+dx+ 3 Fludtxx; allo yx is ax x, whofe fluent is 4 a@x?5 and the quotient of the former § ax? divided by the latter 4 ax*, is 3 x for the diltance of the center of ofcillation below the vertex in any fuch figure ; namely, having every where the fame breadth or feétion, that is, at two-thirds ofits length. | In like manner, the cen- ters of ofcillation are found for various figures, vibrating flat- ways, and are as they are expreffed in the fubjoined fummary: Nature of the figure, when fufpended by the vertex. lfofceles triangle - - 2 of its altitude Common parabola - - + of its altitude Any parabola - - a Doe X its altitude; 3m+1 m being 2 in the common parabola; 3 in the cubic parabola ; 4 in the biquadratic. The inveftigation of the center of ofcillation in figures moved laterally or fide-ways, or edge-ways, that is, about an axis perpendicular to the plane of the figure, is fomewhat difficult ; becaufe allthe parts of the weight in the fame horizontal plane, on account of their unequal diftances from the point of fulpenficn, do not move with the fame velo- city ; CENTER. city s a3 is (hewn by Huygens, in his Horol. Ofcill. He found, in this cafe, the diflance of the center of ofcillation, from the axis; in a circle, to be 2 of the diameter: in a reQangle, falpended by one of its angles, } of the diagonal : in a parabola, fufpended by its vertex, $ of its axis, and 4 of the parameter; fufpended from a point in the middle of the bafis, + of the axis, and 3 the parameter: in the fe€tor of a circle, 2 of a ight line, whichis to the radius as the arc to the fubtenfe: in acone, # of the axis, and + of the third ’ proportional to the axis, and a femidiameter of the bafe: in a {phere (as is ufually the cafe in pendulums) 2 of a third proportional to two quantities compofed of the femidiameter and length of the thread, and the femidiameter itfelf: in a cylinder, } of the altitude, and 3 a right line, which is to the femidiameter of the bafe, as that is to the altitude. See the preceding part of this article. To find the center of ofcillation mechanically or experimentally. Let the body be made to ofcillate about its point of fufpen- fion ; and hang up alfo a timple pendulum of fuch a length that it may vibrate or jult keep time with the other body : then the length of the fimple pendulum is equal to the dif- tance of the center of ofcillation of the body below the point of fufpenfion. Or it may: be {till better found in the follow- ing manner; Sufpend the body very freely by the given point, and make it vibrate in {mall arcs, counting the vibra- tions 1t makes in any portion of time, as a minute, by a good ttop-watch ; and Jet that number of ofcillations made -in a minute be called n ; then fhall the diftance of the center 140850 of ofcillation be SO = ——-—- inches. For, the length nn of the pendulum vibrating feconds, or 60 times in a minute, being 39$ inches, or more accurately 39.1196 inches, and the lengths of pendulums being reciprocally as the fquares of the number of vibrations made in the fame time; there- I the length of the pendulum nn fore n?: 607 :: 394: which vibrates n times in a minute, or the diftance of the center of ofcillation below the axis of motion, Or again : divide So feconds by the number of vibrations per- formed by the pendulous body in queftion in one minute ; and the quotient is the time of one vibration. Square this time, and multiply its {quare by the length of the pendulum that vibrates feconds, viz. by 39.1196 inches, and the lalt product fhews the diftance in inches of the center of ofcilla- tion or percuffion from the point of fufpenfion in the pro- pofed pendulum. E.G. t. Leta cylindrical ftick about a vard long be fuf- pended by one extremity, and caufed to vibrate. Let the number of its vibrations be 76 in a minute; divide 60 feconds by 76, and the quotient, or 0’.79 (79 hundredths of a fe- cond), is the timein which the propofed pendulum performs one vibration, ‘Then, the lengths of pendulums being as the fquares of the times of vibration, fay, as the {quare of one fecond, i.e. unity, is to the fquare of o”.79, viz. 0.6241, fo is the length of the pendulum which vibrates fe- conds, viz. 39.1396, to the length fought ; therefore mul- tply 39.1196 by 0.6241, and the produét, 24.4, is the dif. tance fought: fo that the center of ofcillation in the flick is 24 inches and 4 tenths diftant from its extremity by which it is fufpended ; that is, about 3 of its length. E.G. z, Let an irregular body, fufpended by one end, erform 29 vibrations in a minute; and the time of one vi- ration is $¢ = 3 feconds; the fquare of this is 9, and 39-1196 K 9 = 352.0764 inches, or nearly 2g feet, the dif tance of the center of ofcillation from the point of fufpentfion. CENTER of percuffion, in a, moving body, is that point where the percuffion is the greate{t, in which the whole per- cutient force of the body is fuppofed to be collected: or about which the impetus of the parts is balanced on every fide : fo that it may be ftopped by an immoveable obttacle at this point, and reft on it, without a@ting on the center of fufpenfion: or, the center of percuffion is that point in the axis of a vibrating or revolving body, which, ftriking againit an immoveable obttacle, caufes the whole motion, eltimated in the plane of the body’s motion, to be deftroyed. It is obvious, that if the obftacle be oppofed to the moving body at different diftances from the point of fufpenfion, the ftroke or percuffion will not be equally powerful: and it is evident, that this center of percuflion does not coincide with the center of gravity. Let the body, AB, (Plate VIII. Mechanics, fig. 67.) confilting of two equal balls faftened to a {tiff rod, move in a direction parallel to itfelf, and it is evident that the two balls muft have equal momentums, fince their quantities of matter are equal, and they move with equal velocities. Now if in its way, as at N. II. an obftacle C be oppofed exactly againft its middle E, the body will thereby be effectually ftopped, nor can either end of it move forwards, for they exa¢tly balance each other, the middle of this body being its center of gravity. Now fhould an obflacle be oppofed to this body, not againft its middle, but nearer to one end, as at N. III. then the {troke being not in the direétion of the center of gravity, is in faét an oblique ftroke, in which cafe, agreeably to the laws of congrefs, a part only of the momentum will be {pent upon the obftacle, and the body advancing the end A, which is fartheft from the obftacle, as fhewn by the dotted reprefentation, will proceed with that part of the momentum which has not been fpent upon the obftacle ; confequently in this cafe the percuffion is not fo powerful as in the fore- going. Therefore there is a certain point ina moving body which makes a ftronger impreffion on an obftacle than any other part of it. In the prefent cafe, indeed, this point coincides with the center of gravity ; becaufe the two ends of the body before the ftroke moved with equal velocities. But in a pendulum the cafe is different ; for let the fame body of fg. 67. be fufpended by the addition o a line AS, fig. 68, which line we fhall fuppofe to be void of weight and flexibility, and let it vibrate round the point of fufpenfion S. It is evident that now the two balls will not move with equal velocities ; for the ball B, by deferibing a longer arc than the ball A in the fame time, will have a greater momentum ; and of courfe the point where the forces of the two balls balance each other, which is the center of percuffion, lies nearer to the lower ball B; confequently this point does not coincide with the centre of gravity of the body AB; but it is that point wherein the forces of all the parts of the body may be conceived to be concentrated. Hence the center of ofcillation and the. center of percuflion coincide ; or rather they are exa@tly the fame point, whofe two names only allude, the former to the time of vibration, and the latter to its ftriking force. If in fg. 67, the balls A and B be not equal, their common center of gravity will not be in the middle at I, but it will lie nearer to the heavier body, as at D, fuppofing B to be the heavier body ; fo that the diftances, BD, AD, may be inverfely as the weights of thofe bodies, Now when the above-mentioned body is formed into a pen- dulum, as in fig. 68, though the weights A and B be equal, yet by their moving in different arcs, viz. with different - velocities, their forces or momentums become actually une . equal ; therefore in order to find the point where the forces balance each other, fo that when an obttacle is oppofed to that point, the moving pendulum may be effectually ftopped, and CENTER. and no part of it may preponderate, in which eafe the ob- ftacle will receive the greatelt impreffion ; we mutt find firft the momentums of the two bodies A and B, then the dif- tances of thofe bodies from the center of percuffion, or cf equal forces, muft be inverfely as thofe momentums. Thus the velocities of A and B are reprefented by the fimilar ° arcs which they defcribe, and thofe arcs are as the radii SA, SB.. Therefore the momentum of A is the produét of its quantity of matter multiplied by S A, and the momen- tum of Bis the produét of its quantity of matter multiplied by SB; confequently AD mult be to BD, as the weight of B multiplied by S B is to the weight of A multiplied by AS.. Then D is the center of percuffion. sAnd fince, when four quantities are proportional, the product of the two extremes is equal to the produ& of the two means ; therefore if the weight of A multiplied by AS, be again multiplied by AD, the produét mutt be equal to the pro- duc of the weight of B multiplied by BS, and again multi- plied by BD. Cenrer of percuffion, laws of the.—t. The center of per- cuftion_is the fume with the center of ofeillation, where the pereutient body revolves round a fixed point; and is de- termined in the fame manner, viz. by confidering the 1m- petus of the parts, as fo many weights applied to an in- flexible right line, void of gravity; i.e. by dividing the fum of the products of the forces of the parts, multiplied by their diftances from the point of fufpention, by the fm of the forces. What, therefore, has been above fhewn of the center of ofcillation, will hold of the center of percufion, where the percutient body moves round a fixed point: e.g. that the center of percuffion in a cylinder is at 2 of its length from the point of fufpenfion; ‘or that a ick of a cylindrical figure, fuppofing the center cf motion at the hand, will ftrike the greateft blow at a point about two-thirds of its length from the hand. See Center of ofcillation. . 2. The center of percuffion is the fame wilh the center of gravity, if all the parts of the percutient body be carried with a parallel motion, or with the fame celerity : for the momenta are the produéts of the weights into the celerities. Wherefore, to multiply equiponderating bodies by the {ame velocity, is the fame thmg as to take equimultiples ; bot the equimultiples of equiponderating bodies themfelves equiponderate ; therefore, equivalent momenta are difpofed about the center of gravity: confequently the center of percuffion in this cafe coincides with that of gravity ; and what is fhewn of the one, will hold of the other. To find the center of percuffion of a body. Let ABD (fiz. 69-) be a plane pafling through the center of gravity G of the body, and perpendicular to the axis of fufpenfion which paffes through C ; and conceive the whole body to be projected upon this plane in lines perpendicular to it, or parallel to the axis: then, as each particle is thus kept at the fame diftance from the axis, the effe&, from the rota- tory motion about the axis, will not be altered, nor will the center of gravity be changed. Let O be the center of percuffion, and draw pnw perpendicular to pC, and Ow perpendicular to pw; allo pu perpendicular to Cn. As the velocity of any particle p is as pC, the momentum of p in the direction p w isas p X pC, it being as the velocity and quantity of matter conjointly ; and by the property of the lever, the efficacy of this force to turn the body about O is asp x pC x Ow = (becaufe On: Ow:: pC: vC) px vl x On = p x VW xCO—Cn =p x ve x CO- px vl x Ca = (as Ca: Cp z: Cp: vC) p x wl X CO — px Cp. Now that the efficacy of all the particles to turn the body about O may be = 6, we mu'‘t make the fum of all the quantities p x oC x CO — of gravity. Although the body by ftriking at O may have no. tendency to move in the p/ane of its previous motion, and tnis only is included in the common detnition here adopted, yet ic may have a tendency to revolve about AO, If therefore the center of percuffion were defined to be that point where the zw/a/e motion would be deftroyed, we muft find the plane parallel to ABD, fuch that the fum of all the forces to turn the body about the line joining the center of perenffion and the axis cf vibration in that plane, is alfo But this is a problem of more difficult folution. As the force a€ting at O deltroys the motion, lect us fuppofe a force to aét at O and to generate the motion back again; then it is manitsit, that the body would éegin to return under all the fame circumftances in which its motion ceafed; that is, it would degin its motion by revolving about C. In this cafe C iscalled the center of /pontancous rotation; makin therefore the poiat at which a force ats upon a body that can move freely the center of percuffion, the center of {pontancous rotation coincides with the center of rotation correiponding to that center of percuffion, Vince’s Prin- ciples of Fiuxtons, p.1c2. Parkinfon’s Syftem of Me- chanics, &c. p. 194. Crntea of a@ parallelogram, the point wherein its diago- nals interfeét. CENTER of pofition, denotes a point of any body, or fyftem of bodies, fo feleéted, that we may properly eftimate the fituation and motion of the body or fyftem by thofe of this point. It is evident that, in mechanical difcuffions, the point, by the pofition of which we eftimate the pofition and diftance of the whole, mult be fo determined, that its pofition and diftance, eftimated in any direction whatever, fhall be the average of the pofitions.and diltances of every particle of the mais, eltimated in the fame dire€tion. Ac- cordingly this will be the cafe, if the point be fo fele&ed that, a a plane is made to pafs through it in any direce tion cohatever, and perpendiculars are drawn to this plane from every particle in the body or fyftem, the fum of all the perpendiculars on one fide of this plane is equal te the fum of all the perpendiculars on the other fide. If there be fuch 4 point in the body, the pofition and motion of this point are the average of the pofitions and motions of all the particles. For if P (Plate 1X. Afechanics, fig. 70.) be a point fo fituated, and if Q R be a plane (perpendicu- lar to the paper) at any diftance from it, the diftance Pp of the point from this plane is the average of the diftances of all the particles from it. For let the plane A P B be paffed through P, parallel to QR. The diltance C S of any par- ticle C from the plane Q R is equal to DS—DC, orto Pp—DC. And the ditance G'T of any particle G, lying on the other fide of A PB, is equal to HT + GH, or to #2 4+ GH. Let abe the number of particles on that fide of A B which is neareft to Q R, -and let o be the number of thofe on the remote fide of A B, and let m be the num- ber of particles in the whole body, and therefore equal to n+o. Itis evident that the fum of the diftances of all the particles, fuch as C, is 2 times P9, after deduing all the diftances, fuch as DC. Alfo the fum of all the dif- tances of the particles, fuch as G, is o times Pp, together with the fum of all the diftances, fuch as GH. There- fore the fum of both fets is n+ o x Pp + fum of GH — fum of DC, orm x Pp x fum of G H—fum of DC. But the fum of GH, wanting the fum of DC, 1s nonves y mane C E N-TgeE R. by the fuppofed property of the point P. Therefore m x Pp is the fum of all the diftances, and Pp is the mth part of this fum, or the average diltance. Now fuppofe that the body has changed both its place and its polition with refpeét to the plane QR, and that P (fig. 71.) 18 {till the fame point of the body, and a P Ba plane parallel to Q R. Make p = equal to pP of fig. 70. It is plain that Pp is ftill the average diftance, and that m x Pp is the fum of all the prefent diftances of the particles . from QR, and that m x x pis the fum of all the former diftances. Therefore m x Px is the fum of all the changes of diftance, or the whole quantity of motion elli- mated in the direGtion = P. Pris the mth part of this fum, and is therefore the average motion in this direction, The point P has therefore been properly {elected ; and its pofition, and diftance, and motion, in refpeét of any plane, is a pro- per reprefentation of the fituation and motion of the whole. It follows from the preceding difeuffion, that if any par- ticle C (fig. 70.) moves from C to N, in the line C'S, the centre of the whole will be transferred from P to Q, fo that PQ isthe mth part of CN; for the fum of all the diftances has been diminifhed by the quantity CN, and therefore the average diftance muft be diminifhed by the mth part of CN, N orPQis= ot: m But it may be doubted whether there is in every body a point, and but one point, fuch that if a plane pafs through It, in any dircdion whatever, the fum of all the diltances of the particles on one fide of this plane is equal to the fum of all the diflances on the other. It is eafy to thew that fuch a point may be found, with refpe&t to a plane parallel to Q R. For if the fum of all the diftances D C exceed the fum of all the diftances G H, we have only to pafs the plane A B a little nearer to Q R, but {till parallel to it. This will diminifly the fum of the lines DC, and increafe the fum of the lines GH. We may do this till the fums are equal. In like manner we can do this with refpeé& to a plane L M (alfo perpendicular to the paper), perpend‘cular to the plane AB. ‘The point wanted is fomewhere in the ptane A.B, and fomewhere in the plane LM. Therefore it is fomewhere in the line in which thefe two planes interfcét each other, This line paffes through the point P of the paper where the two lines A Band LM cut each other. hefe two lines reprefent planes, but are, in faét, only the inter- feétion of thofe planes with the plane of the paper. Part of the body muft be conceived as being above the paper, and part of it behind or below the paper. The plane of the paper therefore divides the body iuto two parts. It may be fo fituated, therefore, that the fum of all the diftances trom it to the particles lying above it fhall be equal to the fum of all the diitances of thofe which are below it. Therefore the fituation of the point P is now determined, namely, at the * common interfeétion of three planes perpendicular to each other. It is evident that this point alone can have the con- dition required in ref{pect of thefe three plancs. But it ftill remains to be determined whether the fame condition will hold true for the point thus found, in refpect to any other plane paffing through it; that is, whether the fum of all the perpendiculars on one fide of this fourth plane is equal to the fum of all the perpendiculars on the other fide. Ther:fore Let AGH B (fg. 72.), AX YB, and CDIE, be three planes interfeciting each other perpendicularly in the point C, and let CI KL be any other plane, interfeting the firft in the line CI, and the fecond in the line CL. Let P be any particle of matter in the body or fyftem. Vou. VII, Draw PM, PO, PR. perpendicnlar to the firft three planes refpectively, and let PR, when produced, meet the oblique plane in V; draw MN, ON, perpendicular to CB. They will meet in one poit N. Tren PMN O isa rec- tangular parallelogram. Alfo draw M Q_ perpendicular to C&L, and therefore parallel to A B, and meeting Clin S. Draw SV; alfo draw ST perpendicular to VP. It is evident that S V is parallel to CL, and that ST RQ and ST PM are rectangles. All the perpendiculars, fuch as P R, on one fide of the plane CD FE, being equal to all thofeon the other fide, they may be confidered as compenfating each oiher ; the one being confidered as pofitive or additive quantities, the other as negative or fubtractive. There is no difference between their fums, and the fum of both fets may be called oor nothing. ‘The fame mult be affirmed of all the per- pendiculars P M, and of all the perpendiculars PO. Every line, fuch as R'T, or its equal QS, is in a cer- tain invariable ratio to its correfponding QC, or its equal PO. Therefore the pofitive lines R 'T are compenfated by the negative, and the fum total is nothing. Every line, fuch as TV, is in a certain invariable ratio to its correfponding S'T, or its equal P M, and therefore their {um total is nothing. Therefore the fum of all the lines PV is nothing ; but each is in an invariable ratio to a correfponding perpendi- cular from Pon the oblique plane CI KL. Therefore the fum of all the pofitive perpendiculars on this plane is equal to the fum of all the negative perpendiculars, and the propofition is demonftrated, viz. that in every body, or fyftem of bodies, there is a point fuch, that if a plane be paffed through it in any diredion whatever, the fum of all the perpendiculars on one fide of the plane is equal to the fum of all the perpendiculars on the other fide. The point P, thus feleGted, may, with great propriety, be called the center of pofition of the body or fy{tem. If A and B (fg. 73.) be the centers of pofition of two bodies, whofe qvantities of matter (or numbers of equal particles) are a and 4, the center C lies in the ftraight line joinirg A and B, and AC: CB =32: 4, or its diftance from the centers of each are inverfely as their quantities of matter. For let «Cf be any plane paffing through C. Draw Az, BB, perpendicular to this plane. Then we havea xX Ax = bx BB, and Aw: BB = b: a, and, by fimilarity of triangles, CA: CB =34: a. If a third body D, whofe quantity of matter is d, be added, the common center of polition E of the three bodies is in the ttraight Ime DC, joining the center 1) of the third body with the center C of the other two, and DE : EC=a+:d. For paffing the plane ?Ex through E, and drawing the perpendiculars D3, Cx, the fum of the perpendiculars from D is d x D0; and the fum of the perpendiculars from A and B is a + 4 x Cx, and we have dx D3=a+6x Cx; and therefore DE: EC = at+b:d. In like manner, if a fourth body be added, the com- mon center is in the line joining the fourth with the center of the other three, and its diftance from this center and from the fourth is inverfely as the quantities of matter; and fo on for any number of bodies. If all the particles of any fyftem be moying uniformly, in ftraight lines, in any directions, and with any velocities whatever, the center of the fyftem is either moving uni- formly in a ftraight line, or is at reft. For, let m be the number of particles in the fyftcm. Suppofe any particle to move uniformly in any dire¢tion. It is evident from the reafoning in a former paragraph, that Ll the CEON OT Ey aR, the motion of the common center is the mth part of this mo- tion, and isin the fame direction. The fame muft be faid of every particle. Therefore the motion of the center ts the motion which is compounded of the mth part of the motion of each particle. And becaufe each of thefe was {uppofed to be uniform and reétilineal, the motion com- pounded of them all is alfo uniform and reGtilineal; or it may happen that they will fo compenfate cach other that there will be no diagonal, and the common center will re- main at relt. Cor. 1. If the centers of any number of bodies move uniformly in ftraight lines, whatever may have been the motions of each particle of each body, by rotation or other- wife, the motion of the common center will be uniform and reCtilineal. Cor. 2. The quantity of motion of fuch a fyftem is the fum of the quantities of motion of each body, reduced to the direGtion of the center’s motion. And it is had by multiplying the quantity of matter in the fyitem by the velocity of the center. ; The velocity of the center is had by reducing the motion of each particle to the direétion of the center’s motion, and then dividing the fum of thofe reduced motions by the quantity of matter in the fyltem. ; By the feleétion of this point, we render the inveftiga- tion of the motions and actions of bodies incomparably more fimple and cafy, freeing our difcuffions from number- lefs intricate complications of motion, which would fre- quently make our progres almoft impoffible. That there is in every body fuch a point has been demonftrated in the manner above flated by Dr. Robifon (after Bofcovich) in his Elernents of Mechanical Philofophy, &c. Svo. 1804, Pee a, Center of prefiure, in Hydraulics, is that point of a fur- face, againft which any fluid preffes, in which the whole preffure may be conceived to be united; or, as Mr. Cotes has defined it, it is that point, to which, if the total preffure on any plane were applied, its effet upon the plane would be the fame as when it was diftributed unequally over, the whole; or again, it is that point to which, if a force were applied, equal to the total preffure, but with a contrary ¢i- rection, it would exaétly balance or reftrain the effect of the preflure, and keep the furface at ref. “Thus if ad cd ( Piate IX. Mechanics, fig. 74.) bea veficl of water, and the fide ae be prefled upon with a force equivalent to 20 pounds of water, this force is unequally diltributed over ac; for the parts near a being at a lefler depth, are lefs preffed upon than the parts near c, which are at a greater depth, and therefore the efforts of all the particular preffures are united in fome poirt as =, Which is nearer toc than to a, and that point 2 is what may becailed'the centre of preflure. If to that point a force equivalent to 20 pounds weight be applied, it will af- fe& the plane ac in the fame manner as betore by the pref- fure of the water diitributed unequally over the whole ; and if to this fume point we apply the fame force with a contrary dire@ion to that of the preflure of the water, the force and preffure will balance each other, and by contrary endeavours deftroy each other’s ef- feds. Suppofe at x a cord xp w were fixed, which paffing over the pulley, , has a weight, 2, of 20 pounds annexed to it, and that the part of the cord z p were perpendicular to ac; the effort of the weight w is equal, and its direCtion contrary to that of the preffure of the water. Now if x be the center of preffure; thefe two powers will be in equilibrio, and mutually defeat each other’s endeavours. To find the center of preffure of a plane furface. Let ABCD (fg. 75.) be the furface of the fluid, V W the plane, in which produced, let ¢d be its interfeGion with the furface, P the center of preffure, and G the cen- ter of gravity ; and conceive the whole plane te be divided into an indefinite number of indefinitely {mall parts, of which one is x; draw PQ, Gg, x, perpendicular to the furface, and Pa, Gu, xm, perpendicular to ¢d; and join Qa gn, vm: then it is manifeft that the triangles PQ a, Gagan, x vm, are fimilar. Now the preffure on x perpendi- cular to VW is as x x xv (being as the particle or number of particles x the depth); and its effe& to turn the plane about cd is asx xX xv x xm but, by fimilar triangles, G Gai Gg: xminxe = em x ae hence the effet of n the preffure at x to turn the plane about cdis as» x xm (@ or x oe ; therefore the whole effe& is as the fum of all the xsi x xX xm x Ge But if A = the area of V W, the pref- n fure on V W is as A x Gg; therefore the effe& of that preflure at P to turn the plane about cdisas A x Gg x Pa. Hence A x Gg x Pa= the fum of all the x x Cele: ; __ Sum of all the x x xm am Xiao Confequently Pa = oS ea < Hence it appears, that P is at the fame diitance from cd as the center of percuffion is, cd being the axis of fufpenfion. They do not, however, in general Jie in the fame line, that is, in the line x G3; for the efficacy of the preflure at x, to turn the plane about 2G, is asx x xv X mn, or (fince xv variesas xm) asx X xm x mn; but the fum of all the x xX xm X mnis not generally = 0; therefore the whole preffure will not neceflarily balance itfelf upon the line Gn. The fitnation of the line a P mutt therefore be deter- mined, by making the fum of all the x x xm x mn= 0. The centers of preflure and percuffion do not therefore in ge- neral coincide, taking the center of percuffion in its ufual ac- ceptation.. Obf. ‘The center of percuffion has always been defined to be that point in the line # G at which all the mo- tion of the body would be deltroyed, eltimating the motion of the body about the line cd; and the computations have! been always made upon this principle. But the body, after its action againft that center, may fil have a tendency to turn about the line» G. If, therefore, we were to define the center of percuffion to be that point at which the whole motion of the body would be deftreycd, the centers of pref- fure and percuffion would uot, in general, coincide; in which cafe, the pofition of the lise Ap muil be computed on the xbove principle. Cetes’s Hydrollatical and Pneumatical Le&tures, p.4o, Xc. Wince’s Priacipies of Hydroftatics, 20. Center of a regular polygen, or regular body, is the fame as that of the infcribed or cireumferibed circle or fphere. CENTER of rotation, is that point about which a bodys otherwife at liberty, revolves cr tends to revolve, whem it is aéted upon unequally at different points, or by a force the dire&tion of which does not pafs through its center of gra- | vity. M.I. Bernouilli was the firlt who publifhed any thing on this fubje& ; and he firft found the point about which a body at reit would begin to revolve, when {truck by another body, and he called this point the ** {pontaneous cénter of ro- tation,” to diftinguifh it from the center of forced rotation. — He obferves, however, that D. Bernouilli had difcovered the — fame: he has alfo mentioned the curve defcribed by that point 7 $n the progreffive motion of the body, and has dire€ted a method of inquiry by which the velocities of the bodies may be found after the ftroke. ‘Two years afterwards D. Bernouilli publifhed a paper on progreffive and rotatory mo- tion, containing nothing more than what I. Bernouilli had | before given. Euler has_alfo -inveftigated the velocities of 7 ‘the . 6 CEN Te R. the bodics after impaét in a manner fomewhat different, but he has rendered it much more intricate by a fluxional calcu- lus. Mr. Vince has treated this fubje¢t much at large and with great perfpicuity in the Philofophical Tranfa€tions, vol. Ixx. (for 1780) p. 546,,&c. He begins with the moft fim- ple cafes, and then proceeds to thofe that are more compli- cated ; and he comprehends the whole in a variety of dif- in@ propofitions. ‘ 1. Tea. and B (PIX. Mechanics, fig. 76.) be two inde- finitely fmall bodies conne@ed by a lever void of gravity ; and | Suppofe a force to a@ at any point D perpendicularly to the lever 3 and it be weike to find the point about which the ies will begin to revolve. os the Epety of the lever, the effort of the force a&- ing at D on the body is to the efle& on B:: BD : AD; and therefore the ratio of the {paces Am, Bu, defcribed by the bodies A and B inthe firltinftant of their motion will be as = : = join mn, and produce it if neceffary, and alfo AB to meet in C, and this will be the point about which the bodies begin to revolve. Hence from fimilar figures BD BC: AC: = (Bn) = (Alm) 2 Ae RANDY Brg ; —DB.: AD + DG :A\yx AD: B x BD; or DC iia eee BD; and confequently De = -eeep = Ax AD; and therefore D is the center of percuffion or ofcillation to the point of fufpenfion C. Hence, whatever be the magni- tude of the ftroke at D, the point C will remain the fame. Moreover, if the force acts at the center of gravity, G, the bodies will have no circular motion; for in this cafe B x BD --A x AD = 0; and therefore DC becomes infi- nite. Further, if the force acts at one of the bodies, the center of rotation, C, will coincide with the other body. Alfo, if the lever had been in motion before the ftroke, the point C, at the inftant of the ftroke, would not have been difturbed. d 2. Let a given quantity of motion be communicated to the lever at D, to determine the velocity of the center of gravity, G. The ae andCG=CD —DG=CD — A CA D3 Bx Ba? Poi weamokDauiseD,. PE VED SEG Aw AD WAG, alffo CA = Bx BD—Ax AD fpace Am is as A x AD? + B x BD: = ee Se DA = OD.+DA =a aD B x BD x AB B x BD x AB hence we bere BD A ScAD Bx BD x GB+A x AD BxBD-—A Bx BD—AxAD’ D (AC)": = (mA) :: x AG Bx BDxGB+A x AD x AG Ape Ax Bx AB or Gw, the velocity of the center of gravity ; hence if the motion be communicated’ at G, the velocity becomes as Bx GB*+ A’ x AG? ‘ AUX Bs XeeB Let the motion, fuppofed to be atually communi- tated to the rod at D, be equivalent to the motion of a body whofe magnitude is G, and moving with ‘a velocity v; then, if that motion be communicated _ at G, the velocity of the center of gravity is well known Gxuw Pose Oo 2 x AGS BOX Bo A B Bx BD x BG+AxA Bix AG AxBxAB aaa ,-Exv, oe . Gxuvy Bx BG x BD+AxADx AG_ Ap Bx BG?+AxAG@ > the velocity of the center of gravity, when the fame motion is aétually communicated to any point D. Now BD = BG + GD, and AD = AG—GD; hence B x BE x BD+AxAD x AG = Bx BG*+-A x AG + GDx Bx BG Ax AG = (becaufe Bx BG—Ax AG=o)B x BG’+A x AG; xv A+B the center of gravity moves with the fame velocity, wherever the motion is communicated. 3. Let a given elaflic body P, moving with a given velocity, be fuppofed to trike the lever at the point D, in a dire&ion per- pendicular to tt ; and it be required to determine the velocity of the center of gravity G after the Sfiroke. Suppofe, firft, the body to be non-elattic, and let v be the velocity of the cen- ter of gravity after the ftroke, and V the velocity of the ftriking body: thnCG:CD:: 0: ox locity of the point D, after the ftroke, or of the body P; vx CA vx CB CG CG ties of A and B refpeétively. Now, becaufe in revolving bodies, the momenta arifing from the magnitude of the bo- dies, their diftance from the center of rotation and velocity conjointly, remain the fame after the ftroke as before, we confequently, the velocity becomes ; and hence = the ve- for the fame reafon and equal the veloci- fhall have Px V x DC = at “xe A us ae a xB and therefore oes x VOX re Ces eS Pp ne ae ee Px Ves OG £56 + BXBO 4A + B &.€ GP ope hence if P be fuppofed’ an elattic body, we fhall have BIO RAEV XC ie A+BxCG+PxDC ter of gravity after the itroke, in ip/o motits initio. 4. Let a motion be communicated to the lever obliquely, and it be required to determine the point about which the bodies begin to revolve. Let F D (fig. 77.) reprefent the force communi- cating the motion at the point D, and refolye it into two others, FH, HD, the former F H parallel to the lever, and the latter H D -perpendicular to it. Let C be the point about which the bodies would have begun to revolve, if the force HD alone had aé@ed, which may be found by Art. 1; and fuppofe in this cafe mg to have been the next pofition of the lever after the commencement of the motion, or that the bodies A, B, and center of gravity G, had been carried to m, g, and n, refpeétively. But as the force F H aéts at the point D at the fame time in the direction of the rod, if we take Gg: Gg as FH: HD, then whilft the center of gravity would have moved from G tog in confequence of the force H.D, it will by means of the force FH. be carried in the direGion of the lever from G to Q and alfo every other poitit of the lever will be carried in the fame direG&tion with the fame velocity ; take there- fore Ap and Br each equal to Gq, and complete ‘the’ pa- rallelograms Az, Gw and Bd, and the bodies A, B, and center of gravity G will, at the end of that time, be found at a, 4, and w refpeGtively, and aah will be-the pofition of the lever. Now it is evident, that C is not the point about which the bodies begin to revolve, for Liz (confidering for the velocity of the cen- CENTER. (confidering the lever to be produced to C) that point mult have moved over a fpace Ce equal to Gg, when the lever is come into the pofition aw. draw CO perpendi- cular toC B, and G O perpendicular to Gw, and O will be the center of rotation at the commencement of the mo- tion. For conceive CO to be a lever, then the lever A BC has a circular motion about C, whillt that point is mov- ing from C toc, and confequently the pont O ts carried forward in a direétion parallel to Ce by this motion; but as the lever CO is carried by a circular motion about C in a contrary direction, it is evident that that point of the lever CO muit be at reft where thefe two motions are equal, as they are in contrary direétions. Now the ve- locity of C in the direGion Ce : velocity of G about C :: G7: Gg: (by fim. triang.) CO: CG, and the velocity of the point G about C: velocity of the point O about C::CG: CO; hence ex eguo the velocity of C in the direction of Cc, or of O in the diregtion O P parailel to Cc, is equal to the velocity of the fame point O in a contrary direction arifing from its rotation about C, and confe- _ quently O being a point at reft, muft be the center of ro- tation in ipfo motils initio, Alfo, becaufe ma is equal and parallel to 2d, a& muft be equal and parallel to man, therefore the angular velocity is jut the fame as if the force FH had not acted. The center O of rotation at the be- ginning of the motion being thus determined, every thing relative to the motion of the bodies, after they are at liberty to remove freely, may be determined as in the preceding propofitions. - Cor. 1. Hence it appears, that whatever be the magni- tude or direction of the force communicating the motion, or the point at which it a@&s, the center of gravity will move in a line parallel to the direétion of the force, for the triangles FH D, Gq w being fimilar, Gev muft be parallel to FD. Cor. 2. The fame is manifeftly true for any number of bodies; for let (fig. 78.) E be a third body, and conceive it to be cenneéted with the other two bodies A and B in their center of gravity G; then if F D reprefents the force ating at the point D, it is evident from the lait Corol, and the fecond Prop. that the center of gravity moves with the fame velocity and in the fame direCtion, as if the fame motion had been communicated at G ina line RG parallel to FD, and that the center of gravity has the fame velocity comnminicated to it, as if the two bodies had been placed at G; conceive therefore the bodies A and B to be placed at G, and let the force a&t at D, and then from the lait Corol. the center of gravity g, of the three bodies, will move in a line parallel to the direction of the force communicated. In the fame manner it may be proved for any number of bodies. The method here ufed for determining the point of rota- tion in ipfo motis initio, when a fingle force acts at any point D, may be applied, when any number of forces act at different points at the fame time. For let (jig. 76.) a, 8, y, &c. reprefent the forces acting on the lever at the points D, E, F, refpeétively, &c. then from the fame prin- ciples the effect of all the forces on A: the effect on B:: a B Y 3 % DA aD VRE Ar opp pe Bee &c. which quantities put equal to Pand Q refpeétively, and then AiB* Am: Ba:: AC: BC, from whence it appears, that (putting GC + GA = AC and GC ~ GB = BG) thediftane GO= SX 2~ACH Bx Px BG. | ne Ae OF The fame conclufion might fave been deduced from this confideration; that if any number of forces act on a lever, the effeét on any point of that lever is jult the fame as if a force, equivalent to the fur of thefe forces, had aéted at their common center of gravity ; find therefore their common center of gravity, and conceive a force equiyalent to them all to be communicated to that point, and the problem is reduced to the cafe of the firft propofition. If any of the forces had ated on the oppo- fite fide of the lever, fuch forces mu!t have been confidered as negative. If there be any number of bodies placed on the lever, and a fingle force acts at D, it will appear from the fame principles that the point C, about which they begin to re- volve, will be the point of fufpenfion to the center of per- cuffion D ; and the fame conelufion will be obtained, if the bodies be not fituated in a itraight line. 5. If a force a&s upon a body in any given dire@ion not paff- ing through the center of gravity ; to determine the plane of ro- tation, the diredion in cwhich the center of gravity Legins to move, and its motion after. Conceive a plane Ay BZ (fg. 79.) to be fupported upon a line A B paffing through its center of gravity G, and fuppofe a force to act at any point D in that line, and in a dire@ion perpendicular to the plane; then it is manifeit, that fuch a force can give the plane no rotatory motion about A B. Imagine now the fupport to be taken away whilft the force is a¢ting at D, then it is evident, that as the plane had no tendency to move about A B as an axis, and the taking away of the fupport can give it no fuch motion, it will, by Cor. 2. Art. 4. begin its pro- greffive motion in the direction in which the force ads ; and as the force is fuppofed not to a&t at the center of gra- vity, it muft at the fame time have a rotatory motion about fome axis, which, asit has no motion about A B, mutt lie fomewhere in the plane, and perpendicular to AB; and confequently in ipfo motis initio the plane of rotation muft be perpendicular to the plane Ay BZ. Let LCM, per- pendicular to AB, be the axis about which the plane be- gins to revolve, and p, g be two equal particles of the plane fimilarly tituated in refpeét to A B, alfo 74, pa per- pendicular to LCM. Now the centrifugal force of g, or its force in the direGion ap is p x ap, and that of g in the direGtion bg is g x bq; to determine now how thefe forces will affe& the motion of the plane, we may obferve, in the firit place, that the force p x af, acting at a in the plane, mutt tend to give it a motion about an axis perpendicular to the plane; but as an equal forceg x gb ads at gto give it a motion in a contrary direétion, it is evideut that the two forces will deftroy each other, fo far as they tend to generate any motion in the plane about an axis perpendi- cular to it; and hence it is manifeft, that if the parts of the plane Ay B, A ZB, be fimilar, and fimilarly fituated in refpe& to AB, the plane, after the commencement of the motion, will have no tendency to revolve about an axis per- pendicular to it. Alfo, as the centrifugal force of each particle a&s in a direétion parallel to A B, it can give the plane no tendency to revolve about that line as an axis, and confequently the plane of rotation will be preferved as in ipfo motis initio. Conceiving therefore the plane on each fide the line A B to be fimilar, and fimilarly fituated, fup- pofe another plane to be fixed upon this, whofe parts of each fide A B are fimilar, and iimilarly fituated, and the force to aét as before, then it is manifeft, that as each plane endeavours to preferve the fame plane of rotation, the two. CEN two planes conneéted will aifo continue to move in the fame plane of rotation, for the aftion of one plane on ano- ther, on each fide the plane of rotation, being equal, car- not tend to dilturb the motion in that plane ; and as this muft be true for any number of planes thus fimilar and fimilariy fituated, it 1s evident, that if a force fhould a@ wpon a body, and each fection, perpendicular to the direc- tion of the force, fhould be fimilar on each fide the plane pafling through the direétion of the force, and the center of gravity of the body, that that plane would be the plane of rotation in which the body would both begin and continue its motion. It appears allo, from what has been proved, that if every feGion on each fide that plane had not been fimilar, the plane of rotation would not seceffarily have continued the fame after the commencement or the motion. Hence all bodies, formed by the revolution of any plane figure, will have the axis about which they were generated, a fixed axis of rotation; to determine, however, every other axis of a body about which it would continue to revolve, would be foreign to the prefent fubjeét. Suppofing therefore the plane of rotation to coztinue the fame, imayine all the particles of the body to be re- ferred to that plane orthographically, which fuppolition not affecting the angular motion of the body, the centri- fugal force of all the particles, to caufe the body to revolve about an axis perpendicular to that plane, will remain unal- tered. Let LMNO (jg. 80.) be that plane, and fup- pofe a force to aét at A in the direGtion PA lying in the fame plane, which produce until it meets LN, paffing through the center of gravity G, perpendicularly in D; then by Cor. 2. Art. 4. the center of gravity G will begin it? motion in a line parallel to PA, or perpendicular to LN; and confequently the center C, about which the body begins to revolve, muft te fomewhere in the line LN. Now the centrifugal force of any particle p is p x pes let fall ga perpendicular to LN, then the effect of that force at C, ina direction perpendicular to LN, will be p x pa, and in the direQion CL it will be p x Ca; but as the fum of all the quantities p x pa = O. and the fum of all the quantities p x Ca =the body multiplied into C G, it follows from the fame reafoning as in Art. 3. that the point G will continue to move in a direétion perpendicular to LN; and alfo, as the forces p x Ca aét ina direction perpendicular to that in which the center of gravity moves, its motion muft be continued uniform. In the following propotition, therefore, we fuppofe the axis of the body, after the commencement of the motion, to continue perpen- dicular to the piane paffing through the direétion of the force and the center of gravity of the body, and that the body itfelf is orthographically projected upon that plane ; alfo in the cafe of the aétion of two bodies on each other, the plane paffing through the direCtion of the ttriking body and point of percuffion is fuppofed to pafs through the centers of gravity of each body; that the axis of each body after it is {truck continues perpendicular to that plane, and that each body is reduced to it in the manner above defcribed. 6. To determine the point about which a body, when flruck, begins to revolve. Let LMNO (fg. 80.) reprefent the body, G the center of gravity, and P A the diredtion of the farce acting at A, which produce till it meets LN, paffing through G, perpendicularly in the point D; draw fh perpendicular to pc, on which (produced if neceflary ) et fall the perpendicular Dw ; C being fuppofed the point about which the body begins to revolve, and which, from the laft propofition, is fomewhere in the line LN. Be- caule the body, in confequence of the force aéting at p> begins to revolve about C, and confequently if immediatly GEN after the beginning of the motion a force were applied at D equal to it, and in a contrary direction, the motion of the body would be deltroyed, itis evident, that the efficacy of the body revolving about C, to turn the body about D, fhould any cbftacle be oppofed to its motion at that point, muft be equal to nothing; for were it not, the body, when {topped at D, would {till have a rotatory motion about that point, and confequently two equal and oppofite forces applied at D would not deftroy each other’s ctle€ts, which would be abfurd. Now the force of a particle p, in the direction pw, being p x PC, its efficacy to turn the body about the peint D is x pC x Dw; but by fim. triang. Dw: Db:: aC: pC,... Dw = — = ly the efficacy to turn the body about D =p x Db x aC = p x Ca x DC— Ch. =p x.0a x DC = px pC’; hence the fum of all the p x Ca x DC — the fum of all the p x PC? =o, and confequently CD = fum of all the p x PC? {um of ail the p x Ca , cuMion, the point of fufpenfion being at C. For further particulars relating to this fubje@, fee Vince’s paper above referred to. See alfo Parkinfon’s Syltem of Mechanics, &c. p. 187, et feq. Tor an account of the polition of the center of rotation, and the changes to which the angle cf rotation is fubject in the theory of working fhips; fee the Elements. and Practice of Rigging and Seamanthip, Vol. ii. p. 249, &c. Center of a /phere is a point from which all the lines drawn to the furlace are equal. The centre of the femicircle, by. whofe revolution. the {phere is generated, is alfo that of the fphere. See SpHere. Hermes Trifmegittus defines God an intelle€tual fphere, whofe center is every-where, and circumference no-where. Center divifion, column, or fquadron of a fleet, that which 1s under the immediate orders of the commander in chief, or admiral of the fleet ; and its pofition is between the van and the rear divifions, which are under the command of their refpective admirals. The fhips of each divifion are dif- tinguifhed by the pofition of their colours ; thofe of the firft or center fquadron carry their pendant at the main-top-gal- lant-malt head: the fhips of the fecond divilion carry their pendants at the fore-top gallant-mait head ; and thofe of the third divifion at the mizen-top-matt head. Each fquadron ought, as nearly as poffible, to confift of the fame number of fhips, and to be of the fame force, in order that each may be equally able to attack, or repulfe the enemy, and when in a line, the feveral parts will be equally ftrong. When the fleet is very numerous, each fquadron is fometimes divided in a fimilar manner into three divifions of center, van, and rear. The term is alfo applied to that column in the order of failing, which is between the weather and the lee columns. Center-cheel of a watch. See Watcn-work. CENTERING, in Carpentry. See Center.in Archi te@ure. CenTERING ofan optic glafs, the grinding it foas that the thicke(t part is exa€tly in the middle. M. Caffini the younger has a difcourfe exprefs on the ne- ceflity of well centering the object glafs of a large telefcope, that is, of grinding them fo, that the center may fall exaétly in the axis of the telefcope. Mem. Acad. Se. an. 1710, p. 299, feq. One of the greateft difficulties in grinding large optic glaffes is, that in figures fo little convex, the lealt difference wilh put the center two or three inches out ofthe middle.. Dr. Hook notes, that though it were. better the thickelt 2 part , and confequent- therefore D is the center of per- €:EUN part of a long objec glafs were exaétly in the middle, yet it may be a very good one when it is an inch or two out of it. Phil Tranf. N° 4. p. 57. Id. ibid. p. 64. feq. See O- ject gla/s. CENTESIMA afura, in Roman Antiquity, that wherein the intereft in an hundred months became equal to the prin- cipal ; i.e. where the money is laid out at one per cent. per month, anfwering to what in our flile would be called 12 per cent. for the Romans reckoned their intereft not by the ear, but by the month. CENTESIMUM, in Ancient Geography, a place of Italy, in Umbria, S.W. of Nuceria. Its name indicates its dif- tance from Rome. CENTESIMATION, in Ancient ‘Military Hiflory, a punifhment reforted to in cafes of mutiny, defertion or the like, by which every one hundredth man only was executed or punifhed with death. CENTESM, the tooth part of any thing. CENTGRAVIUS, in Middle Age Writers, the fame with CENTENARIUS, CENTIARE, in French Superficial Meafure, 100 fquare metres, or 948.31 fquarefeet. See Measure. CENTIBAR, in French Meafures of Capacity, the hun- dredth part of a dar, called alfo decal, containing 10 cubic decimetres’of water, and weighing 20.444 French pounds. See Measure. CENTICADE, or a buhhel,.10 cubic decimetres, or 104 Paris pints, or .789 Parisbufhel. See Measure. CENTIGRAVE, or dram, the hundredth part of a Grave, weighing 2 gros, 44.41 grains. A piece of filver coin weighing a centigrave, isdenominated a Franc of filver, and, according to the former itandard, will be worth 40 fols i102 deniers. CENTIGRAVET, contains .ocoor cubic decimetre, and weighs 0.18841 grain. CENTILOQUIUM, from centum, a hundred, and loquor, T fpeak, denotes a colle&tion of an hundred fentences, opi- nions, or fayings. CENTIME, in French Money, the hundredth part of a livre. See Money. CENTIMETRE, in French long Meafure, is the hun- dredth part of a metre or 4.434 lines. A cubic centimetre of water is named a Gravet or Matlle, and weighs 18.841 rains. CENTINEL or Ceniry, in French Sentinelle, is a foldier from a guard, placed at any poft for the fecurity of the faid guard, or any other body of troops, for watching the enemy, preventing furprifes, and {topping thofe who might wifh to pafs without orders, and without making themfelves known. All centinels ought to be very vigilant on their potts, fhould avoid finging, {moking, making any noife themfelves, or fuffering any to be made near them by others. They fhould keep their arms in their hands during the whole time they are on duty, fhould not fit down, or on any account go to fleep, as on their attention and watchfulnefs depend the lives of many ; but fhould keep moving about, if the weather will permit them. They ought never to move farther from their potts in any dircétions, than to diftances from which they canhave diftin& views of them, as well as of theintervening and interjacent {paces. » And fhould the weather be’ ever fo bad, they ought not to go under any other cover than that of their eefitry boxes. Not one of them fhould be allowed to-quit his poft without leave from his commanding officer. And in order to prevent defertion, marauding, or other irregulari- ties; they fhould be ftriétly charged to let no foldier pafs them. lic Cenxtiney perdu, in French Sentinelle perdue, is a foldier placed at a very hazardous poft, or in a fituation where he CEN ’ is in conftant danger of being attacked, taken, or: killed by the enemy without any profpeét of aid, help (holp) or relief. Hence the phrafe forlorn holp, commonly pronounced forlorn hope. CentTineEL, Great and Little, in Geography, two iflands in the Indian Sea: the former fix leagues from the Great Andaman; and the latter fever leagues N. W. from the. Little Andaman. CENTINODIUM, an officinal plant, popularly called knotegrafs; by the botanifis polygonum ; reputed an aftrin ent and vulnerary. CENTIPES, Centirepis, in Entomology. LOPENDRA. CENTIUM Purser, in Ancient Geography, a place of Afia in Syria, feated on a large plain, and furrounded by mountains. CENTLANCES, in Military Language, a name given to a Scottifh company of gendarmerie, ettablifhed in 1422 by Charles VII. of France. CENTLIVRE, Susanna, in Biography, a dramatic writer, was the daughter of Mr. Freeman, a gentleman of Lincolnfhire, who, being attached to the parliamentary caufe, took refuge in Ireland at the reftoration. She is {uppofed to have been born in Ireland about the year 1667. Difcovering an carly propenfity to poetry and a romantic dilpofition, and being ill-treated by thofe who had the care of her after the death of her mother, the refolved on a vifit to London ; and in the courfe of her journey, which fhe performed on foot, fhe was met by Anthony Hammond efgq. then a ftudent at the Univerfity of Cambridge. This gentleman caufed her to aflume a boy’s garb, and took her with him to college, where fhe fpent fome months in his company ; but fearing a difcovery, he perfuaded her to go to London, where, being in her 16th year, fhe married a nephew of fir Stephen Fox. Having in about a year loft her hufband, fhe foon after married Mr. Carrol, an officer in the army, whom fhe loft in a duel about a year and a half after their union. She then commenced her courfe as a dramatic writer, and made her firft attempt in tragedy. Accerdingly in 1700 her “ Perjured Hufband” was per- formed at Drury-lane. She afterwards wrote feveral co- medies, which were chiefly tranflations from the French, and which obtained temporary fuccefs. One of them, en- titled «* The Gamefter,” was honoured with a prologue by Rowe. She alfo made fome trial, without rifing to any great reputation, as an actrefs. Under this charaGter, however, fhe performed before the court on the ftage at Windfor, and captivated the heart of Mr. Jofeph Centlivre, yeoman of the mouth to queen Anne, whom fhe,married in 1706, Of the number of her comedies, which fhe produced with great fertility, we may reckon “ The Bufy Body,” performed in 1708; ‘The Wonder, a Woman keeps a Secret,” in 17143 and “A bold Stroke for a Wife,” in L7b7s the Englifh ftage is too apparent in her produ@tions. She lived, however, on terms of friendfhip and familiarity with mott of the wits of that period, as Steele, Rowe, Farquhar, and Budgell; but upon incurring the difpleafure of Pope, fhe was introduced into the Dunciad. Her perfon was handfome, ler converfation fprightly, and her difpofition friendly and benevolent. She died in 1723. Her dramatic works were printed in 1761, in 3 vols. t2mo. Her verfes See Sco- and letters were colleted and publifhed by Mr. Boyer. Biog. Brit. CENTNER, or Docimafic Hunprep, in Metallurgy "and Afaying, is a weight divifible, firit into'an sundred, and thence into a greater number of other fmaller parts ; but though the word is the fame, both with the affayers an a metallurgifts, The licentioufnefs which at that time characterifed — CEN metallurgifts, yet it is to be underftood as expreffling a very different quantity in their different acceptation of it. The weights of the metallurgifts are eafily underftood, as being of the common proportion, but thofe of the aflayers are a * thoufand times fmaller than thefe, as the portions of metals or ores examined by the affayers are ufually very fmall. The metallurgifts, who extra metals out of their ores, ufe a weight divided into an hundred equal parts, each part a pound ; the whole they calla centner or /undred weight ; the pound is divided into thirty-two parts, or half ounces ; and the half ounce into two quarters of ounces, and thefe each into two drams. "a Thefe divifions and denominations of the metallurgifts are _afily underftood ; but the fame words, though they are uv equally ufed by affayers, with them exprefs very different quantities ; for as the centner of the metallurgifts contains a hundred pounds, the centner of the affayers is really no more than one dram, to which the other parts are propor- tioned. As the aflayers’ weights are divided into fuch an extreme degree of minutenefs, and are fo very different from all the common weight’, the affayers ufvally make them themfelves, in the following manzer, out of {mall filver, or fine folder plates, of fuch a fize, that the mark or their weight, ac- cording to the divifion of the dram, which is the docimattic, or aflaying centner, may be put upon them. They firft take for a bafis one weight, being about two thirds of a common dram: this they mark-(64/5.) Then having at hand fome granulated lead, wafhed clean, well dried, and fifted very fine, they put as much of it in one of the {mall difhes of a fine balance, as will equipoife the 64/5. (as it is called) julk mentioned: then dividing this granulated lead into very nice halves, in the two fcales, after taking out the firft filver weight, they obtain a perfe&t equilibrium between the two fcales ; they then pour the granulated lead out of one difh of the {cales, and inftead of it put in another filver weight, which they make exactly equiponderant with the lead in the other fale, and mark it (32/6.) 1f this fecond weight, when firft put into the fcale, exceed by much the weight of the lead, they take a little from it by a very fine file ; but when it comes very near, they ufe only a whetitone to wear off an extremely {mall portion ata time. When it is brought to be perfeStly even and equal to the lead, they change the {cales to fee that no error has been committed, and then go on in the fame manner till they have made all the divifions, and all the {mall weights. Then to have an entire ceniner, or hundred weight, they add to the 644. (as they, call)it) a 32/. anda 4/b. and weighing agaiuft ' them one {mall weight, they make it equal to them, and ner, and is really one dram. mark it (10/4.) This is the docimattica!, or afMlaying cent- Cramer, Art. Aff. p. 108. CENTO, in Poetry, ;a work whiclly compofed of verfes, or paflages, promifcuoufly taken from uther authors; only difpofed in a new form, or order: fo as to compofe a new work, and make a new meaning. ; The word is Latin, cento, which primarily fignifies a cloak made of patches, and that from xevrp2y, Aufonius has laid down the rules to be obferved in com- poling centos. The pieces, he fays, may be taken either from the fame poet, or from feveral ; and the verfes may be either entire, or divided into two; one half to be conneéted with another half taken elfewhere ; but two verfes are never to be taken running, nor is much lefs than half a verfe to be taken. Agreeably to thefe rules, he has made a pleafant nuptial cento from Virgil. _ Froba Falconia has written the life of Jefus Chrift in centos taken from Virgil: the like is done by Alex. Rofs; in his CEN _Chriftiados ; and by Stephen de Pleurre, canon regular of St. Vitor at Paris. CENTOBRICA, in Ancient Geography, a town of . Spain, in Celtibaria. 5g CENTON, a fortrefs of Thrace, in Lower Myfia;) the walls of which were repaired by Juftinian. Procopius. CENTONARE. | In Italy, a plagiarift in mufical com- pofition, where melody and harmony are mere patch-work, 13 faid to centonare. Sometimes an opera confiting of airs felected by the Maeltro, or by the fingers themfelves from the works of various compolers, is called a cento. See Pasticcio. CENTONARII, in Antiquity, a fort of officers or operators, whofe bufinefs was to make centones, or coats patched of leather and cloth, wherewith to cover the wvinee, under which the beliegers made their approaches, as well as the towers and machines ufed to batter the place, and pres vent their being fet ou fire by the enemy. In the Theo- dofian code we have a title De centonariis &§ dendropboris. And in ancient infcriptions, the centonarii are joined with the éignarii, or carpenters, ferrari, or {miths, &c. who made but ene company, under the denomination of collegium abrorum & centonariorum. CENTONIER, French. See Centonare, Stal. CENTO-POZZI, in Geography, a town of Naples, in the province of Bari; three miles N. of Matera. CENTORBI, the ancient Centuripa, a city of Sicily, mentioned by Cicero in his oration againft Verres. It is feated on five points of rocks, and refembles a ftar-fifh; be- ing very difficult of accefs, and incommodious for habitation. Yet, in the time of the Romans, it was very populous ; but it retains no vellige of its ancient {plendour, except a few ruias. Its long fuburbs, terminated in a point, are miferable and depopulated ; and it is deftitute of money and commerce. The convent of the reformed Auguttines is a larye building, but in as depopulated a ftate as the town. To the weitward of the town there are confiderable ruins o& baths, built with beautiful mattoni, lined with marble in the Roman ftyle, like that of the baths.of Baie. To the ealt of the town is the ruin of a cattle, called the caftle of Conradin. Frederic, the grandfather of this Conradin, de- flroyed Centorbi about the beginning of the 13th century,- and razed its foundations. It was, however, again rebuilt, with the caftle ; for in 1268, after the defeat of Conradin, Conrad Capetius, afpiring to become king of Sicily, and fiading himtelf abandoned: by the Sicilians, who declared for Charles of Anjou, fhut himfelf up in this fortrefs. Mont- fort, having forced him to furrender, put out his eyes, and afterwards hanged him; and then deltroyed the city. A greater number of gold and filver coins, precious ftones of every kind, vates, itatues, cinerary urns, &c. have been’ found at Centorbi than in any other place in Sicily. A confiderable part of the riches of the mufeum of the prince of Biicaris has been furnifhed by this town. The number of inhabitants in this ancient and once large city is now re- duced to 3000, who are very poor and wretched. .The neighbouring country, planted chiefly with vineyards, pro- duces an indifferent wine 3 and there are foft rocks of an im- perfe& free-ftone, mixed with a marine tufa, even to the fummit of the mountain. The foil in one part of the town is formed of marine concretions, mixed with fhells: and under the vegetable earth lies tufa, with the fere-mentioned concretions, and gritty ftone; and at a greater depth, {corie and lava, beneath which is a frefh bed of grit. The lava probably forms the bafis of the mountain, and indicates, by being covered with miarine concretions to the depth of 600 feet-below the prefent level of the fea, the antiquity of the CENTRAL the volcano that produced it. De Non’s Journey in Sicily and Malta, p. 85. CENTORES, in Ancient Geography, a people of Scythia, mentioned by Valerius Flaccus. CENTORIO, Ascanto, in Biography, an Italian writer of the 16th century, originally of Rome, and after his expulfion from this city, a refident at Milan. His pro- feffion was military ; but in the interval of peace he com- pofed “ Military and Hiftorical Memoirs,” colleGted from his own knowledge and from the information of others. They were publifhed at Venice in 1565 and 1569, in 2 vols. 4to. he firlt part contains an account of the wars of Tranfylvania ; the fecond, of thofe of his own time. They are held in hich eftimation. Nouv. Di&. Hitt. CENTRAL, fomething relating toacentre, or CENTE?. Thus, we fay, central eclipfe, central forces, central rule, &c. Centrat eclipfe, is that in which the centers of the lu- minaries exaétly coincide, and are direétly in a line with the eye of the obferver. See Ecuipse. Centra forces, are the forces which tend to or from fome point or center; or they are forces which caufe a moving body to tend towards the center of motion, or to recede from it. Accordingly they are divided into two kinds, with regard to their different relations to the center, viz. the centripetal and the centrifugal. The dottrine of central forces, a very confiderable branch of the Newtonian philofophy, has been much cultivated by mathematicians, on account of its extenfive ufe in the theory of gravity, and other phyfico-mathematical fciences. In this doctrine it is fuppofed, that a body at relt never moves itfelf; and that a body in motion never of itfelf changes the velocity or the direétion of its motion; but that every motion would continue nniform, and its direétion reCtilinear, unlefs fome external force or refiftance affected it. Hence, when a body at reft always tends to move, or when the velocity of any reétilinear motion is accelerated or retard- ed continually, or when the direGtion of a motion is conti- nually varied, and a curve line is deferibed; thele changes are {uppofed to proceed from the influence of fome power that aéts inceflantly ; which power may be meafured either by the preffure of the quiefcent body againft the obftacie that hinders it to move, in the firft cafe ; or by the degree of acceleration or retardation of the motion, in the fecoud ; or by the flexure of the curve defcribed, in the third cafe; due regard being had to the time in which thefe effects are pro- duced, and other circumftances, according to the principles of mechanics. Effe€ts of the power or force of gravity of each kind fall under our conftant obfervation near the fur- face of the earth; for the fame power which renders bodies heavy while they are at reft, accelerates them when they de- {cend perpendicularly, or retards them when they afcend, and bends the courfe of their motion into a curve line when they are projected in any other direétion than that of their gra- vity. But we can judge of the forces or powers that act on the celeftial bodies by effects of the latt kind only. And hence it is that the dodtrine of central forces is of fo much ufe in the theory of the planetary motions. Sir Ifaac Newton has treated of central forces in book i. § 2. of his Principia; and has demonttrated this fundamental theorem refpecting them, viz. that the areas which revolving bodies defcribe by radii drawn to an immoveable center, lie in the fame immoveable planes, and are proportional to the times in which they are deferibed. Princip. lib. i. prop. 1. A late eminent mathematician obferves, that this law, which is originally Kepler’s, is the only general principle in the do@rine of centripetal forces ; but fince this law, as fir Ifaac Newton himfelf has proved, cannot hold wheuever a body FOR CES, has a tendency by its gravity or force to any other than one and the fame point, there feems to be wanting fome law that may ferve to explain the motions of the moon and {atellites which have a gravity towards two different centers : the law he lays down for this purpofe is as fellows; namely, that where a body is urged by two forces tending conitantly to two fixed points, it will deferibe, by lines drawn from the two fixed points, equal folids in equal times, about the line joining thole fixed points. See Machin, on the laws of the moon’s motion, in the poftf{cript. This fhort treatife is pub- lifhed at the end of the Englifh tranflation of fir Ifaac New- ton’s P:incipia. See a demonttration of this law by Mr. W. jones in the Phil. Tranf. vol. lix. art. 12. p. 74, &c. The fame fubje&t has been elaborately difcuffed, when the motion refpeéts, not two centers only, but feveral centers, by many ingenious authors; and practical rules have been laid down for computing the places, &c. of planets and fa- tellites; as by La Grange, La Place, Waring, &c. &c. See Berlin Memoirs: thofe of the Academy of Sciences at Paris; the Philofophical Tranfactions of the Royal Society of Lon- don; and various treatifes of aftronomy. M. de Moivre has given clegant general theorems relating to central forces in the Phil. Tranf. and in his Mifcet. Analyt. p. 231. Let MPQ (Plate X. Mechanics, fig. 81.) be any given curve in the perimeter of which a bedy moves: let P be the place of the body in the curve at any time; S the center of torce, or the point to which the central force acting on the body is always dire€&ted ; P G the radius of concavity or cur- vature at the point P; and S T the perpendicular drawa from the center of force to the tangent P T of the curve in P, then will the centripetal force be every where proportion- Sih Gee ous Monfieur Varignon has alfo given two general theorems on this fubje@t in the Memoirs of the Acad. Scienc. an, 1700, 1701, and has fhewn their application to the motions of the planets. See alfo the fame Memoirs, ann. 1706, 1710. Mr. Mac-Laurin has alfo treated the fubjc& of cen- tral forces very fully in his Fluxions, from art. 416 to 493, where he gives a great variety of expreffions for thefe forces, and feveral elegant methods of invettigating them. Centra forces, laws of. 1. The following rule, for which we are obliged to the marquis de l’Hopital, is very clear and comprehenfive. Suppofe a body of any determi- nate weight to move uniformly round a center, with an given velocity; find from what height it muil have fallen to acquire that velocity ; then, as the radius of the eircle it de- {cribes is to double that height, fo is its weight to its centri- fugal force. Let 4 reprefent the body, or its weight or quantity of matter, v its velocity, and r the radius of the circle defcribed, and g be = 163 feet, the fpace fallen through in the firft fecond of time, and 2g wili exprefs the velocity acquired ; then, fince the fquares of the velocities are as the {paces al to the quantity (fee AccELERATION) 497: U2 g os or the height per- 2 2 ake ‘ v vb taining to the velocity v; andr: =a b: Fe = fthe ° centrifugal force. Hence, if the centrifugal force be equal to the gravity, the velocity acquired is equal to that acquired by faliing through half the radius. 2. The central force of a bedy moving in the periphery of a circle, is as the verfed fine of the indefinitely {mail arc, AE, or as the-{quare of the [aid are divided by the diameter, A.B: or, as the iquare of the are, A E, directly, and the dia- meter Oe CENTRAL MORCES. meter, AB inverfely, (Plate X. Mechanics, fig. 82.) Let this are be the diltance which the body deferibes in a given particle of time; then, from the nature of the circle (A E being very {mall, and confcquently nearly equal to its chord) AE} = AB x AM, and therefore AM = = ' . ‘Now A Mis the fpace through which the body is drawn from the tangent in the given time; and though 2 A Mis the proper meafure of the central force, yet when the forces compared . are all computed in the'fame manner, from the nafcent, or indefinitely {mall fubtenfes of contemporaneous arcs, it is of no confequence whether we confider thofe fubtenfes, or their doubles, as the meafures of the forces, fince the ratio is in both cafes the fame. Since then a body, by an equable mo- tion, in equal times defcribes equal arcs A E; the central force by which the body is impelled in the periphery of the circle is conftantly the fame. 3. Iftwo bodies defcribe different peripheries by an equable motion, their central forces are in a ratio, compounded of the duplicate ratio of their velocities dire&tly, and the reciprocal ratio of their diameters: becaufe the ratio of the velocities is in this cafe the fame with that of the arcs or fpaces de- {cribed in the fame time; and the velocities are evidently in the fubduplicate of the produéts of the diameters multiplied Ge uv Ve v? by the forces. Thus, F : f:: D So Rliaiees eink ee for, : ; Oey Udy by the laft article, the force is as An Dp” and the velocity v is as the fpace A E uniformly defcribed. Hence, if the velocities be equal, the central forces will be recipro- cally as their diameters ; and if the diameters A B and HL be equal, i. e. if each moveable proceed in the fame peri- phery, but with unequal velocities, the central forces will be in a duplicate ratio of the velocities. Hence, if the radii or diameters be reciprocally in the duplicate ratio of the velo- cities, the central forces will be reciprocaily in the duplicate ratio of the radii, or dire&tly as the 4th powers of the velo- cities: that 1s, if V2: v? zr: Ry then F : fz: 22> R? :: V4 5 3 Vagal OteRa Xoo :v*; for V R= w'rjand F:f (= Rite ee Re x) EVE: ot, r : Tf the central forces of the two bodies moving in different peripheries be equal, the diameters of the circles A B and HL will be in a duplicate ratio of the celerities. For in é ve v this cafe, a and V?r = v’R; therefore R: r:: r V?: 0. 4. The central forces are in a ratio compounded of the di- re&t ratio of the diameters, and the reciprocal one of the *fquares of the periodic times. For the diameters are as the q P peripheries, which are the fpaces run in the periodic times ; and thefe are in the compound ratio of their times and velo- cities direétly: therefore, reprefenting the times by T, 4, the velocities by V,v, and the diameters by D,d; D:d:: Vv? Te 2 2 Vx T:v x ¢; confequently, fi aie a rail chabe and 1D) d? ers. AV nas D>. Dutcds and therefore by Art. 3. the central V2 2 forces are in theproportion required; ie.F:f (= Dp: =) . a P a . = eee . "a aye Bape x D:T? x d. And when the circles are equal, the central forces are reciprocally as the fquares of the times, D being = d. Vou. VII. 5. Iftwo bodies, equal in weight, defcribe peripheries of unega@al circles in equal times, their central forces are as their diameters AB and HL. For F: f::# x D:T? x d; but T? = 23° F if D : ds .or’ RevmseyAndshence, if the central forces of two bodies, defcribing peripheries of two unequal ¢ircles, be as their diameters, they pafs over the fame in equal times. For fd = f(D, and FT? x d= fx #x D; °.: by equal divifion, T? = # and T = ¢. 6. If two bodies, moving in unequal peripheries, be aéted on by the fame central force, the time in the larger is to that in the fmaller, ina fub-duplicate ratio of the greater diameter AB, to the lels HL; for F being =f, Ix d= Fox Randers 2°e "=", “and £ hee? Di: di wherefore, T?: ¢t:: D.: d, that is, the diameters of the circles in whofe peripheries thofe bodies are aéted on by the fame central force, are in a duplicate ratio of the times. Hence alfo the times wherein fimilar peripheries or arcs are run over by bodies impelled by the fame central force, are in proportion to their velocities. 7. If the times wherein the bodies are carried through the fame entire peripheries, or fimilar arcs, be as the diame- ters of the circles, the central forces are reciprocally as the fame diameters. ForT :¢:: D: d,andT?: ¢:: D?: d’; wFf(s3: 3) nO Bd D. 8. If a body move uniformly in the periphery of a circle, with the velocity it acquires by falling the height AT’; the central force will be to the gravity, as double the altitude AF to the radius C A. If, therefore, the gravity of the body be called G, the centrifugal force will be 2A F x G+CA. See Art. 1. g. If a heavy body move equably in the periphery of a circle, and with the velocity which it acquires by falling through a height equal to half the radius ; the central force will be equal to the gravity. And again, if the central force be equal to the gravity, it moves in the periphery of a cir- cle, with the fame gravity which it acquires in falling a height equal to half the radius. ro. If the central force be equal to the gravity, the time it takes up in the entire periphery, is to the time of its fall through half the radius, as the periphery to the » radius. tr. If two bodies move in unequal peripheries, and with an unequal velocity, which is reciprocally in a fubduplicate ratio of the diameters; the central forces are in a dupli- cate ratio of the diftances from the center of the forces, taken reciprocally. Tor F : f:: d? : D?, and F: 5 Oe Vv? vv? d D : 7 D - >Re by (a: =) sig yD aonics Re 12. If two bodies move in unequal peripheries, with velo- cities which are reciprocally as the diameters or diftances from the center ; their central forces will be reciprocally as the cubes of their diltances from the center, or direCtly as the cubes of the velocities. Thus, if Viv::r:R,F:f 2 2 2 2 ( I Ls 3 fee =) 23973: R3, or V3 3 v3. R r R r 13. If the velocities of two bodies, moving in unequal peripheries, be réciprocally in a fubduplicate ratio of the diameters, or central diflances; the fquares of the times wherein they pafs the whole peripheries, or fimilar arcs, are in a triplicate ratio of the diltances from the center of the forces ; wherefore, if the central forces be reciprocally in a duplicate ratio of the diftances from the center, the fquares of the times wherein the entire peripheries, or fimilar arcs, are paff-d over, are alfo in a triplicate ratio of the diitances. Tf V = “wise d?: Dt; or V?: 07::d:D; then T* 2 Mm 2: D3 CENTRAL FORCE’. 22 D3: dor R3: 3: andif Fs fi:rts R2, then T?: 4: R3 : 3, 14. However the central forces differ from one another, they may be compared together; for they are always in a ratio compounded of the ratio of the quantities of matter in the revolving bodies, and the ratio of the diftances from the center; and alfo in an inverfe ratio of the {quares of the periodical times. If then you mulciply the quantity of matter in each body by its diftance from the center, and divide the product by the fquare.of the pericdical time, the quotients of the divilion will be to one another in the faid compound ratio, that is, as the central forces. 15. When the quantities of matter are equal, the diftances themfelves muil be divided by the fquares of the periodical times, to determine the proportion of the central forces: in that cafe, if the {quares of the periodical times be to one another as the cubes of the diltances, the quotients of the divifions, as well as the central forces, will be an inverfe ratio of the fquares of the dittances. From the toregoing theorems we may deduce the velo- city and periodic time of a body revolving in a circle, by means of its own gravity, at any given diflance from the earth’s center. Let g be the fpace through which a heavy body defcends at the furface of the earth, in the firft fecond of time, or 167th feet, = A M, in the preceding figure; then 2 g- will be the meafure of the force of gravity at the furface : and ry being allumed for the earth’s radius, AC, the velocity in a circle at its furface, in one fecond, will be AE=V7AB x AM= V2rg,by Art.2. Hence, if we put c = 3.14159, &c. the circumference of the earth being 2¢r = 25,000 miles nearly, or 132,000,000 feet (in round numbers), we fhall have “2¢7r: ree iar 2¢r 3 2r Mice if re = 5078 feconds nearly, or 1° 24™ 38”, the periodic time at the circumference; and the velocity there, or / 2 gr, is = 2600 feet per fecond nearly. Let R repre- fent the radius of another circle defcribed by a projectile about the earth’s center ; fince the force of gravitation va- ries inverfely as the fquare of the diftance, we fhall have (by Art. 12 and 13.) R¥: +r? :: v or 26000 feet, the velocity in a fecond at the furface, to 26000 x e > the velocity in the circle whofe radius is R : and by Art. 13, r?: Ri: t or 5078 feconds, the periodic time at the furface: 5078 x 3 ei = = T, the time of revolution in the circle R. In Tr order to apply this to the cafe of the moon, revolving about the earth at the diftanoe of 60 femidiameters, let R = 60r, er the diftance of the moon from the earth, and the above expreffions will become V = 26000 Vs = "350% feet per fecond, or 38; miles per minute, for the velocity of the 5 : 603 moon in her orbit ; and T = 5078 ye = 2360051 fe- conds, or 27.3 days nearly for the periodic time of the moon in her orbit at that diltance. This is nearly equal to what the aftronomers reckon it, viz. 27° 7" 34’; and it would have come out exactly ike it, if the diftances had been precifely flated, and other circumftances, omitted for the fake of brevity, had been taken into the account, which interfere with that period. Similar calculations may be in- ftituted with refpe& to all the planets of our folar fyttem, and the refult of the calculations will be found to coincide, with furprifing exaétnefs, with the appearances ; and ‘this affords a ftrong confirmation of the Newtonian theory of univerfal gravitation. Thus alfo the ratio of the forces of gravitation of the moon towards the fun and earth may be eftimated. For, I year, or 3654 days, being the periodic time of the earth and moon about the fun, and 27,3, the periodic time of the moon about the earth; and alfo 6o being the dittance of the moon from the carth, and 23920 the diftance from the fun, in femiciameters of the earth, we fhall have (by Art. 4.) ——— 60 23920 f 23920 27.3 : —— i ————— Oral. s 7G ered me 7 as 2 2\2 = 2 >? 27-3\' 365-25) Osea that is, the proportion of the moon’s gravitation towards the fun is to that towards the earth, as 23 to £ nearly. Tarther, the mean diltance of the moon from the center of the earth is 1267200000 feet, or about 60 femidiameters of the earth. Alfo, the force of gravity at different dif- tances is inverfely as the fquares of the diftances, and the radius of the earth is 21000000 feet ; therefore, as the {quare of 1267200c00 is to the fquare of 210000005 fo is the force of gravity at the furface of the earth to the force of gravity at the diftance of the moon; viz. 160579584co00c00000 =: -44100000C000000 :: I s 0.000274; fo that the force of gravity at the furface of the earth is to the force of gravity at the moon as I is to 0.000274 or as 1000000 to 274. And fince near the earth falling bodies pafs over 16,4, or 16.087 feet, in the firit fecond of time; therefore we may fay, 1000000 : 274 3: 16.087 : 0.0044 of a foot; which fhews that the moon, if its velocity fhould ceafe at once, would fall to- wards the earth, and in the firft fecond of time would de- fcend through not more than .44,,ths of a foot. Again, we may hence compute the centrifugal force of a body at the equator, arifing from the earth’s rotation. The time of revolution, when the centrifugal force would become equal to that of gravity, as has been fhewn above, is 5078 feconds; and, by Art. 4. 86160], which is the f{quare of the number of feconds in 23 hours, 56 minutes, the time of the earth’s entire rotation on its axis, is to 5078), as the force of gravity, which may be denoted by unit, to z4,, the centrifugal force required, which is the 289th part of gravity at the earth’s furface. Simpfon’s. Fluxions, vol. i. p. 240, &c: Otherwife, it appears (by Art. 4.) that, when the dif- tances from the center are equal, or in the fame circle, the central forces are inverfely as the fquares of the periodical times; and we have above fhewn, that the velocity, which near the furface of the earth is equivalent to gravity, is = 26000 feet per fecond nearly. Then fay, as the {quare of the earth’s diurnal rotation round its axis is to the {quare of the periodical time in the cafe above flated, viz. 1" 24! 38", or nearly 85’, fois the force of gravity (e.g. 1.) to the centrifugal force of bodies near the equator of the earth; i.e. 2073600! (the fquare of 24 hours) : 7225! 3s I : 0.003485 = the centrifugal force near the equator $ i.e. the force by which bodies that-are near the equator are attra€ted towards the center is to the force with which they endeavour to fly off, in confequence of the earth’s diurnal rotation rourd its axis, 2s 1 is to 0.003485 ; or as 1000000 to 34853 or the former is almoft 300 times more powerful than the latter. By fimilar means we may determine the centrifugal force of bodies in different latitudes ; for as the earth turns round its axis, it is evident that thofe bodies on the furface of it, which lie nearer to the axis, or, which is the fame thing, are near —— CENTRAL FORCES. nearer to the poles, perform circles fmaller than thofe which lic nearer to the equator ; though they are all performed in the fame interval of 24 hours. Hence, the periodical times being equal, or the fame, the central forces are as the radii of the circles, and as in different latitudes the radii are equal to the cofines of the latitudes, we may ufe the follow- ing proportion; viz. as the radius is to the cofine of a given latitude, fo is the centrifugal force of bodies fituated at the equator to the centrifugal force of bodies at that given latitude. Now as the cofines decreafe in length the nearer they approach the poles, fo the tendency of bodies to fly off from the furface of the earth is greateft at the equator, but diminifhes in approaching towards the poles ; and hence we perceive why the earth has been found, by means of unqueltionable meafurements and other obferva- tions, to be an oblate {pheroid, whofe polar diameter 1s the fhorteft. This circumftance furnifhes a convincing evidence of the earth’s daily rotation about its axis. For another example of the application of the theory of central forces above ftated, we may fuppofe A to be a ball of one ounce, whirled about the center C, fo as to defcribe the circle ABE (jg. S2.), each revolution being made in half a fecond; and the length of the cord AC = 2 feet. Here ¢ = 3, r = 2; and as it has been already found that 2R 2 Sts oe : ¢ ies = T is the periodic time at the circumference f & of the earth, when the centrifugal force is equal to gravity ; hence then, (by Art. 4.) 7p? , :: F ori: fs and this 4 g fe Cas 16c? proportion becomes Fe Suicide hil RR c SF s 16 x 3.1416}° at a 9.819 = the centrifugal force, or that 16yy by which the ftring is ftretched, viz. nearly 10 ounces, or 10 times the weight of the ball. This central force may be called centripetal or centrifugal, according as it is applied to the tenacity of the parts of the ftring, or to the force of the body ; fo that the body is faid to be retained by a cen- tripetal force 9.8 times as great as the force of terreftrial gravity ; or it may be faid, that the centrifugal force of the revolving body ftretches the ftring as much as if a weight of 9-3 pounds were fimply fufpended to it. Again. fuppofe the itring and ball to be fufpended from a point, D, (fig. 83.) and to defcribe in its motion a coni- cal furface, ADB; thus, putting DC = a, AC =r, and AD = 4; and F = 1, the force of gravity as before ; the body will now be affeGed by three forces, viz. gravity adting parallel to DC, a centrifugal force in the direétion CA, and the tention of the {tring, or force by which it is ftretched, in the direQion DA: hence thefe three powers will be as the three fides of the triangle ADC refvestively ; h >: ADor4Si::1:- a fion of the ftring as compared with the weight of the body. Alfo, CD or a: AC orr:: 1; a preffion for the centrifugal force above found: hence g? = 2ac*, and confequently ¢ = c if = 1108 fa = o ° and, therefore, as CD ora the ten- » the general ex- the periodical time. 16. When the force by which a body folicited towards a point is not every where the fame, but is either increafed or diminithed, in proportion to fome power of the diltance from the center; feveral curves will thence arife in a certain bo proportion according to that power. If the force decreafes in an inverfe ratio of the {quares of the diitances from that point, the body will deferibe an elliplis, winch is an oval curve, in which there are two points called foci, and the point, towards which the force is directed, falls upon one of them; fo that in every revolution the body once ap- proaches to, and once recedes from it: and the eccentricity of the ellipfis is greater or lefs, according to the projeGile force: and when the eccentricity is nothing, the curve becomes a circle, which may alfo be deferibed, in certain circumftances, by a moving body. ‘The body may alfo (by fuppofing a greater degree of velocity in certain pro- portions, defcribe the two remaining conic fections, vite the parabolic and hyperbolic curves, which do not return into themfelves: on the contrary, if the force increafes with the diftance, and that ina ratio of the diftance itfelf, the body will again defcribe an ellipfis: but the point to which the force is direéted is the centre of the ellipfe ; and the body, in each revolution, will twice approach to, and again twice recede from, that point. In this cafe alfo a body may move ina circle, for the reafon above mentioned. In order to explain thefe particulars more at large, let ACD (fg. 84.) reprefent a circular orbit, Az S anel« liptical, Ar E a parabolic, and A KF an hyperbolic or- bit ; and let the bodies be fuppofed to move with certain velocities under the influence of a force at N, which is the center of the circle, and the focus of the conic feétions, Let A B, perpendicular to AD, reprefent the velocity which is neceflary to retain the body in the circular orbit, and let it be denoted by 1; as the ftandard with which the other degrees of velocity may be compared. Alfo, let a body be projeéted from A in the dire¢tion A IT with any other degree of velocity 2. It is now propofed to deters mine the nature of the curve, which will be defcribed with this other velocity #, or rather to afcertain what the value of n mutt be in order to produce each particular conic fection. Draw mK parallel to A I, interfecang the circle as well as the other curves. Let AN be denoted by d; the femi- tranfverfe axis of any of the conic feétions by a; the femi- conjugate by 4; and Am (= BC=Gz=Hr=1 K) by x. Then the ordinate mC in the circle will be = of the ecllipfe, and 2dx — xxlt; but the ordinate mx mK of the hyperbola, may both be reprefented by b a C+ xXX!*, The flaxions of thefe ordinates are —— ——— , an 2dx—xx)t Dae ions are to cach other as the velocities in every point of their refpective curves in the direGtion AL; ahd in the like xx1z . ee a— os é a ats x proportion are the quantities = =, aNd =e sls 2d $ a 2a-xk thefe quantities being the abovementioned fluxions divided by the fame quantity, =, Now, when the point in the «2 curve approaches the point A fo near as to coincide with it, then Am vanifhes, or x = 0; and the above expreffions b Pe ieee he point’ A th ecome =— and—- xX =~}: 1lOthat at the point A the ve. 24 $ a 247 I ; locity which retains the body in the circular orbit is to the velocity which retains the body in the ellipfe or the hypers 1 b a D bola, as =} t= xX my dd: == 421: 43 therefore 2as a 2a) al* ; bb : ndi = = andand = a or annd= bb. Wher Mm 2 a = CEN «= d= AN, then 2y is the parameter, and (the para- meter being a third proportional to the tranfverfe and conjugate diameters) 2@: 25: 2b: 2y, ora: fu b bb b . L Blob siren lthate Xs 2adFdd?= I J =— =>— X 2axx = a a LEO a 2abid FB dyt ; which equation being fquared, becomes aa Bd—bha ob 2aBd+b? d? AES SE = —> for the ellipfe, and od pc al = aa a 4 2 ab for the hyperbola. And being divided by Z., thefe ex- a a preffions become 2ad— d?= # = annd for the ellipfe, and 2ad-+ d?= & =annd for the hyperbola. Confe- quently, f d | the femi-tran{verfe axis is @ = In the ellipfe 4 pot | the femi-conjugate axis is b = - — 2—an)\i the femi-tranfverfe is @ =. — S ’ w= 2 Inthehyperbola< ao the femi-conjugate is 6 = nn — 2}? Having determined thefe values of the tranfverfe and conjugate diameters, in which 7 is the only indeterminate value, we may, by introducing certain fubftitutes inftead of a, afcertain what its value mutt be in order to produce one curve or another. Thus, by making » = 1, each of the above values becomes equal to d; therefore the two diame- ters become equal to each other, and the curve is of courfe a circle = and, accordingly, the velocity, which retains the revolving body in a circular orbit, has been denominated 1, or unity. If we maken = 2)2, thena= = = d —nn gs ns = which is an algebraical expreffion of infinity : and all ° ‘the other expreffions will likewife become infinite; fo that the tranfverfe and conjugate diameters in that cafe becoming infinite, the curve is the parabola. If we make z equal toa quantity lefs than the {quare root of 2 (viz. lefs than the fquare root of twice that velocity which is required to retain a body in a circular orbit); then n the values and ————» yj 4 2 h aa ae a viz. of a and 4, will be pofi i h by the fame fubftituti he val = : 3. whereas the fame tution e value tive ; » bY ubfti 5 t ue =— >! becomes impoffible ; which fhews, that when » is lefs than the fquare root of 2, the curve can only be the ellipfe. But if we make z equal to any thing greater than the f{quare root of 2; then the values of a and é for the hyper- bola become pofitive: whereas thofe for the ellipfe become impoffible ; and, therefore, in this cafe, the curve muft be the hyperbola. Cavallo’s Elem. of Nat. and Exp. Philof. vol. i. Simpfon’s Fluxions, vol.i, fe&t.12. See Cenrri- PETAL Force. Centra Rul, is a rule or method difcovered by our eountryman Thomas Baker, reGor of Nympton in Devon, for finding the center of a circle defigned to cut the parabola in as many points as an equation to be conftructed hath real: roots. See the article Baker. Its principal ufe is in the conftru€tion of .equations ; and he has applied it with good fuccels as far as biquadratics. 6 CEN The central rule is chicfly founded on this property of the parabola: that if a line be infcribed in that curve pcr. pendicular to any diameter, a reCtangle formed of the fegments of this line is equal to a re&tangle made of the intercepted part of the diameter and the parameter of the axis. The central rule has the advantage over Cartes’s and De Latteres’s methods of conttru€ting cquations, as both thefe are fubject to the trouble of preparing the equation by taking away the fecond term. This we are freed from in Baker’s method, which fhews us how to conftruét all equations not exceeding the fourth power, by the interfe€tion of a circle and parabola, without the omiflion or change of any terms. See Phil. Tranf. N° 157. CENTRALIS Retin, in Anatomy, an artery, which is fent from the opthalmic, and is chiefly diftributed to the retina. See Arreriesand Eye. CENTREVILLE, in Geography, the chief town of Queen Anne’s county, and on the caft fide of Chefapeak bay in the ftate of Maryland, in America. It lies between the forks of Corfica creek, which runs into Chefter river ; 18 miles S. of Chefter; 34. S.E. by E. of Baltimore ; and 95 S W. by S. of Philadelphia, N. lat. 39° 6’. CENTRIFUGAL rorce is that whereby a body revolv- ing round a centre or another body endeavours to recede from it. It is one of the eftablifhed laws of nature, that all motion is of itfelf rectilinear ; and that the moving body never re- cedes from its firlt right line, till fome new impulfe be fuper- added in a different dire¢tion: after that new impulfe, the motion becomes compounded, but it continues {till re@tilinear, though the direétion of the line be altered. To move ing curve, it muft receive a new impulfe, and that in a different direétion every moment ; a curve not being reducible to any number of finite right lines. If then a body continually drawn towards a center be projected in a line that does not go through that center, it will defcribe a curve; in each point whereof, A (Plate X. Mechanics, fig. 82.) it will endeavour to recede from the curve, and proceed in the tangent A D ; and, if nothing hindered, it would aGtually proceed to- it; fo as in the fame time wherein it defcribes the arc A EF; it would recede the length of the line D E, perpendicular to AD, by its centrifugal force. The centrifugal force, there- fore, is as the night line DE, perpendicular to AD: fup, pofing the arch A E indefinitely fmall. The effeé&t of the centrifugal force is fuch, that a body oby liged to defcribe a circle, always defcribes the largeft it pof-- fibly can; a greater circle being, as it were, lets circular, and lefs diftant from aright Jine, thanafmallone. A body therefore fuffers more violence, and exerts its centrifugal force more, when it defcribes a little circle than a large one: that is, the centrifugal force is always propor= tional, other circumftances. being alike, to the circumfer-. ence of the curve in which the revolving body is carried round. It is the fame in other curves as in circles; for a curve, whatever it be, may be efteemed as compofed of an infinity of arcs of indefinitely {mall circles, all defcribed on different radii; fo that it is at thofe places where the curve has the greateft curvity, that the little arcs are moft circular, other circumftances being equal : thus in the fame curve, the cen- trifugal force of the body that defcribes it varies according - to the feveral points wherein it is found. The dotrine of centrifugal forces was firft fuggefted by Huygens, at the clofe of his ‘* Horologium Ofcillatorium’? publifhed in 1673, and demonftrated in the volume of his s© Pofthumous Works” and alfo by Guido Granado ; where CEN he has given a few eafy cafes in bodies revolving in the cir- cumferences of circles. But the dottrine was firft fully dif- enffed, efpecially in its reference to the conic feétions, by fir Jfaac Newton. He was fucceeded by feveral other writers upon the fame fubjeé& 5 as Leiboitz, Varignou in the Mem, de PAcad. Keil in the Phil. Tranf. and in his “ Phyfics,” Bernouilli, Hermann, Cotes in his ‘* Harmonia Menfurarum,”’ Maclaurin in his ‘Geometria Organica,’? and in his « Fluxions,” and Euler in his book “De Motu,’? where he conliders the curves defcribed by a body ated on by centripetal forces tending to feveral points. The fubject has alfo been illuftrated by various writers on mechanics and aftronomy. See CenrripetAr Force,and Cenrrat forces. CentriruGaLt Machine, a curious machine invented by Mr. Ertkine, ior raifing water by means of a centrifugal force, eombined with the preflure of the atmofphere. This ma- ehine confilts of a large tube of copper, &c. in the form of a erofs, placed perpendicularly in the water, and retting at the bottom ona pivot. At the upper part of the tube is an ho- rizontal cog-wheel, which touches the cogs of another in a vertical polition ; fo that by the aid of a double winch, the whole machine is moved round with very great velocity. Near the bottom of the perpendicular part of the tube is a valve opening upwards ; and near the two extremities, but on the contrary fides of the arms, or crofs part of the tube, are two other valves opening outwards. Thefe two valves are kept fhut, by means of fprings, till the machine is put in motion ; when the centrifngal velocity of the water forces them open, and difcharges itfelf into a ciftern or refervoir placed there for that purpofe. On the upper part of the arm are two holes, which are clofed by pieces that {crew into the metal of the tube. Before the machine can work, thefe holes muft be opened, and water poured in through them, till the whole tube be full: by thefe means all the air will be forced out of the machine, and the water fupported in the tube by means of the valve at the bottom. The tnbe being thus filled with water, and the holes clofed by their f{crew-caps, it is turned round by the winch; when the water in the arms of the tube acquires a centrifugal force, opens the valves near the extremities of the arms, and flies out with a velocity nearly equal to that of the extremities of the faid arms. A perfpective view of the centrifugal machine ere&ted on board a fhip, is exhibited in Pl. XI., Mechanics, fig. 93. ABC is the copper tube; D an horizontal cog-wheel, fur- nifhed with 12 cogs; E a vertical cog-wheel, having 36 cogs; FF the double winch ; @ the valve near the bottom of the tube: 4, 4, the two pivots on which the tube turns ; £one of the valves in the crofs piece; the other at d, but invifible, as it is on the other fide of the tube ; ec the two holes through which the water is poured into the machine ; G H tthe ciftern or refervoir ; I I part of the fhip’s deck, The diftance between the two valves, cd, is 6 feet; the diameter of thefe valves is about 3 inches; and that of the perpendicular tube is about 7 inches. If the men who work the machine be fuppofed to turn the winch round in 3 feconds, the machine will move round its axis in one fecond; and confequently each extremity of the arms will move with a velocity of 18.8 feet in a fecond. A column of water, therefore, of three inches diameter will iffue through each of the valves with a velocity of 18.8 feet inafecond; but the area of the aperture of each of the valves is 7.14 inches; which, being multiplied by the veloci- ty in inches = 125.6, gives’ 1610.784 cubic inches, the quantity of water difcharged through one of the apertures in one fecond ; fo that the whole quantity difcharged in that fpace of time through both the apertures is 3221.508 CEN inches; or 193294.08 cubic inches in one minute. But 60812 cubic inches make a tun, beer-meafure ; confequentlys if we fuppofe the centrifugal machine to revolve round 1'3 axis in one fecond, it will raife nearly 3 tons 44 gallons in one minute; but this velocity is too great, at lealt to be maintained for any confiderable time; fo that, when this and other deficiencies in the machine are allowed for, two tuns are nearly the quantity that can be raifed by it in one minute. As the water is forced up the perpendicular tube by the preffure of the atmofphere, it is evident that this ma- chine cannot raife water above 32 feet high. An attempt has been made to fubftitute this machine in place of the pumps commonly ufed on fhip board; but the labour of working was found to be fo great 2s to render the machine inferior to the chain-pump ; which fee. The ma- chine might be improved by loading with a weigtit of lead the ends of the tubes through which the water iffues ; and thus the machine would be made to turn with much greater eafe, as the centrifugal force of the lead would in fome mea- fure fupply the place of a fly. CentriFuGAL Wheel. See WHEEL. CENTRINA, in Ichthyology, the fpecific name of a fhark. See Squarus Centrina. The filh defcribed by Ray, Aldrovandus, and various old writers, under the name of Cenreaina and Centrine is of this fpectes. ‘This fhark has been alfo called Porcus Pi/cis, from its fomewhat tri- angular figure, and elevated back, which rifing into a ridge, bears a remote refemblance to that of a hog. Centrina, a fynonymous name of Cuimaera Mons Sfrofa. Centrina prima, Centrina vera, Simia marina Danica. Aldrovandus. CENTRINES, in Phy/fislogy, a fpecies of infe&ls hatched in the wild fig-tree, and ufed in CAPRIFICATION. CENTRIPETAL rorce is that by which a moving body is perpetually urged towards a center, and made to revolve in a curve, inftead of a right line. ‘Thus, the body impelled in the right line AG, (Plate X. Mechanics. fig. 82.) is perpetually drawn out of its reétilinear motion; and foli- cited to proceed in a curve. The centripetal force, there- fore, is as the right line DE; fuppofing the arc, AE, in- definitely {mall. Hence, when a body revolves ina circle, the two forces, viz. the centrifugal and centripetal, are equal and contrary to each other, fince nether of them gains upon the other ; the body being, as it were, equally balanced by them. But when, in revolving, the body recedes farther from the center, then the centrifugal force exceeds the cen- tripetal; as is the cafe in a body revolving from the lower to the higher apfis in an ellipfe, and refpecting the focus as the center. And when the revolving body approaches nearer to the center, the centrifugal force is lefs than che centripetal ; as while the body moves from the farther to the nearer extremity of the tranfverfe axis of the ellipfe. For the proportion of the one to the other, fee.the fequel of this article. In the firft or nafcent ftate of circular motion, the pro- jectile force infinitely exceeds the centripetal force, For, let the circle AEB, (fg. 82.) reprefent the orbit of the body A, moving unitormly along its circumference ; this body, A, is impelled by a projeétile force im the direétion AG, perpendicular to AC, and is at the fame ‘time con- ftantly ated upon by an attraétive or impelling force, ina direGtion towards the center, C: thefe two forces being fo adjutted, or bearing fuch proportion to each other, .as to : keep the body in the circular orbit, AEB. In the very {mall arc AE, the line AD is to the line AM. (= DE) as the force of projection is to the centripetal force at the diftance AC; for whilft AD reprefents the uniform or equable CENTRIPETAL £ORCE. equable movement which arifes from ‘the projectile force in a certain time, D © reprefents the deviation from that courie, or the force whereby the body is drawn towards the center of force in the fame time. Now, DE (= AM): AE:: AE: AB; and whea the arc AE becomes indefinitely {mall, or is in its pafcent ftate, then the diameter AB be- comes infinitely greater than AE; and of courfe AE or AD (which in the ftate here {uppofed is nearly equal to it) becomes infinitely greater than DE or AM; 1. e. the pro- jectile force infinitely greater than the central or centripetal force. Ifa body move ina curve line, and in fuch a man- ner that the radius CB (fig. 55.) drawn from it to the fixed point C, placed in the fame plane, defcribes areas BAC, BCE, &c. proportional to the times, or equal in any given time, it is folicited towards the point C by a centripetal force. And alfo, if a body proceed according to the direc- tion of the right line AD, and be folicited by a centripetal force towards a fixed point C, placed in the fame plane ; it deferibes a curve, whofe cavity 1a towards C, and whofe feve- ral areas, comprehended between the two radii AC and CB, are proportional to the times. Moreover, the velocity of a revolving body, at any point, Q or R, (fg. §6.) is inverfely as the perpendicular SP or ST, falling from the center of force, upon the tangent at that point. For, let two other bodies, mand », be fuppofed to move uniformly from Q and R, along the tangents QP and RT, with ve- locities refpeGtively equal to thofe of the revolving body at Q and R; then the diftances Q m and Rn, gone over in the fame time, will be to each other zs thofe velocities ; and the areas, QSmand RSza, will be equal, being equal to thofe defcribed by the revolving body in the fame time (fee QuapRaTURE): whenceQm x SP being = Ra x ST, : I I it follows that Qm: Ra::ST:SP:: SPST 1. To determine the law of the centripetal force tending to a given point C, (fig. 87.) by which a body may defcribe a given curve AQH. Let QP be a tangent to the curve at any point Q ; upon which, from the center C, let fall the per- pendicular CP: pue CQ =s, CP =u; and let the velo- ‘city of the projectile at Q be denoted by v. Since v’ is always as = (by the preceding article), it is evident that if 2 we take the fluxions of both quantities, v@ will alfo be as = But the centripetal force, whether the body moves u — vv in a right line ora curve, is always as ——— (fec CenTRat s force): confequently the centripetal force is likewife as Otherwife, let the ray of curvature Q O be denoted uss by R; then, becaufe the centripetal forces in circles are as the fquares of the velocities directly and the radii inverfely (fee Centrav forces) ; it follows that the force, tending to the point O, by which the body might be retained in its orbit at Q, or in the circle whole radius is Q O, will be ee 3; whence R it will be CP (x): CQ (+) :: =i (the force in the dire@ion defined by = x (by the refolution of forces) Q;O). 3: at the force in the direGtion Q C, which, be- saufe R = = (fee Radius of Evyouure), will be ex- i Ag u s = : prefied by —-. ‘Hence it appears, that as the force, tends _ ues =o (* aR) (or — ECP? x, QO wR the force to any other point ¢ will, by the fame argument, be as ing to the point C, is univerfally as ex OO. Confequently, the forces to different centers C and c (about which equal areas are deferibed in the : ; i Gps cp fame time) are to each other in the ratio fo to <5 inverfely. Moreover, the ratio of the velocity at Q_ to the velocity by which the body might revolve in a circle about the center C, at the ditance CQ, is eafily deduced from hence: for, fince the velocity at Q is that by which the body might revolve in a circle about the center O, and the forces tending to the centers,O and C, are to each other as u(CP) ands (CQ); it therefore follows, if the ratio v w fought,be aflumed as v to w, that 70 : Qc =: abet (fee Cenrrat forces): whence alfo v? : w?::u x QO (uR):s x QC (s*); and confequently, vz ws: aR ss a haw \/ = a ( : 2 ‘) Rall Ss eae” eT 2S — 3: — becaufe R=— . Su s Vv; zy It appears farther, that if OL be made perpendicular to ; CP3Q0 uR CL oa QL will be (= Cc cal) es? an Cas = 3 and therefore v : w :: QL? zc Q?; which is an- other proportion of the propofed celerities. Hence, if the law of the centripetal force be given, the nature of the tra- jectory may be found ; for fince the force (F) is univerfally ae ale —-1. defined by — , it is evident that —— will be = the fluent urs 2u of F 5; which, when F is given in terms of s, will become known ; and then the relation between uw and s being given, the curve itfelf is known. E.G. Let it be required to find the law of the centri- petal force, by which a body, tending to the focus C, is made to revolve in the periphery of an ellipfe AQDB (fg. 88). From the other focus, F, draw F K parallel to C P, meet- ing the tangent PQ (at right angles) in K, join F, Q; putting the tranfverfe axis A B = a, the femi-conjugate OD = £4, and the parameter (= ) = p: then, CQ and a C P being denoted as before, we have FQ (= AB—CQ, by property of the ellipfle) = @—s; whence, by reafon o the fimilar triangles CQ P and FQ K, it will bes: u:: a-s:FK=2 7", BuFK x CP is= OD a—sx # (by the nature of the curve). Hence we get =48; of the fluxion See and confequently = = u a Mee a ” we obtain = (as before) & s* pe 5a which being — = =— u N Pe a a VFQ CENTRIPETAB FORCE. FQ V AO in this cafe, as the {quare of the diftance inverfely ; and the velocity at Q_ is to that by which the body might deferibe a circle at the diftance CQ, every where in the ratio of FQ? to AO? If the curve had been an hyperbola ; a-+s : as uj (inflead of Hence it appears, that the centripetal force is, then x “*) would have been J If the 2a 2 — —, as before. Be ps curve had been a parabola, the equation would have been a+o + ara ue M : ee eal 4a 7] I ' = 42; and fo—= X= ws s ) = 4p; andthe force, ’ 4 : us eh ftill, as re But the meafure of the velocity (4/ mae 2.4 = 2S. . . . ee ale: peta) in this cafe becoming barely = ¥ 2, it f a follows that the velocity in a parabola is to that by which the body might defcribe a circle at the fame diftance from the centre, in the conftant ratio of V7 2 to unity. 2. Todetermine the ratio of the velocities of bodies revolving in different orbits, about the fame, or different centers ; the orbits themfelves, and the forces by which they are defcribed, being given. Let AQH (fg. 89.) be any orbit, defcribed about the center of force C, and let the force itfelf at the princi- pal vertex be denoted by F; alfo let r itand for the femipa- rameter, or the ray of curvature at the vertex, and let C P be perpendicular to the tangent QP. Then, the celerity at A being, always, as Vr F (by Centra forces), we have a Jr h CP:CA:: VrF (the velocity at A) to Cex vs the velocity at Q (by a preceding article). This anfwers in all cafes, let the values of AC, r and F be what they may. Hence, if the centripetal force be as the fquare of the diftance inverfely, or F be expreffed by zor the velocity at Q will become 2 x iy aE, or ee : whence the velocities, in different orbits, about the fame center, are in the fubduplicate ratio of the parameters, and the inverfe ratio of the perpendiculars from the center of force to the tangents, conjunctly. Farther; if the celerity at Q be denoted by Q gq, and Cq be drawn; then, Qg being as ap it follows that Vr is as CP x Q4, or as the triangle Q Cg. Confequently, the areas defcribed about a eommon center of force in a given time, are in the fubdu- plicate ratio of the parameters. Moreover, fince the area of the curve AQ HB, &c. when an ellipfe, is known to be as (AO x OD) AO x Vv¥rx AO (fuppofing O to be the center), if the fame be applied to Vr, exprefling the area defcribed in a given part of time (by the lalt article), we fhall thence have AO x V AO, or AO}, for the meafure of the time of one whole revolution. Whence it appears, that the periodic times, let the {pecies of ellipfe be what it may, are in the fefquiplicate ratio of their principal axes. 3. The centripetal force, tending to a point C, being as the Square of the diftances reciprocally, and the direttion and velocity of a body at any point Q being given ; to determine the path in which the body moves, and the periodic time, in cafe it returns, (fig. 90.) ‘The trajectory A Q B is a conic fection, having the point C for one of its foci. Let F be the other focus, and upon the tangent PQ K let fall the perpendiculars C P and F K, and let CQ and FQ be drawn: alfo, put the femitranfverfe, axis AO = a, the given focal diftance CQ = d, and the fine of the angle of dire&tion CQ P (to the radius 1) = mj and let the given velocity at Q be to that by which the body might revolve in a circle about the center C, at that diflance, in any given ratio of 2 to unity; 5 5 = yk L as i then it will be 2:1 :: FQ?: A O®? (fee a preceding arti- cle) ; therefore n® :,1? :: FQ (2@—d): AQ (2); whence A O (a) is given —. Moreover, fince CP = m x 2 == CQ, and FK = m x FQ, we have 0 D* (= CB x Rk =n x COlx EO) = - Seles whence the Sant femi-conjugate axis (OD) is given likewife. Laflly, it will be (by a preceding article) as CT? : AOi:: P the periodic time in any given circle, whofe radius is CT, to AO} : . : (a x P ) the required time of one revolution, when the orbit is an ellipfe ; that is, when x is lefs than 2; for 2d if n? be = 2, the curve (as its axis becomes infinite) 2 , =n will degenerate to a parabola ; and if x* be greater than 2, the axis being negative, it is then an hyperbola; whofe two 2mn d = and >——. Hence Lely 4 Viti —— 2, it follows, that, fince neither the value of A O, nor that of the periodic time, is affeted with m, the principal axis, and the periodic time, will remain invariable, if the velocity Q be the fame, let the direGtion at that point be what it may. The fame folution might be obtained by firft finding the principal parameter ; for it is evident, that the area def{cribed by the body about the center C, in any given time, is to the area defcribed, in the fame time, by another body revolv- ing ina circle at the diftance CQ, as mn to unity; hence it will be, 17: mn? :: d: m? n? d, the femiparameter : from which (proceeding as above) we get a x mn? d(= OD*)= nn” principal diameters are equal to x 2 ad — d’; and confequently a = 1 as before. a = 4. To find expreffions for the centrifugal and centripetal forces, and to determine their proportion to each other. Let S (fig. 91) be the center of force, P K the curve defcribed, PT a tangent to it, SY perpendicular to PI’, and PQan indefinitely {mall arc ; draw Qw perpendicular to SP. and with the center S defcribe the circular arc Qx; and let R Q be parallel to 5 P, and P V be the chord of the cir- cle of curvature. Let PQ reprefent the motion of the body in the curve in a given time ; then Pav will reprefent, that part-of the motion which is direéted towards the cen- ter, and by which alone the body would be found, at the end of the given time, at the diltance Sw; but on account of the motion wQ, it is found at the end of the fame time at the diftance SQ or Sx; fo that the perpendicular motion wQ has made the body to recede from S through a {pace equal to wx, which therefore reprefents the centri~ fugal force ; and the centripetal force is reprefented by Q R. mia. . area Sx Q\? Now wx = ultimately: but x Q? variesas —— $: 2x*8. y Q x S? ‘ area S x QI? therefore w x varies as ————- x » which varies as, 2x $4 area: CEN area 6 P cl So pi ultimately. Hence, in the fame curve, the centri- fugal force varies as op the areaS PQ defcribed in a given time being given. And in different curves, if the dif- tance is the fame, the centrifugal forces are as the fquares of the areas defcribed in a given time. Hence, the centri- petal force in the curve : the centrifugal force :: QR:ixw:: z Que} xQ? xiQ2\ (decaufe Oa Pv? and x w = 2Q5 = Pah yinO? : . a z =~ :: (fince by fimilar triangles Q P? : Q x*:: SsP?S; ¥? SP? 0S V2) a eee SPS ¥? xP. ) PV 2SP E.G. Let the curve be an ellipfe whofe greater axis is 2a, and the eccentricity = w, and the body be at the greateft diftance from the center of force, which is fup- poled to be in the focus; then the centripetal force : J a— w centrifugal ::S P: $PV::.a + w: —-—— ::4:a — w. 2 a Let VPA (fg. 92.) be an ellipfe whofe focus is S and center C; V W acurve fo conftruéted, that Sp may be al- wa s equal to SP, and the angle VSp to VSP in a given rato G: F; then the areas VSf, VSP will be in the fame given ratio. Let a -body revolve from V to P about the center of force S, in the fame time in which another body revolves from V top. Then as the area VSP varies as V Sf, and the area VSP varies as the time, the area V Sp varies as the time; confequently the body defcribing Vp is urged by a force tending toS. Let Pv be the chord of curvature. Since the centrifugal forces GF S)B3; S:P3) them be reprefented by thefe quantities ; hence the differ- G?— F? S Ps from the center by a centrifugal force which is greater by G ot 1 Oe SP p mutt be aéted upon by a centripetal force which is greater by the fame quantity, in order to deftroy it, fo that the bodies may keep at the fame diftance. Now S Y*? x Pv: 2 2 'SiP3' 2: aT x Ghecentieail oreaiotheellipieaoPeie Sere. a P er ba the force ia the orbit V W at p = ae AG x RSP? of But SY? = ep. n . and Pv = We? R be- ing half the latus rectum, and C D the femi-conjugate dia- of the two bodies are as G?: I", or as let Now if p recede ence of the centrifugal forces is than that by which P recedes, it is manifeit that ") —_ (the centrifugal force is the ellipfe at P) : m Sx Po t+ SEF 2) CD? meter to PC: hence, the force at P = _ FP CSP PR xSP SP Fo arp aa ; therefore the ratio of thefe aE Ee RG? — RF Pies forces is cp. SP. ae. See Vince’s Af. tronomy, vol. ii. chap. 31. Simpfon’s Fluxions, Vol. i. Sedtion 12. CENTRISCUS, in Jchthyology, a genus of Branchio- ftegous fithes, diltinguifhed by the following charaéters : Head produced into a very narrow fnout: mouth without CEN teeth: lower jaw longer than the upper: aperture of the gills broad and flat: body compreffed: abdomen carinated : ventral fins united. Centriscus Scolopax, trumpet, or bellows fifh, of Ray, is an inhabitant of the Mediterranean fea, and has been re- cently difcovered on the coaft of Cornwall. (Donov. Brit. fithes). It is fpecifically defcribed as having the body {caly and rough : tail {traight, and extended. This is a {mall fith meafuring commonly from four to five, or fix inches in length, or rarely {even The body is much comprefled laterally ; and is entirely covered with h-rd pointed fcales: the colour red, or reddifh, darkeft or in- clining to purplifh on the back, and filvery on the belly, and the whole furface glefled with atinge of gold. The fir dorfal fin contifts of four firong bony rays, the ante- rior one of which is moveable, very ftrong, jagged or den- ticulated on each fide, and with che reft of the fin is fituated in a {mall hollow on the rife of the back. This {piny ray is the only defenfive weapon with which nature has furnifhed this fpecies. The French call this fith Bécafe, the Ger- mans Afeerfelnepf. In the fouth of Europe, where it is not unfrequent, it is efteemed an edible fifh ; the fefh is tender, of a good flavour, and eafy digeltior. Cenraiscus Scufatus. Back covered with a fmooth bony fhell. Bloch, &c. This fpecies has the body fo much compreffed as to refemble a lamina, particularly on the ab- domen, where it is membranaceous: the back is covered with {mooth, golden, and clofely united plates: fides pellu- cid, yellowith, and filvery; beneath tortoifefhell, marked with tranfverfe white lines: pe€toral and ventral fins yel- lowith, the reft brown. Klein calls this fith Amphifilen ; Ikan Pafan, Mefvifch, Valent. Shan Peixe, Ruyfch. Length from fix to eight inches: inhabits the Indian feas, and fubfilts on marine worms, and {mall crabs. Centaiscus Valitaris. Body oblong lanceolate, rough, with [mall recumbent bri(tles at the noftrils. Linn. Pallas, &c. _ A native of Amboyna. Length two inches: body fil- very ¥ above, yellowifh grey : before the ventral fins a trian- gular carination: back protected by a rhombic fhield, — marked by four oblique lines, in the middle a recumbent, flightly moveable, fubulate, acutely pointed {pine, which is rather ferrated at the edge, and grooved beneath; and be- low this another fmaller {pine fituated in a hollow of the back : ventral fin broad: tail flightly rounded. Cenrriscus is alfo the name given by Klein to two or more fpecies of the Linnzan genus gafterofteus, as for ex- ample, Centrifcus duobus in dorfo arcuato aculeis, &c. Gatterofteus aculeatus; Centrifcus aculeis quindecim in dorfo, &c. Gatterofteus {pinachia. ‘ CENTRITES, in Ancient Geography, a river of Afia in Armenia, which fprung from the mountains S.W. of the lake Arfiffas and running to the fouth-welt,. difcharged itfelf into the river Nicephorius. Diodorus. Siculus fays, that this river flowed between Armenia and Media; and in the account of Xenophon’s famous retreat, it is faid to have feparated Armenia from the country of the people called Carduchi. The Greeks, un- der the command of this general, were obitruéted by this. river, 2co feet wide, in their progrefs to the Armenian plains, and lodged one night near its banks, refrefhing themfelves with the plenty and variety.which the country yielded, and flattering themfelves that the hardfhips which they had endured were jult terminating. But on the fol- lowing morning they were alarmed by the appearance of an army of horfe and foot, drawn up in hoftile array on the other fide of the river, on an eminence about three or tour hundred GCEWN hundred feet from it, who feemed determined to oppofe their paflage. Thefe were Armenians, Mygdontans, ‘Chaldeans, and other auxiliaries, hired by Orontas, go- vernor ot that province. ‘The only road which the Greeks could difcover led upwards, and feemed to have been made ty art > and the breadth of the river inducing them to be- lieve it fordable, they attempted to pafs it there ; but they had not procecded far before they found themfelves obliged to return, and encamp onthe banks of the river. CENTRO-BARYC Meruop, from xerlgov and Bxeus, ‘heavy, in Mechanicsyis a method ot meafuring or determining the quantity of a furface or a folid, by confidering it as formed by motion, and multiplying it into the way of its center of gravity. The do&rine is comprifed in the following theorem, with its corollaries. Every figure, whether fuperficial or folid, gencrated by the motion of a line or figurt, is equal to the produé of the generating magnitude into the way of its center of gravity, or the line which its center of gravity defcribes. Demonji. For fuppofe the weight of the whole generating magnitude colleéted in the centre of gravity; the whole weight produced by its motion will be equal to the produ of the Weight moved into the way of the center of gravity. But when lines and figures are confidered like homogencous, heavy bodies, their weights are as their bulks ; and therefore the weight moved is the generating magnitude; andthe weight produced that generated. The figure generated, therefore, is equal to the produ& of the magnitude into the way of its center of gravity. Q. FE. D. This kind of proot, furnifhed by Wolfius, is very vague and unfatisfactory. But it is not difficult to fupply one that is much better. Accordingly, let us fuppofe a lever loaded with two weights, and a fixed point in this lever. It is well known that the fum of the produéts of each weight by its diltance from this point is equal to the produ& of the fum of the weights by the diftance of their center of gra- vty from this point : then, if we imagine the lever to re- volve round this fixed point, the circumferences will be pro- portional to the radii, and the fum of the produdts of each weight by the path or circumference which ic deferibes will be equal to the produét of the fum of the weights by the circumference defcribed by the center of gravity. This de- monttration, comprehending two weights, may be eafily ap- plied to any number of weights at pleafure. Corol. 1. Since a parallelogram ABCD ( Plate XI. Me- chanics, fig. 94+) is defcribed, if the right line A B proceed according to the direction of another A C, with a motion full parallel to itfelf ; and the way of the center of gravity E is equal to the right line E F, perpendicular to C D, that is, to the altitude of the paraliclogram : its area is equal ro the produé of the bafe C D, or the deferibing lire into the altitude EF. On this corollary we may obferve, that A C is not, ftri€tly {peaking, the direétrix of A B, although AB moves along AC; but this dire€trix is properly the line EF, which meafures the diflance of AB from CD; and the way of the center of gravity, by which we multiply the defcribing line, AB (or CD) is not the abfolute way of this enter, but its way eftimated with refpeét to the dire@trix or the way it defcribes in a line perpendicular to the defcribing fi This remark is necefflary in order to prevent thofe paralogifms which might occur, in applying without precau- — the foregoing rule to the meafure of furfaces and fo- 6. Corol. 2. In the fame manner it appears, that the folidity of all bodies, defcribed by a plane defcending according to Von. VIL. GEN the direGtion of any right line AC, is had by multiplying the defcribing plane by the altitude. Corel. 3. Since a circle is deferibed, if the radius CL, (fig. 95.) revolve round a center C, and the center of gra- vity of the radius CL be iv the middle F, the way of the center of gravity is the periphery of a circle X, defcribed by a fubduple radius: confequently the area of the circle is equal to the produét of the radins C L, into the periphery deferibed by the fubduple radius C F. Corol. 4. If a rectangle ABCD (fg. 96.) revolve about its axis AD; the rectangle will deferibe a cylinder, and the fide BC the fuperiicies of a cylinder. But the center of gravity of the right line BC is in the middle, F; andthe center of gravity of the generating plane in the middle, G, of the right line EF. The way of this latter, therefore, is the periphery of a circle defcribed by the radius EG, and that of the firlt the circumference of a circle defcribed by the radius EF. Wherefore, the fuperfictes of the cylinder is the produét of the altitude BC into the periphery of a circle defcribed by the radius EF, or the bafe. And the folidity of the cylinder is the product of the generating reét- angle A BCD into the periphery of a circle defcribed by the radius EG, which is f{ubduple of EF, or of the femidiame- ter of the cylinder. Suppofe, v. gr. the altitude of the dcfcribing plane, and therefore of the cylinder BC = a; the femidiameter of the bafe DC = r; then will EG = Zr: and fuppofing the ratio of the femidiameter to the periphery = 1 : m, the pe- riphery deferibed by the radius 47 = mr. Therefore multiplying 3 mr by the area of the reQangle AC = ar; the folidity of the cylinder will be = 4 mar. But 3 mar* = dr x mr x a; and 4 mr’is the arca of the circle de- {cribed by the radius EG. It is evident, therefore, the cy- liader is cqual to the produét of the bafe into the alti- tude. Corol. 5. In like manner fince the center of gravity of the right line AB (fg. 97.) is in the middle M, and the furface of a cone is defcribed, if the triangle ABC revolves about its axis; if PM = £ BC; the fuperficies of the cone will be equal to the produét of its fide AB, into the peri- phery defcribed by the radius PM, or the fubduple of the femi-diameter of the bafe BC. Suppofe, v. gr. BC = r, AB = a, the ratio of the radius to the periphery 1: m ; then will PM = Sr, and the pen- phery deferibed by this radius = Emr. Uherefore multi- plying 4 mr into the fide of the cone A B, the produét is the fuperficies or } amr. But 5 amris alfo the produ. of 2 aand mr: therefore the furface of the cone is the pro- duct of the periphery into half the fide. Corol. 6. lf the triangle ACB ( fig. 98.) revolve about its axis, it defcrikes a cone; but if CB be bifeéted in D, and the right line AD be drawn, and AO = AD; the cen- ter of gravity will be in O. The folidity of the cone, there- fore, is equal to the produ of the triangle CAB into the periphery defcribed by the radius PO; but AD: AO:: BD: OP; and AO=3% AD, and DB=£CB. There- fore, OP = 3 BD = 3 CB. Suppofe, v. gr. BC = r, AB = a, the ratio of the ra- dius to the periphery = 1: m. Then will OP = 4r, the periphery defcribed by this radius 4 mr; the triangle ACB = i ar; and, therefore, the folidity of the cone 4 mr £ ar = famr. Butt amr = 57 xX mr X }.a: Or, the pro- du& of the bafe of the cone into the third part of the alti tude. See TRIANGLE. Corol. 7. Let the femicircle DCA (fg: 99.) revolve about the diameter AD, and defcribe the furface of -a Nn {phere CEN no(e Iphere, Ifthere be taken DC: FC:: FC: FH = = BV late ni putting r for the radius, and ¢ for the whole circum- ¢ ference; H will be the center of gravity of the arc DCA ; and confequently r:¢:: FH: 4r = the line or circum- ference defcribed by H the center of gravity: and by the eis rule DCA x 4r=4¢ x 4r = 2rc = the fur- ace of the {phere = the circumference into the diameter: as it ought to be by other principles. For the folidity of : the dif- 4 or ragri—= 3¢ tance FH of the center of gravity of the {emicirele DCAD from the diameter AD; which is two-thirds of the diltance of the center of gravity of the arc DCA from the fame diameter DA, in the former cafe: confequently, the line defcribed by the center of gravity in this cafe will be two thirds of that in the former: but the defcribing line in the former cafe is to the cefcribing {pace in this as 1 is to dr; therefore 1: 3 x Lr:: furface of the {phere : folidty = tr x furface. Hence it follows, that the circumference of the circle whofe radius is the diflance of the center of gravity of the femicircumference of any circle from its center, is equal to four times the radius of that circle. Corol. 8. For the folidity of a parabolic fpindle, put 2 = the bafe, and a = the altitude or axis of the generating para- bola, and n = .785398. It is known that 3 ais the dil- tance of the center of gravity from the bafe, aud confe- quently 4° a = the line deferibed by the center of gravity; but 3 ab is = the revolving area; therefore 18 a x Gab= 32a@a 6 will be the content, which is ,$; of the circumfcribed cylinder. Corol. 9. For the paraboloid, let the notation be as in the laft example ; and 3 J will be the diftance of the center of gravity of the femi-parabola from the axis; confequently 3 bx 8n x 2ab= 2abnn the folidity = half the circumfcribed cylinder. This elegant theorem, which may be’ ranked among the chief inventions in geometry of the lait age, was taken notice of long ago by Pappus; but the jefuit Guldinus was the firft who fet it in its full light, and exhibited its ufe in a variety of examples. Several cther geometers, after Pappus and Guldinus, have alfo ufed it in meafuring folids, and furfaces generated by a rotation round a fixed axis; efpecially before the late invention of the inte- gral calculus: and it may {till take place in fome cafes where the integral calculus would be more difficult. M. Leibnitz has obferved, that the method will hold, though the axis or center be continually changed during the generative motion. CENTRON, in Geography, a village of Savoy in the Tarantuife, formerly a capital town of a people, called Centrones 33 miles E.N.E. of Monttier. CENTRONES, in Ancient Geography, a people of Belgic Gaul, placed by Czxfar in dependance on the Nervians. Some authors place them in the terrritory of Gand, others in that of Courtray, &c., D’Anviile has not mentioned them. —a\lfo, an ancient people of the Gauls, placed by Ptolemy in the Grecian Alps; and mentoned both by Czfar and Pliny. Many authors have fuppofed, and not improbably, that the Acitavones, on the Alps, were the Centrones. CENTRONIA, in Zoology, the name by which Dr. Hill diftinguifhes the cruftaceous vermes called Sea-eggs, and by Naturalifts, Echini. See Ecuinus. CENTRUM, in Geometry, Mechanics, Sec. TER, the fphere, we fhail have 3c: 2 See CEn- CE Centrum phonicum, in Aconflics, is the place where the fpeaker ftands in polyfyllabical and articulate echoes. Centrum phanocampticum, is the place, or object, that returns the voice in an echo. Centrum fendinofum, in Anatomy, a name applied to the tendon ef the diaphragm, which occupies the center of the part. Sce DiapyraGcm. CENTRY box, a fortof box or hut for fheltering centinels in bad weather. It is commonly made of wood. But in fortifications with revetements or demt-revetsments cf mae fonry, they are often made of ftone, and ufually in a circular form. CENTUM-CELL, in Ancient Geography, Civita- Vecchia, afea port town of Italy, in Etruria, “Lrajin made this the place of his refidence, where he entertained his friends and the great men of his court, with mufic, plavs, and ban- quets, not fumptuous but moderate. In procefs of time, he gave it importance by ereéling a harbour, wich he calied after his own name, and which is the prefent port of Civita Veechia, where the pope kveps his gallies. The harbour was formed by running ont two picrs into the fea, and con- {truGting in the interval between thema mole or little ifland, which ferved to break the violence of the waves, and to fecure the fhips in the inner bafon from itorms and bad weather. CENTUM-MORBIA, in Botany, aname ufed by fome aathors for the common moncy-wort or nummularia, from its {uppofed virtues. CENTUM-PUTEA, in Ancient Geography, a place of Dacia Trajana. CENTUMVIRATE, among the Romans, acourt com- pofed of one hundred magiltrates, or judges, appointed to decide private diflerences between the people. It was infli- tuted fome few years after the appointment of the ** Preter peregrinus,” about the year of Rome 5:0, B.C.234- at the motion of two tribunes of the people, both A&butii ; in order to affilt the pretors, who were often obliged to take the field, and could not difpatch all civil affairs, which multiplicd in proportion to the enlargement of the republic. The centumviri were a body of men chofen, three out of each of the thirty-five tribes, fo that their number amounted to five more than their name imports, and they were divided into four courts or councils, and fometimes only into two: their bafinefs, in fubordination to the pretor, was to judge of matters relating toteftaments, tutorage, inheritances, and fuch other matters of lefler weight and moment, asthe pre- tors committed to them. After the time of Auguitus, they formed the council of the praetor, and judged, in the molt ime portant cafes; whence trials before them (judicia centum- viralia) are fometimes diltinguifhed from private trials ; but thefe were not criminal trials, as fome have thought, for ina certain fenfe all trials were public. Their body was after- wards increafed to an hundred and eighty ; though they ftill retained the appellation of centumviri. The centumviri were called toyether by fetting up a fpear 5 at firt, by thofe who had difcharged the office of quetlor ; afterwards by the decemviri, who prefded in them during the abfence of the pretor. ‘Trials before them were ufually held in the Bafilica Julia; fometimes in the Forum. In important cafes, they all judged together ; nor could a caufe before them be adjourned. ‘hey continued to act as judges for a whole year. 5 CENTUNCULUS, in Botany, (the name of a plant i Pliny) Dill. in Rai. fyn. 1. Linn. gen. 145. Schreb. 18 Wilid. 224. Lam. Ill. 226. Gert. 278. Juff. 95. Vent 2.286. Centenille. Fr. Clafs and order, tefrandria mcnogy. nh GEN nia. Nat Ord. Rotacee, Linn. Ly/fimachiz, Juff. Primulacee, Vent. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth four-cleft, {preading, permanent ; fegments lanceolate, acute. Cor. monepetalous, whee!- fhaped ; tube fhort, fomewhat globular; border four cleft ; fegments egg-fhaped, fpreading. Stam. Filaments four, naked, the length of the corolla; anthers fimpie. P7/. Germ, fuperior, roundifh, within the tube of the corolla; ftyle filiform, permanent; ftigma fimple. Peric. Capfule globular, one celled, fplitting horizontally ; receptacle free. Sceds many, very fmall. Eff. Char. Calyx four-cleft. Corolla whecl-fhaped, four- cleft, filaments naked, capfule fplitting horizontally, one- celled, many -f-cded. According to Juffieu it is fometimes petandrous with a five-ckeft corolla, and then in its effeutial chara@ters does not difler from Anagallis; but Dr. Smith is of opinion that the tubular form of the corolla, and the naked filaments, independent of the number, jultify Dillenius in making it difting. Sp. C. minima, Linn, Mart. Lam. Willd. Gert. tab. 50. fig. 2. Lam. Illuft. tab. 83. Flor. dan. tab. 177. Curt. Flor. Lond. tab, 11. Eng. bot. 531. (Anagallis, Vaill. par. tab. 4. fig. 2. Mentz. Pugil.tab. 7. Anagallidaftouri, Mich, gen. tab. 18. fig. 2.) Baftard Pimpernel, fmal! Chaff-weed. Root annual, fibrous. Stem one or two inches high, a little branched at the bafe, afcending, leafy, fomewhat angular, fmooth. Leaves aiternate, feflile, fpreading, egg-fhaped, quite entire, fmooth. F/owers folitary, axillary, {cflile, white, expanded only in the molt bniliant funfhine, foon withering, but permanent till forced off by the {welling cap- fule. Capfule globular, mucronate with the permanent ttyle. A native of moilt heaths in England, France, Italy, Germany, and Sweden, but often overlooked on account of its minutenefs; it is moft readily difcovered by its capfules. Centuncutus, Scop. See CErastium. CENTURI, in Geography, a {ea-port town of the ifland of Corfica. CENTURIA, in Ancient Geography, or Pinturia, the name as it varioufly occurs in Ptolemy’s geography, of one of the Fortunate iflands, in the Atlantic Ocean, near the coaft of Africa. i . CENTURIA, an epifcopal city of Africa, in Nu- midia; probably the fame with Centurianenfis, or Centuro- nicn/is. Y ~ CENTURIAL Inscriptions, a denomination given by fome to thofe inf{criptions inferted in the face of Severus’s wall, which make mention of the centuries and cohorts by whom fuch parts of the wall are fuppofed to have been ereéted. In which fenfe, centurial infcriptions ftand contra- diftinguifhed from /egionary. CENTURIATA Comitia, in Antiquity, thofe affem- blies of the Romans, wherein the people gave their votes by centuries. See Century and Comitia. CENTURTATORS, an appellation given to certain Tearned Germans of the city of Magdeburg, who in the early days of the Reformation compofed a body of church hiftory, divided into centuries of years. Baronius is faid to have written his Annals by way of oppo- fition to the centuriators of Magdeburg. CENTURINUM, in Ancient Geography, a town or burgh, feated at the point of the moft northerly promontory of the ifland of Corfica. CENTURION, a military officer among the Romans, who with another officer of the fame denomination, com- manded a company or maniple, or one of the ten feparate parts, into which the haftati, as well as the principes and CEN triarii in each legion, were divided. From each -of thefe Cefcriptions of foldiers, ten men of the mott approved and diftinguithed merit were firft fcleéted, and after them ten more. Thefe were all called Commanders of comparics or maniples. The firft of thefe that was chofen or appointed was called primipilus, or centurio primipili, and had a feat in the military council. 'T'wo of thefe centurions or captains of companies or maniples were appointed to each company. And when both were prefent, he that was firft chofen led the right, and the other the left of the company; but when either of them was abfest, he who remained, conduéted the whole of it. In the choice of thefe captains or commanders of companies, thole who were the boldeft and moft enter- prifing were not efteemed the beft, but rather thofe who were fedate and fteady, prudent and fkilful in command. And it was not fo much required of them that they fhould on all occafions be eager to begin an engagement, or to precipitate themfelves into action, as that when hard prefled or even overpowered by fuperior force and numbers, they fhould fhill maintain their polts, and rather die than defert their ftations Thefe twenty centurions or commanders of companies chofe twenty other men of diftinguithed condu@, prudence, and merit ; two of whom were affigned to each company to take care of itsrear. Befides thefe, two of the bravetl and ftout- eft among the foldiers were appointed by the centurions to carry the ttandards in each company. And it was not with- out very good reafon indeed, that two captains or centurions were affigned to each maniple or company, as well as two fub-captains or fub-centurions. For as it was impoffible to know or alcertain before-hand what the condu@ of an officer would be, or to what accidents he might be expofed ; and as excufe or pretext in the affairs of war is inadmiffible, that precaution and arrangement were neceflary to prevent the company from being on any occafion without a leader. A centurion is generally defined to have been a military officer, who commanded a hundred men. But this is a very erroneous definition. For when the Roman ftate was in its greateft vigour and perfe€tion, which it was about the time of Hannibal’s invafion of Italy, the two centurions in a maniple or company of the haftati or principes com- manded twice as many men as the two centurions in a mae niple of the triarii ; as a maniple of each of the former then contained 120 men, whereas a maniple of the latter confifted only of fixty. The legion then confifted commonly of 4200 foot, and 3co horfe. Of thefe 4200 infantry, 600 were triarli, 1200 were haftati, 12co were principes, and the remainder were velites or light troops. Anciently and before the war of Hannibal, it was the con- ftant cuftom of the Romans to raife four legions annually, and to allow to each legion 4000 foot and two hundred horfe, unlefs they were preffed by any great or unufual danger, in which cafe they increafed the number of men compofing it to 5000 foot and 3co horfe. And prior to the battle of Cannz, they ordered eight legions of 5000 men each to be raifed, independent of an equal number of the allies, an ex- pedient, to which they had never before had recourfe in any of their wars. Whilft the number of foot in a legion thus varied between 40co and 5000, the number of men com- manded by a centurion in the haftati and principes alfo varied, though the number of thofe commanded by a centurion in the triarii continued invariably the fame. For whatever number of men the legion confifted of, that of the triarii continued at 600, or the fame, till it was fo augmented as to equal that of the haftati or principes ; towards the time of Juhwus Czfar and theclofe of the mixed government of the Ro- mans, during the continuance of which in its vigour and purity the numbers of men commanded re[pectively by a centurion in the haftati, or principes, and by a centurion in the triarii, Nnz were C Re were inaratio that frequently varied, During the fame period, there were, in every legion, fixty centurions or com- manders of companies or maniples, fixty officers chofen by them to take charge of the rear of the companics, who might be denominated fub-centurions or fub-captains, and fixty ftandard-bearers or enligns, who were appointed by the captans orcenturions, CENYURIONES, An, in Ancient Geography, a place of Gaul, in the Pyrenées. CENTURIPZ, Crenruriprs, now Centorb/, a town of Sicily on the eattern coalt, at a fmall dillance from Catana. Chie city was democratical, and, ike Syracufe, received its liberty from ‘Limoleon. Its inhabitants cultivated the fine arts, particularly fculpture and engraving. In digging for the remains of antiquities, cameos are no where found in The {ituation of the place is romantic ; it is built on the fummit of a va't group of rocks, which was probably chofen as the moft difficult of accefs, and confequently the moft proper in times of civil commotion. The remains of its ancient bridge afford evidence of its having been formerly a confiderable city. Cicero {peaks of it as fuch. It was taken by the Romans, plundered and oppreffed by Verres, dettroyed by Pompey, and reftored by Octavius, who made it the refi- dence of a Roman colony. Houel’s Voyage FPittorefque des Ifles de Sicile, de Malte, et de Lipari, &c. See Cen- TORBI. CENTURY, in French centurie, from the Latin word centuria, a derivative of centum, a hundred. Stri@ly fpeak- ing, it fignifies one hundred of any thing, as a hundred years, a hundred men, &c. The term centuria, century, was given to the Roman horfemen or equites that belonged to each tribe, and at firft amounted only toa hundred. The term, however, centurta equilum was continued after that number was greatly in- creafed. It was anciently the cuftom of the Romans, in forming their legions, to choofe their cavalry, and to add two hundred horfemen to every four thoufand of their infan- try. But in the time of Polybius, the citizens, of whom the cavalry was compofed, were appointed by the cenfors accord- ing to the rate of their revenue, and were enrolled before the infantry: and three hundred of them were afligned to every legion. When the Roman people were affembled in the Campus Martius for the purpofe of chooling magiftrates, eflablifhing laws, or deliberating on public affairs, they were divided into centuries, and voted by centuries to facilitate the taking of their fuffrages. Thefe affemblies were called comitia centuriata. The Latin writers fometimes made ufe of the word centu- tia, to denote a company or the number of men commanded by a centurion, whether it confifted of a hundred, or of more, or of lefs. ‘Thus the phrafe, pedites centuriati, means infantry divided into companies or maniples., In chronology, century fignifies a period of one hundred years. Church-hiftory is generally computed by centuries commencing from the incarnation of Jefus Chrift. In this fenfe of the word, we fay, the firft century, the fathers of the fecond century, the councils of the third century, &c. CENTUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Arabia Fe- lix, Ptolemy. ; CENTUSSIS, a Roman coin, containing a hundred affs. See As. CEODES, in Botany, Juff. 422. Forft.tab. 71. Gen. Ch. Cal. none. Cor. monopetalous, top-fhaped; border five- cleft. Stam. ten, alternately fhorter ; anthers roundifh, Pi. ftyle one; ftigma dilated. Fruit unknown, ; Lae j , fuch abundance as at Centurippi and its environs. C-E:B CEORLE. See Cuurte. CEOS, Cea, or Cia, in Ancient Geography, now Zia, one of the Cyclades, an ifland of the A%gean fea, lies oppofite to the promontory of Achata, called Sunium, and is 50 miles in compafs. hig ifland is commended by the ancients for its fertility and the richnefs of its paftures. If we may credit Pliny and Solinus, the firft filk ftuffs were wrought in thie ifland; and they were hence called the Cean manufature. Ceos was alfo famous for its excellent figs. It is faid to have been firft peopled by Arifteus, the fon of Apollo and Cyrene, who, being grieved tor the death of his fon A€tzon, retired from Thebes, at the perfuafion of his mother, and went over with fome Thebans to Ceos, at that time unin- habited. Diodorus Siculus fays, that he retired to the ifland of Cos; but the ancients, as Servius (in Virg. Georg. lib. i.) ebferves, called both thefe iflands by the name of Cos, How- ever this be, the ifland of Ceos became fo populous, that a law prevailed there, commanding all perfons upwards of 60 years of age to be poifoned, that others might be able to fubfitk; fo that none above 60 years of age were to be feen in the ifland, being obliged, after they had attained that age, eithcr to fubmit to the law or abandon the country, together with their effets. (See Strabo, lib. x. A®lian Var. Hift. 1. iti. c. 37.) In former times Ceos had four famous citizs, viz. Julis, Carthea, Coreffus, and Preeffa. The two latter were, according to Pliny (1. xvi. c. 27.) fwallowed up by an earthquake. ‘Che other two flourifhed in the time of Strabo. Carthwza was feated on a rifing ground. at the end of a valley, about 3 miles from the fea; andits fituation agrees with that of the prefent town of Zia, whence the ifland derives its name. The ruins both of Carthwa and Julis are ftill remain- ing ; thofe of the latter occupy a whole mountzin, and are called by the modern inhabitants ‘ Polis,”’ that is, the city. Near this place are the ruins of a ftately temple, with many pieces of broken piilars, and ftatues of moft exquifite work- manfhip. The walls of the city were of marble, and fome pieces are ftill remaining, about 12 feet in length. Julis was, according to Strabo, the birth-place of Simonides, Bacchylides, Eraliftratus, and Arifto. We learn from the Oxford marbles, that Simonides, the fon of Leoprepis, in- vented a fort of artificial memory, the principles of which he explained at Athens; and that he was defcended from an- other Simonides, who was a poet no lefs renowned than him- felf. One of thefe two poets invented thofe melancholy verfes which were fung at funerals, and are called by the Latins “ Neniz.”? (Hor. |.ii. od. 1.) Strabo fays, that’ the Athenians having betieged the city of Julis, raifed the fiege upon advice that the inhabitants had refolved to murder all the children under a certain age, that ufeful perfons might not be employed in taking charge of them. Ceos was, with the other Greek iflands, fubdued by the Romans, and be- ftowed upon the Athenians by Mare Antony the triumvir,’ together with /Egina, Tinos, and fome other adjoining iflands, which were all reduced to one Roman province by Vefpafian. CEPA, in Botany, C. Bauh. Tourn. See Artium. Cera, Rumph. See Pancratium amboinenfe. Cera, in Gardening. See Attium. CEPA, in Botany, C. Bauh. See Senum Cepea. CEPARUM Promonrtorium, in Ancient Geography, a promontory of the ifle of Cyprus, extended into the fea di- rectly towards the north, near the town of So/z, according to Strabo and Ptolemy. CEPASIA&, in Geography, a town of Italy, in Venetia, N. of Plavis and W. of Opitergium. CEPEDE, De La, Count, in Biography, a French writer on mufic, whe publifbed, in 1785, a treatife entitled “ La Poetique Cin Poétique de la Mufique,’’ which contains many excellent re- fleGtions and precepts for a young compofer of lyric dramas, particularly French, from which the author draws all the il- laitrations of his principles. The work is extended to 2 vols. 12mo.; is well writcen and well printed, but contains few precepts to which the prefent mufical critics at the Inftitute, or ferious opera, will fubfcribe. The tafte in mufic at Paris, from all we can gather in converfing with good judges of the lyric drama, is fo much improved fince the time of Rameau, ‘and the orcheftra fo well difciplined by the performance of German fymphonies, that, with a better language for the emiffion of found, and better fingers, would be very high in the {cale of the melodrama. CEPHA CasreExtt, in Geography, an epifcopal fee of Affa, in Syria. CEPHALADIS, Cerava, a town on the northern part of Sicily. CEPHALALGIA, in Medicine, from xeParn, head, and aryo:, pain, is the technical term for the diforder, which 4s, in common kanguage, called head-ache. By fome authors this term is applied only to a recent or flight head-ache, or to one which is partial or confined to a particular part of the head; and they employ the word CerHaLa, xePwazix, to denote the complaint, when it is of longer ftanding, or more obitinate, or when the whole of the head is affected. Thefe diftin¢tions, however, are generally overlooked at prefent, and the two terms are ufed fynonymoufly. Other denomi- nations are alfo given to head-aches, which are accompanied by other peculiarities of fymptoms: thus when they return at regular periods, with certain intervals of eafe, they are termed intermitting head-aches, and by the vulgar, agues in the head; and as in thefe inftances it ufually nappens that one half of the head only fuffers, they are technically de- feribed under the term Hemicrania (from xuicv, half, aud xzanc, the feull) : fee Hemicrania. When the pain ts con- fined to a particular point in the face, namely, to the fitua- tion of a {mall hole, through which a nerve paff’s to the in- teguments, it has been denominated by the French Tie Dou- foureux. A.local and violent pain alfo occurs occafionally ia fome part of the head, in hyfterical women, which is faid to refemble the fenfation of a nail driven into the head, and has hence been denominated Clavus hy/flericus. See Hys- _ TERIA. Head-ache is a fymptom of almoft every febrile com- plaint, as well as of many others of a chronic nature ; info- much that Dr. Cullen has not included it among the genera of idiopathic difeafe, in his nofology. Although it be, however, in a great majority of inftances, fymptomatic of a difeafe in fome other part of the body, or of a general febrile tate, yet it is frequently the concomitant of fome morbid {tate of the contents, or of the integuments, of the fkull.— An acute pain of the head is one of the moft obvious marks of inflammation of the brain or its membranes, which is termed phrenitis, or phrenzy ; as well in its common accep- tation, as in that form of the difeafe, which terminates by an effufion of ferum into the ventricle of the brain, and is then denominated Aydrocephalus. It alfo accompanies the various organic difeafes, which take place in the different parts of the brain, as may be found among the accounts of diffections, detailed by Morgagni, Haller, Lieutaud, &c. Thus after death, which had been preceded by fevere and obftinate head-ache, tumours and abfceffes have been found feated in, or adhering to, certain portions of the cerebrum or cerebellum ; the different membranes of the brain have been found thickened ; the arteries or membranes partially con- verted into bone ; bony prajeStions from the cranium have been difcovered piercing or pvefling on the brain; and ¢flufions CrE P of blood or ferum producing preffure on the external furface, orin the internal cavities, of that organ. Pain in the head is alfo the confequence of that fulnefs of the veffels of the head, which gives rife to lethargic, apopleétic, and paralytic affections, by preffure on the brain, or by the fubfequent rupture of the veffels, and effufion of blood. In perfons of full habit of body, therefore, with fhort neck, large head, and florid complexion, head-ache is ufuaily one of the fore- runners of an apopleétic attack. Further, there are inftances of idiopathic headeache, in which the brain itfelf does not appear to be affeted, but in which the morbid condition is confined to the fkull, or its: integuments. Theinteguments of the cranium appear to be not unfrequently the feat of rheumatic inflammation, which gives rife to a head-ache, tedious and diltrefling as rheuma- tifm feated in the membranes furrounding the joints, or in other parts of the body. The poifon of the venereal dif- eafe, when the fyftem becomes thoroughly imbued with it, is able to excite a peculiar inflammation in the pericranium, or membrane invefting the fkull, and even in the full itfelf, which excites a fevere head-ache, accompanied by a great forenefs or tendernefs of the integuments. The moft frequent inftances of head-ache, however, are thofe in which it is fymptomatic of difeafe in fome other part of the body, or arifes in confequence of the fympathy which exilts between the brain and fome other organ. Thefe fympathies are numerous, and one of the ftrengelt is that which takes place between the head and the alimentary canal, but efpecially between the head and the ftomach. Hence with almoft every derangement of the ftomach, the head is liable to fuffer. Such is the origin ef that common complaint, efpecially among the high-feeding ranks of fo- ciety, which is ufually termed a fick head-ache, and which has been well deferibed and commented on by Dr. Fother- gill. (See Medical Obf. and Inquir. vol. vi. p. 103.) This learned phyfictan has remarked, that the patients, affeGted with this fpecies of head-ache awake early in the mornirg with a pain, which feldom affects the whole head, but one particular part of it only; moft commonly the forehead, frequently over one, and fometimes over both eyes. Some- times it its fixed about the upper part of the parietal bone of one fide only ; fometimes, and not unfrequently, the back part of the head, or occiput, is affected: fometimes it darts from one to another of thefe places. With this is joined more or lefs of ficknefs, which is juft barely, in many people, not fufficient, without affiltance, to excite vomiting. If this pain comes on, as is ufually the cafe, early in the morn- ing, and before any meal is taken, feldom any thing is thrown up but thin phlegm, unlefs the at is fevere, when fome bitter or acid bile is brought up. In this cafe, the difeafe begins foon to abate, leaving a forenefs about the head, a fqueamifhnefs at the ftomach, and a general uneafi- refs, which induces the fick to wifh to repofe. Perhaps, after a fhort fleep, they recover perfeétly well, being only a little debilitated by their fufferings. The duration of this paroxyfm is different in different perfons ; in fome it goes off in two or three hours; in others it will laft twenty-four, or longer, aud with a violence fearce- ly to be endured, the leaft light or noife feeming to throw them on therack. Its returns are very irregular, as muft be the cafe, fince the difeafe for the molt part proceeds trom accidental caufes. It occurs in perfons of almoft every ha- bit and complexion; chiefly in the early and middle flages of life, and among the middle and upper ranks in fociety. Thofe who ufe but little exercife, and are inattentive to their diet, both as to the kind and the quantity, are the: greateft fufferers, This, G EPH Ab A L'‘G it A. ‘This, ora fimilar {pecics of head-ache, is frequently an at- tendant on a conltipated ftate of the bowels; fo that thofe who are habitually coftive, are frequently fubje& to habitual head-aches, which are readily removed by laxative medicines, or ceafe on the fupervention of a laxity of the inteftines from any other caufe. Tven inthe febrile flate, when the head- ache may be confidered as originating from other circum- itances, conltipation of the bowels tends to aggravate it greatly. Hence the neceffity for the practitioner to attend to the flate of the bowels in ail cafes of head-ache. A pain in the head frequently occurs, in confeqnence of ats fympathy with the uterine ergans, more efpecially as a fymptom of retention or fuppreffion of the catamenia. In the latter cafe, indeed, it may perhaps be confidered as the effe&t of an increafed quantity of blood diltributed to the head, rather than a fympathetic pain, fince a general ple- thora is induced by the fuppreffion of an accuftomed evacu- ation. In the fame way head-ache is the confequence of the fuppreffion of other habitual difcharges, fuch as old ulcers, and iffues, the bleeding piles, or the omiflion of periodical blood-letting. Head-ache is a fymptom of almoft all acute febrile com- plaints, as well of intermittent as of continued and eruptive fevers. It likewife occurs in certain afthenic or debilitated conditions of the body, when it has been called a nervous head-ache. This {pecies of head-ache takes place, as Dr. Willan has remarked, “ unconne@ted with any particular febrile difeafe, from forrow, fatigue, watching, and from fudden changes of temperature in fummer as well as in win- ter. Itis attended with a whitencfs of the tongue, anda fenfation of weaknefs or languor. A. fharp and quick pulfe, in this complaint, produces a throbbing at the temples, and an acute pain through the whole head. When the pulfe is flow and feeble, the pain is deferibed as dull and heavy, fometimes girding. round the head, fometimes fixed at the nape of the neck. In perfons who have conftitutionally a very languid circulation of the blood, the latter fpecies of head-ache recurs on every flight occafion, and often becomes periodical, returning every day, or every other day, with- out any manifeft exciting caufe.”” Reports on the Difeafes in London, p. 239. It is obvious, then, that the caufes of head-ache may be confidered under three heads ; namely, whatever comprefles or in any manner irritates the contents or the integuments of the cranium itfelf ; whatever irritates or injures thofe parts with which the head is conneéted by fympathy, efpecially the organs of digettion ; and, laftly, whatever tends to in- duce a ftate of fever or of morbid irritability in the conttitu- tion at large. It is frequently extremely difficult, parti- cularly at the commencement of the difeafe, to afcertain the nature of the caufe from which the pain originates. If it arife from inflammation in the brain or its membranes, in- deed, it will be ealily diftinguifhed by the acute fever, with a quick and hard pulfe, the intolerance of light, delirium, and other fymptoms of phrenfy ; and if thefe occur in child- ren, a termination in hydrocephalus, or dropfy in the head, may generally be anticipated. When the pain attacks thofe perfons who exhibit the marks of plethora before defcribed, and who are affected with great drowfinefs, or flight lofs of memory, there can be no doubt that the fullnefs of the vef- fels of the brain is the immediate caufe of the head-ache. And when fymptoms of /ues venerea, or of rheumatifm, in other parts of the body, have preceded or accompany the head-ache, it may be pronounced fyphilitic or rheumatic ac- cordingly. But it is not only extremely difficult, if not impoflible, to determine what the internal organic caufe of the head-ache is, or in what part of the brain it is ituated, a but alfo to afcertain whether the caufe be really organic, or whether it may arife from fympathy with fome other organ, or from the ftate of the conftitution in general. ‘Che dura- tion and pertinacity of the pain are often the only fource of conjecture as to its organic origin. With refpe& to the fympathetic head-achcs, the abferce of the diagnoitic fymptoms juft enumerated ; the obvious condition of the funGtions of the ftomach, bowels, &c.; the known circumftances as to irregularitics of diet, &e. which may have preceded the attack ; and the feat, the mode, and time of its occurrence, as has been already ftated, will con- tribute to inform us of the nature and origin of the head- ache, And if there be any obvious general debility, lan- guor, or low fpirits, with occafional giddinefs, tremors, and fenfations of faintnefs about the precordia; and, more efpecially, if grief, watching, fatigue, or fuch debilitating caufes have been aéting, the afthenic head ache, before de- {cribed from Dr. Willan, may be prefumed to exift. After all thefe circumftances have been duly inveflizated and confidered, the method of treatment to be adopted will readily foggett itfelf, if the conclufion as to the origin of the complaint be fatisfaSiory. Where the fymptoms of phre- nitic inflammation are prefent, general and local blood- letting, blittering, purging, the application of cold, and the whole of the antiphlogiltic regimen, mult be reforted to. See Purenitis. Where there is apparently fome internal organic caufe, the nature and feat of which cannot be afcer- tained, the attempt to cure can only be purfued upon gene= ral principles ; and therefore, upon the fuppofition that {ome morbid or preternatural enlargement of fome part is taking place, the impetus and quantity of the blood carried to the brain, and the increafed ation of its veffels, muft be diminifhed by the local detra€tion of blood, and the applica- tion of blifters; which view will alfo be farther accom- plifhed by the adminiftration of fome fedative medicine, fuch as digitalis, or cicuta; or with the intention of exciting the activity of the abforbent vefltls, by which any morbid growth may be diminifhed, the ufe of mercury may be alfo reforted to. "The bowels, in fuch a cafe, mult be kept re- gularly open ; and every thing which can accelerate the cir- culation, whether ftimulating food or drink, or corporeal exertion, fhould be carefully avoided. Where the head-ache is apparently fyphilitic or rheumatic, it is fearcely neceflary to mention that the remedies, which are ufeful in other forms oflnpyits and rheumati{m, may be adminiitered with fuc- cefs. The “ fick head-ache,”? which depends on a difordered condition of the ftomach and bowels, occafioned by irre- gularities of diet, may be readily removed or relieved by emptying the ftomach of its iil-digelted and noxious con- tents, by means of an emetic or mild cathartic: but the fame paroxy{m will be again repeated, unlefs the caufes be avoided. Some perfons poffefs fo little felf-command, and are fo much habituated to indulge in the gratification of the palate, that they pafs a great portion of their lives in the conftant fucceffion of fuch attacks. The ftomach, however, may be ftrengthened, and its digettive powers aided, by the ufe of bitter {tomachic medicines, joined with alkalis or pre= parations of ftec] ; and the remora of the food may be in fome degree avoided by the ufe of rhubarb and magnefia, or the aloetic pills, in moderate quantities. But, as Dr. Fothergill has very judicioufly remarked, “ whatever pro- cefs the phyfician’s judgment leads him to purfue, there is one object that will deferve his attention, and will require that of the patient. This difeafe is not the effe& of any fudden accidental caufe; it is the effe& of reiterated errors in dict, or in conduct, which, by weakening the powers of digeftion, — CEP dig-ftion, and oterwife difordering the animal funétions, have affected the fecretion of thofe juices, and perhaps the organs themfelves, in fuch a manner, as to require a fteady perfeverance in the ufe of fuch medicines as experience has fugzelted are molt likely to reftore them to full health. This change cannot be effeQed fpeedily ; it requires a pa- tient obfervance of proner regimen, both in refpeet to medi- cine and diet. Th- former ought, therefore, to be fo con- trived, as to be taken without difyult for feveral weeks to- gether, and to be repeated at proper diltances, till the end is obtained, digeftion rightly performed, and the bile fe- ereted aud difcharged as health requires ; by which means, all that train of evils, which are the confequences of its detention and diltempered tate, will be gradually removed. The benefits refulting, in many cafes, from the ufe of the mineral waters, when drank in a proper quantity, and fora proper length of time, are undoubted proofs of the neceflity of perfeverance in the ufe of fuch medicines as may appear, at firft fight, of no great efficacy, yet, if well dire&ted and fteadily purfued, will at length obtain the moft fubttantial advantages, “There is another part of our affiftance,” Dr. Fothergill adds, ‘¢ which is not lefs neceffary, in this cafe, than medi- cine to a perfect recovery, which, perhaps, is too often dif- regarded both by the patient and the phytician; and if I have fucceeded in removing many complaints of this nature, where very judicious preferiptions had been ufed in vain, it has been by entering more minutcly into that part of the prefeription which depended on the patient’s own conduG, than by the ufe of medicines of greater efficacy than thofe which had been prefcribed by others. We are perhaps too ready, in chronic cafes, where digeftion is concerned, to confide in the Materia Medica, and judge it fufficient to fele@& and enjoin fuch articles in our prefcriptions as are of known ufe in fuch cafes: but unlefs the whole plan of diet, both in kind and quantity, is made to confpire with medical prefcription, the benefits arifing from this are hourly anni- hilated by negle& or indulgence.”” Med. Obf. and Inq. vol. vi. It is not eafy to point out the articles of diet, or the quantity of food, which fhould be taken or avoided by dif- ferent individuals, fince what is extremely detrimental to one conttitution may be taken in abundance and with impunity by another. Individual experience, if it were carcfully at- tended to, is generally a fufficient monitor. There are fome things, however, which, even in {mall quantities, fel- dom fail to excite the fick head-ache in many conttitutions : fuch are melted butter, fat meats, and [pices ; and hence meat pies, which contain all thefe things united, are a fertile fource of this complaint. But perhaps an overloading of the ftomach with various things, 1 themfelves even not un- wholefome, is one of the mott frequent caufes of this dif- order. By thofe, therefore, who are liable to this fpecies of head ache, excefs in eating and drinking ought to be ftudioufly thunned. The afthenic head-ache, which is produced by grief, watching, fatigue, and other debilitating caufes, may be foothed by anodyne medicines, and ultimately relieved by the bark, or fome other ftomachic bitter, which will con- tribute to reftore the ftrength; and fome more diffulible ftimulant, fuch as ammonia (or volatile alkali). in its various preparations, will be ufed with confiderable advantage, efpecially where the fenfations of languor and weaknefs are very great, and accompanied with giddinefs in the head, occafional dimnefs of fight, &c. The tonic plan, of courfe, -will be alfo purfued in diet and regimen, and moderate ex- ercife regularly reforted to. CEP Where the head-ache is a concomitant of general fever, the treatment peculiar to that modification of fever which may be prefent mult be neceflarily employed. See Frver. CEPHALANTHUS, in Botany, (from x:Qaro:, a head, and o$0:, a. fower; fo called becaufe the flowers grow ina head), button-wood, button-tree, or pond dog-wood. Linn. en. 113. Schreb. 147. Willd. 170. Lam. Illuft. 153s Juff. 209. Vent. ti. 591. Geert. 546. (Platanocephalus, Vaill. A.G. 1722.) Clafs and order, tefrandria monogynia. Nat. Ord. Aggregate, Linn. Rubiacee, Jufl. Vent. Gen. Ch. Cal. common perianth none; common recep- tacle globular, villous, colleGing numerous florets into a head; proper perianth fuperior, fmall, one-leafed, funnel- thaped, angular ; border quadrifid. Cor. proper moropeta- lous, funncl-fhaped; tube flender, longer than the calyx 3 border quadrifid. Stam. filaments four, inferted into the co- rolla, fhorter than the border; anthers globular. Pi/?. germ inferior; ttyle lomger than the coroila; ftizma globular. [Peric. none. Sveds folitary, long, attenuated at the baie, pvramidal, wooily, Linn.) Peric. capfule inferior, crown- ed with the permanent calyx, inverfely pyramidal, fours celled ; cells one-feeded, feparating from each other as the feed ripens, but without valves, and not opening fpon- taneoufly ; two of them generally abortive. Scecls oblong. Gert. Lam. Gen. Ch. Flowers aggregate, fixed to a globular recep- tacle. Calyx proper fuperior, quadrifid. Coro!la tubular. Capfule four or two-celled, dividing into four or two parts. Sp. 1. C. occidentalis, Linn. Sp. Pl. Mart. r. Lam. 1. Willd. Gert. tab. 86. tig. 7. Lam. Ill. tab. 59. (Scabiofa, Pluk. tab. 77. fiz.4.) ‘* Leaves oppofite orternate; heads terminal, forming a kind of raceme.’”? Lam. A fhrub, from five to feven feet high. Stem a little branched, weak, cylin- drical, greyifh, leafy, almoft its whole length. Leaves pe- tioled, eyg-fhaped, acute, entire. foft, f{mooth above; the nerves of the lower furface, as well as the petioles, fometimes befet with fhort hairs. Fvowers whitifh, in {mall peduncled heads which terminate the {tem, three, five or feven together, and form what La Marck calls a kind of raceme, but which, from the terms of his own defcription, as well as from his figure, is rather an umbel. A native of {wamps, in Carolina. A decoétion of the wood or root is ufed as a cure for the bite of venomous animals, and is faid to be efficacious in venereal complaints. 2. C. anguflifolius, Mart. 2. Lour. Cochin, ‘* Leaves lanceolate, linear, oppofite.” A middle- fized tree, with afcending branches. Leaves quite entire, Flowers paie, in {mall terminal heads ; common receptacle oblong, villous ; fegments of the proper calyx awl-fhaped, hairy 3 befet with fhining, coloured, peduncled glands. Fruit a {mall compound berry ; the acini or component parts roundith, crowned, flaccid, two-celled, inferior; cells one- feeded. A native of Cochin-China. 3. C. procumbens, Mart. 7. Lour. “ Stem procumbent; leaves ovate-lan- ceolate, alternate.”? A thick fhrub, with many long funi- cular branches. Leaves large, quite entire, tomentovs, petioled. Flowers violet-coloured, dioicous; in long, inter- rupted, terminal racemes ; the females in a naked globular receptacle, without any perianth, either proper or common ; corollas five-cleft, inferior, very many, on long peduncles, forming a ball or head; ftyle capillary, equal to the corolla ; ftigma imple. Seed fingle, egg-fhaped, compreffed, naked. A native of Cochin-China. 4. C. montanus. ‘ Leaves egg-fhaped, crenate, alternate.”’? A large tree, with a hempen bark and f{preading branches. Leaves acuminate, petioled, rough above, tomentous underneath. JYoqwers di- vicous, green, on folitary axillary peduneles, forming réund- ih Cc EP if heads, on a naked globular receptacle; the females without a corolla; proper perianth almoft clofed, four-cleft, fuperior. Seed fingle, comprefled, with a fubpappous ring, perhaps from the laciniated tube of the calyx. A native of China. 5. Ca fellatus, Mart. 5. Lour. ‘* Leaves ftel- lated, laciniated-linear”’ A middle-fized tree, with afcend- ing branches. Leaves by threes, quite entire, fmooth. Florets white, colieGed into a ball, with a {mall egg-thaped recep- tacle ; no common perianth; proper perianth inferior, with four awl-fhaped fegments; corolla fuperior, with a four-cleft teflexed border, four nearly feffile anthers, a long ftyle, and one naked feed. A native of Cochin-China. We have followed profeffor Martyn in taking up the laft four {pecies from Loureiro, that they might not be entirely omitted; although Loureiro himfelf confeffes that they dif- fer very much from each other, as well as from Linnzus’s generic chara€ter, The defcription given by, Linnzus of the fruit of his fole cephalanthus is certainly founded on a mifconception, and, according to Gertner, appears to have been made when he was only half awake: fruétus negligen- ter & quali ex infomnio defcriptit. It is, therefore, enti- tled to no authority in fixing the generic chara@er. But Loureiro’s defcriptions of his new {pecies are alfo in feveral refpects fo confufed, that it is not eafy to determine what he means. If, by the fruit of the fecond {pecies, which he calls a compound berry, we are to underftand, as is probably the cafe, the aggregate fruit of all the proper flowers, it may belong to this genus. What he calls the fingle naked feed of the fifth, may poffibly be a pericarp with three abor- tive cells, and may not contradi& any effential part of the generic character. But the third and fourth feem too re- fraétory to obtain admiffion. La Marck, in the Encyclo- pedie, has added to the C. occidentalis of Linnzus, two other {pecies, which he calls chinenfis and pilulifera, both communicated by Sonnerat : the former he fufpected might be found not to differ from nauclea orientalis of Linnzus, but he had then no doubt of its being a real cephalanthus. As, however, he has not inferted them in bis fubfequeut il- luttrations, he appears to have changed his opinion. See Navuc Lea. Propagation and Culture. The firlt {pecies only has been cultivated in England. It has been raifed by cuttings and layers, but is chiefly propagated by feeds. Thefe fhould be fown before Chriitmas, and will then come up in the next fpring : but if they are fown in {pring, they generally remain a year in the ground; in which cafe, the pots fiould be placed in the fhade during the fummer, and theltered under a common frame to protect them from froft in the enfuing winter. The firft year, after they come up, they fhould be fhaded from the fun in hot weather ; and as they naturally grow in moift ground, fhould be regularly watered. In the autumn they may be tranfplanted into fheltered nur- fery-beds, where they may remain a year or two, according to the progrefs which they have made; and fhould be finaily tran{planted in OGober. CEPHALAS, in Ancient Geography, a promentory of Africa, mentioned by Strabo, fituate at the commencement of the great Syrtis. He adds, that it was elevated, and co- yered with wood. Ptolemy alfo mentions it. It is thopght to be the prefent cape Mefurata. CE2HALE, a burgh of Greece in Attica, between Profpette and Aphydne, at fome diitance from the coaft of the Saronic gulf. The Diofcuri, viz. Caftor and Follux, avere fo highly refpected in this place, that they were ranked inthe number of the great gods, according to Paufanias, This burgh belonged to the Acamantide tribe. CEPHALENIA, or Cepuacrenia, an ifland of the c EPR Tontan fca, now called Ceruaronis, which fee. It was known in the time of Homer (Odyff.) by the names of 5a- mus and Blaek Epirus, or Epirus Melzena; and had an- ciently four cities, one of which bore the name of the ifland, although Ptolemy mentions onlytwo. Strabo tells us, that in his time there were only two cities remaining ; but Pliny (I. iv. c. 12.) fpeaks of three; adding, that the ruins of Same, which had been deftroyed by the Romans, were {till in being. Same was the metropolis of the ifland, and is fuppofed to have ftood in the place which the Italians call “ Porto Guil- cardo.”” ‘The names of the four cities were, according to Thucydides (lib. ii.) Same, Prone, Cranii, and Pale. This ifland was fubdued by the Thebans, under the con- dué& of Amphitryon, who is faid to have killed Pterelas, who then reigned there. While Amphitryon was carrying on the war in Cephalonia, then called Samos, one Cephalus, a man of great diftin@ion at Athens, having accidentally killed his wife Procris in fhooting at a deer, fled to Amphitryon, who, pitying his cafe, not ouly received him kindly, but made him governor of the ifland, which from that time was called Ce- halonia. After it had been long in fubje&ion to the The- ans, it fell under the power of the Macedonians, and was taken fromthem by the /Etolians, who held it tillit wasreduced by M. Fulvius Nobilior, who having gained the metropolis after a four months’ fiege in the year 189 B.C. fold all the citizens for flaves, adding the whole ifland to the dominions of his republic. Liv. 1. xxxviil. c. 28, 29. CEPHALICS, in Medicine, from x:Qarn, the head, aterm given by the older writers on the materia medica, ta thofe articles which relieve the diforders of the head. Under this term were chiefly included certain fragrant, aromatic, and ilimulant fubftances, which, whether applied as odours to the organs of {mell, or ufed as ilernutatories, or taken into the ftomach, afforded a fpeedy relief to nervous or afs thenic headaches, giddinefs, and faintnefs. In fach a con- dition of the body all cordials would operate as cephal:es. The fymptoms arife from a languor of the circulation in the vellels of the head, which is accelerated by the general fti- mulus of cordials taken into the itomach, or the local fti- mulus of odours or iternutatories appied to the organ of {mell, and the headache or giddmefs neceffarily ceafe. The term is now feldom ufed. CrpHanic vein, in dnatomy, one of the large fuperficial veins of the upper extremity. Sce Veins. CEPHALOIDES, a denomination given by fome wri- ters, who difcover virtues in plants from their fignatures, to thofe waich bear any refemblence to a human head; fuch are the poppy, piony, and the like. CEPHALOMANTTIA, from «Gat», and pola, divi- nation, an ancient {pecies of divination, or method of foretell- ing futurity by a dead man’s fkull. CepHALon, in Ancient Geography, one of the ancient names of the city of Rome. CEPHALONIA, or Ceratonia, in Geography, a con- fiderable ifland of the Levant, in the Mediterranean, near the coaft of Livadia to the north-eaft, and near the coaft of Morea to the fouth-eaft, oppofite to the galf of Lepanto ; about 150 miles in length, and from So to go at its greateft breadth; anciently called Cephalonia, which fee. Venice ac- quired the fovereignty of this ifland, as a gift from Gaio its lord, in 1224; though it was taken bv the Turks in 1479, and held by them for about 20 years. On the fall of Venice, it was feized by the French; and by theéth article of the trea- ty of Campo Formio-in 1797, renewed and confirmed by the third article of the treaty of Luneville in 1S01, his majefty the emperor, king of Hungary and Bohemia, confents that the French republic fhail poffefs, in tull fovereignty, the ci- 2 devant ? Case devant Venetian iflands of the Levant, viz. Corfu, Zante, Ce- phalonia, St. Maure, Cerigo, and other iflands dependent thereon; together with Butrinto, Larta, Vouizza, and in general all the ci-devant eltablifhments in Albania, which are fituate lower down than the gulf of Lodrino. The chief articles of commerce in Cephalonia are oil, muf- cadine wine, and a’ fpecies of grapes called currants. The air of this ifland is very warm; the trees are covered with flowers through the winter, and bear ripe fruit twice a year, , in April'and November; but thofe which grow in the lat- ter month are {maller than the others. Corn is fown in the winter, and reaped in June. N. lat. 38° 10’ to 38° 54’. E. long. 20° 15’ to 21° 30!. Crepuatonia, the capital of the ifland of the fame name ; the fee ofabifhop united to Zante. N. lat. 38° 30!. E. long. 28° 409’. CFPHALONNESOS, in Ancient Geography, an ifland of the Euxine fea, in the Carcinite gulf, according to Pliny. Tt belonged to European Sarmatia, according to Ptolemy. CEPHALONOMANTIA, compoundedof xeQaan, head, o10;, aft, and j2vreix, divination, a methed of divination, or revealing fecrets, by means of an afs’s head broiled on the coals. After muttering a few prayers, the names of feveral -perfons fufpected of a theft, or the like, were repeated over : he at whofe name the afs’s jaws made any motion, or the teeth began to chatter, was held for convicted. CEPHALO-PHARYNGEUS, in Anatomy, a term ap- plied by fome writers to the middle conftritor of the pha- rynx. See Consrrictores pharyngis. CEPHALOPHORA, in Botany, (from x:@zAoz, and Qepw, bearing its flowers in heads,) Willd. 1463. Cavan. Ic. 6. tab..599. Clafs and order, /yngenefia polygamia equa- lis. Nat. ord. Compofite difcoidee, Lim. Corymbifere, Juff. Gen. Ch. Cal. common, compofed of two rows of linear, acute leaflets; receptacle globular, honey-combed, naked. Cor. florets tubular, hermaphrodite. Seeds folitery, top- fhaped, itriated, truncated ; down compofed of fix or feven awl-fhaped, tranfparent, chaff-like leaflets. « Eff. Ch. Receptacle naked, hemifpherical ; down chaff- like, many-leaved ; calyx many-leaved, reflexed. Sp. C. glauca. Root perennial. Stem herbaceous, hard, cylindrical, ftriated, branched. Root-leaves oblong-erg- dhaped, leffening into a petiole; ftem-leaves linear, alternate, feffi'e, glaucous, rather rough, FYowers terminal, folitary, yellow ; peduncles thickened. A native of Chili. CEPHALOPONIA, from x:@aan and groves, pain, a de- Nomination given by fome to the cepacialzia, or head-ache. CEPHALOTOML, in Ancient Geography, a-people of Afia, placed by Pliny towards meunt Caucafus, and on the borders of the Euxine fea. ‘CEPHALUS, a town of the ifland of Cyprus, watered * bythe river Aovs. Cepuarus, in Ichthyology, the name given by Ariftotle, - #Eiian, Appian, and others to the mullet, mugil cephalus, which fee. CEPHENE, in Ancient Geography, a country of Ar- ) menia, more generally called Sophene. CEPHENES, a name ancientiy given by the Grecks to the Perfans. CEPHENTA,a name which, according to Agathemerus, Was given to Ethiopia; and which feems to have been de- nved from the fabulous Cepheus. _CEPHESIAS, a lake, fo called by Scylax, fituated on the coalt of Africa. _ CEPHEUS, in Afronomy, a conftellation of the northern hemifphere, being one of the 48 old afterifms ; whofe {tars, wv Von Vit. ‘ GEL in Ptolemy’s Catalogue, are 13; in Tycho’s, rr; in Heve- lius’s, 515 in the Britannic Catalogue, 35 Dr. Herfchel has given au account of the luftre of the 35 ftars in this coniteliation, in his third catalogue of the com- .parative brightnefs of the ftars; (Phil. Tranf. for 170%. pt. ti. p. 3145) and he obferves that the rsth, in the neck of Cepheus, marked y by Bayer, confifls of two ftars. Mr. Goodricke infers from a {cries of obfervations on the ftar 3 Cephei, that it has a ‘periodical variation of 5* 8" 37%', during which time it undergoes the following changes; viz. it is at. its greateft brightnefs about one day and thirteen hours ; its diminution is performed in about one day and eighteen hours ; it is at its greateft obfcuraton about one day and twelve hours; and it increafes about thirteen hours. In the firft point, it appears as a ftar of between the 3d and 4th magnitude, though its relative brightnefs does not feem always to be quite the fame. In the third point it appears as a {tar of between the ath and 5th magnitude, if not nearer the 5th ; and its relative brivhtnefs is as follows : nearly equal to © and & Cephei, and confiderably lefs than 7 Lacerte, The relative brightnefs and magnitude of thefe ftars with which the variable one was compared are as follow : Cephei, the brighteft, is between the 3d and 4th magnitude ; ‘ Cephei, the next brighteft, is between the 4th and 3d; 7 Lacerte, is lels than « Cephei, and of about the 4th magnitude ; « Cephei is between the 4th and 5th magni- tude; and & Cephei, which is a little lefs than e, is between the sth and qth. The variation of the ftar 3 was corrobo- rated by the obfervations of Mr, Pizott. Phil. Tranf. vol Ixxvi. p. 48, &c. Cepueus, in Fabulous Hiflory, a king of Ethiopia, father of Andromeda by Caffiope. See Axpromepa. Cepheus was one of the Argonauts, and after his death, became a conttellation. ‘Chere was another Cepheus, prince of Ar- cadia, and favoured by Minerva, who transferred to his head a lock from the head of Medufa, by which he was rendered invincible. He is mentioned by Apollodorns as the fon of Lycurgus, and hunter of the Caledonian boar. A third Cepheus is faid, by the fame author, to have been the fon of Alcus, an Argonaut, king of Tegea, father of Sterope, and an affociate of Hercules, in oppofition to Hippocoon. _ CEPHISIA, in Ancient Geography, a village of Greece, in Attica, near Athens. Crruista, a fountain of Attica, according to Pliny. CEPHISSIS, or Copats /acus, alake of Beeotia, which took its name from the river Cephiffus, which difcharged ivfelf into this lake. Its name, Copais, was formed from the torn of Copes, feated upon its banks. Paufanias fays (l.ix. Boeotic. ¢. 24.) that there were two towns on this lake, viz. Athenes and Eleufis, which had been {wallowed up .by its inundations. ‘ CEPHISSUS, orCepnisus, ariver of Greece, which had its fource in the mountains that feparated Phocis from ‘Thef- faly, which range of mountains was called Oeta. - Its courfe was from north-weft to fouth-eaft. In its progrefs it res ceived feveral rivers, fuch as the Lilea, the Pindus, and the Chacalis ; and before it entered Baotia, it ran at the foot of a mountain, where was the diltri& called Paropotamus. In Beeotia it received the Hercyna and the Melas; and to the fouth of Orchomene it difcharged itfelf into the lake Copais, or Cephiflis. This river was celebrated in fabulous hittory ; as the graces delighted to bathe in it, and were thence ftyled the goddeffes of the Cephifus. This river, or rather river-god, is faid to have been enamgured of feyeral nymphs, all of whom flighted his paffion. In Attica there were two rivers of this name, one, which Oe was CEE was the moft eafterly and the moft confiderable, commenced north of Decelia, ran towards the fouth as far as Cephiffia, and to the fouth-weft on the north of Athens, near the northern wall of the Pireus, and difcharged itfelf in the port of Phalerum. See Aruens. The other river com- menced N. of Phyla, and flowed into the Saronic gulf, near Scirus. Near its mouth were found feveral ftatues, and one jn particular of a young man, who cut his hair in order to confecrate them to the river, according to the cuftom of the ancient Greeks, Paufanias, in Attic. c. 37-—Cephifus was alfo the name of a river of the Peloponnefus in the Argo- lide, according to Paufanias.—Ortelius mentions a river of this name in the ifle of Salamine ; a river of Greece, in Sicyo- nia and another of the fame name in the ifle of Scyros. CEPHRO, or Kepuro, a village and defert of Egypt, at the entrance of the deferts cf Libya; to which were ba- nifhed Dionvfius of Alexandria, St. Maximus, &c. CEPHUS, or Cerpuus, in Ornithology, the name by which the black-headed gull has been defcribed by fome writers. See Larus rudibundus. Cepuus, in Zoology. See Cerus. : CEPHYRA, in Mythology, daughter of Oceanus, who is fabuloufly reported to have educated Neptune. CEPI, in Anciext Geography, a maritime place of Afia Minor, placed by Cedrenus at the mouth of the Meander.— Alfo, a town in the ifland of Cococondoma, upon the Euxine fea, at the entrance of the Cimmerian Bofphorus, accord- ing to Pliny ; who fays, it was a colony of the inhabitants of Miletus. Strabo calls it Cepus; and it is denominated Cepz by Mela and Diodorus Siculus. ; Cert corpus, in Law, a retura made by the fheriff, upon a capias, or other procefs to the like purpofe ; fignifying, that he hath taken the body of the party. CEPIANA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Spain be- longing to the Celtes of Lufitania. he ee CEPIC, in Geography, a town of Iftria; 4 miles S. of Pedena. ; hid CEPION, in Antiquity, the name of a particular air, in- vented by a difciple of Terpander, and defigned to be layed on the ciTHARA. CEPIONIS Turris, in Ancient Geography, a place of Spain, in Beetica. ; CEPIONITES, in Natural Hifory, a name given by Pliny, and other ancient writers, to a {pecies of ftone, feem- ing to approach to the nature of the JAsPER. Pliny tells us that there were many kinds of it, fome more pellucid than others, and fome colourlefs ; others variegated with green and the other colours of the jafpers and agates: they were all ufed in the ornamenting of houfes ; and the leaft beau- tiful ferved, when well polifhed, to make {peculums of. CEPITES, in Natural Hifory, a name ufed by the an- cients to exprefs a gem which gave the reprefentation of the feveral clufters of plants and flowers in the beds of a garden, with naked veins, exprefling the walks between. The com- mon text of Pliny is unintelligible, where he gives the de- {cription of this ftone ; but Salmafius has reftored it from fome old copies, foas to make it fenfe, and expreflive of this meaning. ‘The ftone was probably no other than a peculiar kind of that agate which the ancients called dendrites, and we the mocoa /lones. : CEPOLA, in Ichthyology, a genus of thoracic fifhes, which have the head roundifh, and.comprefled ; teeth curved, and placed in a fingle row ; gill membrane fix-rayed ; body enfiform, naked ; belly rather fhorter than the head. Ceroua fenia, with caudal-fin tapering, wedged; and head very obtufe, It is a native of the Mediterranean fea, CER and is fometimes found of the length of three, four, or five feet, but more commonly does not exceed two feet in length. The head is fhort and rounded ; mouth large, and the lower jaw rather exceeding the upper one in length. Both jaws are armed with fharp curved teeth, placed in a fingle row in the upper, and in-a double row in the lower jaw. The. tongue is broad and rough; the eyes very large, with filvery irides, aud black pupil, and placed vertically in the head, The abdomen {carcely longer than the head ; body remark- ably long, gradually tapering to the tail, and of extreme thinnels.in proportion to the length, whence it obtained the name of tenia or ribband-fifh among ancient Ichthyologifts. — The general colour ts filvery, hoary on the back, and the fides are fpeckled, and marked with rather large reddifh {pots ; the lateral line is ftraight, and the fins reddifh. Tis fifh ts | obferved to frequent the neighbourhood of the fhores, in order more readily to obtain its food, which confifts princi- pally of crabs, and other cruftaceous animals. The flefh is {carcely eatable. - . Ceroxra rubefcens. Caudal-fin tapering; jaws fharp, pointed, Linn. Ophidium macrophthalmum, Syft. Nat. x. ‘Tenia ferpens rubelcens di@la, Artedi. ; Suppofed by Gmelin and others to be, perhaps, a variety of the preceding; it is {maller, and of a pale red colour throughout. Inhabits tae Mediterranean, and has been lately difcovered on the coait of Devonfhire. Vide Linn. Tranf. and Donov. Brit. Fifhes. Crpota trachyplera. ead floping ; both jaws arched 5 _ fins. prickly, fervated, and rough. Found in the Adriatic. The lateral line in this fpecies is ftraight, with a fingle row of {cales. The hermannian band-ffh, cepola hermanniana of Dr. Shaw’s zoology, appears to differ in fo many particulars from the true cepole, that we are of opinion with Cepede, that it ought to form a genus altogether diltin@ from them. CEPOLAPITES, in Natura! Hiffory, a name given by fome to the {tone properly called cerites, a kind of mocoa agate. * CEPPHUS. See Ceruus. ‘ CEPULA, in Ichthyology, a name by which Gefner and fome other authors have called the common tibband-fifh. It is derived from the Italian word cepole, the familiar name of the fame fifh in the markets of Rome. This is the tenia of modern naturaliits. CEPUS, or Cepuus, in Zoglogy, a name affigned indif- criminately by old writers to feveral monkies of the {mall kind that have more or lefs green among their other colour The only monkey fo named by modern naturaliits is th monflac, fimia cephus of Schreber. CERA prima et extrema, in Roman Antiquity, were te applied to wills and teftaments, from the circemitance of thei being ufually written on tables covered with-wax, becaufe in them a perfon could eafily erafe what he withed to alter Hence cere is put for tabule cerate or tabule teflamenti, (Ju venal, 1. 63.); and prima cera is ufed for prima pars tabule, the firlt part of the will, (Hor. Sat. ii. P- 53-)5 and cera ex- trema or ima for the lalt part, (Cic. Verr. i. 36. Suet. Ju venal, 83.) p CERACE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Macedoni: fo called by Polybius, feated near the lake Lichorydes. CERACHATES, in the Natural Hiflory of ihe Anci the name of a {pecies of agate of a plain yellow colour, very much refembling yellow wax. We have it from Fait Indies, as alfo from New Spain, and fome other of America ; and our jewellers fometimes work it into toy of {mall value. I CE CER CERAM, in Geography, one of the {pice iflands in the Eaft Indian Sea, about 190 miles in length, and 40 in breadth ; low towards the fhore, and in the interior parts, which are little known, very mountainous. Several chains of mountains run parallel to one another, in the dire&tion of eaft and weft, and are feparated by fertile vallies that fupport a luxuriant vegetation. Its high mountains, fome of which are at Icaft 1,200 toifes in perpendicular elevation, and yet frequented by the natives, afford effeGtual protection to their ' inhabitants ; fo that the Dutch have only been able to at- tach to its government of Amboyna a comparatively fmall number, fettled on the lower parts of the ifland, near the fea. This ifland is faid to contain 30,000 fighting men. It pro~ duces clove-trees, which the policy of the Dutch has induced them to deltroy along the coafts, to which their influence extends; and it has alfo large forefts of the fago-tree, which furnifhes a confiderable article of exportation. S. lat. about °, E. long. about 128° to 131°. CERAM-raovurt, an ifland of the Eaft Indian Sea, near the ifland of Ceram, above five miles long, and fearcely three broad ; mountainous, and uninhabited. It has a bay on the north coatt. CERAMBYX, in Zntomolgy, a genus of infeéts in the or- der CoLeoprera. The generic chara&ter of the Cerambyces is varioufly de- fined by different writers. Linnzus delcribes it as having the antensz compofed of articulations, which gradually di- minifh in fize as they approach towards the extremity: thorax either gibbous laterally, or armed with [pines: wing- cafes linear, or of equal breadth throughout ; and the feet confifting of four joints. . This Linnean definition of the genus applies to fuch a vaft number of infects, which, in other particulars, poffefs an evident generical diffimilarity, that later authors have found it abfolutely requifite to divide the Linnzan Ceram- byces into feveral diltinét genera. Linnzus was himfelf aware of the inconvenience of retaining many of his Ce- rambyces in this genus; but in order to comprife them, di- vided the genus into five diftin€ fe€tions. Thofe families, or feGtions, fo far as they relate to the few {pecies known to the Swedifh naturalift, may, perhaps, be found fuffici- ently comprehenfive by the Linnean entomologift; but when we refle& on the vaft number of new f{pecies, defcribed by the indefatigable Fabricius, by Olivier, and other {till later writers, not to mention the many f{pecies that are to be yet found in our cabinets, that have not been defcribed by any author, thofe fubdivifions will at once appear in- competent for their arrangement. We mutt conftitute new genera for their reception, or if we are to follow in fervile imitation, we cannot difpenfe with the inftitution, at leat, of feveral new fubdivifions, to comprife them. ~The Lin- nean [ubdivifions of the Cerambyx genus ftand in the fol- wing order : * Thofe which have the thorax armed on each fide with moveable fpines—This is exemplified in Cerambyx Longima- nus. Linn. * * Thofe in which the thorax is margined, and armed at the fides with {pines—As in Cerambyx cinnamomeus. Linn. *** Thofe having the thorax round, and armed with fixed {pines—As in Cerambyx futor. Linn. _ **** Thole with the thorax unarmed and fomewhat cylindrical—Ass in Cerambyx pun@atus. Linn. ***** Thofe with the thorax unarmed, roundith, fomewhat globofe, and flattened on the upper fide—As in Cerambyx violaceus. Linn. Two writers of refpectability, Geoffroy and Schaeffer, form feveral new genera of the different kinds of Linnzan CER Cerambyces. Their genus Prionus confifts of thofe which have ferrated antennz placed in the eyes, or furrounded and embraced at their bafe by the eyes. The true Cerambyces, according to thefe authors, are fuch as have the antenne gradually tapering from the bafe towards their extremity, and are placed in the eye, and have the thorax armed with fpines. Thofe Linnzan Cerambyces, which have fetaceous autenne placed in the eyes, and the thorax cylindrical and unarmed with fpines, are referred to their genus Leptura ; and their genus Svenocorus comprehends thofe which have the antenne tapering towards the extremity, but have their bafe originating before the eyes; and the wing-cafes dimi- nifhing in breadth towards their point. This laft genus Stenocorus is divided into two families, the firft of which only belongs to the Linnean Cerambyces, being fuch as have the thorax armed with fpines; the other to the Lin- nean Lepture, having the thorax deftitute of fpines. Sco- poli likewife has made fome alterations in the Cerambyx and Leptura gencra; his charaéter of the firft is, however, vague and indefinite ; he affigns it the power of emitting a found or noife by the friction of the thorax, where it lies clofe to the body, as a character of the genus, and has, by this means, placed feveral of the true Cerambyces, which have not this property, among his Lepture. The remainder of the Linnzan Cerambyces he feparates into two divifions, the firft containing thofe which have the thorax armed with fpines, and the other thofe which have the thorax deftitute of fpines. Olivier found it requifite to divide the Linnean Ceram- byces into feveral genera; La Marck and Latreille have done the fame; but the moft important innovations that have been made on the Linnzan genera are to be found in the dif- ferent entomological publications of Fabricius. Contrary to the Linnean method, his characters of genera are taken from parts of the mouth, which cannot readily be fo examined as thofe which Linneus has taken, or it would be impoffible to deny the manifeft fuperiority of the Fabri- cian genera over thofe of Linneus. Notwithftanding that Fabricius conftitutes fo many genera of the Linnean Ce- rambyces, and that his charaéters are fo diffimilar, thofe genera appear fo natural and well f{ele@ed, that other cha- racters, even after the Linnzan method, may be applied with propriety to nearly the whole of them. This is in particular obvious in the genus Prionws, as well as Lamia and Saperda, each of which poffefs Linngean chara@ters, if they may be fo exprefled, diftinét from thofe which cha- racterife the true Cerambyces, although in the fyftem left us by Linnaeus, they could not be referred to any other genus. In a work recently publifhed, on the entomology of New Holland, and the contiguous iflands, we have aie deavoured, under this perfuafion, to reconcile the Fabri« cian genera, Prionus, Lamia, Stenocorus, and Saperda to the Linnwan arrangement, by affigning to cach a new genes rical definition after the manner of Linneus, and conceive there can be neither difficulty, nor impropriety, in recon~ citing many other of the Fabrician genera to the Linnean method in a fimilar manner... As fubdivifions of the Lin- nean genera, the Fabrician genera might be eminently ufe- ful, fhould increafing the number of new genera be thought objectionable. It mutt be regarded as no inconfiderable improvement, in the lait edition of the Sy/emze Nature, that Gmelin Nas availed himfelf, in a great meatfure, of the Fabrician genera as {ubdivilions of his genus Cerambyx. The genus Cerambyx comprehends an amazing nomber of the larger and mott-beautiful of all the coleopterous ine fe&ts. In the larva ftate they refemble foft, oblong, flen. der worms, witha shelly head, furuifhed with {trong jaws, Ooz and - CER AM BY x and fix feet on the anterior part, They live principally in trees, the inner part of which they bore through, reducing tle wood to powder, and undergo their changes from the Jarva to the pupa, and thence to the perfect fate, in the cavities which they bore. In the larva {tate, they are fometimes eaten; in the Welt Indies thefe larve are col- lected by the negroes as an article of luxury for the tables of their owners, and are in great esteem. Many of thefe infeéts poffefs a powerful odoriferous {meil fimilar to that of the European fpecies Mofchatus. ‘The antennz, in many -of the {pecies, are longer than the body. In defcribing the fpecies of this extenfive genus, we fhall mention thofe firft which fland as true Cerambyces in the Fabrician, as well as Linnean, fyftems ; the other genera Prionus, Lamia, &c. will be alfo introduced under the pre- fent article for the fake of perfpicuity. Genus CERAMBYX. Antenne fetaceous: feelers four: thorax {pinous or gib- bous: wing-cafes linear: jaw obtufe and armed with a fingle tooth. . Feelers four, filiform: jaw obtufe, with one tooth: lip bifid: antenne fetaceous. Fabr. . Capricorne. Antenne fetaceous, long, fituated in the eyes: feelers four, equal: eyes crefcent-fhaped: jaws bifid. La Marck. CeramByx Girarra, black: thorax unarmed, elongated, with tranfverfe rugofe firie : wing-cafes {cabrous at the bafe, and {mooth towards the apex. Donov. Inf. N. Holland. C. Giraffa, Tranf. Linn. Soc. Ficuteriu. Braffy olivaceous: head broad; eyes pro- minent and divided: wing-cafes attenuated, lengthened at the tip, and fomewhat bearded. Donov. Inf. N. Holland. C, Fichtelii, Tranf. Linn. Soc. ! CrramByx Moscuarus. Thorax fpinous: fhining green and purple: antenne moderate and blue. Linn. Olivier, &c. This infe& is found on the willow in European countries, and is generally known in England by the name of Goat- chafer, or suite beste, which laft it merits particularly, the infeét emitting a powerful fmell of mufk when alive. Length, including the antennz, about three inches. Vixens. Thorax rounded, and fpinous : body green: thighs rufous. Olivier, &c. This is a native of Jamaica; the larva is found in the trunk of the amyris balfamifera. Dr. Schwartz. It is ob- ferved of this {pecies, by Fabricius, that it varies in having the antennz longer or fhorter than the body, and the thighs toothed or unarmed. Thefe fuppofed varieties are mott probably diltinét {pecies. Nitrens. Thorax rounded and fomewhat {pinous: fhin- ing green: thighs clavated, the club of the four anterior ones rufous. Cerambyx nitens of Olivier. Inhabits A frica. Muf. Donov. Deferibed by Fabricius from the Bankfian cabinet. The antenne are twice the length of the body, and of a black colour: the body entirely green and fhining : legs black : potterior thanks compreffed. Arse. Thorax rounded and {pinous: body green: an- tennz and legs rufous. Fabr. his is Cerambyx afer of the Linnzan mantifla 532. The front is retufe: antenne {carcely longer than the body, and rufous: thorax rugofe : wing-cafes attenuated ; four anterior thighs clavated. Vitratus. Thorax {pinous, fhinng green: thorax and wing-cafes lineated with black. Fabr. The antennz are of a moderate fize and black: wing-cafes obtufe : thorax with two dorfal black lines: thighs unarmed and rufous, fhanks black. Festivus. Thorax fpinous and green: wing-cafes violaccous, greenifh at the bafe: thighs. ferruginous,. and armed with a fing'e tooth. Fabr. Difcovered by. Mr, Smeathman on the banks of the river Gaboon in Africa. The antenng are of moderate length, black, with the firlt joint rufous: two obtufe {pines on each fide the thorax; thighs ferruginous: fhanks brown. Verutinus. Thorax f{pinous and blackifh, with a dee black ftripe. Fabr. The antenna of this: infe@& are of a moderate length; the body black; wing-cafes obtufe, with the dorfal {tripe velvety ; pofterior fhanks comprefled, and fpinous at the apex. This kind inhabits America. Dr, Schulz. Sericeus. Thorax f{pinous, body black and filky: fu- ture and {tripe on the wing-cafes greenith: thighs rufous. Fabr. This infeét inhabits South America. The antennge are black; héad and thorax deep black, velvety, and fpot- ted with fhining green. Suturatis. Thorax fpinous; body black; future of the wing-cafes, and {tripe in the middle golden. Fabr, Olivier, Sc. Deferibed by Fabricius from the Hunterian cabinet. It inhabits South America. The abdomen is black, beneath bluifh and glofly ; legs black; thighs clavated; potterior thighs and fhanks comprefled. Evecans. Thorax fpinous, and, with the head, braffy - green and glofly; wing-cafes dufky ; antenne long and rufous ; legs rufous. Fabr. Inhabits America. The ans tennz in this {pecies are twice the length of the body. Latipes. Thorax fpinous, depretied ; body greenifh; wing-cafes cupreous ; faanks dilated and comprefled. Fabrs. Inhabits the Cape of Good Hope. Loxcires. Thorax fomewhat fpinous, azure; body — green; antenne twice the length of the body ; thighs cla- vated. Saperda longipes. Fabr. Mant. Cerambyx longipess Fabr. Ent. Syft. Cerambyx fufiformis. Degeer. A na- tive of the Cape of Good Hope. The antenna are of a blue colour, dufky at the tip ; legs long, and of an azure colour. Inrerrurtus. Thorax fpinous, deep black; wings cafes with three linear white {pots ; antenne fhort. Fabr. Defcribed by Fabricius fromthe mufeum of Olivier. The antenne are fhorter than the body, which Jaft is black; pofterior legs longer than the reft, and with the fhanks com-- prefled. Native place unknown. Cervo. Thorax fpinous, rugofe, rounded; antenne long. Cerambyx Cerdo« bits Europe. Heros. Thorax fpinous, rugofe,, black; wing-cafes. fomewhat f{pinous, and pitchy ; antenne long. Geoffr. &cw Found on the oak in Europe. Spintcornis. ‘Thorax. fomewhat fpinous, and black; wing-cafes greenifh with fpinous tips. Fabr. This infe&t is defcribed by Olivier, under the name o Cerambyx torridus. -It inhabits Africa. The antenne are: long and black, with the third, fourth, fifth, and fixth joint fpinous at the tip ;. thorax. black, with three tubercle on each fide, the lateral ones obtufe ; legs black ; thigh clavated. } Arter. Thorax fomewhat fpinous, black; antennz mo+ __ derate, and annulated with rufous and black. Fabr. Oli- vier, &c. Inhabits the Cape of Good Hope. This ist much lefs than the laft mentioned fpecies. The body i black ; breait cinereous. and glofly ; legs black; thighs a’ the bafe reddifh; pofterior legs long. Barus. Thorax rugofe and.{omewhat fpinous; wing: cafes {pmous at the apex; antenne long, .with hooked fpines. Cerambyx Batus. Linn. Inhabits South America. FerruGineus, Thorax armed with fharp fpines, ru- 6 go black 3 wing-cafes- Linn. Inha- ‘preffed. Linn. bafe ; antennz very long. T'abr. CE R.A MgB Y X. gofe and black; wing-cafes ferruginous; antenne long. Cerambyx ferrugineus. Linn. Inhabits the Ealt Indies, Cerambysx gigas of the Fabrician Mantiffa. Avpixus. Thorax fpinous; band, and four fpots on the wing-cafes; black; antennze. long. Linn. Found in fome parts of Europe, not hitherto difcovered in England. Its fize is rather lefs than that of Cerambyx Mofchatus, or Mok Beetle. Scararrs. Thorax fpinous and fufcous, with a white Tongitudinal line ; antenne long. Fabr. A native of South Ameriéa, defcribed by Fabricius from the Bankfian cabi- net. The antennz are three times the length of the body ; head fufcous; orbits of the eyes, and dorfal line white ; thorax armed with acute fpines, fufcous with a dorfal line of white; wing-cafes fufcous with a white-dot in the mid- dle and indented future. Esutinus. Thorax fpinous, green and brafly; wing- cafes teftaceous; antenne fhort. Fabr. This kind inha- bits Africa, and was firft deferibed by Fabricius, from a P fpecimen in the colleGtion of Dr. Hunter. The antenne are ferrated ; thorax uneven, and without fpots. Morio, Thorax furnished with two fpines, rugofe and Black ; antenne long and ferruginous. Fabr. From -the’ fame cabinet, as the preceding. This f{pecies inhabits Cayenne. The antenne are twice the length of the body, cylindrical, and ferruginous, with the firft and fecond joint entirely black, and the three next black at the bafe ; thorax rugofe, with two [pines on each fide, the pofterior one of which is largeft ; wing-cafes {mooth, impreffed at the bafe, and at the tip truncated. Karnxert. Thorax fpinous, black; wing-cafes fan- guineous, with a black fpot. Linn. Found in the fouth of Europe, and varies in being fometimes without the black {pot on the wing-cafes, and fometimes marked with a ru- fous lateral fpot. Wing-cafes notched at the extremity. Luypu. Thorax f{pinous, fanguineous; antenna, tips of the wing-cafes, abdomen, and legs black. Fabr. Defcribed by Fabricius from the cabinet of Lund, who received it from Tranquebar. Size of C. Kaehleri. An- tenn: fhort aud‘ black ; thorax gibbous, {pinous, fangui- neous, and without {pots ; feutel black; breaft fanguine- ous; abdomen black, with acute rufous tubercle between the fecond pair of legs; thighs flightly clavated. Succincrus. Thorax rugofe, with two f{pines; wing- cafes banded with yellow; antennz very long and com- Inhabits America and Brafil, and is men- tioned by Degeer under the title of Cerambyx fufcoecaflaneus. Inft. 5. 113, &c. Desronrainur. Thorax {pinons, fanguineous, fpotted with black: wing-cafes fanguineous and black at the tip and In the colle&tion of Desfontaines. This kind inhabits Barbary. The head is black; wing-cafes {mooth, with a {mall black {pot at the bafe, and a larger one at the apex ; body black and without fpots. Srartatus. Thorax fomewhat ‘fpinous, rugofe, ferru- ginous ; wiog-cafes ftriated with yelow.; antenne long. Olivier. TFabr. &c. Inhabits Coyenne. Defcribed from the Hunterian colleftion. The antenme are cylindrical, "twice the length of the body, ferruginous, and black at the tips. Head ferruginous with three vertical black dots; thorax rugofe, with two fpines on each fide, and dotted with black ; f{cutel black at the tip; wing-cafes ferrugi- nous with four yellow ftreaks ; thighs black at the tips. Ruripes. Thorax rufous, and armed with two {pines ; Wwing-cafes fmooth and black; antenne long. Fabr. A native of South America. The antenne are longer than the body, and yellowifh, with the tips of the joints ferru- ginous ; polterior thoracic fpine largelt ; wing cafes gla- brons, with a large impreffed dot at the bale; legs yellowith with the tips of the thighs black ; abdomen black. Dimipiatus. Thorax armed with two {pines, and rug- ged, yellow with black dots; wing-cafes black, yellow at the bafe; antenne moderate. Fabr. The head of this infe& is yellow, with three vertical black dots ; polterior fpine on the thorax largeft, and yel- low with black dots ; wing-cafes glabrous, black, with the {future and bafe yellow ; body yellow with half the abdomen black ; legs yellow. Bicoror. Thorax armed with two fpines, tuberculated and ferruginous ; lower half of the wing-cafes, and the body black. Olivier, &c. Inhabits Cayenne; firft defcribed from the cabinet of Von Rohr. The antenne are mode- rate, ferruginous at the bafe, in the middle yellow, and at the-extremity fufcous: head ferruginous ; throat prominent and acute; a large impreffed dot at the bafe of the wing- cafes; legs ferruginons. Depressus. Thorax armed with many fpines, depreffed, black, variegated with cinereous ; wing-cafes pointed ; an- tenne long. Olivier, Voet, &c. The head is black with cinereous villous impreffed fpots ; thorax befet on each fide, with about four or five fhort {pines ; wing-cales ftriated ; legs black. Fascrarus. Thorax fpinous, azure ; wing-cafes banded with yellow : antenne moderate; yellow, blue at the bafe and tip. Found in Tranquebar by Dr. Koenig. The an- tennz are comprefled, and blue ; the laft four joints but one yellow ; the lait blue; legs blue, the pofterior ones com= prefled. Olivier, Pallas, &c. Baxsicornts. Thorax {pinous ; four firft joints of the an- tennz bearded with black: body teftaceous, variegated with black. Fabr. This fpecies inhabits the Eaft Indies. Nesutosus. Thorax f{pinous; wing-cafes dotted and ftriped with black; antenne long. Linn. Inhabits the trunks of pine trees in Europe, and is found in England. Donov. Brit. Inf... Length half an inch. Ouscurus. Thorax {pinous, villous and fulvous ; wing- cafes black, with a villous fulvous fpot behind; antennz moderate. Fabr. Size of the preceding; ~antenne length of the body; wing-cafes fomewhat feabrous; legs black with yellowifh thanks. Inhabits the Cape of Good Hope. Lund. ’ Griseus. Thorax {pinous and fufcous ; wing-cafes {mooth with grey bands dotted with black ; antenne very long. Fabr. This fpecies inhabits Germany (Loewenfkiold.) It bears a great refemblance to Cerambyx Nebulofus but is larger, and has the antenne. three times the length of the body. The head and thorax are fufcous, very slightly {potted; wing- cafes with a dufky band at the bafe, and another in the middle, and alfo the tip cinereous dotted with black ; body cinereous 3. thighs dotted with black; fhanks black at the tip. eaerarer Thorax fpinous, grey; wing-cafes with elevated lines dotted with black and at the tips fufcous ; an- tenne very long. Fabr. Size of the laft. The antenne twice the length of the body, black, withthe joints whitifh at the bafe, head and thorax grey, the latter armed with a fingle {pine ; wing-cafes grey at the bafe with four elevated lines ; legs prey. Hispipus. Thorax {pinous; wing-cafes whitifh at the bafe. and bidentated at the tip; antenne of moderate fize and hairy. Linn. Le capricorne a étuis dentelés. Geoffr. Cerambyx fafciculatus, Degeer. Inhabits Europe, and is found! CERAMBY &X. found in England. Donov. Brit. Inf. This infe& is {mall, the general colour cinereous, fprinkled with black dots, and banded acrofs the middle of the wing-cafes with white. Fascicutatus. Therax {pinous; wing-cafes entire, with three hairy dots; antennz moderate and hairy. Panzer, Hybner &c. Tnhabits Germany. The head and thorax of this fpecies are fufcous; wing-cafes pale at the bafe; legs grey. Pitosus. ‘Thorax armed with two fpines; wing-cafes grey witha fingle tooth at the tip; antennc moderate and hairy. Olivier. This kind is found in Saxony. Hybner. It is {maller than Cerambyx hifpidus; wing cafes grey, palelt at the bale. Ba.reatvs. Thorax flightly {pined, and_brown ; -wing-cafes banded with fufcous. Lino. Inhabits Portugal. Rucicotus. Thorax unarmed, very rough and black ; aiitenne moderate, and with the legs pitchy. Fabr. Inha- bits Tranquebar, (Hybner.) The antenne are comprefied : wing-cafes black, obtufe at the tip, and nearly truncated ; legs pitchy. : BimACULATUS. ‘Thorax unarmed and rufous; wing- cafes teftaceous with a black fpot ; antenne fhort. abr. Found in the Eaft Indies. his is of the middle fize 5 the antennz are villous, rufous, aad fhorter than the body ; head and thorax villous, rufous and immaculate ; thorax tuberculated, and very flightly fpinous; wing-cafes dotted ; legs teftaceous. Muf. Lund. Spienpipus. Thorax fomewhat fpinous and rufous ; ‘wing-cafes teftaceous, black-blue at the bafe; antennz fhort. Fabr. Defcribed from the cabinet of Lund. The fpecies inhabits Tranquebar. It refembles C. bimaculatus; the antennz are rufous at the bafe, teftaceous in the middle, and brown at the tip; head pun@tured, rufous, and with- out {pots; thorax rounded, dotted and armed with a {mall fhort, obtufe fpine on each fide; wing-cafes with three {mooth elevated ftrie; body villous; abdomen rufous, with a prominent tooth beneath, and correfpondent lateral groove in the thorax 5 legs rufous. Loncicornis. Thorax unarmed; back flat; body varied with grey and fufcous; antenne very long. Fabr. Inhabits the coaft of Coromandel. Antenne thrice the length of the body; black, the joints cinereous at the bafe ; head cinerecus, bafe and lateral line black; thorax flat above, and much imprefled, brown and cinereous varied ; wing-cafes with pun@ured {trie ; body cinereous. From the Bankfian cabinet. Marcinatts. Thorax unarmed; wing-cafes fome- what teftaceous, and furrounded with a black margin. Fabr. A native of the Cape of Good Hope. Antenne moderate, and pitchy; head brown; thorax ovate, fuf- cous, bordered behind and in front with black ; wing-cafes fmooth ; legs blackith. Brevicoanis. Thorax unarmed, green; wing-cafes dufky ; antenne fhort and black. Olivier &c. From the Bankfian cabinet. Obf. The head is green; antenne compreffed; thorax dotted, green and fhining ; wing cafes {mooth, and greenifh ; ‘legs black, thighs clavated ; the four anterior ones rufous, potterior greenifh. Juvencus. Thorax unarmed, and rugofe; wing-cafes pointed, black, with hoary down ; antennz very long. Linn. Inhabits America. Hotosericus. Thorax unarmed, rugofe, grifeous ; aving-cafes armed with a fingle tooth, filky, with a brown and cincreous hue; antenne moderate. Fabr. Inhabits the Eaft Indies. ‘Head grey; body beneath dining. Olivier &c. Cinerevs. Thorax unarmed, and fomewhat rugofe, cinereous and without fpots. Fabr. From the cabinet of Lund. This is a native of Tranquebar. Genus Paionus. Antenne feteceous ; eyes reniform, embracing the bafe of the antenne; thorax flat, and marginate, the margin oftentimes dentated ; body oblong, and depreffed. Donov. Inf. N. Holland. Genus Prionus. Feelers four ; filiform ; jaw cylindrical and entire ; lip fhort and membranaceous ; antennz fetaceous. Fabr. P. Loncimanus. Thorax armed with moveable fpines ; wing-cafes with a fingle tooth at the bafe, and bidentated at the tip; antennz and fore legs very long. Fabr. Ceram- byx Longimanus Linn. This is an infe&t of large fize, the body exceeding three inches in length, and having the antenne, and firll pair of legs remarkably lorig in propor- - tion; the colour is pale whitifh grey varied with yellow and orange, and a number of black interrupted lines. beautiful {pecies, and inhabits South America. Lepriporrerus. Pitchy, rufous; wing-cafes with grey villous {pots and three elevated longitudinal lines; bafe gib- bous, tip truncated. Donov. Inf. N. Holland. Prionus lepidopterus. Tranf. Linn. Soc. ; This infeé is of alarge fize ; the [pecies is named Lepidop- terus from the villous {pots on the wing-cafes, which, when attentively examined, appear clothed with a fort of fcaly down, or feathering, moit exa@ly refembling that which we obferve on the wings of lepidopterous infe&s. Fasciatus. Thorax fomewhat marginated, and un- armed; black, downy; wing-cafes chefnut clouded with yellow, and rounded at the tip, with four elevated lines. Donov. Inf. N. Holland. A new fpecies lately difcovered in New South Wales. Furicinosvs. Thorax with crenated margin, armed with one tooth, and marked with an impreffed dorfal line ; wing-cafes with crenated teeth at the tip. Fabr. Defcribed from a {pecimen in the Britifh Mufeum, received from America. Rostratus. Thorax marginated, armed with one tooth and rufous; jaws infleGted and acute; fternum {pi- nous. Fabr. This fpecies, which is very large, inhabits Siam. The head is black, and grooved ; antennz fhorter than the body, the laft joint much ferrated; thorax glabrous; wing-cafes black and obtufe; breaft and legs rufous. Bipentatus. Thorax fomewhat margined, unarmed, black and downy; wing-cafes chefnut, clouded with yellow, and bidentated at the apex, with four elevated lines. Donov. Inf. N. Holland. Lineatus. Thorax with crenated margin, and a fingle lateral tooth on each fide ; black, ftriped with white ; wing-cafes crenated with teeth at the apex.- Fabr. Ceram byx Eneatus. Linn, This {pecies inhabits America. Nitipus. Thorax with crenated margin and fingle la- teral tooth each fide; brafly azure; wing-cafes coppery. Fabr. Defcribed from the Hunterian Mufeum. Inhabits Brafil. The antenne are long and blue; head grooved, and brafly green ; wing-cafes punGtured, and obtufe; abdomen brafly-green. Fazer. Thorax margined with a fingle {pine on each fide; wing-cafes pitchy ; antennz moderate. Fabr. Ceram- byx Faber. Linn. Scheffer &c. This is a rare fpecies and Itisa inhabits Europe; the thorax of the male has the crenated edges, but is deftitute of the tooth. Mucronatus. Thorax margined, and bidentated; 3 wing- EE =<_—— eee CEB AMS Y X. wing-cafes mucronated and rufous, Fabr. Inhabits Ame- rica, The front is retufe; antenne fhort and comprefled ; thorax with two tubercles on the back ; wing-cafes velvety and pointed. Depsarius. ‘Thorax fomewhat margined, armed with a fingle tooth, and downy ; body blackith; antenne fhort and red. Fabr. 5 Defcribed from a Swedifh infe& in the cabinet of Z{chuck. It is the Cerambyx depfarius of Linn. Scasricornis. ‘Lhorax fomewhat margined, and arm- * ed with a fingle tooth ; fomewhat villous, blackith with fuf- cous wing-cafes, and two elevated lines ; antennze moderate. Pabr. Ceramby: feabricornis, Olivier, and Fue(l. Prionus fca- bricornis of Scopoli. Leptura Geoffroy. A native of the fouthern parts of Europe ; the body is very narrow; thorax very flightly margined, and in one fex nearly unarmed. Arcuatus. Thorax bidentated; teeth arched and black; wing-cafes obtufe and teftaceous. Fabr. Inha- bits Van Diemen’s land. Defcribed from the Bankfian Mufeum. Macutarus. Thorax margined and three-toothed ; black ; wing-cafes with cinereous fpots. Fabr. ts A native of Senegal, defcribed. from a {pecimen in the mufeum of the late king of France. This is a large fpecies ; the jaws are exferted and dentated ; antenne length of the body and biack ; thorax armed with three fharp fpines ; wing-cafes much variegated with grey. Muf. Donov. Cervicornis. Thorax margined, with three teeth each fide ; jaws advanced and armed outwardly with a fingle {pine ; antennz fhort. Fabr. Cerambyx cervicornis. Linn. ‘This infe& is an inhabitant of America; the larva is eaten by the Indians, and is elteemed a delicacy. Spintcornis. Thorax armed on each fide with three teeth; black, glofly; antenne fhort; exterior joint {pi- nous at the tip. Fabr. Native country unknown. Muf. Brit. Obf. This does not appear diltin€&t from Prionus buphtalmus of the fame author, and Huffarus Ceylonenfis of Voet. Fabricius defcribes ‘both fpecifically in the fame words “* Thorace utrinque tridentato ater nitidus, antennis brevibus ; articulis ultimis apice {pinofis.”” Coriarius. Thorax margined, with three teeth ; body pitchy ; antenne fhort. Cerambyx coriarius. Linn. Le Pri- one. Geoffr. Cerambyx Prionus. Degeer. This is an European infe&t, and-is rarely found in Eng- land. Donov. Brit. Inf. Lives in the trunks of decayed trees. Fabricius fuppofes the Cerambyx imbricornis of Lin- nus (Sylt. Nat. 2. 624. 5.) to be only a variety-of this infect, and entertains a fimilar opinion with regard to the LLucanus tridentatus of Linnzus. Syft. Nat. 2. 560. 3. Gicantevs. ‘Thorax armed with two teeth on each fide; body black; wing-cafes ferruginous ; antennz fhort. Fabr. The Fabrician Prionus giganteus is Cerambyx giganteus of the Linnzan mantifla; this kind is of a large fize, as its _ name implies, and inhabits Cayenne. ‘ Cyzinpricus. Thorax margined, three-toothed, and dufky ; breaft and abdomen ferruginous; antenne {fhort. Fabr. This is the Cerambyx unicolor of Drury ; inhabits North America. Blackburn. The antennz are comprefled; head and thorax black ; wing-cafes pitchy. Armittatus. Thorax margined, with four fpines on each fide; wing-cafes ferruginous with black margin. Fabr. This is of a very large fize, and inhabits India. It is the Cerambyx armillatus of Linneus. The front is retufe ; jaws emarginate; thorax rufous at the fides; wing-cafes pointed at the tip. Luzonum. Thorax margined with many fpines ; jaws advanced, armed with a fingle tooth, and bifid apex ; ante- rior legs elongated. Fabr. A native of South America, de- {cribed by Petiver. The antenne are of moderate length, and black, with the fecond, third, fourth, and fifth joints muricated beneath; thorax black, ciliated at the edge with twelve {pines ; wing-cafes mucronate, pale ferruginous, and flightly punctured at the bafe; anterior legs rough and prickly beneath. Serrires. Thorax margined, with many fpines; jaws advanced, and tridentated at the tip; lege f{pinous and fer- rated. Fabr. A native of Africa. Damicornis. Thorax margined, and denticulated ; jaws advanced, bidentated; antenne fhort. Fabr. This is Cerambyx damicornis of Linnzus (Mant. 532.). It inhabits America; and the larva is eaten. Birascrarus, Thorax margined and denticulated ; body black; wing-cafes red, with two black bands; antenne fhort. Linn. Inhabits America, and is the Cerambyx bifaj- ciatus of Linnzus. ; Tuomx, ‘Thorax with crenulated margin ; body black; wing-cafes glabrous and ferruginous; margin pale yellow. Fabr. Cerambyx Thome. Ata. Soc. Berol. This isa native of the ifle of St. Thomas in America; wing-cafes rounded at the tip. Bittreatus. Thorax with crenated margin and two white lines; wing-cafes ferruginous with yellow margin and Aine with white. Fabr. Inhabits America, Muf. von Ole Spixiparsis. Thorax with crenated margin ; head [pie nous below the jaws, which laft are armed with three teeth. Cerambyx /pinibarbis. Linn, This is a native of South America; the jaws are large, thick, three-toothed within, with the tip emarginate. Patmatus. Sides of the thorax feabrous, with many teeth ; pofterior tooth palmated ; antenne fhort. Fabr. In- habits Guinea. The head is grooved and black ; "antennz comprefled and dufky at the tip; thorax flat and glofly ; wing-cafes {mooth, piceous, and mucronated on the future at the tip; legs ferrated within. Maxitxosus. ‘Thorax with crenated margin; jaws ad-. vanced, hairy within, and armed with four teeth. Fabr. This is the Cerambyx maxillofus of Drury, and Prionus maxillofus of Olivier. It inhabits South America. The co- lour is glofly black. . Canacicutatus. Thorax with crenated margin and a villous white groove down the back ; antenne fhort. Fabr. -Muf, Hunter, and Donov. A native of the American ifland:. The antennz are fhort, comprefled, and black ; head without {pots; fcutel white and villous; wing-cafes rather tough ; legs black. Cinnamomeus. Thorax with denticulated margin 3 jaws advanced and armed with three teeth. Fabr. Cerambyx cine namomeus. Linn. Inhabits South America. Mexranopus. Thorax with denticulared margin; jaws advanced and armed with many teeth; wing-cafes mucro- nated. Fabr. Cerambyx melanopus. Linn. Cerambyx crenu- latus. Drury. From the fame country as the lait. Spinosus. Thorax armed with many teeth, and black 5 wing-cafes teftaceous and one-toothed. Fabr. Inhabits Trane quebar. Mus, Hybner. Tne head of this infeét is grooved; the antennze fhort,, comprefled, and black ; thorax very flightly margined, ci- neregus-downy beneath ; back grooved. Barsarvs, CE RAM BYR: Barsarus. ‘Thorax with entire margin; jaws ferrugi- nous, very hirfute ; antenne moderate. Vabr. Deferibed from the Bankfian cabinet as a native of South America. The antenna: are rough, the lalt joint comprefied and {mooth ; wing-cafes piceous, abdomen villous and white ; leys black. : Peetinicognis. Thorax unarmed, teftaceous ; antenne fhort and peGtinated, Olivier. This inhabits Sedegal. The antennziare fhorter than the body, and greatly pectinated ; jaws exferted, with @ fingle tooth in the middle. Genus Lamia. Antennz fetaceous and elongated ; head large, obtufe, de- clining; eyes reniform, and embracing the bafe of the an- tenne ; thorax cylindrical and uneven; wing-cafes as long ‘as the abdomen; body-cylindrical. Donov. Inf. N. Holland. Genus Lamia. Feclers four, filiform; jaw horny, and bifid ; lip cleft and horny ; antenne fetaceous. Fabr. Vermicuvaxta. Thorax fomewhat tuberculated, black; -wing-cafes fpeckled with numerous minute white vermicular charaGters. Donov. Inf. N., Holland. Lamia vermicularia is a new fpecies lately difcovered in New South Wales, and defcribed among the infeéts of New Holland. It is of the middle fize, and entirely black, ex- -cept the vermicular marks. Osriqus. Thorax dentated, cinereous ; wing-cafes {pi- nous, emarginate at the tip, and marked obliquely behind with a whutifh band. Donov. Inf..N. Holland. This is .a fmall but elegant fpecies, general colour pale teftaceous and whitifh varied with brown, and befet with ‘numerous {mall denticulations. Gicas. Thorax armed with fharp fpines, and rugged ; wing-cafes cinereous, with a black marginal fpot, rough with two tubercles at the bafe; antenne long. Fubr. Oliv. &c. Muf. Bankf. This infe@, which is of a large fize, inhabits the coaft of Guinea. The antenne are twiee the length of the body, and pale teftaceous; body brown ; fecond pair of fhanks .armed with a fingle tooth. Trisutus. Thorax four-fpined; fcutel and wing-cafes fpinous ; antenne longer than thebody. Fabr. Found on the banks of the river Gaboon in Africa. Muf. Donov. &c.. The antenne are longer than the bedy, brown, with the bafe of the joints cinereous ; head and thorax brown and cinereous varied ; {p'nes on the fevtel two, and fhort ; wing-cafes fame as the thorax, and pointed at the tip with a fhort denticle; a {mall tubercle at the end of the middle fhanks of the legs. ; Pepicornis. Thorax and wing-cafes fpinous ; anterior thighs cornuted. Fabr. Diferibed from the Bankfian cabinet. This is a native of New Hoiland. The colour of the head grey ; antenne vil- lous and moderate; thorax grey, rounded, with fix dorfal eredt fpines; wing-cafes grey, with lunate, marginal, cine- reous fpot and band in the middle, and at the bafe many ereét black fpines; horn on the anterior thighs long, fharp and curved. Fronticornis. Thorax fpinous ; a projeéting recurved notched horn in front; antennz long. Fabr. Cerambyx 2- pun@atus. Drury. Luf. Inhabits the Cape. The antennz are long, ard brown, and have the joints black at the ups ; head brown, with black mandibles ; thorax {pinous, rather rug- ged, brown with a broad white fine on each fide beneath ; wing-cafes brown, witha few elevated dots at the bale, two ocellated black fpots in the middle, and a larger whitith one behind ; abdomen and legs fufcous. Hysrrix. Thorax armed with five fpiness wing-cafes with tufts of hairs ; antenne moderate and ferrated. Olivier, Fabr. &c. This infe& is a native of the Cape cf Good Hope. The antenne are hairy, deeply ferrated towards the extremity,, teftaceous with the joints rufous at the tips; two raifed tu- bercles before the middle {pine on the thorax ; wing-cafes varied with ficfh colour and brown ; body {mall and cinereous. Crista. ‘Chorax armed with fharp-fpines, grey ; wing- cafes with a compreffed tridenticulate tubercle at the bate. Fabr. : 7 Difcovered in New Zealand by fir Jofeph Banks. The antenne are very little longer than the body, cinereous, the joints tipped with black ; on each fide below the lateral {pine a fulvons dot; a {mall oblique black line on the polterior part of the wing-cafes ; thighs clayated and black, the club grey; thanks grey with black tips. Amsurator. Anterior part of the thorax furnifhed with two fpines on each fide; body clouded. Fabr. Defcribed by Petiver as a native of America. The anten- ne are of a moderate length ; thorax and wing-cafes clouded with cheinut and cinercous. Texror. Thorax {pinous; wing-cafes convex and black; _ antenne moderate. Fabr. Cerambyx textor. Linn. Found in the trunks of trees, and inhabits Europe. Crucirera. Thorax {pinous, black; wing-cafes with a cinercous femicircular fillet, and marginal dot; antenne long. Fabr. Native country unknown. The body is long, and of a dufky black colour ; antennz twice the length of tht body; on each fide of the thorax an oblique faint ferruginous line ; in the middle of the exterior margin of the wing-cafes a {mall dot ; legs blackih. Vacinator Thorax fpinous, rugged, and black ; wing- cafes ferruginous and emarginate ; antennz moderate. Fabr, Inhabits the Eaft Indics. Lund. The antennz are compreffed and ferruginous, feutel cinereous, and villous; wing-cafes fmooth, ferruginous, gibbous at the bafe, with emarginate tips ; beneath cinereous and villous. Purcura. Thorax fpinous, black with green dots on the anterior part and dots behind ; wing-cafes mucronated at the bale. Febr. Cerambyx pulcher. Drury. The antenra-are rather longer than the body, and black ; head black with three green ttripes, thofe on the fide encir= cling the eyes; wing-cafes punctured with two clevated truncated denticles; bedy vaiied with black and green; length two inches; inhabits Africa. Recatis. Thoyax fpinous, fafciated with green ; wing- cafes {peckled with green, and three fulvous {pots on cach. Fabr. &c. This is a fpecies of corfiderable beauty, and in ize and general appearance bears a itrong reiemblance to the lalt; and it alfo inhabits the fame country. The antenne are longer than the body and black ; head black, lineated with green, and marked beneath each eye with a fulvous {pot thorax black, with three imprefled green bands; wing-cafes fomewhat {triated, and black ; body green beneath ; on cach fide of the abdomen a row of fulvous dets. Uxpata. Thorax unarmed, cinerecous; a black waved band on the thorax and two on the wing-cafes. Fabr. Ce- rambyx undatus. Gmel. Native country unknown. Size of the L. regalis. An- tenne longer than the thorax, and black. Irrorata. Thorax fpinous, fufcous and ferruginous — varied 5 wing-cafes black, -f{peckled with ferruginsus; an- tenne moderate. Fabr. Voet. &c. Cerambyx irroratus. Gmel. Inhabits the Eait Indices. Antenne moderate, grey- ih; - CERAMBYX, ith; head fufcous, and ferruginous; mandibles black and glofly ; fcutel ferruginons ; wing-cafes pointed at the tip. f/Epinis. Thorax fpinous; with four yellow fpots; wing-cafes obtufe, grey and brown varied; antenne very long. Lamia edilis. Vabr. Paykull, &c. Cerambyx edilis. Linn. Gmel. &c. Found in the trinks of trees in the northern parts of Europe, and is found, though rarely, in England. Donov, Brit. Inf. p. 72. The antenna are rather more than three .times the length of the body, meafuring about three inches, the body better than three fourths of an inch, This [pe- cies is molt frequent in Germany. Aromaria. Thorax fpinous, tuberculated, and cinere- ous; wing-cafes fufcous varied and rough, with black ‘elevated dots; antenne long. Fabr. Cerambyx atomarius. Gmel. According to Smidt this infe€t inhabits Germany. It refembles adilis, but it is rather fmaller. The antennz as dong as the body, cinereous and black varied; thorax {pi- nous, with four tubercles on the back ; wing-cafes with four raifed lines meeting behind, and fprinkled with black dots ; body cinereous, {peckled with black. Varia. Thorax fpinous, and tuberculated ; body varied with black and cincreous; thighs clavated ; antenna mode- rate. Fabr. Inhabits the fouth of Europe. Z{chuck. Ce- rambyx varius. Goel, The antenne are cinereous annulated with black ; head brown; wing-cafes rounded; body dark brown beneath ; fhanks black annulated with cinereous. Araneirormis. Thorax fpinous and tuberculated ; wing-cafes porous; antenne long, with a fingle tooth on the fifth joint. Linn. Sloane, &c. Inhabits South Ame- rica. Puncrata. Thorax fpinous, fufcous, with white dots. Olivier. Cerambyx pundatus. Gmel. A native of Cayenne. Antenne of moderate length, and black ; head black, with two white dotsabove the lip, and two others placed vertically ; thorax tuberculate, with two larger marginal white dots, and two {maller dorfal ones; wing-cafes black {peckled with white. Refembles lamia edilis. Cancrirormis. Thorax befet with many denticulations ; back flat; wing-cafes and anterior fhanks with a fingle tooth. Fabr. Cerambyx puflulatus. Drury. Inhabits Ja- maijca. The antenne are long; the firft joint one-toothed at the tip ; thorax cinereous, with five or fix fmali teeth on the margin difpofed in twe ferics; wing-cafes cinereous, {prinkled with brown elevated dots; thighs clavated. Noposa. Thorax fpinous; wing-cafes cinereous, with black {pots ; antenne very long, with the third joint gib- bous at the tip. Fabr. Cerambyx nodofus. Gmel. Defcribed from a {pecimen in the Britifh Mufeum, received from Maryland. The antenng are four times the length of the thorax ; wing-cafes flat, rounded, and dotted at the bafe. Tusearcutata. Thorax fpinous and tuberculated; wing- cafes dotted and {pined ; antennz long. Fabr. Olivier, &c. Cerambyx tuberculatus. Gmel. Fabricius refers for this fpecies to the Hunterian Mufeum. At inhabits Jamaica. The body is grey, with an angulated white band on the wing cafes ; antenne fufcous, the joints Cinereous at the tips; jaws black; thorax rough, with nu- merous elevated obtufe dots; wing-cafes befet with many {pines, which are fharp and black ; legs black, the fhanks with a white annulation. Hesrea. Thorax armed with a fharp tooth, and bica- ‘rinated on the back; wing-cafes cinereous, ftriated, and Apotted with fulcous. Fabr. Cerambyx hebreus. Gmel, Vor, VII. Found in South America. Antenne fhort and black. Thorax cinereous, with a thick and fharp {pine on each fide ; two elevated lines on the back, black and glabrous ; wing-cafes rounded, cinereous, with the future and three {trie brown, and between them numerous {pots ; legs cine- reous. Cabinet of Dr. Hunter. Horripa. Thorax acutely fpined, cinereous; wing- cafes {pinous; antenne long. Fabr. Ceramb;x horridut. Olivier. Inhabits Cayenne, and is rare. Auf. Donov. The antennz are long, greyifh, with the joints black at the tip; thorax greyifh, with a thick, fomewhat bent, and fharp-pointed [pine ; wing-cales {pinous and grey. Scorpio. ‘Thorax armed with four {pines ; wing-cafes with granulated tubercles ; anterior {hanks dilated at the tip. Fabr. Cerambyx fcorpio. Fabr. Mant. &c. Inhabits South America. Antenne fhort, cinereous, with the joints black at the tip; thorax cinereous, the four {pines on the thorax black at the tip; wing-cafes cinereous, veined, with black granulated tubercles ; legs fhort. Guauca. Thorax armed with five fpines, and glaucous ; wing-cafes muricated, the fides and band black; antenne long. Fabr. Cerambyx glaucus. Linn. Degeer, &c. ‘This {pecies inhabits America. Obf. The extremities of the wing-cales are furnifhed each with a fingle tooth. Bipentatus. Thorax fomewhat fpinous; wing-cafes bidentated, rough, cinereous, varied with fufcous. Fabri Cerambyx bidentatus. Mant. Gmel. &c. Inhabits America. The antennz are long ; thorax unequal, and armed on each fide with an obtufe {pine ; wing-cafes rough, with acute ele- vated dots; thighs clubbed. , Scasra. Thorax fpinous, and armed with three tuber= cles ; wing-cafes feabrous, with bidentated tip; antenne very long. Fabr. Olivier, &c. Cerambyx fcaber. Gmel. &e. Defcribed by Fabricius from a fpecimen in the Britifh Mufeum. The antennz teftaceous, at the bafe of the tip cinereous ; wing-cafes teftaceous at the bafe, with elevated glabrous dots ; body cinereous ;. thighs clavated. Premorsa. Thorax tuberculated; wing-cafes dotted, cinereous, tip fufcous and bidentated ; antenna long. Fabr. Cerambyx premorfus. Gmel. &c. Inhabits Guadaloupe. Cabinet of de Badier. One of the f{malleft infects in the lamia family. Antenne twice the length of the body; thorax cinereous, with three dorfal tubercles, and two black fpots on each fide at the bafe; a few elevated dots on the wing-cafes ; thighs clavated. Spinirera. ‘Vhorax fpinous, cinereons, and villous; wing-cafes bidentated, and teftaceous ; antenne long. Tabr. Cerambyx Jpinifer, Gmel. This is about the middle fize. Antenne longer than the body, and dufky grey ; feutel yellowith ; wing-cafes {mooth ; body villous and grey. Inhabits South America. Muf. D. Pflug. Grisator. Thorax unarmed, and greyifh ; two tuber- ‘cles at the bafe of the wing-cafes; apex {pinous; antenne fhort and villous. Fabr, Inhabits ‘Tranquebar. Schlan- bufch. fEprricaTor. Thorax {pinousand tuberculated ; cine- reous ; wing-cafes with two tubercles at the bafe; an- tennz moderate. Fabr. Inhabits the Eaft Indies. Muf Lund. Amruraror. Thorax fpinous; wing-cafes cinereous, fprinkled with black, and numerous taftaceous fpots. Fabr. Inhabits the American iflands, and is reported to gnaw round and cut off the larger branches of trees. SterxNurator. ‘Thorax f{pinous; wing-cafes porous at Pp the CERI AANPS YX. the bafe; antennae moderate. Fabr. A native of Barbadocs. Drury. Obf. Theantennz are blackifh, the extreme joint acute ; thorax unequal ; wing-cafes obtufe and black; beneath cover- ed with yellow hair. Spinator. Thorax fpinous, and, with the bafe of the wing-cafes, finely wrought ; apex grey ; antennz moderate. Fabr. Inhabits the Cape of Good Hope. Muf. Lund. Gutraror. Thorax fpinous; wmg-cafes teitaceous, fprinkled with white; bafe with clevated glabrous {pots. Fabr. Olivier, &c. . Cerambyx guttator. Gmel. An African infeét, deferibed from the Britifh Mufeum. The head is teftaceous, marked with a black longitudinal line; thorax'teftaceous, with a tranfverfe ridge in the middle ; wing-cafes obtufe, fpeckled with yellow, and a few elevated red dots at the bafe. Repanpator. Thorax fpinous, dufky ; wing cafes with a whitith ferpentine band behind, and elevated black dots at the bafe. Fabr. Cerambyx repandaicr. Gmel. A native of Cayenne. Nesutosa. Thorax unarmed, ferruzinous, lineated with black ; wing-cafes varied with fufcous and ferruginous, and a marginal cinereous fpot; antenne moderate. Fabr. &c. Inhabits Europe, and is found in England. Cerambyx ne- éulator. VartoLator. Thorax fpinous and lineated ; wing-czfes fufcous,-with a femicivcular white line. Fabr. Inhabits the Indies. Antenne longer than the body; thorax fufcous, with white dorfal and lateral line. Sutor. Thorax {pinous; wing-cafes black, with ferru- ginous {pots ; fcutel pale yellow; antenne very long. Fabr. Cerambyx futor. Linn. Cerambyx atomarius. De Geer. In- habits the woods of Europe. The fpecies has been found in England, according to Harris; (Vide Donov. Brit. Inf. &c.) but is very rare. Sartor. Thorax fpinous, black, with yellow {cutel ; wing-oafes immaculate ; antenne very long. Fabr. This refembles the laft, but is larger, and has the front between the antennz, deeply grooved. Found by Zfchuck on the horfe-chefnut, &c. in the vicinity of Drefden. Denrator. Thorax fpinous, varied with fufcous, and cinereous. Fabr. This refembles Jamia futor, and inhabits Carolina. The antennz are thrice the length of the body, and of a ferrugi- nous colour, but black at the bafe. Reticurator. Thorax {pinous, black ; thorax fulvous, and lineated with black ; wing-cafes fulvous and reticulated with black.: Olivier. Donov. Inf. China, &c. This very rare {pecies inhabits China, and the bordering parts of India. The body is black, and without {pots ; antennz of moderate length, and ferruginous, the firlt joint at the bafe black, the fecond gibbous at the bafe and tip, villous and black. Length of the body about an inch and an half. Scarator. Thorax armed with acute fpines, and black ; wing-cafes with numerous interrupted white lines; antennz moderate. Fabr. nw are longer than the body and fufcous; head and thorax dufky, ferruginous and downy ; wing-cafes {mooth, paler and bidentated at the apex. Cerambyx ruricola. Gmel. QuapricuTtatus. Pale teltaceous; thorax fomewhat {pinous ; wing.cafes two-fpined, with two ycllow fpots on each ; thighs clavated and unarmed. Swederns Nov. AG Stockh. Inhabits Honduras. Virtatus. Thorax fpinous and-pubefcent ; wing-cafes faftigiate, tcflaceous, future and itripe fefcous. Muf. Lefk. A native of Europe. Ferrucinos:'s. Blackifh; wing-cafes ferruginous ; an- tenne {pinous inwardly. Rozier Journ de Phyf. A native of America. ¥ Hierocrypuicus. Beneath hoary; heed and therax woolly, with a bare fpace of black ; wing-cafes black, gla- brous, with five bluifh white dots, and ramofe future on each fide. Pallas. This {pecics inhabits woods in the. northern parts of Siberia. Perroratus. Above covered with a whitifh powder, beneath with yellowith down ; five black dots in the middle of cach wing-cafe. Pzllas, Inhabits the fame country as the preceding, which it wearly refembles. Gentes CALLIDIU Ms Antenne {etaceous; head ovate-obtufe, and inferted ; eyes © lateral, reniform, and embracing the bafe of the antennz 3 thorax flet, with rounded and vather prominent margin; wing-cales rigid; length of the abdomen; body flattifh, fomewhat depreffed, and often pubcfeent ; legs elongated and formed for running ; thighs often clavated. , Genus Caruipium. Bedera four, clavated ; jaw mem- branaceous and bifid; lip two-cleft; anteune fetaceous. Fabr. Oxzscurum. Thorax fomewhat villous, fufcous ; wing- cafes teltaceous, varied with cinereous } antennze moderate. Fabr. ‘The antennz are pubefcent and fufcous ; wing-cafes dufky at the bafe; legs teftaceous. Bayutus. Thorax villous, with two tubercles; body fufcous. Fabr. Cerambyx bajulus. Linn. Inhabits Europe. Fennicum. Thorax tuberculated and rufous ; wing-cafes violaceous; antennz moderate. Fabr. Cerambyx fennicuse Linn. Leptura atra. Geoffr. A native of Europe. Rurrcotce. Thorax fomewhat cylindrical, fpinous, and rufous, black; wing-cafes violaceous; antenne moderate, and pitchy. Fabr. Saperda ruficollis. Fabr. Mant. Cerambyx ruficollis. Cmel. Inhabits Italy. The head is black, anten- nz moderate and pitchy; thorax hairy, and rufous; legs black ; thighs fomewhat clavated. Tabr. Esutinum. Thorax tuberculated and black ; wing-cafes © violaceous. Fabr. Cerambyx ebulinus. Lina. 2 : Found CERAM PY X. Found on plants in Africa. Vahl. The antenne are mo- derate, ferruginous, with the firft joint thick, and black ; body black ; wing-cafes fmooth, violaceous and gloffy ; thighs clavated. Arnreum. Fuafcous, thorax and wing-cafes brafly green ; thighs ferruginous. Fabr. From the Hunterian mufeum. The antenne are black ; therax without tubercles, pubef- cent and brafly; wing-cafes pubefcent, and glofiy; body black ; legs black, thighs famewhat comprefied and rufous, _with the knees black. Inhabits India. Furcrarum. Thorax naked and glofly ; body black ; thighs rufous; antenne moderate. Fabr. Inhabits Saxony. Hybner. Obf. All the thighs are compreffed. Vioraceum. ‘Thorax fomewhat pubefcent; body vio- laceous ; antennz fhort. Fabr. Linnexus defcribes this infe& under the name of Ceram- byx violaceus. It inhabits woods in Europe, and is rarely found in England. Donov. Brit. Inf. This kind is highly detrimental to timber, efpecially fir, that has been felled fome time, and has not been divefted of the bark, beneath which it bores ferpentine cavities in the wood in various di- rections. Tranf. Linn. Soc. Femoratum. Thorax naked; body black and opake ; thighs red; antenne moderate. Fabr. This is Cerambyx fe- moratus. Linn, Inhabits Germany. Spinosum. Thorax fpinous, naked, black, antegne fhort. Fabr. Inhabits Hungary. Hybner. The antenne are black ; head grooved ; thorax flat, naked, fmooth, black and without fpots, with a fharp fpine each fide ; wing-cafes fmooth, wloffy and black ; legs black, thighs thick. Craviees. Black, opake, all the thighs clavated ; an- tennz long. Faby. A native of Germany. Muf. Hattortf. Ametuystinum. Pubefcent, azure, with rufous legs ; thighs clubbed and black.. Fabr. This infeé&t is {mall, pubefcent, azure, and glofly ; anten~ nz fhort, black, and rufous at the bafe; legs ferruginous, with ail the thighs clavated ; club large and black. Birasciatum. ‘Thorax pubefcent, black; wing-cafes with two rufous bands. Defcribed from a South American infeé& in the Bankfian cabinet. Fabr. The antenne are moderate, with the joints two-f{pined at the tip; thorax with two tubercles; legs black; thighs fomewhat clavated. Acuminatum. Thorax warted and blackifh; win,- cafes pointed and greenifh. Fabr. A native of the Cape of Good Hope. The antennz are moderate, fufcous, with the tips of the joints {pinous; thorax rounded, black, with many elevated tubercles; wing-cafes greenith, ‘with blue future, tip tharp-pointed ; legs black; thighs clavated, the club red. Russicum. ‘Thorax warted, black, wing.cafes teltace- ous, with a black fpot in the middle, and black tip. Fabr. Enhabits Ruffia. Head black, antenne moderate; legs un- armed and black. Vartapive. Thorax glabrous; body fufcous, and brafly ; vantenne and legs rufous. Fabr. Ceramdyx variabilis. Linn. Callidium ungaricum. Herbtt. Inhabits Europe. Rusticum. ‘Thorax naked; body lurid; antenne fhort. Linn. Syit. Nat. Inhabits woods in Europe, and is found jn England. Sericeum. Thorax velvety, cinereous; wing-caf{es tef- taceons, with red elevated dots, and {nowy fcutel. Fabr. Callidium holofericeum. Rofs. Fu. Etr. Inhabits Barbary. Vahl. Antenne moderate, filky; body entirely cinereous velvety ; wing-cafes teftaceous, with many elevated red dots. Tenesrosum. Thorax tuberculated, dufky, rufous, with “black dorfal lines; wing-cafes cincreous, deprefled, with two elevated black lines. Fabr, Inhabits Cayenne. Olivier. Vittatum. Thorax rounded, naked; wing-cafes fers ruginous, with a black ftripe in the middle; antenne long as the body. Fabr. The antennz are ferruginous, fecond joint long, incurved, and fomewhat fpinous at the tip; body dufky; thighs cla- vated. AcresteE. Thorax naked, black ; wing-cafes {triated, fufcous; antenn fhort. Fabr. Inhabits Saxony, Hybner. Stigma. Thorax dotted; body black; wing-cafes fmooth, with a white fligmate {pot. Cerambyx figma. Linn, A native of America. Fucax. Thorax hairy, fufcous; joints of the antenne rufous at the bafe. Fabr. Found in Provence. Olivier. The head is {mall, entire- ly black and fufcous ; thighs clavated, fhanks teftaceous, Pycmzum. Thorax naked; body fufcous; antenne long and yellowifh. Fabr. Saperda minuta, Fabr. Mant, Inf. This kind inhabits Italy, and has been found in England ; antenne longer than the body, and yelfow; thighs cla- vated. Equestre. ‘Thorax unarmed, naked, black, and glofly ; wing-cafes with a red interrupted band. abr. A native of Cayenne. Muf. von Rohr. Furvicotre. Thorax unarmed, fulvous, black, with very long antenna. Fabr. Inhabits Surinam. : Hirxtum. Thorax rounded and hairy, wing-cafes pointe ed, and pale teftaceous. abr. Defcribed from the Bankfian cabinet. comprefled, and black ; legs black. Pusescens. Thorax rounded, pubefcent, and teftace- ous; wing-cafes greenifh, and at the bafe teftaceous. Olivier, &c. Larerauis. Black; fide of the thorax and lateral firipe on the wing-cafes ferruginous. Fabr. Inhabits North America. Lyncea. Thorax black, with a ferruginous dot on each fide 3 wing-cafes greyifh and pointed. Fabr. A native of New Zealand. Obf. The head is black ; feutel ferrugi- nous 3 wing-cafes grey, ftriated at the bafe; body black, abdomen with four ferruginous dots on each ide; legs fuf- cous ; thighs clavated. Grisea. Greyifh; margin of the f{cutel, and {mall lines on the wing-cafes yellowifh. Fabr. Inhabits New Yealand. Obf. The antennz are fufcous ; wing-cafes fome~ what villous ; legs fufcous with clavated thighs. Anais. Teltaceous; tip of the wing-cafes and vent black. Fabr. A native of Africa. Bipenrata. Thorax rounded ; with four dots of black ; wing-cafes bidentated at the tip. Fabr. Inhabits Guinea. Dr. Ifert. This is fmall; antennz length of the body, with the third and fourth joint yellow; body aud legs yellow. Nicricornis. Fufcour, thorax lineated; fcutel yel- low; antenne long. Fabr. Cerambyx ,Cardui. Linn. Found on thiftles in fouthern Europe. The bedy is fufcous {prinkled with yellow ; lines on the thorax three in number. Sururatis. Cinereous, with lineated thorax; wing. cafes fufcous; antenna moderate. Fabr. Muff. Lefke. Inhabits Europe. AnwuLata. Thorax rounded, lineated, greenifh ; wing- cafes pointed, with white future. Fabr. Found on plantsin Africa. Wahl. ‘The antennz are mo- derate ; joints white at the bafe and black at the tip, the firft entirely black; head dufky. Lineata. Thorax rounded and fomewhat fpinous ; joints of the antenne white at the bafe. Fabr. Inhabits South America. Tristjs. Thorax rounded, black, with white lines ; wing-cafcs bidentated, teftaceous with whitifh lines. Fabr. This kindinhabits ‘Tranquebar. ‘The antennz are fhort and fufcous ; wing-cafes {mooth. Poputnea. Thorax lineated with yellow ; wing-eafes with four yellow dots; antennae moderate. Fabr. Ceram= byx populneus. Linn. Tremuta. Green, with two black dots on the thorax, and four on the wing-cafes. Fabr. A native of Germany. Punctrata. Green, with numerous black fpots ; an- tenne moderate. Fabr. Cerambyx punGatus. Linn. Inhabits the fouth of Eurepe. Virxescens. Thorax villous and cinereous; wing-cafes fomewhat attenuated and green. Fabr. Inhabits Italy, Dr. Allioni, and France, Brouffonet. Loncicornis. Fufcous; legs teftaceous ; antenne very long and black with a white ring. Fabr. Inhabits Africa. Bankfian cabinet. Femorata. Anterior part of the thorax fufcous, pofterior teftaceous ; three alternate bands of black, and tefltaceous on the wing-cafes ; antence very long. Fabr. Votyutus. Above black; thorax and wing-cafes mar- gined with cinereous. Fabr. Inhabits Cayenne. FerruGrnea. Thorax fomewhat {pinous, ferruginous, with antenne and legs black, Cerambyx cantharinus. Linn, In- habits Germany. Brunnea. Thorax rather fpinous, ferruginous; an- tenne Sh Ges. } CER tenn and legs fame colour. Inhabits Germany. Helwig, &c. Tesracea. Diack with teflaceous wing-cafes, A native of Germany. Viotacea. Body violaceous and immaculate. Fabr. Obf. The antennz are moderate and black; thorax fome- what pubefcent ; wing-cafes rough; legs bles. Erxipprum. Black; dorfal line on the thorax and fcutel cinereons; thighs ferruginous. Fabr. This Inhabits Hun- gary, Hybner, wr Picea. Pitchy ; antenne and legs ferruginous. Fabr. A South American {pecies of fmail fize. Hinra. Black, hairy with long antenne. Fabr. Sa- perda Filum Roffi, Inhabits Italy. Dr. Allioni. Scurertratsa. Thorax fomewhat fpinous, black ; an- tenne, wing-cafes and legs greyifh; fcutel white. Fabr. A native of Germany. The antenne are fhorter than the body, greyifh, with the joints ferruginous at the bafe ; and black atthe tip, the firit entirely black ; head black; wing- cafes {mooth, and civereous ; thanks dufky ferruginous. Lingzoua. Biack; dorfal line oa the thorax, and thighs rufous at the tip. Herbit. &c. Inhabits Italy. Genus Crytus. Tabr, Antenne fetaceous, eyes reniform, and embracing the bafe ofthe antenne ; thorax glofe, and broad as the wing-cales ; elytra rigid ; length of the abdomen ; legs long and formed for walking; thighs comprefled; four joints in the fect. Donov. Inf. N. Ho.land. Tuoracicus. Thorax black, with a rufous {pot ; wing- cafes fulvous; future at the bafe, and two oblique bands black. Donov. Inf. N. Holland. A lately difcovered fpe- cies. Muf. Francilloa. Sexmacuratus. Black; thorax covered with filvery down; wing-cafes with three yellow fpots, and fomewhat emarginate at thetip. Donov. Inf. N. Holland. Punctutarus. Brownifh-teftaceous ; wing-cafes {prink- led with impreffed black dois. Donoy. Inf. N. Holland Difcovered by Mr. Bailey the aftronomer in Captain Cook’s expedition. Muf. Donev. CERAMIC gulf, Sinus Ceramicus, in Ancient Geography, a deep guif of Atia Minor, forming the feparation ot Caria and Doris, and denving its name from Ceramus, a maritime town of Caria; which Pliny places in the ifland of Arcon- nefus, but all other geographers on the continent, between Cnidus and, Halicarnaffus.. This bay is called by fome writers the Ceraunian bay, and the city from which it bor- rowed its name, Ceraunus. In our time this gulf is called the gulf of Stancuo, trom the name of the ifland fituate at its eatrance. Its fite and name are now to be found in a place of little importance. called Keramo. CERAMICUS, fo called from Ceramus, the fon of Bac- chus and Ariadne, the name of a place at Athens, which was furrounded with walls, and in which were to be feen the tombs and ftatues of all the illuftrious men who had died in the fervice of their country, with infcriptions recounting their praifes and exploits. And in order to render thefe known and famitiar to all, to animate every citizen to a love of virtue and of glory, and to excite in youthful minds an ardent defire of imitating thofe celebrated worthies, it was made.a public walk or promenade. There were two places at Athens bearing this name; one in the city, and the other in the fuburbs, in which were the academy and other edifices, at the diftance of fix ftadia from its walls; the for- mer wasa place of refort for proflitutes, and much frequented oa account of its walks; the other was appointed for the burying-place of illuftrious men above-mentioned. See ATHENS. ; CER CERAMIS, the name of a burglrin Greece, in Atticay belonging to the Acamantide tribe; which was the place called by others the Outer Ceramicius. CERAMIUM, in Botany, a genus formed by Roth for fome f{pecies of fea-weed arranged by Linnzus and other authors under either fucus or conferva, with the following generic character: filaments membranacec-cartilaginous, fome- what geniculated ; capfules with generally one feed feattered on the ouifide of the branches. His generic charaéter of fucus, in contradiftinétion from the preceding, is, veficles, aggregate, imbedded in the fubltance of the frond, furnifhed with mucifluous pores ; and of conferva, fmall tubes, or Jer- baceous filaments, with gravules of fru€tification fcattered on the infide coats of the tube. The fame name was given by. Stackhoufe in the firlt Fafciculus of his ‘* Nereis Britannica,” to another felection of plants fram the genus Fucus, which he afterwards called pa/maria. See Nereis Brit. Introd, p. 15- 24..31, 32. See Paumaria. Creramium, anancient meafure, anfwering to what was otherwife called ampHoRa and CADUs. CERAMORUM Foxun, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia Minor, which, according to Xenophon, was fituated on the confines of Myfia. CERAMUS. See Ceramic gulf. CERAMUSSA, or Crramuna, an epifcopal fee of Africa, in Numidia, and near Mileva. CERANZ, a town of Phrygia, according to Pliny. CERANGA, a town of India, placed by Ptolemy on this fide of the Ganges. CERANTHUS, in Botany, Schreb. Gen. 27. See CHIONANTHUS incraffatus. CERASO affinis, frudlu coccineo, Sloan. Jam. Sce Cor- pia collococca. Ceraso affinis, fruéu flavo, Sloan. Jam. See Exretia 4nifolia. Ceraso affnis, Bauh. Pin. See Prunus mahaleb. CERASONTE, in Ancient Geography, a Greek town, fituate in the territory of Coichis, on the fea-coaft. It was a colony of Sinope, according to Xenophon. CERASSON, or Gerason, an epifcopal fee of Afia, under the metropolis of Boftra. CERASTES, one of the names of the ifle of Cyprus, according to Pliny. Some fay that it bore this appeHation on account of the ferocious manners of its inhabitants. Others fay that it was called Cereffes (from x:px:, horn,) or horned, becaufe it was furrounded with promontories, which projeGted into the fea, and exhibited the points of roeks at a diftance, appearing like horns. Cerasres was alfo the name of a people who inhabited this ifland, and who had an altar dedicated to Jupiter, the Hofpitable, and which was always ftaincd with the blood of flrangers. Venus, offended at this inhumanity, changed them into bulls. CerasTEs, in Zoology, the horned fnake. cerafles. ; Cerastes was alfo the name given bythe ancient Grecks to a flag when at his full growth, or at the end of his fourth year. CERASTIUM, in Botany, (fo called from xeputiv, a@ litile horn, in allufion to the fhape of the capfule), Linn. Gen. 585. Schreb. 797. Willd. g21. Gert. 761. Juff. p. 301. Vent. vol. ii. p. 242. (Myofotis, Tourn. Cl. 6. Gen. 10.) Moufe-ear, or moufe-ear chick-weed. Clafs and order, decandria pentasynia. Nat. ord. Caryophyllei, Linn. Juff. Vent. Gen. Ch. Cal. perianth five-leaved ; leafets ovate-Jan- ceolate, acute, fpreading, permanent. Cor. petals five, bifid, obtufe, ere&-{preading. Stam. filaments generally ten, filiform, fhorter than the corolla; alternate ones fhorter + Qq2 anthers See CoLvgera CER AS T WUIOM, anthers roundifh. if. germ ovate; ftyles generally five, capillary, ereét, the length of the ftamens ; ftigmas obtufe. Peric. capfule ovate-cylindrical, or globular, obtufe, one- celled, opening at the tip ; orifice toothed. Sveds numerous, roundifh, (attached to a free columnar receptacle, Gert. ) Eff. Ch. Calyx five-leaved. Petals bifid. Capfule one- eclled, opening at the tip ; orifice toothed. * With oblong capfules. Sp. 1.C. perfoliatum, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1. Mart. 1. Lam. r. Willd. 1. (Myofotis orientalis perfoliata, lychnidis folio, Tourn, Cor. 18. Dill. Elth. tab. 217. fig. 284.) ‘ Leaves connate, quite fmooth, glaucous; petals fmaller than the calyx.’ Lam. Root annual. Whole plant fmooth, glau- cons, with the habit of a lychnis. Stem about a foot high, cylindrical, leafy, upright, weak, fometimes fimple, more frequently a little branched. Leaves oppofite, connate, re- fembling thofe of faponaria vaccaria or Lobel’s catch-fly ; lower ones oblong ; upper ones fhort and oval. lowers terminal and axillary, white, on fhort peduncles ; calyx bell-fhaped. Cap/ule as long again asthe calyx. Difcovered by Tournefort in the Levant. Cultivated by Miller in 1731. 2. C. vulgatum, Linn. Syft. Nat. Ed. 10. Light- foot. Flor. Scot. Smith Flor. Brit. Eng. Bot. tab. 789. C. vifeofum, Hudf. With. Relh. Sibth. Curt. Flor. Lond. tab. 35. Alfine hirfuta major, foliis fubrotundis dilute vi- rentibus, Morif. vol. ii tab. 23. fig ro. A. hirfuta myofotis latifolia praecocior. Rai. Syn. 348. Myofotis arvenfis hirfuta parvo flore, Vaill. Par. tab. 30. fig. 3.) Broad-leaved moufe-ear chickweed. ‘* Hairy, vifcid, form- ing tufts; leaves ovate; petals equal to the calyx; flowers longer than the peduncle.”? Roof annual, fibrous. Herb pale green, hairy, vitcid. Svems feveral, a fpan high, round, leafy, paniculate-dichotomous, many-flowered ; outer ones diffufe at the bafe, afterwards ere€t. Leaves broad, ovate, or elliptical, obtufe. Sowers, from the divifions of the ftem, peduncled, erect ; upper ones crowded ; peduncles fhorter than the calyx, lefs vifcid ; leaflets of the calyx lanceolate, acute; inner ones with a fcarious white margin; pe- tals oblong, white, f{carcely longer than the calyx ; ftamens all fertile, glandular at the bafe. Cap/u/e cylindrical, twice as long as the calyx, alittleincurved. Seeds ftreaked, tuber- eled, tawny. Dr. Smith. A native of England and other parts of Europe, flowering in Apriland May. 3. C. vifco- Jum, Linn. Sp. Pl. 2. Lightfoot Fl. Scot. p. 240. Smith Flor. Brit. 2. Eng. Bot. Pl. 789. (C. vulgatum, Hudf. With. Relh. Sibth. Curt. Lond. Pl. 34. Alfine hirfuta altera vifcofa, foliis longis faturatius virentibus, Morif. tab. 23. fig. 11. A. hirfuta myofotis, Rai Syn. 349. Vaill. Par. tab. go. fig. x.) Narrow-leaved moufe-ear chick-weed. s¢ Hairy, vilcid, fpreading ; leaves lanceolate-oblong.”? Rosé perennial, fibrous, {mall. Herb deep green, hairy, more or lefs vifcid. Stems feveral, various in their length, diffufe, ere&t in meadows, round, leafy, paniculate-dichotomous. Leaves lanceolate-oblong, rather obtufe. /owers from the divifions of the ftem; peduncles vifcid, nearly twice as long asthe calyx 5 leaflets of the calyx generally {carious at their edges ; petals commonly longer than the calyx, inverfely egg fhaped; ftamens all fertile. Cap/ule cylindrical, nearly double the length of the calyx, a little incurved. Seeds rug- ged. A native of meadows, paftures, walls, and wafte places in Engiand and other parts of Europe. In naming the laft two [pecies, we have followed Dr. Smith, who is {upported by the authority of the Linnean Herbarium, in oppofition to all the Englifh authors, except Lightfoot. The error is faid by Dr. Smith, (Eng. Bot.) to have arifen from Lin- neu3 himfelf, who, in the Species Plantarum, mifquoted Vaillant’s admirable figures. It mutt be confeffed, however, that Linnzus has by no means been happy in his fpecifie names; fince the latter, as far as our obfervations have extended, is generally the leaft vifcid of thetwo. 4. C. Jemi-decandrum, Linn. Sp. Pl. 4. Mart. 4. Willd. 5. Curt. Lond. PI. 33: (C. hirfutum minus, parvo flore, Dill. in Rai Syn. 348. tab. 15. fig.s. Vaill. Par. tab. jo. fig.2.) “Hairy, vifcid, flowers pentandrous, petals emarginate.’”’ Smith. 8. C. pumilum ; Curt. Lond. Pl. 30. Root annual, fibrous. Herb with the habit of the preceding, but fmaller and often reddifh. Stems ereét, decumbent only at the bafe, hairy, vifcid near the top. Leaves ovate-oblong, lower ones fre- quently fmooth. Flowers white; peduncles longer than the calyx, bent down immediately after flowering, finally erect ; calyx vifcid, dilated at the edge, white ; petals ge- nerally fhorter than the calyx, emarginate; ftamens five, rarely more. Capfule nearly twice the length of the calyx, incurved. Seeds tawny, granulated, compreffed. Dr. Smith. A native of England and other parts of Europe, flowering in March and April. The variety, figured by Curtis asa diftin& fpecies, was gathered by Mr. Dickfon on dry banks near Croydon, Surry ; but is thought by Dr. Smith to have no permanent charaGter which can jultify its feparation from C. femi-decandrum. he laft three are confidered by La Marck, but furely without reafon, as only varieties of one and the fame fpecies. 5. C. pentandrum, Linn. Sp. Pl. 5. Mart. 5. Lam. 4. Willd. 6. Lafl. it. 142. '“* Flowers pentandrous; petals entire.’ Very fmall, refembling the preceding, but differing from it in its green colour, and in its petals, which are not acutely emarginate. Linn. A na tive of Spain. 6. C. anomalum, Willd. 3. Waidftein and Kitabel, pl. rar. Hung. ‘ Ereé, with vilcous hairs ; leaves linear; petals longer than the calyx; flowers’ trigynous,’” Willd. Root annual. Herb befet with hairs, glandular and vifcid at their tip. Stem ere&t, half a foot high and more. Root-leaves linear-{patulate, petioled ; ftem-leaves livear, fef= file. Peduncles one-flowered, in the divifions of the ftem. Petals a little longer than the calyx, bifid, ftyles conftantly three. Cap/ule oblong, fix-toothed. A native of Hungary. 4.C. refraium, Mart. 17. Allion. ped. n. 1728. (C trigy- num ; Villars Dauph. 3.645. Myofotis ; Hal. helv. n. 890.) “ Leaves lanceolate, {mooth; petioles broken.’? Root pe- rennial. Stems feveral, a finger’s length, {mooth, or fome- what hairy, two-flowered. Peduncles long ; one broken or jointed, with two ftipules at the joint. -Coroll/a larger than the calyx; petals cleft one third of their length; fegments linear ; ftyles fometimes four. Capfule conic-polygon, open= ing by fix or feven valves, and parting as far as the middle. A native of mount St. Bernard. 8. C. tetrandrum, Curt. Lond. Pl. 31. Smith Flor. Britt. 4. (Sagina ceraltoides s Smith in Linn. Tranf. vol. ii. p. 343. and Eng. bot. Pl. 166.) ‘ Hairy, fomewhat vifcid ; flowers with four ftamens and four petals; petals bifid, fhorter than the calyx.” Tetrandrous moufe-ear chickweed. Root annual, fibrous, branched. Herd of a bright green colour. Svems numerous, diffufe, leafy, dichotomous, fearcely panicled. Leaves el- liptic-oblong ; upper ones egg-fhaped. Flowers white, pe- duncles three times the length of the calyx, at firft ere&, afterwards bent down; leaflets of the calyx four, hairy, acu= minate, fcarious at the edges; two inner ones narrower; petals inverfely heart-fhaped. Cap/ule cylindrical, a little longer than the calyx, with eight teeth. Seeds roughifh on the outer fide. In cultivated plants there are fometimes five {tamens and five petals. A native of Scotland, flower- ing in May and June. Firft obferved by Dr. Smith, in 1782, on walls about Edinburgh, and on Calton hill and Arthur’s feat ; afterwards by Mr. Dickfon on Inch Keith and Inch Combe in the Frith of Forth, and on the es below CER AS PIU M. below Prefton Pans. 9. C. arvenfe, Linn. Sp. Pl. 6. Mart. 6. Lam, 8. Willd. 7. Curt. Lond. Pl. 29. Eng. Bot. Pl. 93. Flor. Dan. tab. 626. (Caryophy!lus arventis hirfutus flore majore; Rai Syn. 348 Myofotis arvenfis hirfuta fl re ma- jore; Vaill. par. tab. 30. fig. 4. and according to Haller and Dr. Smith alfo fig. 5.) Field chickweed. ‘* Leaves linear- lanceolate, obtufe, ciliated at the bafe; petals twice the length of the calyx.”? Dr. Smith. Root perennial, creep- ing. Stems four or five inches high, decumbent, forming thick tufts, pubefcent. Leaves linear-lanceolate, often denfe- ly pubefcent, fometimes only ciliated at the bafe. Flowers large, white; leaflets of the calyx egg fhaped, obtufe, f[ca- rious at the edges; petals heart-fhaped, veined. Cap/ule cylindrical, ftraight, the length of the calyx; orifice with ten teeth. A native of Engiand and other parts of Europe, ona gravelly or chalky foil. 10. C. dineare, Willd. 8. Al- lion. ped. 2. App. tab. 88. fig. 4. ‘* Leaves linear-lanceo- late, acute, pubefcent ; petals larger than the calyx, acute, bifid.” Willd. Root perennial. Leaves flaccid, awned. Peduncles generally one-flowered, tomentons. Cap/ules ob- long. A native of mount Cenis and the Picdmontefe Alps. 11.C. dichotomum, Linn. Sp. Pl. 7. Mart. 7. Lam. 2. Wiild. g- (Myofotis hifpanica fegetum; Tourn. 245. Lychnis fe- getum minor; Bauh. pin. 204. Alfine corniculata; Cluf. hift. 2. p. 184.) ‘* Leaves lanceolate; {tem dichotomous, much branched ; capfules ereét. Linn. longer than the ca- lyx. Willd. Root annual. Stem fix or feven inches high, jointed. Leaves more than an inch long, narrow-lanceolate, greenifh, flightly hairy. /owers white, at the end of the branches and in the divifions of the {tem ; calyx hairy; pe- tals very {mall. Cap/ules twice the length of the calyx, flightly curved. A native of Spain. 12. C. Jongifolium, Willd. 10. (Myofotis orientalis longiffimo folio; ‘Tourn. Cor. p. 18.) ‘* Leaves linear-lanceolate ; {tem dichotomous, peduncles, when the fruit ripens, horizontal; capfules the length of the calyx.’? Willd. Root annual. Stem erceét, round, befet with vifcous hairs. Leaves the length of the internodes, acute, feflile, hairy on both fides. Calyx hairy ; leaflets membranous at the edges; petals fhorter than the calyx. Cap/ule oblong, the length of the calyx, with ten teeth. Wilid. from a dried fpecimen. 13. C. a/pinum, Linn. Sp. Pl. 11. Mart. 8. Willd. 11. Eng. bot. Pl. 472. Flor. Dan. tab. 6. (C. latifolium ; Lightfoot Flora Scot. Pl. 10. Alfines myofotis facie, lychnis alpina, flore amplo niveo, repens; Rai Syn. p. 349. tab. 15. fig. 2.) “* Leaves ellip- tical, naked or clothed with long hairs; panicle dichotomous, few-flowcred, braéteated ; capfule oblong, recurved.” Root perennial, creeping. Stems from three to five inches high, erect, fimple, dichotomous at the top, fometimes only one- flowered. Leaves elliptical, rather obtufe, various in their breadth ; on moilt ground generally {mooth; in dry fitua- tions clothed with long, foft, jointed afcending _ hairs. Flowers large, white ; peduncles about three, one-flowered ; bractes oppofite, lanceolate ; calyx leaflets fearious at the edges; petals inverfely heart-fhaped, half as long again as the calyx. Cap/ule cylindrical, longer than the calyx, re- curved. A native of high mountains in Wales, Scotland, and other parts of Europe. 14. C. dioicum, Mart. 18. Ait. Hort. Kew. 2. 121. “ Hairy, vifcid; leaves lanceolate ; flowers dioicous; petals three times larger than the calyx.” A native of Spain ; cultivated in 1766, in the botanic garden at Oxford. ** Capfules roundifh. 15. C. repens, Linn. g. Mart. 9. Willd. 12. Leaves lanceolate ; peduncles branched ; capfules roundifh.” Linn. Stems feveral, trailing, putting out roots at the joints. Leaves about two inches long, and little mere than half an 5 inch broad, very hoary; thofe next the root fmaller than the upper ones. F/owers white, on flender peduncles. Miller. It is donbted by La Marck and others, whether it be fpecifically different from C. arvenfe. Cultivated by Mr. Miller in 1759, and for fome time employed as an edging for borders under the name of fea-pink. 16. C. fridum, Linn. Sp. P!. Marc. ro. Lam g. Willd. 13. Allion. ped. n. 1729? (Caryophyllus holofteus alpinus gramineus ; Bauh. pin. 210. Myofotis; Hall. helv. n. 892.) ‘ Leaves linear, acuminate, {mooth; peduncles one-flowered, fomewhat downy ; capfules globular.”” Linn. Root perennial, Stems from three to five inches long, partly recumbent, pubefcent on their upper part. Leaves green, near together. Flowers white, few, peduncled, terminal; calyx nearly {mooth, Lam. A native of mountainsin Switzerland. 17. C. fuffrus ticofum, Linn. Sp. Pl. 11. Mart. 11. Lam. 10. Willd. 14. (Myofotis tenuiflimo folio rigido; Tourn. Inf. 245.) ‘Stems in tufts, knotty, perennial ; leaves linear-awl-fhaped, rigid, fomewhat pungent ; calyx ftriated.”” Lam. @. Alfine orientalis fruticofa, camphorate folio; Tourn. Cor. 18. The habit of arenaria juniperina. Root perennial. Stems numerous, from fix to eight inches long, a little decumbent towards the bafe, very flender towards the fummit, flightly pubefcent. Leaves five or fix lines long, oppofite, often fafciculated in confequence of the fmaller branches not being developed. Flowers white, in a terminal cyme; calyx {mooth ; peduncles forked. Cap/ules oblong, a little curved, longer than the calyx. A native of the fouth of Europe. 8. Leaves about an inch long. A native of the neighbour- hood of Smyrna. 18.C. maximum, Linn. Sp. Pl. 12. Mart. 12. Lam. 11. Willd. 15. Gmel. Sib. 4. p. 150. tab. 62. fig. 2. ‘ Leaves lanceolate, fcabrous; petals crenated ; capfules globular.” Root annual. Svems near a foot long, more or lefs erect, hairy towards the bottom, {mooth near the top. Leaves in diftant pairs, feffile, very acute. Flowers” large, difpefed nearly in an umbel ; petals toothed or lacini- ated. A native of Siberia. 19. C. aguaticum, Linn. Sp. Pl. 13. Mart. 13. Lam. 12. Willd. 16. Curt. Lond. Pl. 34. Eng. bot. Pl. 538. (Alfine major repens perennis ; Rai Syn. 347. Alfine maxima folanifolha; Tourn. Inft. 242. Hall. helv. n. 885.) Water chickweed. ‘ Leaves heart-fhaped, feffile, peduncles lateral. folitary, reflexed as the fruit ripens ; capfule egg-fhaped, orifice five-toothed.’? Dr. Smith. The habit of ftellaria nemorum. Root perennial, creeping. Stems two feet long, weak, branched, round, hairy on all fides. Leaves acummate, waved, hairy ; lower ones often petioled. Flowers white; peduncles lateral, intrafoliaceous, one- flowered ; leaflets of the calyx egg-fhaped, hairy, vifcid; petals generally the length of the calyx, fometimes longer, deeply bifid; fegments fomewhat linear; ttamens always ten; ftyles five. Cap/ules egg-fhaped, f{plitting almoft to the middle into five teeth. Seeds kidney thaped, rough, pale brown. A native of moilt ground in England and other parts of Europe. 20. C. Jatifolium, Linn, Sp. Pl. 15. Mart. 14. Lam. 5. Willd. 18. Jacq. Coll. vol. i. tab. 20. Eng bot. Pl. 473. (C. tomentofum; Hudf. Flor. Ang. Ed. 1. Alfine myofotis lanuginofa alpina grandiflora; Rai Syn. 349.) Broad-leaved rough chickweed. ‘* Leaves elliptical, {cabrous ; peduncles terminal, fimple, generally folitary ; cap- fule egg-fhaped.’? Rot perennial. Stems im tufts, fhort, f{cabrous, one-flowered. Leaves fet near together; fcabrous, with fhort, rigid, {preading, and often jointed hairs. Flowers white ; peduncles as long as the ftem, without braétcs. Cap- Jules hort. A native of mountains in Wales, Scotland, Switzerland, and Auttria, flowering in June. 21. C. tomen- tofum, Linn. Sp. Pl. 16. Mart. 15. Lam. 7. Willd. 19. ( Myofotis incana repens ; Tourn. Init. 245. Lychnis; Bauh. pin. CER pin, 206, Ocymoides lychnitis, reptante radice 1. B. 3. 353. al hit. 1031. Col. Phytab. App. tab. 31. Myofotis ; Hail. helv.n. S91.) ‘* Leaves linear, tomentous, hoary ; pedun- eles branched, fomewhat panicled.”? Lam. Root perennial, creeping. Stems five or fix inches long, cottony, branched near the bottom; outer branches procumbent, more abun- dantly leafy or barren. Leaves white, from fix to eight lines long. Flowers white, large, on branched peduncles ; calyx cottony, half the length of the corolla. Cap/iles fhort but cylindrical. A native of Spain, Switzerland, and Italy ; and faid, but on very dubious authority, to have been found in Ripton wood in Huntingdonfhire. 22. C. manticum, Linn. Sp. P.. 14 Mart. 16. Lam. 13. Willd. 20. (Alfine caryo- phylloides glabra; Segn. Veron. tab. 4. fig. 2. Hall. helv. n. 883?) Smooth ; ftem ftiff ; leaves lanceolate; peduncles very long; capfules globular.”? Linn. The habit of ftella- ria graminea. Root annual, flender. Stem half a foot high, commonly fimple, fometimes branched. Leaves narrow- lanceolate, very acute. Flowers white, in a trifid panicle ; petals twice as long as the calyx, round:fh, entire or flight- ly emargiuate (deeply trifid; Hal.); Pyles three. Cap/iule with ten teeth. Seeds kidney-fhaped, wrinkled, brownith. A native of the neighbourhood of Verona in Sylvula Manti- ca, and of the Grifons. Cerastium, in Gardening, contains plants of the herba- ceous low growing kind; of which the fpecies cultivated are the pertoliate moufe-ear, (C. perfoliatum), and the creep- ing moufe-ear or fea-pink te repens); but other fpecics may be cultivated. OF thefe, the firft, which is an annual plant, rifes with an upright {talk a foot high; the leaves have much refemblance of fome forts of catch-fly ; they are placed by pairs, em- bracing the ftalks; the flowers come out at the top of the ftalks, and alfo from the wings of the leaves in the upper part of them ; are white and fhaped like thofe of chickweed; appearing in May and June. It is a native of Greece. In the fecond fort many weak {talks are fent out which ‘trail upon the ground, and put out roots at their joiats ; the leaves are about two inches long, and little more than half an inch broad, very hoary ; and the flowers comé out from the fide of the ftaiks upon flender peduncles, which branch out into feveral fmuller, each fupporting a white fower. Ii is a native of France, &c. Method of Culture. Thefe plants are readily increafcd, either by feeds, flips from the rooting branches, or parting the roots, each of which operations may be performed either in the autumn or {pring feafon, placing them in proper fitu- ations in the epen ground. ‘Ihe trailing branches root as they extend themfelves, at each joint, by which they eafily multiply and extend themfelves. From their {preading growth, they are highly ufeful for covering naked banks, and running over arnificial rock works, ruins, grottoes, and other fimilar parts of pleafure grounds. And the lait fort was formerly often ufed as an edging in gardens or other places. CERASUS, in Botany, capenfis, Petiv.— Africana, Pluk. See CassinE maurocenia. Crrasus americana, Pluk. folia. Cerasus, Bauh. &c. See Prunus. Cerasus, in Gardening, the cherry-tree. NUS. Ceaasus, in Anciest Geography, a town and gulf of Pon- tus Cappadocius, on the fouthern coait of the Euxine fea. It was a handiome Greek city, built by the inhabitants of Sinope in Paphlagonia, at the bottom ot a bay, between two fteep rocks which defended it, according to Pliny and See Marricia punici- See Pru- CER Arrian; and to whom it paid a yearly tribute, according to Xenophon (Cyri Exped. lib.v.). “Phis city was much im- proved by Pharnaces, grandfather of Mithridates, who gave it his own name, and peopled it wich barbarians from Col- chis; though Ptolemy diftinzuifhes Cerafus from the city of Pharnacea. It was in this city that the unfortunate Moni- mia terminated her hfe, as Salluft informs us in his Frag- ments. This city was epifcopal. From hence, 2s Pliny fays, Lucullus firft brought cherries into Italy, A.U.C. 680, which were introduced 120 years after into Britain ; called therefore by the Latins Cerafa. ‘Toursefort tells us, that the country is very hilly, and that the hills are covered with forefts, in which cherry-trees grow naturally. CERATA, the name of two mountains of Creece, which {eparated the territories of Megara and Athens, ac- cording to Strabo, Diodorus Siculus, and Plutarch. CERATE. See Ceratrum. CERATIA, in Botany, Plinii, Col. ecphr.See Denrazta enneaphylla. : Creratia filigua, Lob. See Ceratonta filigua. CeraTia agreflis virginiana, Rai. dend. “See Cercis canadenfis. Ceratia, Bauh. Pin. See ExyTHRinA. CERATIZ quodum modo affnis, Viuk. See Mimosa bigemina. ' CERATIAS, among Ancient Naturalis, denotes a horned comet. The word is formed from xz;2s, a horn. Such 1s that faid to have appeared when Xerxes pafled his army into Greece. CERATINUS, James, in Biography, a learned Dutch- man of the 16th century, whofe family name was Tryng, but who affumed the name Ceratinus, of Greek etymology, from xepzs, the appellation of his native place, Horn or Hoorn, He combined fingular modetty with diftinguifhed attainments in Greek and alfo Latin literature, for which he is highly commenced by Erafmus. Such was his extreme diffidence, that, upon being examined for prieft’s orders, a quetlion was put to him from the Latin grammar, to which he ingenuoufly replied, that he did not recolle@ a fingle rule by heart. The confequence was his reje€tion ; but when be acquainted a friend with the reafon of it, this fiicnd immediately re- paired to the examiners, and told them, that they had dif. miffed the moft learned man in Louvain, who had given ample evidence of his erudition by an elegant Latin trant- lation from Chryfoftom’s works. Upon receiving this in- forshation, they fent*for him again, and odrained him, with many apologies for their former rejeGi-n cf him. Being obliged by the war to quit a profeflorfhip which he held at Tournay, he became a private teacher of Greek at Louvain 5 and afterwards, on the recommendation of Eraimus to George eletor of Saxony, he was chofen to fucceed Mo- fellanus in the univerfity of Leipfic. But returning to Louvain, he died there in 1530, in the prime of life. His works were “ A Tranflation of Chryfoftom’s Treatife con- cerning the Prietthood ;’? an improved edition of the * Greco-Latin Lexicon,”’ printed in £524, with a preface by Erafmus; and a treatife ** De Sono Grecarum Litera- rum,” printed in 1529. -Gen. Dia. Ceratinus Sinus, in Ancient Geography, a gulf of the Thracian Bofphorus. CERATION, Cerartio, in Chemi/iry, the cperation of waxing CERATITES, a name given by many authors to the fubitance more ufually called by authors unicornu foffile, and found in great pleory in the caverns of Hartz foreit in Germany. ‘CERATIUM, or Ceratiox, a name given by the’ Ancient CER Ancient Phyficians to a {mall weight, The ceration 18 properly the name of a tree called the carob, or filiqua dulcis, the {weet pipe-tree: this tree bears a long pod, in which are contained feveral feeds among the pulp: thefe feeds are alfo called ceration and jembut by the Arabians ; cand being dried, they were ufed as a weight to proportion the dofes of medicine. Thus the fmall weight which took its origin from them, was called ceration ; as that {mall weight, which took its origin from a grain of barley, was «called granum. d Ceratium was alfo a {mall filver coin, the third part of an obolus, and the fame with what the Romans called follis. CERATOCARPUS, in Botany (from xpas, a horn, and xgpros, fruit), Linn. gen. 1035. Schreb-1392. Gert. 725. Juff. p.86. Clafs and order, monecia monandria. Nat. ord. Holoracea, Linn. Atriplices, Jul. Gen. Char. Male flowers. Ca/. perianth one-leafed, tubu-, lar, wider at the top, thin, coloured, bifid (two leaved, .Gert.). Cor. none. Siam. filament fingle, capillary, fearcely longer than the calyx, inferted into the receptacle ; anther two-celled, oval, upright. Female flowers, Ca/. perianth one-leafed, inverfely egg-fhaped, comprefied, keeled on both fides, permanent, two-horned ; horns ftraight, awl-fhaped, divaricated. Cor. none. Pi/?. germ oblong, fuperior ; ftyles two, capillary ; ftigmzs fimple, ftanding out between the horns of the calyx. Peric. none, except the permanent en- Jarged calyx, inclofing aud clofely adhering to it. Seed fingle, oblong, leffened at toe bottom, compreffed. Eff. Ch. Male. Calyx one-l-afed, bifid. Corolla none. Female. Calyx one-leafec, keeled, permanent, two-horned. Styles two. Seeds fingle, comprefled, inclofed, and covercd by the calyx. Sp. C. arenaria, Linn. Sp. Pl. Mart. Lam. Buxbaum A&.Petrop. 1. 244. tab. 9. Guldenttet. Nov. Ad. Petrop. 16. 553. tab. 17. fig. 7—12. Gart. tab. 127. fig. 7. Lam. Tiluf. Pl. 742. (Ceratoides orientalis major & mmor, Tourn. Cor. 52.) Root annual. Stem about a foot high, branched, villous. Leaves about an inch long, alternate, linear, very acute, villous. F/owers axillary, generally folitary, almott f{effile. A native ot the fandy defarts in Tartary. CERATOCEPHALUS, in Botany, ballotes folio, Vail. See Spivantuus acmella. CreratocerHatus foliis eordatis, Vaill. nivea. Ceraroceruatus fuliis lanceolatis, Vaill. Spilanthus. CrrarocerHaLus delphinii fuliis, Vaill. See Corrorsis coronata. CERATOGLOSSUS, in Anatomy, is that part of the hyoglotius mufcle which arifes from the cornu of the os byoides, and which is defcribed by fome anatomilts as a diftin& mufcle. See Toncue. . CERATOIDES, in Botany, orientalis fruticofa, Tourn. See Axyris ceratoides. CERATOIDES orientalis major &F minor, ‘Tourn. CERATOCARPUS. _CERATOMALAGMA, a cerate or cerecloth. CERATONIA, in Botany (xsparwna, Galen, Paulus fEgineta, fo called from its hornlike legume), Linn. gen. 1167.. Schreb. 1612. Juff. p.347. Vent. vol.iii. p. 368. Gert.552. Clafs and order, po/ygamia triacia. Nat. ord. Lomentacee, Linn. Leguminofe, Jail. Gen. Ch. Hermaphrodite, male and female flowers each ona different plant. Male. Ca/. perianth {mall, open, with five divifions. Cor, none. Stam. filaments five, rarely fix or feven, awl-(haped, very long, expanding, oppofite to the di- See Bivens See CoruLa See CER vifions of the calyx, proceeding from the margin of a fiefhy difk, which occupies the middle of the flower 5 anthers large, furrowed, two-celled. Female. Ca/. perianth one-leafed, divided by five tuber- cles. Cor. none. Pifl. germ fuperior, in the centre of the flethy difk or receptacle which covers the inner part of the calyx; ftyle long, filiform; ftigma capitate. Peric. le- gume long, obtufe, flattened, tetragonous when dry, {mooth, coriaceous, not opening by valves, divided by traniverfe par- titions into many cells. Seeds one in each cell, bedded ina fucculent pulp, roundifh, comprefled, hard, fhining. Eff. Ch, Hermaphrodite. Calyx with five divifions. Cor. none. Stamens five. Style filitorm. Legume coriaceous, many-feeded. Obferv. Fafano, in A@. Neap. 1787, calls the flefhy difk or receptacle of other authors a permanent Co- rolla. Sp. C. filiqua, Linn. Sp. Pl. Mart. Lam, Tlluft. Pl. 859. Fafano A&. Neap. tab. 18. fig. 2. Gert. tabo146. fig. 1. Dod. Pempt. 787. fig. 1. (Siliqua edulis, Bauh. Pin. 402. Blackit. tab. 209.), Carob-tree, St. John’s bread. Fr. Caroubier. An evergreen tree of a confiderable fize. Trunk rugged. Branches crooked, {preading like thofe of the apple tree. Leaves winged, without an odd one ; leaflets in fix or eight pairs, three inches broad, roundifh, entire, thick, rigid, nerved, dark green above, paler beneath. A native of the fouth of France, of Naples, Spain, Egypt, and the Levant. Its fruit, when ripe, has a tolerably pleafant fweetifh tafte, and is eaten in times of f{carcity by the country people, but is apt to purge and gripe the bowels. It is commonly given to cattle. Asa medicine, it has the fame properties as caflia, but in a lefs degree. The pulp, which has the confiltence of a blackifh fyrup, mixed with liquorice- roct, dry raifins, and feveral other kinds of fruit, forms the fherbet of the Turks. It was long fuppofed to have been the food of John the Baptift in the wildernefs ; but a better acquaintance with natural hiftory has now rendered it nearly certain that the axpss, or locuft of the evangelic hiltory, is the well-known deflru€tive infe€&t of that name. It is much more probable that the fhells of the carob tree were the hufks intended by our Saviour in the parable of the prodigal fon. Its leaves are of an aftringent nature, and may be ufedasa fubftitute for oak-bark in the tanning of hides. Its wood 13 elteemed in the fouth of Europe equal to that of the ever- green oak, and is ufed for the fame purpofes. Crrartonta, in Gardening, contains a plant of the ever- green, exotic, (hrubby kind ; of which the {pecies cultivated is the carob-tree, or St. John’s bread, (C. /i/iqua), which rifes with an upright, thick, woody flem, to the height of 15 or 20 feet in its native fituation; the head being divided into many branches; the leaves are pinnate, of a dark green co- lour, three inches in breadth, and rather more i length ; and the flowers fmall, and of a dark purple cclour. It isa native of Syria, &c. Method of Culture. Thefe plants are increafed by fowing the feeds produced from their native fituations in pots of light earth in the {pring, plunging them in moderate hot- beds; and after the plants have attained fufficient growth, removing them into feparate pots, fhade, water, and frefh air being occafionally given, and the pots continued in the hot- bed. As foon as the weather becomes fine in the fummer, they fhould be gradually hardened by expofure to the tree air, and be placed out till the approach of autumn, when the protection of the green houfe will be neccflary to preferve them during the winter feafon, free air being given in fine days as much as poflible; and afterwards they require only to be managed as other green-houfe plants, in which fitua- tiea CER tion they have a good effe&t by the variety which they afford. CERATOPETALUM, in Botany Meee xepus, a horn, and weradov, a petal), Willd. 861. Smith Nov. Holl. 1. p. 9. Clafs and order, decandria monogynia. Gen. Ch. Cai. perianth five-cleft, bearing the ftamens per- manent. Cor. petals five, pinnatifid. Svam. filaments ten, anthers fpurred. Pi. germ fuperior; ftyle one. Peric. cap- fule two-celled, feated in the bottom of the calyx. Sp. C. gummiferum, Smith Nov. Holl. tab. 3. A lofty tree. Leaves oppolite, petioled, ternate ; leaflets feffile, lan- ceolate, toothed, veined, {mooth. FYoqwers in terminal pani- cles ; calyxes yellow ; fegments reddifh ; petals yellow. A native of New Holland. CERATOPHYLLUM (compounded of xspxs and Qvrrov, fignifying a horned leaf), Linn. gen. 1065. Schreb. 1439. Juff. 18. Vent. vol. 4. 5. Gert. 258. Clafs and order, monacia polyandria. Nat. ord. Znundate, Linn. Naides, Jul. Undetermined, Vent. f Gen. Ch. Male. Ca/. perianth with many divifions; di- vifions awl-fhaped, equal. Cor. none. Stam. filaments dcuble the divifions of the calyx, from fixteen to twenty, very fhort ; anthers oblong, ereét, longer than the calyx, Female. Cai, and Cor. as in the male. Pi/?. germ egg- fhaped, comprefled; ftyle none; ftizma obtufe, oblique. Peric. nut {mall, with a thin, fornewhat coriaceous rind, hard, one-celled. Seed attached to the bottom of the fhell.. Eff. Ch. Cal. many parted. Cor. none. Stam. from fixteen.to twenty. Pifl. one. Style none, Seed one, coated. Sp. 1. C. demerfum, Linn. Sp. Pl. Mart. Lam. Tiluft. Pl. 775. fig.2. Flor. Dan, tab. 510. Gert. tab. 44. Eng. Bot. Pl. 947. (Hydroceratophyllum folio afpero, Vail. AG. 1719, tab. 2. fig. 1. Millefolium aquaticum cornutum, Rai. Hift. 191.) “ Fruit armed with three fpines.”” Root peren- nial. Herb floating under water. Stem branched, thread- fhaped. Leaves about cight ina whorl, dichotomous ; feg- ments molt frequently four, linear, channelled, toothed on the back, fomewhat fpiny. Flowers axillary, folitary.. fef- file. Fruit elliptical, round, with one long terminal fpine, formed of the lengthened ftyle ; and two, generally fhorter, divaricating lateral ones. Dr. Smith. Common in ftagnant waters and flow ftreams, flowering in September. 2. C. Submerfum, Linn. Sp. P). Mart. Lam. Illuft. Pl. 775. fig. 1. Eng. Bot. Pl.679. Flor. Dan. tab. 510. (Hydroceratophyl- lum folio levi, Vaill. tab. 2. fig. 2.) ‘ Fruit deftitute of {pines.’”? Root perennial, the habit of the former. Leaves generally more compound, more flender, and often without fpines. Lruit {maller, egg-fhaped. Lefs common ; found by Dillenius in ditches by the road from Chichefter to Selfey ifland, and by Mr. Dawfon Turner between Yarmouth and Gorleltone. CERATOPORUM, in Ancient Geography, an epifcopal fee of Afia Minor, in the Pacatian Phrygia, according to the a&s of the council of Ephefus. CERATOSANTHES, in Botany, (compounded of xepxs and aos, denoting a horned flower). Juflieu, p. 396. Vent. vol. iii. p. 518. A genus formed out of the Tricho- fanthes of Linneus, for {uch fpecies as have a four-celled fruit and the inner fegments of the calyx not ciliated, but divided at the fummit into two revolute horns. CERATOSPERMUM, (compounded of xepxs, and emzpuce, denoting a horned feed). Lam, Encyc. Mich. nov. gen. 125. Tab. 56. fig. x. Hal. helv. nn. 2212. Clafs and ord. Cryptogamia Alge. A plant acknowledged to be very rare, and to have been feen by few botanilts. CER Tt is faid to grow on the bark of trees, and to confift of numerous cruftaccous, orbicular, diftinét warts, charged with a fugacious powder, and containing, in {mall cavities, ob- Jong, curved eapfules refembling little horns. But Dille- nius fufpeéts that Micheli imagined more than he faw, and that his ceratofpermum is no other than Lichenoides verru- cofum and rugofum, cinereum glabrum of the Hiftoria Mufcorum; Lichen pertufus of Linnzus. Deprehendat, quifquis poterit, flores Michelio vifos, tab. 56. lit. A, B,C,D. Quidam plus vident, quam ali, quoniam nempe imagina- tione pollent. Hitt. Mufe. p. 129. CERATOSTEMA, (xzpas and SEM, denoting a horned ftamen.) Juff. 163. Clafs and order, decandria mo- nogynia. Nat. ord. Campanulacea, Jull. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth top-fhaped, five-cleft ; fegments large. Cor. coriaceous, tubular-cylindrical; border five-cleft, ereét. Stam. ten, fituated on the calyx; filaments fhort; ane thers very long, attenuated at the tip, and ending in two horns. Piff, ftigma one., Peric. Capfule? crowned with. the feg- ments of the calyx, fomewhat downy, five-celled, many- feeded. Sp. Ch. A fhrub. Leaves coriaceous, feffile. Flowers coriaceous, large, in loofe terminal {pikes, pedicelled, brac- teated. A native of Peru, delcribed from a fpecimen with unripe fruit in the colleétion of Jof. Jufficu. CERATUM, Cerare, in the Materia Medica, a kind of {tiff unguent or linimert, made of oil and wax, with other ingredients; ufed externally in feveral difeafes, efpe- cially thofe of the fkin. i It takes its name from its capital ingredient, wax, called in Latin cera. Its confiftence is thicker than that of a liniment; the lat having ufually two ounces of wax to two of oil; but the cerate four of wax to two of oil: yet it is thinner than a platter. ‘ There are cerates of various kinds, refrigerative, flomachic, &c. cerate of fulphur, of faunders, reflringent cerate of bricks, divine cerate, &c. There is a particular one, called the refrigerative cerate of Galen, made of white wax and oleum rofat. omphacin. Ceratum epuloticum, a name given in the late London Difpenfatory to the compofition commonly called Turner’s cerate, called in the laft London Pharmacopeia ‘‘ Ceratum lapidis calaminaris,’”’ and ordered to be made in this manner: take olive oil a pint ; yellow wax.and prepared calamine, of each half a pound; melt the wax in the oil, expofe it to the air, and when the mixture begins to congeal again, {prinkle in the powder of calamine, and continue ftirring it till the whole is cold. ‘ Ceratum cantharidis is prepared by mixing fix drams by weight of cerate of {permaceti foftened by the fire, and one dram by weight of finely powdered cantharis.”” This may fupply the place of the,‘* Epithema velicatorium of the former difpenfatory ; and in order to quicken its ation, an addi- tion of pulv. cantharid. may be made at difcretion. Ceratum Jithargyri acetati compofitum, or compound cerate of acetated litharge, is compofed of 24 ounces by meafure of water of acetated litharge, four ounces by weight of yel- low wax, nine ounces by meafure of olive oil, and half a dram by weight of camphor. Rub the camphor with a little of the oil: melt the wax with the remaining oil, and when the mixture begins to thicken, pour on gradually the water of acetated litharge, flirring it till it is cold; and then mix in the camphor, which was before rubbed with the oil. Ceratum refine flave, or cerate of yellow refin, is pre- pared by melting together half a pound of ointment of yel- low refin with one ounce by weight of yellow wax. ; Creratum ee CER Cerarum faporis, or foap. cerate, is compofed of) the following ingredients ; viz, 8 ounces by weight of foap, ro onnces by weight of yellow wax, one pound of powdered litharge, one pint of olive oil, ard one galion of vinegar. Boil the vinegar with the litharge by means of a flow fire, conttancly ftirring, till the mixture unites and thickens; then mix in the other. ingredients in order to form a ce- rate. Ceratum Spermatis Cett, or cerate of {permaceti, is pre- pared by mixing together half an ounce by weight of {per- ‘ maceti, two ounces by weight. of white wax, and four ounces by meafure of olive oil, aud firring it ull the m:xture becomes cold. Creratum mercuriale, a form of medicine preferibed in the late London Pharmacopeeia, and ordered to be made in the following manner: take yellow wax and tried bog’s lard, of each half a pound; quickfilver, three ounces; fimple balfam of fulpher, a dram: melt the wax and lard, and then add to them gradually the quickfilver, firlt well divided by the bal- fam of fulphur. ; CERATUS, or Czratus, in Ancient Geography,a {mali river of the ifle of Crete, which, according to Strabo, ran near the town of Gnoffus. CERAULA, in Antiquity, a kind of mufician, who blows or plays on the horn. In which fenfe, the word amounts to the fame with the Latin cornicem. CERAUNIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of the Pe- loponnefus, in Achaia, according to Polybius. It was one of the twelve cities which formed the Achzan ftate. Creraunia, now Cerines, an ancient town on the north coalt of the ifland of Cyprus; which, like Paphos, exhibits nothing but ruins, as a teftimony of its palt grandeur. Ceraunia, Crraunias, or Ceraunius /apis, in Natural Hiflory, a fort of flinty figured ftone, of no certain colour, but of a pyramidal or wedge-like figure; popularly fup- ofed to fall from the clouds in thunder-{torms, and to be pofleffed of divers notable virtues; as of promoting fleep, preferving from lightning, &c. ‘The word is formed from xepuvyas, a thunder bolt. ‘The ceraunia is the fame with what is otherwife called the thunder-ftone, or thunder-bolt ; and fometimes alfo /ugitta, or arrow’s head, on account of its fhape. The ceraunia are frequently confounded with the omariA and pronTiA, as being all fuppofed to have the fame origin. The generality of naturalifts take the ceraunia for a native ftone, formed among pyrites, of a faline, concrete, mineral juice. Mercatus and Dr. Woodward affert it to be artifi- cial, and to have been fafhioned thus by tools. The ceraunia, according to thefe authors, are /ilices, or heads of the ancient weapons of war, in ufe before the invention of iron; which, upon the introduction of that metal, growing into difufe, were difperfed in the fields through this and that neighbour- ing country. Mr. Dorthes has found, among the worn ftones of the Mediterranean fhore, javelin-heads of porphyry, jafper, horn- ftone, fchorl, variolite, &c. probably fabricated by the an- cient inhabitants, the Gauls. Thefe javelin-heads, made of jafper, &c. on account of their exceflive hardnefs, of which even the favages of Canada have availed themfeives in the con(lruction of fuch weapons, are commonly known by the name of thunder-{tones, and are diftinguifhed by the Litho- logilts by the name of Ceraunites or Ceraunia. Ceraunias albus, a name given by Pliny to a gem or precious ftone, of the nature of the afteria, but fomewhat inferior to it in beauty. Pliny tells us that it was a very bright gem, of a cryftalline appearance, but Vou. VII. CER with a cat of bluifh ; and that it was found in Caramania. Solinus gives us much the fame account, but nakes Ger- many the place of its origin. It is, indeed, written Ger- mania in feveral of the old copies in Pliny, but the molt correét have it as it is printed, Caramania ; and Caramania was a country from which the Romans had many gems. CERAUNII, in Ancient Geography, a people of Iyria, who, according to Pliny, were divided into 24 decuries. They are alfo mentioned by Ptolemy. Ceraunit Montes. See Acroceraunta. Pompo- nius Mela gives this name to a part of mount ‘Taurus, which proceeded from the coaft of the Euxine fea, the Palus © Mecotis and ‘Tanais. CERAUNILIA, or Crraun xa, atown of Italy, which Diodorus Siculus places in the country of the Samnites ; and which, he fays, was taken by the Romans. CERAUNITES, in Natural Hiflory, a name given, by feveral writers to the BELEMNITES. CERAUNIUS, or Fulminator, in Mythology, an epithet of Jupiter. CERAUNUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Afia, in Cappadocia, according to Pliny. CERAUSIUS, a mozntain of Peloponnefus, in Arcadia ; which, according to Paufanias, formed a part of mount Lyceum. CERBALITANUS, an epifcopal fee of the proconfular Africa. CERBALUS, now Cervaro, a river of Italy. CERBANTI, a name given by Pliny to an ancient people of Arabia Felix ; called Cerdanite by Steph. Byz. _CERBANIUM, a town of Italy, mentioned by Proco- ius. CERBERA, in Botany, (fo called from Cerberus, on ac- count of its poifonous qualities), Linn. Gen. 294. Schreb. 415. Willd. 475. Juff. 149. Gert. 708. (Ahouai, Tourn. 434.) Clafs and order, pentandria monogynia. Nat. ord. Contorte, Linn. Apocine, Jul. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth five-leaved, or five-cleft. Cor. monopetalous, funnel-fhaped ; tube clavated, longer than the calyx ; orifice pentangular, nearly clofed by five con- verging teeth; limb large, five-cleft; fegments oblique, obtufe, more gibbous on one fide. Stam. filaments five, awl-fhaped, in the middle of the tube ; anthers erect, con verging. Pi/). germ roundifh ; ftyle filiform, fhort ; ftigma capitate, two-lobed. eric. drupe large, roundifh, flefhy, hollowed on one fide by a longitudinal furrow. Seed, a nuty containing one, two, or four kernels. Eff. Ch. Corolla contorted. Drupe one-feeded. Sp. 1. C. Abouai, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1. Mart. 1. Willd. 1. Lam. 1. Iluft. Pl. 170. Bot. Mag. Pl. 737. (Ahouai, Thev. Antar&. 66. Tourn. Intt. 658. tab. 434. ‘Thevetia, Linn. Hort. Chiff. Arbor Americana, foliis pomi, fruau triangulo, Bauh. Pin. 434.) ‘* Leaves egg-fhaped, acute.” A tree, ten feet high, yielding in all its parts a poifonous milky juice. Stem and branches irregular and crooked. Leaves three inches long, one and a half broad, thick, fucculent, bright green, {mooth. J Voqwers in clufters at or near the extremity of the branches, cream-coloured; calyx divided half way down into five acute reflexed fegments ; tube of the cerolia dilated in the upper part ; orifice clofed, marked with five deep furrows; fegments of the limb, oval, oblique, with undulated margins ; anthers on fhort filaments, enclofed in the inflated part of the tube; ftyle the length of the tube ; ftigma bifid, top-fhaped, furrounded at the bafe by a circle of greenifh glands, which fecrete a colourlefs, very {weet honey, perfectly free from any acrid or naufeous tafte. A native of Brazil and the, Welt Indies. Coles r Mr, C E-R Mr. Miller, in 1739. It flowers in July and Auguft, but never produces fruit in England. Its wood has a very of- “fenfive fmell; and the kernels of the nuts are a deadly poifon, 2. C. ovata, Willd. 2. Cavan. Ic. iit. p. 35. tab. 270. + Leaves elliptical, obtufe.”” Leaves feattered, nearly feffile. /Vowers terminal, about five together. A native of New Spain. 3. C. thevetia, Linn. Sp. Pl. 2. Mart. 3. Lam. 2. Willd. 6. Jacq. Amer. 48. tab. 34. Pid. 20. tab. 47. Lam. I. Pl. 170, ** Leaves: linear, very long, crowded.”? An elegant {hrab, from twelve to fifteen feet high. Stem round, abounding in a poifonous milky juice, dividing at the top into numerous weak branches; branches fimple, loofe, f{mooth, marked with the fears of fallen leaves. Zeaves on fhort petioles, fceattered, narrow, linear, acuminate, four or five inches long, full of a milky juice. Flowers yellow, large, odorous, generally fo- litary, nodding, axillary, and terminal ; peduncles fhorter than the leaves; teeth of the tube ciliated ; filaments very fhort ; germ. five-ftreaked, furrounded by a yeliow, flethy, nectareous navel. J*ruit greenifh, round, flefhy, milky ; containing an obfcurely three or four-cornered nut, which opens by a kind of furrow on one fide. A native of Cayenne andthe Wet Indies. Received by Mr. Miller in 1735, by the name of French phyfic-nut. 4. C. manghas, Linn. Sp. Pl. 2. Mart. 2. Lam. 3. Willd. 4. Ofb. It. gt. Petiv. tab. 16. fig. 4. (Manghas fructu vencnato, Bauh. Pin. 440. Burm. Zel. 150. tab. 70. fig. 1. Arbor laGtaria, Rumph. Amb. ii. p. 243. tab. 81. Odollam, Rheed. Mal.i. p. 71. tab. 39.) ‘ Leaves lanceolate; nerves tran{verfe.””? A milky tree, from eighteen to twenty feet high. Wood white and tender ; bark even; branches rather fpread- ing, crooked, cylindrical, marked with {cars of fallen leaves. Leaves alternate, but fcattered near the ends of the branches, ten or twelve inches long, and three broad, on fhort petioles, quite entire, fmooth, even above, furnifhed underneath with tranfverfe parallel nerves, which proceed from the midrib, and terminate in a nerve-like cord at the border of the leaf. Flowers white, in terminal, branched, unequal, racemes ; calyx five-leaved ; leaflets lanceolate, fpreading, coloured, deciduous ; tube of the corolla longer than the calyx, angu- lar within ; lobes of the border egg-fhaped, large; filaments very fhort, inferted into the upper part of the tube ; anthers egg-fhaped, covered with the down of the tube ; germ bifid ; ftyle filiform, fomewhat fhorter than the tube; {tigma egg- fhaped, cloven. Fruit egg-fhaped, the fize of a goole’s egg, green, marked with minute white fpots, comprefled on one fide, with an obfolete furrow; inclofing two large feeds which refemble chefnuts, and have a poifonous, vomiting quality. A native of the Eaft Indies, and of the Society ilands. In the ifland of Amboina its bark is ufed as a pur- gative. Swartz has obferved that this fpecies would form a genus diftin@ from the two preceding, if it were not defirable not to multiply genera without abfolute neceffity. Gzrtner afferts that on account of the difference in the {tructure of the fruit it cannot be affociated with them under the fame genus. He maintains moreover, that the Arbor lataria of Rumphius and the Odollam of Rheede, quoted by Linnzus as fynonyms, are diftin@ fpecies ftrongly marked by the characters of the fruit. He gives the following defcription of the former from a fpecimen in the collection of Sir Jofeph Banks, and of the latter from a ipecimen preferved in the mufeum at Amiterdam. C. Manghas, Tab. 123 and 124. fig. 1. Peric. Drupes two, dry, large, ovate-oblong, gibbous and obfoletely ttriated behind, more even witha flightly deprefled furrow before ; outer cuticle membranous, thin, dark brown ; flefh fungous, refembling the dried pith of elder, intermingled CER with the filaments of the putamen or fhell; putamen woody s confilting of round fibres proceeding from the inner part in a radiate manner towards the circumference, and there changed into new, rather even, longitudinal furrows which form a peculiar woody kind of bark ; femibivalved by means of a dehifcent future in the anterior part, and continued to the middle of the back; one celled, but divided into two chambers by a moveable membranous partition placed be- tween the valves. Receptacle none, except the moveable partition, to one furface of which the feed clofely ccheres its whole length. Sved one, (the other conttantly abortive) large, ovate-oblong, lenticularly comprefled, attenuated at the tip, of a dull rufty colour. 5.C. Odollam, tab. 124. fig. 3. Drupe generally fin- gle, elliptic-globular, very convex on one fide, greenifh yellow; cortical ftratum of fibres as in: the preceding, woody; fibres broader, more branched and frequently reticulated on the hinder part; putamen femibivalved, one-celled, but divided into two chambers; partition free, double, rifling from a woody curved peduncle; each part clothed on its inner fide (that towards the axis of the fruit) with an irregular tiffue of crooked fibres, and on its outer fide bearing the feed. Seed one in each chamber, ovate-acuminate, on one fide remarkably convex, flat on the other, and fo clofely adnate to the partition as to leave only the tip free. Gertner defcribes alfo a feed communicated to him by a friend which appears to belong to another diftin® but unknown fpecies. He calls it 6. C. platy/permos, tab. 124. fig. 2. Putamen woody, egg-fhaped, muricated on all fides by multiform upwardly incurved fibres, nearly two-valv- ed by means of a juture extended to the bafe, divided into two very compreffed chambers by a moveable partition ; partition coriaceous, confifting of two lamelle, oppofite to the future of the valves. Seeds two in each chamber, foliae- ceous-comprefled, free on both fides, unequal ; one larger, ovate-fpatulate fuperior ; the other fmaller, fomewhat kid- ney-fhaped, inferior. 7. C. parviflora, Willd 3. Forlt. prod. 121. (Ochrofia borbonica ; Gmel. Syft. nat. p. 439). ‘© Leaves ftellated, inverfely egg-fhaped.’’? A native of the friendly Iflands and of Savage Ifland in the Pacific ocean. 8. C. maculata, Willd. 5. (Ochrofia borbonica; Jufl. Q. maculata ; Jacq. ic. rar. 2. tab. 321. Dryander in Linn. Tranf. 2. p. 227.) ‘ Leaves lanceolate, veined, fpotted 5 cymes axillary, branched, divaricated.’”- It differs from the preceding in the form of its leaves. A native of the Ifle of Bourbon. 9. C. falutaris, Mart. 5. Lour. Cochin. 136. (C. oppofitifolia; Lam. 4. Laétaria falubris; Rumph, amb. 3. 255. tab. $4.) ‘ Leaves and fryit oval.” A middle-fized tree, with a milky juice, and {preading branches. Leaves oblong-oval, obtufe, quite entire, fhining, crowded at the ends of the branches, on fhort petioles. lowers white, inodorous, in {mall nearly terminal racemes; calyx five-cleft ; fegments awl-fhaped, long, eret; corolla falver- fhaped, with a long incurved tube; fegments of the border oblong, flefhy, fpreading, not contorted ; germ egg-fhaped,, very {mall; ftyle longer than the ftamens, thick, curved, always buriting the tube cf the corolla; itigma top-fhaped, vertically comprefled, truncated. Drupe oval, large, with a fmooth fkin, yellow on one fide, red on the other, con~ taining a fibrous-woody nut, with a fingle kernel, not poi- © fonous. ‘The want of a contorted corolla renders its genus dubious. CERCOPI, in Ancient Geography, a name given by Ovid to the inhabitants of the ifland of Pithecufa.—Alfo, a name given to banditti or robbers, who occupied part of the pafs of Anopza, near the Melampygian rocks, on the confines of the territories of Locris and Melis. See Hero dotus, lib. vii. c. 216. : CERCOPIA, a town of Afia, in the Greater Phrygia. Prolemy. CERCOPITHECUS, in Zoology, a name given by Aldrovandus, Marcgraave, and other writers, to feveral fpe- cies of the monkey tribe. Gmelin forms a diftin® {eGion, in the Simia genus, of the Cercopitheci, or thofe with elongated tails, after the Kno of Arittotle. Simia cyno-- 3 furus,. CER furus, Hamadryas, Veter, and nearly twenty other fpecies are of this family. See Srmia. CERCOPONEDRAS, in Ancient Geography, a kind of road or pafs in Greece, between mount Oeta and the coun- try of the Trachinians, according to Herodotus ; which was occupied by the Cercopi. It was by this pafs that the Perfians advanced to furprife the Greeks who defended Ther- mopyle. This path commenced at Afopus, continued through an opening of the mountain called Anopzus, and having reached the fummit of the mountain, terminated near the town of Alpene, the firft in the country of the Locrians, on the borders of the Melians, near the rock called Melampyge, where was the habitation of the Cercopi. Count de Choifeul-Gouffier difcovered this path in his paflage from Athens to Lariffa. CERCOSIS, in Medicine, a preternatural extenfion and tumidity of the female Ciiroris, fo as to project beyond the labia pudendi. CERCUS, in Ancient Geography, a hill of Afia Minor, in Bithynia. CERCY ra Tour, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Niévre, and diftri& of Nevers; 8 miles E.N.E. of Décife. CERDA, Joun-Lewis pve 1a, in Biography, a native of Toledo, who entered among the Jefuits in 1574. His literary fame reached Italy, and gained him the particular efteem of pope Urban VIII. His ‘* Commentary on Vir- gil,” 3 vols. fol. has been feveral times reprinted, and is a work of minute refearch, and great accuracy, but devoid of tafte. His ‘ Commentary on Tertullian’s Works,” begun in 2 vols. but not completed, is a work of fimilar charac- ter to the former. Cerda died in 1643. CERDAGNE, La, acountry of the Pyrenées, fituate partly in Spain, in the province of Catalonia, and partly in France, in the territory formerly called Roufillon: Puy- cerda is the capital of the former, and Mont-Louis of the latter. CERDANA, in Botany, Bofe. Nouv. Di&. Flor. Peruv. pl. 184. Clafs and ord. Pentandria Monogynia. Gen. Ch. Calyx tubular, ten-ftriated, five-toothed. Cor. funnel-fhaped ; tube the length of the calyx; fegments of the border oblong, expanded. Stam. Filaments five, hairy atthe bafe. Pi/?, Germ fuperior ; ityle bifid ; ftigmas two, bifid. eric. Drupe oblong, ftriated, covered by the per- manent calyx and corolla, four-celled. Seeds oval, one in each cell. Spi, . A large tree, Leaves alternate, petioled, oblong, acute, entire, even, fhining. Flowers white, with red veins, in much branched terminal panicles. A native of Peru. The wood, when the tree is firft cut down, has an extremely fetid fmell, refembling that of 2 fox’s urine; it afterwards changes to that of garlic, and finally affumes an agreeable pungent odour. The dried leaves and bark are ufed by the Peruvians as articles of cookery. CERDICESORA, in Ancient Geography, the name of the place where Cerdic the Saxon leader landed, when he invaded Britain in 495, and where he found the Britons drawn up in battle-array to oppofe him. This place, ac- cording to Camden, was on the coaft of Norfolk ; but as this is improbable, fome learned men have fuppofed it to be Calfhot or Caldfhore at the entrance of Southampton river. Others again feek for it at Charford ; and Carte thinks, nor is his opinion improbable, that it was Charmouth in Dorfet- fhire ;-a place afterwards famous for hoftile invafions. CERDON, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Ain; four leagues S.E. of Bourg en Breffe. CER CERDONIA, in Aucient Geography, Cerdagna, a place of Italy belonging to the Hirpini. CERDONIANS, in L£cclefiaftical Hiflory, a fe& who maintained molt of the errors of Simon Magus, Saturninus, and the Manichees. They took their name from their leader Cerda, a Syrian, who came to Rome in the time of pope Hyginus, about the year 140; and there abjured his errors, but he did this in appearance only ; for he was afterwards convicted of per- fifting in them, and accordingly was caft out of the church again. Cerdo afferted two principles, the one good, and the other evil: between thefe, he imagined an intermediate kind of deity, of a mixed nature: this laft, according to him, was Creator of the world, and the God that appeared under the old law. To his jurifdiétion the Jews were fub- ject; and idolatrous nations were under the empire of the evil principle. The good Being, whom he cailed unknoawa, was the father of Jelus Chrift, who, he taught, was only incarnate in appearance, and was not born of a Virgin; nor did he fuffer death, but in appearance. He was a great admirer of virginity, and recommended it to his followers. He reje&ed or defpifed the Old Teftament ; but probably received the books of the New Teftament as other Chriltians did. Marcion, his difciple, fucceeded him in his errors: whence the MarcioniTEs. CERDYLIUM, in Ancient Geography, a place on the confines of Thrace and Macedonia, near a maritime burgh, in the country of the Argilians, and in the vicinity of the town of Amphipolis, according to Thucydides and Lyco- hron. f CERE, Cera, in Ornithology. See OnniTHOLoGy. Cere, Sr. in Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Lot, and chief place of a canton, in the diftriét of Figeac; 10 leagues N.E. of Cahors. The place contains 3798, and the canton 12,169 inhabitants: the territory includes 235 kiliometres, and 12 communes. N, lat. 44° 52°.~E. long. 1° 47’. CERE-ctotu, found of cere, cera, wax, and cloth, de- notes cloth fmeared over with glutinous matter, for the pur- pofe of being applied to wounds or bruifes, or for other ufes. CEREA, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the Ve- ronefe, belonging to the ttate of Venice; 4 miles W. of Legnano. At this place a battle was fought, in 1796, between the Auftrians and French; in which the latter kept the field, and the former loft 100 men killed and 250 prifoners. CEREALES ediles, two officers of ancient Rome, ap- pointed under Julius Czfar, to have the {uperintendency of the corn and grain for the provifion of the city. They alfo prefided in the cerealia. See JEpiLeE. Cereaces Judi, folemn fports held in honour of Ceres, wherein the matrons reprefented the grief and lamentation of Ceres forthe lofs of her daughter Proferpine, and her travels to find her again. CEREALIA, in Antiquity, feafts of Ceres inftituted by Triptolemus, fon of Celeus, king of Eleufine, in Attica, in gratitude for his having been inflrudted by Ceres, who was {uppofed to have been his nurfe, in the art of cultivating corn and making bread. There were two feafts of this kind at Athens; the one called Eveusinia, the other THESMOPHORIA. What both agreed in, and was common to all the Cerea~ lia was, that they were celebrated with a great deal of reli- gion and purity ; fo that it was efteemed a great pollution to meddle, on thofe days, in conjugal matters. It was not Ceres alone that was honoured here, but alfo Bacchus, CER Bacchus. The victims offered were hogs, becaufe of the wafte they make in the produéts of the earth. Whether there was any wine offered, or not, is matter of much de- bate among the critics. Plautus and Macrobius feem to countenance the negative fide; Cato and Virgil, the pofi- tive. The cerealia paffed from the Greeks to the Romans: Q. Memmius, the edile, being the firft who introduced thefe rites into Rome, as appears from a coin of this magiftrate, on which is the figure of Ceres, holding in one hand three ‘ears of corn, in the other a torch, whilit her left foot trod on a ferpent; with this infcription, Memmius A‘dilis Cerealia primus fecit.’””.» The Romans held them for eight days fuc- ceflively ; commencing, as generally held, on the fifth of the ides of April. The woinen alone were concerned in the ce- lebration, and were all dreffed in white: the men, likewife in white, were only fpectators. They eat nothing till after fun-fet; in memory of Ceres, who, in fearch after her daughter, took no repaft but in the evening. ‘The feftival clofed with a banquet and public horfe-races. After the battle of Cannz the defolation was fo great at Rome, that there were no women to celebrate this feaft be- caufe they were all in mourning, fo that it was omitted that year; but after the fecond Punic war, it was celebrated with an acceffion of fplendour ; {tatues, paintings of chariots, crowns, and rich plunder taken from the enemy, being car- ried'in the proceflion. According to Macrobius, an egg made part of the fhew, being an emblem of Ceres. CeEREALIA /emina, an appellation given by fome to what we call /egumina, or pulfe. Dr. Cuilen (Mat. Med. vol. i. p: 274.) refers the feveral farinacea to three different heads, under the titles of Cerealia, Legumina, and Nuces oleofe. By this affortment, he fays, they may be diftinguthed as they contain more or Jefs of faccharine and oily matter, or as thefe are in proportion to one another. In the cerealia he fuppofes the fugar to be !arge in proportion to the oil; in the legumina, the oi! to be fomewhat larger in proportion to the fugar; and in the nuces oleofe, the proportion of the oil to be ftill greater. But he is of opinion, that in the fe- veral farinaceous feeds the nourifhment they afford is in pro- portion to the oil they contain. Under the title of cerealia are commonly included the feeds of the teveral gramincous or culmiferous plants, that are employed as the food of men. To this head he refers barley,rye, millet, rice, oats, maize, and wheat ; fubjoining to his account of each appropriste reflec- tions; and he then enumerates other farinaccous fubftances which are not of the tribe of gramina, but very much of the fame farinaceous nature with thefe, fuch as buck-wheat, f60s falop, potatoe, and chefnut. See each of thefe arti- cles, CEREBELLI riyrerror, in Anatomy, is an artery, which comes off from the vertebral. Sec Artertes. Crresevvi fuperior, is a branch of the batilar artery. See Arteries. CEREBELLIACA, in Ancient Geography, Chabeuil, a place of Ganl, between Valencia and Augulta. CEREBELLUM, in Anatomy, that portion of the con- tents of the cranium, which is contained in the lower fofle of the occipital bone, and covered by the tentorium, See Bean. ' CEREBRI anterior, is the antertor branch of the ivternal carotid artery. See ARTERIES. Ceresrti media, is the large polterior branch of the inter- nal carotid artery, which runs in the fiffura Sylvii, See Ar- TERIES. Ceresrt poflerior, or profunda, is a branch of the bafilar artery. See ARTERIES, CER CEREBRITES of Knorr, in Zoology, one of the fyno« nyms of Maprerora Areoua, which fee. CEREBRUM, in Anatomy. This term in common language denotes the brain in general; but anatomifts con- fine it to that part of the encephalon, which occupies all the upper part of the cranium: indeed by far the largeft portion of the cavity. See Brary. Crrnsrum Fovis, in Ichthyology, a name given by Ennius the poet toa peculiar fifh of the /abrus kind, called by the generality of authors /carus + it is diltinguifhed by Artedi from the other fpecies of the fame genus, by the name of the LABRUS, qui fearus audorum oft. CEREFOLIUM, in Botany, foliis glabris, Hall. Scanpix cerefolium, CEREFOLIUM annuum nodofum, Morif. See Scanp1x no» dofa. Cererouium foliis triplicato-pinnatis, Hall.. See Cuzro- PHYLLUM /ylvefire. Cersrotium latifolium hirfutum, Morr. PHYLLUM hirfutum. Cererotitum rugofo angelice folio, Bocce. See Cumro- PHYLLUM @romaticum. Crrerotium foliis hirfutis, Hall. See CuerRopHyLtum qaureum CEREIS, in Botany, a name ufed by fome authors, and fuppofed to have been ufed by the ancients for the /iliqua/ trum, or Fudas’s tree. See Cercis. CERELAUM, a compofition of wax and oil. Some alfo give the fume denomination to the oleum ceray otherwife called butter of wax. CEREMENTS, cioths dipped in melted wax; with which dead bodies were infolded when they were embalmed. Thus the term is ufed by Shakfpeare : ** Let me not burft in ignorance, but tell «© Why canonized bones, buried in earthy. * Have burit their cerements 2” CEREMONIAL is ufed for the fet or fyftem of rules: and ceremonies which cuttom has introduced for regulating our behaviour ; and which perfors practife towards each. other, either out of duty, decency, or civility. CEREMONIAL, in a more particular fenfe, denotes the manner whercis princes and their ambafladors ufe to receive and treat one another. The ceremonial is a kind of law introduced by compaét, cuftom, prefeription, &c. which fovereigns and their ambafladors are to obferve at their inter= views, that none of them may either receive more or lefs marks of refpe&t than they are entitled to. Some diftinguifh three occafions on which the ceremonial is to take place: viz. when princes mect in perfon ; when they write to each other; and when they fend ambaffadors. There are endlefs difputes among fovereigns about the ceremonial: fome endeavouring to be on a level, and fome to be fuperior, to others. Numerous fchemes have been propofed for fixing the place and rank of each prince ; but they have not -been accepted of by any, except fome alternate princes, as they arecalledin Germany. See Precepency,. Ceremontau is more particulary ufed in fpeaking of the laws and regulations given by Moles, relating to the wor- fhip of God among the ancient Jews. In which fenfe, it amounts to much the fame with what we otherwife call Levitical law; and: ftands contradiftin- guifhed from the moral, as. well as the judicial law. It is difputed, whether the obfervation of the fabbath be a ceremonial or a morallaw. See Saznaru. The ceremonial law prefcribed the forms, ufages, ritesy, &c. relating to facred places, utenfils, prielts, levites, pro- phets, congregations, garments, feaits, pmieeeng 8 Molt See See Cu zR0- ¢ ER Mokt of the ceremonial Jaws of the Jews had fome rela- tion to thofe idolatrous cultoms which had been eltabhithed among them before the publication of the levitical law. CEREMONIALE, a book in which is preferibed the order of the ceremonies to be obferved in certain actions and occafions of folemnity and pomp. The ceremonial of the Roman church is called ardo Ro- manus. ‘lhe Roman ceremonial was firt publifhed by the bifhop of Corcyra, in 1516; at which the college of cardinals were fo {candalized, that fome of them voted to have the author as well as book burnt, for his temerity in expofing the facred ceremonies to the eyes of the profane people. CEREMONFEUX mititatres, military ceremonies or ceremonials. See CHEVALiERS. ¢ CEREMONY, an affemblage of feveral aftions, forms, and circumftances, ferving to render a thing more magnifi- cent and folemn. ‘The word comes from the Latin cere- monia, quali Cereris munia, on account of the great number of ceremonies ufed in making the offerings to Ceres; or becaufe the firft religious ceremonies were thofe of Ceres. Hence Cicero calls * Cererem antiquifimam religiofifimam principem omnium facrorum que apud omnes gentes fiunt.”” We have an ample and magnificent account’ of the reli- gious ceremonies and ‘cuftoms of all the nations in the world, reprefented in figures defigned by Picart, with hiftorical explications, and divers. curious differtations, &c. Ceremonies & Coutumes Religeufes de tous les Peuples du Monde, 6 tom. fol. Amf. 1723. M. Porree, in 1646, publithed a hiftory of ancient cere- monies; tracing the rife, growth, and iatrodu@tion of each rite into the church, and its gradual advancement to fuper- flition therein. Traité des Anciennes Ceremonies. Amtt. 1646, 12mo. Many of them were borrowed from Judaifm ; but more, as it fhould feem, from Paganifm. Dr. Middleton has given a fine difcourfe on the conform- ity between the popifh and pagan ceremonies; which he exemplifies in the ufe of incenfe, holy water, lamps and candies before the fhrines of the faints, votive gifts or offer- ings round the fhrines of the deceafed, &c. In effect, the altars, images, crofles, proceflions, miracles, and legends; nay, even the very hierarchy, pontificate, religious orders, &c. of the prefent Romans, he fhews, are all copied from their heathen anceflors. Who then can doubt of the idolatry of popery, when we fee the prefent people of Rome worfhipping at this day in the fame temples, at the fame altars, fometimes the fame images, and always with the fame ceremonies, as the old Romans? See Middleton’s Letter from Rome, and Prefatory Difcourfe in his Works, vol. iti. Ceremony is alfo applied to thofe expreflions or tokens of refpeét and horour which people pay to each other, out of mere civility and good breeding. Crremony, hadit of, denotes the ornaments and external badges of a profeflion, dignity, or office. ; Ceremony, officers of, thofe whofe bufinefs is to fee the cultomary ceremonies duly obferved in aétions of pomp and folemnity. Such are marfhals, ferjeants at arms, ke. In our court is a matter and affiftant of the ceremonies : the French have a grand malter of the ceremonies, as well as a matter and affiltant. The mafler of the ceremonies is an officer inftituted by king James I. for the more honourable reception of ambafladors and ftrangers of quality. He wears about his neck a chain of gold, with a medal under the crown of Great Britain, having on one fide an emblem of peace, with this motto, “ Beati CER pacifici,”? and on the other an emblem of war, with Dieu et mon droit.’? His falary is 300]. per annum. The afifiant mafler of the ceremonies executes the office of matter in all refpeéts, whenever the mafter of the ceremonies is ab- fent. He has a falary of 1411..13s. 4d. perann. The marfhal of the ceremonies is an officer fubordinate to both the others, with a falary of rool. perann. There are alfo majfters of the ceremonies in public places, and in private affem= blies, &c. whole bufinefs it is to direét and fuperintend the. arrangements that are neceflary for preferving a due regard to rank and decorum. In churches of the Romifh communion there are alfo matters of the ceremonies, to fee that every thing be per- formed as prefcribed in the ritual. Ceremony, in the Royal Navy, the form ufed in receiv- ing the principal officers on board, or in pafling any of his majefty’s fhips; which is as follows. All flag officers are to be received on board his majeity’s thips with a guard under arms and beat of drum;, which, for the admiral, or flag-officer commanding in chief, is to be a march; for an ad- miral, three rufles; fora vice admira!, two; fora rear-admiral, one; but the firit captain to the admiral, or commander in chief of the fleet or {quadron, is to be received on board by a guard only. Ti any of thefe officers pafs one of his majefty’s fhips with his flag at the head of his boat, the fame cere mony is to be obierved. CERENCES, or Crrance, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Manche or Channel, and diftridt of Coutances, 24 leagues S. of Coutances. CERENS, atown of France, in the department of the Sarthe; 10 miles S. of Le Mans. CERENZA, or Gerenza, a town of Naples, in the province of Calabria Citra, feated on a rock, with a bifhop’s fee ; 10 miles N. of St. Severina. N. lat. 39° 43’. E. long. OMe . “CEREPOLIUM, in Botany, a name ufed by Pliny to exprefs the gingidium, an umbelliferous plant of the nature of the chervil or cerefolium ; and it is very probable that this name is only a falfe [pelling of that word. Columella makes the cerepolium and gingidium different ; but it may only be that in different ages they applied thefe names to different fpecies of the fame genns of umbelliferous plants. Neophy- tus tells us, that the gingidium of the ancients was called by, the later writers bifacutum ; a name very well exprefling its feeds, whichare long and flender, and are pointed at both ends, CERES, in 4/ronomy, a new primary planet, difcovered on the 1ft of January 1501, by M. Piazzi, altronomer royal at Palermo in Sicily. This is an int-rmediate planet be= tween the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, and appears as a ftar of the 8th magnitude, being probably about the fize of the moon. Its diltance from the fun is about 23 times that of the earth, and its periodical time nearly 4 years and 2 months. Since the are of its orbit through which this planet run during the period it was obferved by Piazzi wag but {mall, no great degree of accuracy can be expected in {tating the elements of its theory: the following, however, communicated by Dr. Hutton of Woolwich to Mr. O. Gre- gory, and publifhed in his “ Treatife on Aftronomy,” 1803, are the moit exact yet known: Place of the afcending node - - 72" 20° 5S ape Inclination of the orbit - - 10 47 Place of the aphelium = A 8 59 37 2 Time of the paffage through the aphelium January, 3801 1.3328 Eccentricity - - - 0.03064 Log. of the greater femi-axis - - 0.4106586 Time of the tidereal period : - 4-13 years, Thefe clei te a TF ee ee eee CE Thefe particulars are deduced from calculations made by Dr. Burckhardt at Paris on the orbit of this planet confidered as anellipfis, and communicated to the celebrated aftronomer M. Von Zach on the 21ft of June 1801. This ellipfis, he fays, reprefents, within a few feconds, the longitudes and la- titudes. of five obfervations ; and he adds, it would have been eafy to obtain a greater degree of accuracy ; but he thought it quite fuperfluous, as the are run through is fo fmall. - Dr. Herfchel, who ciaffes this planet, as well as that _ difcovered by Dr. Oibers of Bremen (fee Patras), under the new denomination of A/eroids (which fee), has pub- lifhed, in the Phil. Tranf. for 1802, part 2. a variety of ob- fervations which he made on thefe two celeftial bodies. Calculating from an obfervation, in which he had great reafon to confide, he inferred that the angle under which Ceres ap- peared, in the circumftances which he has minutely defcribed, was only 0”.2159 or o”.22.. The mean diftance of Ceres from the fun, according to the moft recent information, and which he’admits as fufficiently accurate for his purpofe, is 2.6024; and its geocentric longitude and north latitude at _ the time of his obfervation (April 1802), were about ny 20° 4/, 15°20’. With thefe data, Dr. Herfchel proceeded to calculate the diftance of Ceres from the earth at the time of obfervation, partly by the ufual method, and, when the elements were wanting, by a graphical procefs, fufficiently accurate for his purpofe. The computed diftance of Ceres was 1.634; and thence he found, that its diameter, at the mean diftance of the earth from the fun, would fubtend an angle of o”.35127, and that, confequently, its real diameter is 161.6 miles. When we confider the fize of this new ar, there can be no great reafon to expeét that it fhould have any fatellite. Dr. Herfchel made many obfervations, with a view of afcertaining this point ; from the refult of which he infers, that two very {mall {tars which he obferved may be fatellites ; but the fuppofed fatellites are fo {mall, that, with a 20-feet telefcope they require a power of 300 to be feen; and the planet fhould be hidden behind a thick wire, placed alittle out of the middle of the field of view, which muft be left open to look for the fuppofed fatellites. However, the retention of a fatellite in its orbit, it is well known, requires a proper mafs of matter in the central body, which it is evident thefe newly difcovered {tars do not contain. The colour of Ceres is ruddy, but not very deep ; though it is much more ruddy than Pallas. ; The name of Ceres was given to this planet by M. Piazzi, its difcoverer. But other names have been fuggetted as ‘more appropriate. Some have propofed the name of Vul- ¢an; afligning to the god who fabricated the arms of Achilles a place in the heavens near the god of war. Prof. Reimarus of Hamburg is of opinion, that it fhould be called ‘Cupid ; for he would be the neareft (reckoning downwards from Venus) to Mars, the lover of Venus. Others fuggeft at the name of Cupid would be proper, becaufe it conveys jan idea of blindnefs ; for the new tar has the appearance of a ftar only of the Sth magnitude, and cannot be {een by the unaffilted eyes of man. In Italy it will perhaps retain the name of Ferdinandeum Sidus, and in France that of Planeté Piazzi, till time and circumftances fhall have otherwife de- cided. A friend of M. Von Zach exprefled the order of the eight planets (Pallas not being difcovered) in the follow- ing lines : «© Mercurius primus ; Venus altera ; Terra deinde ; Mars potthac ; quintam fedem fibi vindicat Hera. é Hier hance ultra eft. Sequitur Safuraus ; et illum ; ranus egreditur ; non aufim dicere fummus,” _ Mr. Maclaurin, and other philofophers, expected, about Vor. VII. RES. roo years ago, that fuch a difcovery as this of M. Piazzi would be made by fome diligent aftronomer; and the opi- nion has been lately revived by the ingenious and {cientific Mr. Capel Lofft. In the * New London Review” for March, 1800, this gentleman, in a critique on the Athe- nian letters, ventured to offer fome conjectures refpecting an intermediate planet between Mars and Jupiter. He fup- pofed that the diftance of the intermediate planet from the fun would be to that of Mars, either as 33 to 15, or as 20 to 15; the mean of which correfponds nearly with the fac. With refpe& to its diameter, he conceived it might be to that of Mars, as that of Mars to the diaméter of the earth; and then, being not much more than half the diameter of Mars, and at five times the perigzan diflance, it would be feen from the earth under an angle of 24” or 3”; while Georgium Sidus would appear under an angle of 4”. Thefe fortunate conjectures were founded on a certain kind of Pythagorean harmony, and they were ingenioufly ftated and vindicated by the author. Ceres, in Mythology, the daughter of Saturn and Ops or Rhea; who taught men the art of cultivating the earth and of fowing corn, whence fhe was regarded as the goddefs of agriculture; and by metonymy, the appellation of Ceres was ufed to denote bread and every kind of food. Thus, “ Sine Cerere et Baccho friget Venus ;” i. e. without bread and wine love grows cold. Terent. Eun. iv. 5,6. Cic. Nat. Deor. ii. 23. : Sicily, Attica, Crete, and Egypt claim the honour of her birth ; but general fuffrage favours Sicily, where fhe had her ordinary refidence in a delightful part of the ifland called ¢¢ Enna,” in which were beautiful meadows watered with perpetual fprings. Accordingly, Le Clerc {ays, (Bibl. Univ.) that the name of Ceres was Dio, and that fhe was queen of Sicily, where fhe rendered her reign illuftrious by teaching her fubjeéts the art of agriculture, as well as by eftablifhing feveral laws concerning policy and the property of lands, that every one might reap what he had fown without moleftation: and from thefe circumftances this queen acquired the honour- able diftin€tion of being confidered as. the goddefs of corn and of the earth. In her youth fhe was extremely beautiful, and as fable reports, her brother Jupiter fell in love with her; and the fruit of the amour, obtained by the deception of transforming himfelf into the figure of a bull, was Phere- phata, Proferpine, or Hecate. Pluto, falling in love with Proferpine, {tole her away, and mounting his chariot drawn by four horfes, purfued his way dire@ly to hell, in oppoft- tion to the remonftrances of Minerva, who in vain endeavyour- ed to diffuade him from the defign. Ceres, apprized of this circumftance,, traverfed fea and land in fearch of her daugh- ter; and after having travelled by day, fhe lighted a torch, as it is faid, in the volcano of mount /Ztna, and continued her fearch by night. In her fruitlefs rambles fhe came near the lake of Syracufe, and perceiving her daughter’s veil float- ing upon the water, fhe concluded that her ravifhers muft have made their efcape that way. At length fhe was informed by Arethofa, the nymph of a fountain, whofe waters flowing from Elis into Sicily, glide under the bottom of the fea and in the confines of Styx, that fhe had feen Proferpine, and that fhe had been ravifhed by Pluto, who had made her queen of hell. She intreated her at the fame time not to indulge any farther refentment again{t the earth, which had become bar- ren fince fhe had withdrawn her precious gifts. Upon this intelligence Ceres mounted her chariot, and traverling the immenfe regions of the air, arrived at Olympus, and prof- trating herfelf at the foot of Jupiter’s throne, demanded of him her daughter. Jupiter having appeafed the anger of Ceres by affuring her that the match of Proferpine with Ss Pluto CERES. ‘Pluto was not difadvantageous to her, and by decreeing, that Proferpine fhould remain fix months of the year with , her hufband, ‘and the other fix months with her mother, fhe bethought herfelf how fhe might repair the calamities occa- fioned by tterility and famine. As Attica had been more diftreffled than other countries, fhe went to Eleufis, where, after having foftered Triptolemus, the fon of Celeus, fove- reign of the country, and having inftruéted him in every thing that related to agriculture, fhe lent him her chariot, and ordered him to travel through the earth in order to teach its inhabitants this neceflary and ufeful art. Triptolemus, having traverfed Europe and Afia, arrived in Scythia at the court of Lyncus, a tyrannical prince, who for attempting to affaflinate him was transformed into a lynx, an animal which was the fymbol of cruelty. The ancient hiftorians agree with the poets in their account of feveral particulars above recited. Strabo (1. vii.) mentions the meadows of Enna whence Proferpine was carried off; and Cicero (in Verr.) feems to admit the faét, and has given us an elegant and or- namented defcription of this place. Diodorus Siculus alfo fays, that Sicily, of all the countries on earth, had been moft diftinguifhed by the favours of Ceres, and that the god- defs had fixed her ordinary refidence in this ifland. ‘ The Sicilians,”’ fays he (lib. v. c. 2.), “ hold by tradition from their anceftors, that their ifland is confecrated to Ceres and her daughter Proferpine; fome poets have written, that at the marriage of Pluto with that princefs, Jupiter gave them Sicily for a nuptial prefent ; and the hiftorians, who are ac- counted the moft faithful, fay, that it was in Sicily that Ceres and Proferpine fhewed themfelves to men for the firlt time, and that this ifland is the frit in the world where corn grew.” Homer, the moit celebrated of the poets, has followed this tradition, when he fays, {peaking of Sicily : « The foil untill’d a ready harvett yields, With wheat and barley wave the golden fields, Spontaneous wines from weighty clufters pour, And Jove defcends in each prolific fhow’r.” Pope’s. Odyff. ix. 123. This author proceeds to give a defcription of the fields of Enna, whence Proferpine was carried off; and relates all the other circumftances of this fable much in the fame man- ner as we have above ftated them. He alfo adds, that the Syracufans have a cuftom of offering oblations every year, each according to his abilities, near the fountain Cyane, which Pluto made to {pring up, wher in that place he open- eda way to himfelf with a blow of his trident ; and that after thofe private facritices they make a public offering of bulls, whofe blood they fhed over the fame fountain. As Attica, fays the fame author, was the country, which, next to Sicily, was molt honoured with the favours of Ceres, the Athenians inftituted, from refpe& to her, not only facrifices, but the Lleufinian myfteries, which Became venerable for their fanc- tity and antiquity. See Ereusinia. The Sicilians alfo, befide the facrifices which they offered at the fountain Cy- ane, inftituted feafts in honour of Ceres and Proferpine ; and they celebrated them in a manner fuitable to a people on whom thefe goddefles had conferred fo many diftinguifhing tokens of regard. ‘Thefe feats they placed in different fea- fons of the year, in allufion to the different appearances of the corn. The rape of Proferpine was celebrated about the time of harvelt, and the fearch of Ceres in feed-time. The Jatter lafted fix days, with {plendid and magnificent accom- paniments. Whillt this feaft continued, it was alfo cutto- mary to intermix in converfation fome wanton expreffions, becaufe by fuch kind of intercourfe Ceres had been diverted from her affliction for the lofs of her daughter. Befides the cultivation of corn, Diodorus informs us that Ceres had given laws to the Sicilians ; and for that reafon fhe was denominated Thefmophoros by the people. ‘ It was not poffible,” adds the hiftorian, ‘¢ that fhe could have given men two more valuable prefents than the fupply of the ne- ceflaries of life and inftruGtions how to live virtuoufly. The rape of Proferpine has been reprefented by moft mythologitts merely as an allegory, which had an obvious relation to agri- culture. However, fome ingenious authors, in the number of whom we may reckon Don Pezron and Le Clerc, relying upon the authority of Diodorus Siculus, have referred this event to real hiltory. Several chronologifts, and particularly the celebrated fir Ifaac Newton, confiding in the relations of Greek writers, have endeavoured to fix the time when Ceres lived; to determine the date of her expedition from Sicily to Athens; and to mention the year of her death, and the wor- fhip that was paid to her not long after. Banter, however, notwithitanding thefe authorities, is perfuaded that we are not to look in Greece for any other Ceres than the Ifis of . the Egyptians, nor for other mytteries befide thofe of that goddefs. We are unquettionably certain, he fays, that almoit all the gods of the Grecks and their worfhip came from the eaftern countries, and efpecially from Egypt, with the colo- nies that had peopled Greece at different times ; and if there be any concerning whofe tranfportation we may be confident, they are Bacchus or Ofiris, and Ceres or Ifis. Accordingly he thus accounts for the origin of the fable. Greece was in- fefted with a fevere famine under the reign of Erechtheus, as we learn from Diodorus Siculus (lib. xviti.j, and alfo from Ovid, who has amply and beautifully defcribed it. The Athenians, whofe foil was not very fertile, were more dif- trefled by it than their neighbours. Erechtheus, on this oc- fion, fent to Egypt for corn; and his meffengers brought back with them, not only a fupply of corn, but the worfhip and ceremonies of the divinities who prefided over agricule ture. The diltrefs they had fuffered and the dread of its ree newal induced them to adopt the mytteries of a goddefs, who was thought competent to fecure them from it. Triptole- mus at the fame time received that worfhip into Eleufis. Ambitious of being the firft prieft of Ceres or Ifis, he not only enjoyed plenty himfelf, but took care to aflitt his neigh- bours by teaching them the mytteries in which he had been inftruéted. Sicily had adopted thefe mytteries fome time before, and hence it was faid that Ceres had come from Sie cily to Athens. It was added, that her daughter had been ravilhed, becaufe the corn and fruit, indicated by her name, had ceafed for fome time to yield fubfiftence. Moreover, it — was faid that Pluto had carried her away to hell, becaufe the fame fruits had remained all that time as it were buried in the earth ; and Jupiter’s decifion of the quarrel between Ceres and Pluto intimated that the earth was again covered with new harvetts. This is the account that is given of the introdu&tion of the myfteries of Ceres into Sicily and Greece. If, howe ever, fome learned men, with Diodorus Siculus, incline to maintain, that there really was a Ceres in Italy, who gave inftruétions and regulations relating to agriculture, we may fuppofe, for the fatisfation of fuch, that fhe, having loft her daughter, and come to Attica in queft of her, taught Triptolemus the my fteries of Ifis ; and that the Greeks hav ing ranked her afterwards among the deities, her worfhip was thus at length confounded with that of the goddefs of the Egyptians. As Triptolemus was one of thofe who gave the beft entertainment to Ceres when fhe arrived in Attica, it was hence fabled that this goddefs had taught him — the art of agriculture, and fent him in her chariot drawn by winged dragons, to propagate this art among mankind. It was CER B®DS. was added, that fhe nurfed him with her own milk 5 thus in- timating the care fhe had taken in the education of this prince. All thefe myfterious fables, as well as the arrival of Ceres in Attica, which is fo finely reprefented upon a marble tomb, ingenioufly explained by M. de Boze, in a differtation publifhed in the 4th volume of the Memoirs of the Academy of Belles Lettres, have no other foundation, as Banier conceives, but the introduétion of the worfhip of Ceres into Greece, and efpecially into Attica. Tripto- ‘emus, who reigned there, came to Eleufis by fea, in order to earry corn into different countries, where at the fame time he taught the mytteries of Ceres, of which he himfelf was prieft. Before he fet out, he had fown corn ina field of Attica, as we learn from the 10th wra of the Arundel Marbles; this, according to the author now cited, (Mytho- logy, &c.b. iv. c. 10.) is the key and folution of this whole fable; for it refers tothe time when the worthip of Ceres, fo ancient in Egypt, was received in Greece; and not to that of agriculture, which had been known there long before ; unlefs we chufe to underftand it of a new method of culti- vating the ground, which the Greeks learned in their travels into Egypt, and reduced to pratice at this time. The marbles now quoted fix this date under the reign of Erech- theus; that is, according to the commentators on thefe mar- bles, 1426 years B. C. or about 280 before the Trojan war. The Arundelian marbles, however, point out three dates of thefe events, which are not ranged in the fame manner with that of other authors who fpeak of them. In the firft of thofe eras, viz. the 12th, they reprefent Ceres as coming into Attica; in the 13th, they fay that Triptolemus began to fow corn in the fields of Eleufis ; and in the 14th they mention the rape of Proferpine ; fo that the arrival of Ceres at Athens precedes the rape of her daughter ten years. Blair, in his Chronological Tables, refers the arrival of Ceres in Athens to teach the inhabitants the art of fow- ing corn, and her fending her fon Triptolemus through the refit of Greece, to the year 1383, B. C. Newton, in his *¢ Chronology,”’ refers it to the ycar 1030, B. C. The hazard to which Triptolemus was expofed in his travels gave rife to the fable of Lyncus, already mentioned ; and that of his being drawn in a chariot by winged dragons is taken from an ambiguity in the Pheenician language ; in which the word ufed in this hillory fignifies either winged dragons or a fhip adorned with iron beaks, as we are told by Bochart (Hieroz. 1. 3. c. 14.), and after him by M. Le Clerc. Tanier, however, inclines to the opinion of Philo- chorus, cited by Eufebius, who fays, that this fhip was taken for a flying dragon, becaufe it had upon its prow the figure of a drapon. Befides the amour of Ceres with her brother Jupiter, fable reports, that fhe had another with Neptune, the fruit of which was the famous horfe Arion, or as the Thelpufians and Phigalians relate, a daughter, called by the Arcadians Hera. In reference to this circumftance Paufanias fays, Arcad. lib. viii.) that upon mount Elaius, in Arcadia, 30 dtadia from Phigala, Ceres had a cave into which fhe retired, cloathed in mourning, fo that fhe was called black Ceres, and that the Phigalians dedicated to her memory on this {pot a wooden image, having the body of a woman, and the head of a horfe, and bearing in one hand a dolphin, and in the other a dove. When this ftatue was accidentally burnt, the Phigalians forgot the worfhip of Ceres, and neglected her feafts ; upon which the goddefs punifhed them with a fevere drought. In this diftrefs they confulted an oracle, which informed them, that if they did not re-eftablifh the worthip of Ceres, a famine would prevail to fach a degree as to oblige them to eat their own children. At length Pan, as he hunted in Arcadia, difcovered her retreat, and acquainted Jupiter with it; and the god, by the interceffion of the Parca, appeafed her, and reftored her again to the world ;_ in confe- quence of which, as the fable reports, the earth produced corn and fruits. Hefiod (in Theogon.) informs us, that Ceres had another amour with the hero Jafion, by whom fhe had a fon, named Plutus, who was born in the ifland of Crete, and became very powerful both by fea and land ; and who, having brought agriculture to perfection, as the means of acquiring wealth, was called the god of riches. Ceres was diftinguifhed by a great variety of appellations, the principalof which were “ MagnaMater,”’ and “* Mater Maxt- ma;’’ and fhe was honoured in many places with feafts and fa- crifices. The mott cultomary offerings prefented to this goddefs were a pregnant fow anda ram; and they alfo confecrated to her the crane, the turtle-dove, the fea-fifh, called Surmullet, and the winged ferpent. Of vegetables, corn was the molt ufual offering to her, and with this they decorated her images, and her garlands were formed of myrtle and rape-weed 5 but flowers were prohibited, becaufe Proferpine was carried away whilft fhe was gathering them. The poppy was facred to her, not only becaufe it grew among corn, but becaufe in her diftrefs, Jupiter gave it her to eat, that fhe might fleep and forget her troubles. In {pring they crowned her images with the ftems of gramincous plants; and in her facrifices they made oblations of wine toher. Cicero mentioned an ancient temple dedicated to her at Catania in Sicily, in which the offices were performed by: matrons and virgins only ; no male being admitted on this occafion, Ceres, ac- cording to the abbé Banier, was ufually reprefented of a tall majeftic ftature, fair complexion, languifhing eyes, and yel- low or flaxen hair; her head crowned with a garland of poppies, or ears of corn; her breafts full and {welling ; holding in her right hand a bunch of the fame materials with her garland, and in her left a lighted torch. When feated in a car or chariot, fhe is drawn by lions, elephants, or winged dragons. Mr. Spence, in his ** Polymetis,’’ ob- ferves, that the face of Ceres is a very pretty one, and from fome expreffions in the poets, he concludes, that fhe wasa beauty of the brunette kind. Her head, he fays, is often crowned either with corn or poppies, and her robe falls down to her feet, which, in the language of the ttatuary, denotes dignity. There is one objection that may be made, fays this writer, to the beauty of Ceres; as the figures of her which he has feen generaily reprefent her brealts as none of the {mallett. Virgil, in his Georgics, gives us an idea of Ceres, as regarding the laborious hufbandman from heaven, and bleffing the work of his hands with fuccefs. Ceres has been no where exhibited with more beauty than on a medal of Metapontum, in Magna Grecia, and another found at Naples, in the collection of the duke of Carzffa Noia, with the common reverfe of an ear of corn, and a moufe on iis blade. On thefe coins, the goddefs appears with her veil thrown behind her veftment ; her head, befides the ears and blades of corn, crowned with an elevated diadem in the manner of Juno; and her hair over her forehead, in beay- tiful diforder, rifing in front, aud hanging freely, as if to in- dicate her affliction for the rape of Proferpine. She fome- times holds in her hand a vafe, and with this attribute the was worfhipped by the Achzans, under the name of I[einjs- ofopos. (Athen. Deipnof. xi. p. 461.) The drapery of Ceres, in allufion to ripe corn, fhould be yellow ; more ef- pecially as fhe is diftinguifhed by Homer by a correfponding epithet. Ceres is found winged on ancient monuments 5 with a head-drefs in the form of a turban a little elevated, called wortwv. She is thus exhibited on a mutilated ftatue in her temple at Eleufis, bearing on her head, according to Po- cocke, a circular ornament about two feet in height. Ceres is often feen accompanied by the horfe Arion ; and fhe is Ss@ frequently CER frequently found, not only with torches in her hands, but with a modius, the fymbol of fertility, and the myttic ciftus of the Eleufinian feafts, placed either on her head or at her fides. On an engraved {tone in the colle€tion of Stofch, fhe is reprefented in an erect pofture over the head of an ox, holding in her left hand ears of corn, and in her right the head of a ram. The general chara@ter of this goddefs, Ceres or Damater, fays Bryant (Anal. Anc. Mythol. vol. il. p. 35.) is fo in- nocent and rural, that it might be imagined nothing cruel could proceed from her fhrinee Neverthelefs, there was a time, when fome of her temples were as much dreaded as thofe of Scylla and the Cyclops. ‘They were courts of juf- tice ; whence fhe is often fpoken of asa lawgiver. (Ovid. Metam. 1. 5. v. 351.) She is joined by Cicero-(Orat. in Verr. 5. fet. ult.) with Libera; and they are itiled the deities, “a quibus initia vitz, atque vidtus, legum, morum, manfuetudinis, humanitatis, exempla hominibus, et civita- tibus data, ac difpertita fle dicantur.”” The deity, to whom fhe was a fubftitute, continues Bryant, was El, the fun ; who was primarily worfhipped in thefe temples. Ac- cordingly Ceres was the deity of fire, according to this Jearned avthor ; and hence at Cnidus fhe was called Ku;z, Cura, a title of the fun. Her Roman name Ceres, ex- preffed by Hefychius Gerys, was by the Dorians more pro- perly rendered Garys ; and it was originally the name of a city, calied Xepss; as many of the deities were erroneoufly ealled by the names of the places where they were worfhip- ped. Charis is Char-Is, the city of fire. Hence, as a per- fonage, Ceres is made the wife of Vulcan, on account of her relation to fire. Her title of Damater was equally fo- yeign to Greece ; and came from Babylonia, and the eaft. Hence it fhould feem extraordinary, that fhe fhould ever be efteemed the goddefs of corn. This notion, fays Bryant, arofe in part from the Grecians not underftanding their own theology. The towns of Ceres were P’urtain, or Tigelaa ; fo called from the fires, which were perpetually preferved | in them. The Grecians interpreted: this cuee seeov; and rendered what was a temple cf Orus, a granary of corn. Hence they made it a repolitory of grain: but this was a fecondary ufe to which thefe places were appropriated. They were properly facred houfes, where a perpetual fire was preferved. Many of thefe temples were dedicated to the deity under the name of Perfephone, or Proferpine, the fuppofed daughter of Ceres. The perfons who refided in thele temples are reprefented 2s perfons of great ftrength and ftature; and hence the Cercyonians, whofe name was derived from Cercyon, Ker-Cuon, fignifying the temple of the deity, and who were famous for manly achievements, fuch as wrefthng, &c. were the priefts of Ceres or Da- mater; who feems to have Leen tired of their fervice, and glad to get rid of them, as we are informed by the poet. (Ovid, Ibis. v. 411.) CEREs, reprefentations of, in Sculpture. Herodotus in Euterpe, after defcribing the gods of Egypt, afferts his opinion that Homer and Hefiod firlt among the Greeks gave names and forms, employments and honours to the gods of their country. That this popular theo- logy had its beginning about the time affigned by Hero- dotus, feems very likely from a variety of collateral evi- dence. The learned Fabricius, in his Bib. Gree. be- gins by obferving that no Greek writer’s work is extant, older than Homer. The theology of Homer and Hefiod is totally cifferent from thole of Plato, Aviftorle, and their predeceffors in philofophy ; and fuch of the Orphic remains ‘as bear any refemblance to it are confefledly more modern. The art of {culpture affords teftimonies of the fame kind ; many {mall bronze ftatues of early Greek workmanhhip are CER barbarous imitations of common nature; and, although it is to be {uppofed fome of them are intended for divinities, few are accompanied by fymbols. When writing began to be ufed, fculpture improved its reprefentations ; and the divi- nities were fupplied with emblems of their offices, not very diftant from the time mentioned by Herodotus. There are fpecimens of this early feulpture in the valuable colleGion of Mr. Paine Knight, one of which appears to be a Ceres, with the modius or calathus on her head. This goddefs is alfo reprefented on a Greek baflo-relievo (lately in the Villa Albani, publifhed in Winckelman’s Monumenta In- edita) with the calathus on her head, the fceptre in her left hand, and the ears of corn and poppies is ber right hand. She is reprefented on various baffo-relievos, and on the Greek vafes, with two torches, in relation to the fearch for Proferpine. j The noble fragment of this goddefs’s ftatue, anciently worfhipped in her renowned temple at Eleufis, has been brought to England, and placed in the univerfity of Cam- bridge by the zeal and perfeverance of our countryman Dr, — Clark. The fragment is one piece of marble feven feet high from the top of the calathus, which refts on the heady. to the bottom, which terminates at the girdle, a little be- low the breafts. The height of the calathus is about two feet ; the head is one foot fix inches; the calathus is orna= mented with fpikes of corn, the lotus, leaves of clive, and avafe. The features of the face are obliterated ; the hair is collected in one large trefs, which is tied and falls between the fhoulders; her tunic is fecured by a bandage, crofled between the breafts, and buttoned with a Medufa’s head ; the zone a little lower terminates the fragment. Strabo fays, the temple of Ceres was built by Iétinus, who alfo built the parthenon or temple of Minerva, in the citadel of Athens, and was the cotemporary of Phidias. The fragment erfeGly agrees with this account, and is of the grandeft ftyle of Greek feulpture. CERESIUS, in Ancient Geography, Trefa, a river of Italy in the territory of the Lepontii. Cerestus lacus, Lago di Lugano, a lake of Italy in the fame territory. , CERESOLO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the duchy of Mantua; 13 miles N.W. of Mantua. CERESSUS, in Ancient Geography, a fortified place of Greece in Beeotia, according to Paufanias; belonging t the Thefpians.—Alfo, a town of Spain in the Tarrago- nenfis, in the country of the Jacetani, according to Ptolemy. 4 CERET, in Geography, a town of France, and princi- pal place of a diftri€t in the department of the Eaftern Py— renées, fituated at the foot of the Pyrenées on the river Tech, over which is a bridge of one arch, fuppofed to be the highelt and boldeft in France. The place contai 2382, and the diltri€t 6245 inhabitants: the territory com- preherds 2473 kiliometres and 18 communes. At place the commiffioners of France and Spain met, in £ to fettle the bounds of the two kingdoms. Ceret is leagues S.W. of Perpignan. N. lat. 42° 28’. E. lon 2° 46. CERETAPA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia Minor, in Pacatian Phrygia. This town began to’ ftrike imperial Greek medals, under the authority of its pret in honour of Antonine, M. Aurelius, Commodus, and § verus. Dr. Hunter poffeffed an Autonome medal of brenze, with the legend KEPETAIMEQN, which Dr. Combe aferi to Ceretapa. CEKETIA, in Botany, Pluk. See Hymen za. CEREUS, in Boteny, Bauh, &c. ‘See Cactus. Cerevs, in Gardening. See Cactus. : CER CER CERFENNIA, a place of Italy on the Valerian way, between Alba Fucentia and Corfinium, according to the Itinerary of Antonine. CERIGLIANO, or Cicriano, in Geography, a town of Naples, in the province of Bafilicata; ro miles S. of Tricarico. -CERIGNOLA, La, a town of Naples, fituated on a rifing ground, in the province of Capitanata; famous for a victory obtained here, in 1503, by Gonfalvo, over the clec- . tor of Nemours, who was slain in the commencement of the battle ; 20 miles S. of Manfredonia. It contains about 12,000 inhabitants. Between 50 and Go years ago an earthquake almoit totally dettroyed it, and it is not yet thoroughly rebuilt: the ttreets are crooked and dirty, and the honfes are all low, as the owners dare not raife them high for fear of another fhock. The cighty-firft columua milliavia, inferibed with the name of Trajan, is the only fragment of antiquity oblervable inthis town. The com- modities of the place are theep, horfes, and corn; the bread is black and gritty, but well-tafted. The prcfent pof- feffor of this town is Pignatelli, count of Egmont. refident in France, who farms it out at 15,000 ducats a year (2.81 0/.) ~ CERIGO, in Geography, an ifland of the Grecian Ar- chipelago, well know under the vancient appellation of Cytuera, is feparated from the Morea by a narrow ftrait. It is dry and mountainous, and produces neither corn, wine, _ nor oi!, fuffictent tor the inuabitanis; fome of the vallies, however, are fertile; and it abourds with theep, horfes, quails, turtles, and falcons. Although it had formerly feverai good towns, it now chiefly ferves as a rendezvous for piraies.. The circumference is about 50 miles; and the inhabitants are Chriltian Greeks, fubjeét to the Venetians, who change the governo: every two years. By the treaty of Campo Formio, in 1797, it was furrendered to the French, together with other Venetian iflands. See CrpHavonia. Cerigo, according to Theverot, (Voyage, t. i. p. 25) was called Porphyris by the ancients, on account of the quanti- ties of porphyry found in it. Cerrco, a town of the above ifland, feated on its weflern coaft on a fharp rock, furrounded by the fea, and defended by acaftle. It has a {mall harbour, and is the fee of a Greek bifhop. N. lat. 36° 26’. E. long. 23° 13’. Cerico, in Natural Hiflory, a name by which many au- thors have called that remarkable American animal called the Opossum. } The Americans in fome places call this animal, in their language, Carigueya; and it is probable that this name ‘Cerigo is ouly a corruption of that word, though it be received generally in the world as a proper name, and ufed as fuch by Maffei, Barlaus, Nieremberg,and many others. CERIGOTTO, in Geography, a fmall uninhabited Wand in the Grecian Archipelago, between Cerigo and Candia, anciently called gi/ia ; about 5 miles in compafs. N. Jat. 36° 2’. -E. long. 22° 13’. CERIULTI, in Ancient Geogrephy, a place of Italy in ‘that part of Magna Grecia, called Bratium, fituate on the fea-coaft, ata fmall di‘tance S.W. from Pandofia. CERILLUM, a plece of Italy in Lucania, according ‘to Strabo ; probably the fame with Cerzili. CERILLY, iv Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of Alber, and chief place of a canton in che dif- “triGt of Montlegon 3.7 miles W. of Moulins. The place “contains 2400, and she canton 9184 inhabitants; the terri- tory includes 5624 kiliometres, and 14 communes. CERINES, the ancient Ceraunia, a fea-port town of ' the ifland of Cyprus, with decayed walls, defended by a CER caftle; the fee of a bihop, fuffragan of Nivofia, Ny lat. 35° 22’. EE. long. 33° 24/, _CERINI, Giovaxnt Domenico, in Biography, an hiftoncal painter, was born at Perugia in 1606, and itudied under Guido and Domenichino; from whom he acquired a very beautiful cone of colouring, and a graceful difpofition of his figures; and he particularly excelled in giving ele- gant and noble airs to his heads. Hedied in 1681. Pile Kington. CERINTHE, among the Ancients, was ufed by fome to exprefs that fub{tance called by cthers amlrofia and /andarach, and by fome erithace. See Wax. Craintus, in Botany, (xneno:; Theophr. from XNEOS, WA, fo called, according to Pliny, becaufe bees were {uppofed to obtain from it abundance of wax.) Honey-wort. Me- linct. Fr, Linn. gen. 186. Schreb, 246. Wild. 281. Tourn. cl.i. § 3. gen. 1. tab. 56. Juff. 130. Vent. vol. ii. 387. Gert. 413. Clafs and Order, pentandria monogynia. Nat. Ord. Afperifolie, Linn. Boraginee, Jul. Vent. ° Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth deeply five-cleft, permanent ; fegments oblong, equal. Cor. monopetalous, campanu- late ; tube fhort, thick ; orifice naked and pervious ; border tubular, fwollen, a little thicker than the tube, five-cleft at the fummit. Stam. Filaments five, very fhort; anthers acute, erect, long. two-celled, bifid at the bafe. Pift. Germ, two-cleft ; ityle filiform, the length of the ftamens; ftizma obtufe. Peric. the permanent calyx. Nuts two, bony, gloffy, fomewhat egg-fhaped, outwardly gibbous, two-celled. Seeds one in-each cell. Eff. Ch. Border of the corolla tubular, {wollen ; ori- ie naked. Nuts two, two-celled. Seeds one in each ceil. Sp. 1. C. major, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1. Mart. 1. Defrouffeaux in Encyc. 1. Wilid. 1. Bot. Mag. Pl. 343. Lam. Illuft. Pl, 39. Gert. tab. 67. (C. glabra. Mill. Di. ed. 6. Pl. gl. C. Flore rnbro purpurafcente ; Bauh. Pin. 258. Morif. Hitt, tab. 29. fig. 3.) Great honey-wort “ Corollas ems bracing the item; obtufe, {preading, {wollen at the apex, campanulate ; ftamens fhorter than the corolla.” Root annual. Svems herbaceous, fucculent; eighteen inches high or more, round, {mooth, branching, leafy. Leaves glau- cous, alternate, embracing the {tem, oblong-oval, obtufe, from two to four inches long, thin, foft, ciliated. Flowers in fhort leafy {pikes; tube of the corolla yellow ; border. purple, with very fhort revolute fegments. A native of the fouth of Europe, and of the coal of Barbary. 2. C. afpera. Willd. 2 Roth. catal. bot. 1. p. 33. (C. major. @. Linn. C. flavo flore afperior ; Morif. Hift. tab. 29. fig. 2.) * Corallas embracing the ftem, obtufe, {preading, cylindri- cal ; itamens as long asthe corolla.” Leaves prickly, fmaller than thole of the preceding. Flowers yellow. A native of the fouth of Europes Not a variety of C. major. Both plants, after many years cultivation, retain their fpecific diffcrences. Willd. 3. C. minor, Linn. Sp. Pl. 2. Mart. 2. Defrouffeaux 2. Willd. 3. Bauh. pin. 258. Morif. tab. 2g. fig. 5. Jacq. Flor. Ault. tab. 124. * Corollas em- bracing the ftem, entire; corollas acute, clofed.””? — Root biennial. Stems herbaceous, upright, cylindrical, greenifh, about two feet high. J.caves fimilar to thofe of the two preceding fpecies ; but of a deeper glaucous colour, fmooth, rarely ciliated, commonly marked with white {pots. Powers fmal, in long leaty terminal racemes, yellow, pedicelled ; corolla a little longer than the calyx, contracted at the top and bottom, ob{curely five-furrowed, cleft to the middle ; fegments linear-lanceolate, acute, ttraight, forming a kind of cone; filaments {carcely difcernible. A native of the fouth of Europe. There is a varicty with emarginate leaves, deferibed CER defcribed by Allioni under the name of maculata, and faid by him to be perennial. Cerintuk maritima procumbens, Dill. Elt. MONARIA maritima. Cerin tueE echisides, Scop. See Onosma echivides. Cerinrue, in Gardening, furnifhes a plant of the orna- mental, hardy, flowering annual kind; of which the fpecies cultivated is the great honeywort (C. major), which rifes with ftems eighteen inches hivh, and more, round, {mooth, branching, and leafy; the leaves are glaucous, becoming blue by age, {mooth, without prickles, but ciliated about the edge, and dotted with white: the branches are leafy and nodding, with flowers among the leaves, hanging on long peduncles. It is a native of Italy, flowering in June. [t has varieties with fmooth leaves and purple flowers, and with prickly leaves and yellow flowers. Method of Culture. 'Uhefe plants may be raifed by fow- ing the feeds annually in the autumn or early {pring months in patches, in the borders, clumps, or other parts. The autumn fowings fhould be made as early as pofble. They alfo often rife from the felf-fown feeds ; and fhould be ma- naged as other hardy annuals. They are proper for being planted out about the apiary, or in the fail beds or borders in the fhrubbery or other parts of pleafure-grounds, where they produce vartety. CERINTHIANS, in Lechfiaftical Hiflory. called alfo Merinthians, afe&t that took its name from Cerinthus, co- temporary with St. John, towards the clofe of the firft or commencement of the fecond century; faid to have been a native Jew, educated at Alexandria, and ‘to have lived at Antioch ; who formed a fingular fyftem of doétrine and difcipline, by combining the do&rines of Chrift with fome of the opinions and errors of the Jews and Gnoltics. Some learned moderns have reprefented Cerinthus as a vicious perfon; but Dr. Lardner is of a different opinion; and he fays, that nothing of this kind is charged upon him by the writers of herefies; not by Irenzus, nor Epiphanius, nor “Theodoret, nor the reft. Cerinthus efcribed the creation of the world, and the legiflature of the Jews, to a created be- ing, who derived from the Supreme God extraordinary vir- tues and powers, but afterwards became apottate and de- graded. He fuppofed that Fc/us was a mere man, born of Jofeph and Mary; but that, in his baptifm, the Holy Gholt, or the Chri, who was one of the Zons, defcended upon him in the form of a dove; and that he was commif- fioned to oppofe the degenerate god of the Jews, and to deftroy his empire. In confequence of which, by his inlti- gation, the man Fefus was feized and crucified ; but Chrif afcended up on high, without fuffering at all. He recom- mended to his followers the worlhip of the Supreme God in Cerne, a town of Ethiopia, near the ocean, according to an ancient fcholiaft, cited by Cafaubon in his notes on Strabo. Cerne, or Cerne-Abbas, in Geography, a {mall town in Dorfetfhire, England, confifting of four or five indifferentiy built ftreets, is fituated in a pleafant valley, furrounded by iteep hills, and watered by the river Cerne, from which it derives its name. A market (Wednefday) was granted inthe fifteenth of king John, and is well frequented. Three fairsare held here. The trade of the town is chiefly confined to malting and brewing, though fome hands are employed in a filk manufa€tory. The beer brewed here is equal, if not fu- perior, to any in the kingdom. Cernejs only remarkable for the remains of its abbey, which, according to William of Malmfbury, Camden, and fome others, was founded by St. Auguitine, whofe zeal in the converfion of the Saxons to the Chriftian faith is faid to have induced him to vifit thefe parts, where, according to the monkith legends, he per- formed feveral miracles. ‘There does not appear, however, any decilive evidence that Augultine ever travelled fo far from Kent, or that any miffionary arrived in the weit of England before Birinus, which was 30 years after the time of the Englifh apottle. The molt carly intimation of any religious foundation here that can be depended upon occurs about the year 870, when Edwald, or Eadwald, brother of St. Edmund the martyr, king of the Eait Angles, greatly affected by the murder of his unhappy brother by the Danes, declined the crown, and commenced hermit, fixing his retreat near this place, where Ailmer afterwards founded a monattery of the Benediétine order. A gate-houfe, and fome few fragments of the abbey only remain. Cergeis 120 miles W. from London: the population was, under the late aét, returned at-847, number of houfes 165. From Gi Ri From this town afcends an immenfe chalk hill, which is crowned by a very large entrenchment, called Trendle hill ; on the declivity of this eminence may be traced a gigantic figure, cut in the chalk, in the manner of the famous white horfe in Berkfhire: though whether of a fimilar origin and antiquity is doubtful. It reprefents a man holding a club in his right hand, and extending the other; the whole figure meafures about 180 feet in height. Hutchins’s Hiftory of Dorfetthire, fol. CERNETANT, in Ancient Geography, a people of Italy in Campania, furnamed Mariani, according to Piiny. CERNETZ, in Geography, a town of Swifferland, in Lower Engadina, fituated on a {mall rich plain, bounded by two ridges of mountains converging at both extremities, and producing wheat, barley, flax, and abundance of rich patture; 24 miles S.E. of Coire. CERNIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Cyprus, on the northern coaft, N.E. of Sole. CERNIN, Sr., in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Cantal, and chief place of a canton in the diftri@ of Aurillac. The place contains 4141, and the can- ton 8429, inhabitants: the territory includes 230 kilometres and 6 communes. CERNITIS Patus, in Ancient Geography, a kind of marfh fituated in Thrace, near the mouth of the Strymon. CERNON, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Marne, and diftriG of Chalons; 8 miles S. of Chalons. CERNU, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Morocco ; miles from Safia. CERNUA, in Lchthyology, the name of a {mall frefh water fifh of the perch genus, better known by the titles of the ruff, or ruffe, and pope, and among the old writers by that of afredo and perca minor. It is caught in feveral of the Enghih rivers, though far more local than the common perch. This is the perca cernua of modern naturaliits. See PERCA. CERNUOUS, in Botany, drooping, a term applied by Linnzus to the peduncle of a flower. It denotes a greater and more determinate degree of downward curvature than is expreffed by nutans, or nodding ; as in bidens radiata and Belianthus annuus. CERO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the Veronefe ; 6 miles N N.E. of Verona. CEROCHYTOS, in Antiquity, a method of painting in wax, melted and coloured with pigments for the purpofe, and applied with pencils. The word is compounded of x@-, cera, wax, and xvw, fundo, I melt down. Pilin. Hilt. Nat. lib. xxxv. cap. 11. and lib. xxi. cap. 14. CEROCOMA, in Entomology, the name of one of the Fabrician genera of coleopterous infegts. See Metor. CEROMA, originally denoted a mixture of oil and wax, with which the ancient wreftlers rubbed themfelves, not only to make their limbs more fleek, and lefs capable of being laid hold of, but more pliable, and fit for exercife. The name ceroma is fometimes applied by ancient "phy- ficians to a cerete or cerecloth. The champions, ready to engage in the paleffra, having ftripped themfelves naked, were firtt anointed with oil, then ftrewed over with duft, to which was laftly added wax. From the laft ingredient, this compofition was denominated ceroma, from cera, wax. CEROMANTIA, an ancient method of divination, by means of wax melted over a veflel of water, and let drop in three diftinét {paces ; obferving the figure, fituation, diftance, and concretion of. the drops. CER CERON, in Ancient Geography, a country of Afia in Af- fyria, famous for its odoriferous trees. Jofephus fays that in his time it prefented remains of Noah’s ark.—Alfo; a fountain of Greece, in the Efticeotide, a country of Thef- faly, according to Pliny. CERONE, Dominico Pepro, in Biography, maeftro di cappellatothe viceroy of Naples, while that city and kingdom were in the pofleffion of the Spaniards: though himfelf an Ita~ lian, and born in the Venetian itate, he publifhed, in the Spa- nith language, the molt ample, corre&, and ufeful mufica/ trea- tife that appeared in any country during the 17th century 5 entitled “* E/ Melopeo y Maefiro,”’ Naples, 1613, not 1619, as Walter fays. See Draudius Bib]. Exot. p.279. It was reprinted at Antwerp in folio, 1619. ‘This fearce and truly valuable work for counterpoint, and all the arcana of fugue, canon, double counterpoint, augmentation, diminution, &c. occupies nearly 1200 folio pages. Though his rules for dou- ble counterpoint are good, we fhall recommend to the mufi- cal ftudent the inftruGions on this fubje& given by Padre Mars tini, as more acceffible, if not more clear ; and.the examples given by Sala, of whom we fhall fpeak hereafter, as moft ine telligible and elegant. The ftudy of this fpecies of compo- fition is ftrongly recommended by regular bred muficians, and pratifed by compofers of the firft clafs. 4 CERONES, in Ancient Geography, probably the fame people with the Crcones mentioned alfo by Ptolemy as inhabitants of the ifle of Albion, were, according to Horf- ley, the moft ancient inhabitants of Lochabar, and of part of Roffe. CERONIA. - See Cerrnes. ' CEROPEGIUM, in Botany, (from xnjornyir, a cande- labrum or lamp-ftand) Linn. gen. 302. Schr. 431. Willd. 493. Juff. p. 146. Vent. vol. ii. p. 426. Clafs and Order, -pentandria monogynia, Linn. Digynia, Schreb. Lam. Willd. ~ Nat. Ord. Contorte, Linn. Apocinee, Jufl. Vent. Gen. Ch. Cal. five-toothed, or five-leaved, permanent. Cor. monopetalous, tubular or campanulate, fometimes {wollen at the bafe; border five-cleft, converging. Stam. Filaments five, in the bafe of the corolla, fmall. Pit. Style {carcely apparent ; ftigmas two. Peric. Follicles two, very long, cylindrical, ereét, one-celled, one-valved. Seeds nu- merous, imbricated, crowned with a pappus. * Eff. Ch. Contorted. Follicles two, ere&t; feeds fea- thery ; border of the corolla converging. Sp. 1. C. candelabrum, Linn. Sp. 1. Mart. r. Lam. 1. Willd. 1. (Niota-niodem-valli; Rheed. Mal. 9. tab. 16.) «© Leaves egg-fhaped, mucronate; umbels pendulous; flowers ereét.”? Stems twining, flender, round, green or reddifh. Leaves oppofite, petioled, egg-fhaped, thick, foft, fmooth. Flowers reddifh, in axillary umbels, at firft pendulous, afterwards ereé&t, the common peduncles con- tinuing pendulous. A native of the Eaft Indies. 2. C. tuberofa, Willd. 2. Roxb. Cor. 1. tab. 9. ‘* Leaves egg- fhaped, acute, umbels erect; root creeping, tuberous.”?” A native of wafte ground in the Eaft Indies. 3. C. bulbofa, Willd. 3. Roxb. Cor. 1. tab. 7.‘ Leaves obo- vate-elliptical, cufpidate; umbels ere&; root bulbous.” Diftin@ from the preceding. Leaves lefs and different in form. Flowers only half the fize. Bulb folitary, depreffed. A native of dry woods in the Eaft Indies. 4. C. biffora. Linn. Sp. 2. Mart. 2. Lam. 2. Willd. 4. ° “ Leaves egg= fhaped; peduncles two-flowered.”’ Stem climbing. Leaves oppofite, quite entire. Peduncles axillary, moft frequently two-flowered. Flowers oppofite to the peduncle, not ree flexed but extended in a right line. A native of the ifland of Ceylon. 5. C. junceay Willd. 5. Roxb. Cor. 1. tab. 10. © Leaves lanceolate, {effile; peduncles with about two 7 flowers 5 i epee ennai oe — Oe Oe i GE KR flowers ; ftem flethy.’? Stem nearly fimple, twining. Leaves oppolite, diftant, appearing like feales. FVoqwers large for this genus, near an inch and half long, very pale green, beautifully variegated with tranfverfe purple ftreaks. A native of the Ealt Indies, on dry uncultivated ground. 6. C. acuminata, Willd. 6. Roxb. Cor. 1. tab. 5%. * Leaves lanceolate, acuminate to a great length; umbels many- flowered, upright ; root bulbous.”? A native of the Eatt Indies in dry woods. 7. C. fagitiata, Linn. Mant. 215. Thunb. prod. 37. (Cynanchum; Burm. afr. 36. tab. 15 ?) « Umbels nearly feffile; leaves arrow-‘haped.”? Stem twi- ning, bliform, downy. Leaves oppolite, on fhort petioles, revolute at the edges, downy on both fides, paler underneath. Umbels axillary, many- flowered, peduncies fhorter than the umbel. JVozwers fearlet ; corolla nearly cylindrical, but little {wollen at the bafe; fegments very fhort, mucronate, con- verging ; calyx half the length of the corolla, with five linear - acute fegments. A native of the Cape of Gocd Hope. 8. C. tenuiflora, Murr. Syit. veg. 211. Mart. 4. Lam. 4. Wilid. 8. (Periploca tenuiflora, Linn. Sp. P). Cynanchum; Burm. afr. tab. 15? Apocynum; Pluk. Mant. 17. tab. 335. fig. 5. Natu-nindi; Rheed., Mal. 10. tab. 34.) ‘ Leaves lincar- lanceolate.” Root woody. Stem climbing, flender, branch- ed, milky, green or reddith, leafy. Leaves oppofite, narrow, very acute, on very fhort petioles. Uméels axillary, nearly feffile, three or four-flowered. Vocvers within reddifh ; on the outfide yellowifh green. A native of the Eaft Indtcs. g. C. obtufa, Mart. 5. Lour. Cochin. 114. * Leaves blunt.’ Stem twining, filiform, fmooth. Leaves oppolite, oblong, quite entire, flat, few, /Vowers like thofe of the firft fpe- cies, but on fhorter peduncles. A native of Cochin-China, to. C. cordata, Mart. 6. Lour. Cochin, 11g. ‘* Leaves heart-fhaped ; umbels pendulous.”? Svem climbing, long, branched, round. eaves oppolite, quite entire, fmooth, on long petioles. F/oqwers greenifh yellow, in large hemif- pherical axillary umbels, on long peduncl:s; calyx five- Jeaved; leaflets egy-fhaped, acute, fmall, fpreading ; nectary flefhy, upright, five-cleft; with ten oblong glands ftanding round the pillil; filaments none; anthers oblong, converg- ing; germ longifh, bifid; ftyle thick, very fhort; fligma blunt, emarginate. A native of Cochin-China in the hedg- es. All the {pecies are perennial. CEROPELLA, in Ancient Geography, a place of Thrace, being one of the places which the Romans afligned to the Goths for their dwelling. CEROPHA‘l, a people placed by Ptolemy in Africa Propria. CEROSSUS,a place ip the Ionian fea, between the ifland of Melita and Macedonia, in the Adriatic fea. CEROSTROTUM, in Ancient Writers, denotes a fort of piéture compofed of pieces of horn; anfwering to what among us is called mosaic work. Some write the word ceroltratum, and fuppofe it primarily to denote a fort of pavement compofed of pieces of wood, inlaid and joined with flips of horn, varioufly coloured and figured. Sal- malius will have cerofrata to denote a method of painting, or enamelling with wax, otherwife called cERocHYTOS, CEROU, in Geography, a river of France, which runs into the Aveiron. CERQUOZZI, Micnart Ancuoro, called AL. A. dell Battoglie, in Biography, a painter of battles, formed himfelf with regard to ftyle and the feleGtion of his fubjects on Bamboccio, but diflered from him as to the charaé¢ter and phyfiognomy of his figures, painting thofe of Italy inftead of Dutch or Flemith mobs. The tints of both are ftrong and vivid. Whilft Bamboccio excels Cer- guozzi in landfeape, the latter is fuperior in the fpirit of Vor. Vil. CER his figures. His principal work is in the palace Spada at* Rome, in which he has reprefented an army of fanatic Lazzaroni fhouting applaufe to Mafo Aniello. He died in 1660, at the age of 6o years. Pilkington by F'ufcli. CERRATO, Pavt, a Latin poet, defcended of a noble family, was born at Alba in Montferrat,) in 1485; and though by profeffion a lawyer, he acquired very great lite- rary reputation. Several editions were printed of his epitha- lamium, written in Latin verfe, on the nuptials of William marquis of Montferrat and Anne d’Alengon in 1508; but his principal performance was a poem ‘* De Virginitate,”’ in three books, heroic meafure. Scaliger the elder reckons Cerrato among the firlt poets in Italy, though he fays that he had fo much accuftomed himfelf to the lofty ftyle, that he could not defcend to the familiar, but would defcribe a fly in terms as elevated as he would a hero. His works are inferted in the ‘ Delicize Poétarum ;” and the laft feparate edition of them, with an elegant biographical memoir pre- fixed, was given by Signo. Jofeph Vernazza at Vercelli in 1778. Moreri. Tirabofchi. CERRETANT, in Ancient Geography, an ancient peo- ple of Spain, who dwelt along the Pyrenées, near the Vaf- coni, "They are mentioned by Strabo, Ptolemy, and Pliny ; the latter of whom diftinguifhes them into Fuliani and du- guflanit. Julius Cefar gave them the right of freedom, and Auguttus incorporated them intoa {mallnation, and extended their borders to thofe of the Vafconi. CERRI glans, and Cernus, in Botany, J. Bauh. Park.and Ray. See Quercus agilops. CERRETVO, in Geography, a town of Italy in the pro- vince of Umbria; 15 miles W. of Nurfia. CERRITO, a town of Naples, in the province of La- vora, the refidence of the bifhop of Telefa, with a cathedral and collegiate church, and three convents ; 18 miles N.N.W. of Benevento. CERRO, a town of Italy, in the duchy of Milan; 18 miles W. of Como. CERRUS, in Botany. See Cerri glans. Crrrus, in Ichthyology, a name given by fome old wri- ters, Pliny, Martial, and others, to a fifh called by other writers /maris, and mana candida. ‘They {peak of it as being diftinguifhed from the reft of the fifhes in the fame tribe, by having a black {pot in the middle of each fide, and the pectoral and tail fins being red. As the fifh is certainly of the fparus genus, this defcription left us by the ancients is not entirely fatisfactory, there being at leaft thirty dittiné& fithes of this genus, which poffefs the charaGteriftic lateral {pot they mention, Artedi defcribes the cerrus as {parus macula nigra in utroque latere medio, pionis petoralibus caudaque rubris. It is generally believed that the cerrus, and the /parus /maris of modern ichthyologifts are the fame fpecies. See Sparus /maris. CERSUNUM, in Ancient Geography, a town placed by Ptolemy in the interior of the ifland of Corfica. CERSUS, or Carsus, a river of Afia, which ran be- tween the defiles of Syria, according to Xenophon, CERTAINTY. See Cerrirupe. Certainty, in Laz, denotes a plain, clear, and diftin® fetting down of things, io that they may be underftood. 5 Rep. r21. A convenient certainty is required in writs, de- clarations, and pleadings, &c. But if a writ abate for want of it, the plaintiff may have another writ ;_ it is otherwife if a deed become void by uncertainty, as the party «may not have a new deed at his pleafure. 11 Rep. 25. 121. Dyer. 84. That has certainty enough, which may be made cer- tain ; but not like what is certain of itfelf. 4 Rep. 97. See PLeapinc. See alfo Deen, Fine, and Wixv. rit CERTAL- CER CERTALDO, cr Castro Catrarpo, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the territory of Stenna. CERTET AL, in Ancient Geography, a people who inha- bited the northern coalt of the Euxine he between the Vaaric Cherfonefus and Colchis, among the Achwars and Zichtans, according to Strabo. They are the Cercitii of Dionyfus Periegetes. CERTAIA, in Ornithology, a genus of birds among the picz, which have the bill arched, flender, fomewhat trian- gular, and pointed ; tongue acute; feet formed for walking. This is the Gmelinian character of the genus as it ftands in the laft edition of the Linnean Syflema Nature. Inthe Ge- neral Synopfis by Dr. Latham it is defined rather differently ; that writer defcribes it as having the bill lender, incurvated, and fharp pointed; noftrils {mall in general, but fometimes pretty large, and covered with a membrane; tongue in fhape uncertain; leas moderately ftout; toes placed three befure and one behind; back toe large; claws hooked and lonz: and tail confilting of twelve feathers. The charaGter of the genus certhia in Index Ornithologicus corréfponds more clofely with that affigned it by Gmelin, namely, bill bent, flender, and pointed; tongue various; feet formed. for walking ; tail compofed of twelve feathers. q The birds of this tribe bear a near refemblance in a va- riéty of particulars, and efpecially in the fplendour, and beauty of plumage, to the Trechili or humming-birds. Some authors have united them as forming only one na- tural family. This has been objected to becaufe thre creepers are not confined to any climate, being found ‘in allparts of the world, while the humming-birds are met with only in the warmer parts of America: the creepzrs, belides, feed principally on infe&ts, while the food of the humming bird confifts only of the ne€tareous juices which it extracts from flowers. There are, indeed, a few {pecies of creepers that have the tongue long and tubular as in the humming-birds, but the greater part of them have the tongue fhort and pointed: in fome it is rather long, and flattened at the tip, and in-others the fides of the tongue are ciliated. Their habits and modes of life zre different ; the creepers, feeding chiefly on inlets, are almoft conftantly obferved creeping flowly up and down trees in fearch of their food, but the humming-bird hovers on the wing over the flowers which furnilh its food like the bee: the creepers breed in the hollows of trees and lay many eggs; the humming-birds, on the contrary, rarely lay more than two eggs, and build their nets very differently ; preferring the covert of a buth to the hollow of a tree ; their nelts are generally obferved perched ona furcated branch in a low tree, or among the fugar- canes; and fometimes among grafs and other low her- bage. CEaTHIA FAMILIARIS is one Of the moft univerfally dif- fufed {pecics in this genus, though gencraily believed to be no wltere common ; it is found in Afia and America, and in molt parts of Europe. The fpecies is of a brownith colour, beneath white; qui!l feathers fufeous, and ten marked with a white fpot each. Linn. Fn. Suec. This is the common, or Enropean .créeper as it is fome- times called. of Englifh authors, a bird not often obferved in this country, though perfectly well known as a Britith fpecies. It is deferibed under various names by authors. Kramer calls it L/sida cauda rigida; Klein, Falcinellus arbo- reus noflras; and Buffon and Sonnini Grimpereau. Frifch deferibes a large variety of the fame bird under the title of Granjpecht, which Gmelin. calls @ Cershia major, and Buffon Le Grand Grimpercau.—Our common Creeper is about five inches and a half in length. Che bill is hooked, the upper mandible brown, and the lower whitifh; head -and upper Cone part of the neck brown, ftreaked with black ; rump tawny $ wing-coverts varied with brown and blackish; brealt and belly filvery white; tail long, and confiling of twelve fea- thers that flope off to a point; legs and claws grey. It feeds principally on infef&s, which it finds in the crevices, and holes, inthe trunks and branches of trees. ‘The nett is ufvally built in the hollow of a tree, and contains five or more eggs of an ath colour, marked at the end with {pots and {treaks of a deeper colour. & Viripts. Above greenifh, beneath varied with pale yel- low and green; quill feathers brown, with the outer edge green. Scop. ann. |. 52. n. Go. This fpecies is deferibed by Scopoli as. being neariy the fame fize as certhia familiaris, of which he fuppofed it may be only a fexual difference or a variety. We may eafily cons clude, if his defeription be correét, that it is not a sexual difference of the former; but it may be a variety, although mott probably it is a diflinét fpecies. He mentions a blue fliipe that paffes from the bafe of the bill, and defcends down the neck on each fide; and a rufous [pot on the throat; the tail is greenifh brown, and the legs black. Inha- bits Carniola. | Farcata. Green; beneath and tail violet; wings, belly, | and vent pale brown. Gmel. Sickle-billed creeper, Jua- tham. The length of this fpecies is five inches and a half; the bill is dufky, fickle-fhaped, and dufky. The upper parts of the head, neck, and body are green with a glofs of violet on the head; beneath as far as the breaft violet; legs brown with black claws. This was firlt defcribed by Dr. Latham from a fpecimen in the Britifh Mufeum. Pacirica. Black, beneath dufky; fhoulders, lower part of the back,’ rump, and vent yellow; lower wing-coverts {nowy. Gmel.. Great hook-billed creeper, Latham. Length eight inches. Bill an inch and three quarters, brown, and pale at the bafe; legs black brown. Deicribed from a fpecimen in the late Leverian Mufeum that was- brought trom the Friendly iflands in the South Seas. It is — mentioned in the laft voyage of Captain Cook under the name of Hoohoo. Osscura. Olivaceous; wing and equal tail dufky edged with green. Gmel. Hook-billed green creeper, Lath. Lev, Mof. ; ; The length of this bird is feveninches. Bill an inchand three quarters long, blackith and very much curved; the un- der mandible a quarter of an inch fhorter than the upper. - The noftrils covered witha membrane.” Between the bil and eye a pale brown ftreak ; plimage olive green, paleft beneath, and“fomewhat yellowith: legs dufky brown, with the feathers jult above the knee white.—This {pecies inha- bits the Sandwich iflands, and is one of thofe birds: the fea- thers of which are employed by the natives in the*manufae- ture of the feathered veftments of their chiefs: An elegant cloak of this defcription formed of the feathers of this kind of creeper, and decorated: with a deep border of red and yel- low feathers, was brought by our laft circumnavigators from Owhyhee, and depofited among the artificial rarities in the late Leverian Mufeum. This is underfteod to have been the only article of drefs formed cf the feathers of this bi by the Evglifh, although cloaks and other veftments formed. of feathers were worn on all occafions of great public ceres mony by the chiefs in the’ Sandwich iflands. A fingular anecdote is related of this cloak that may be worth repeats ing, to fhew the value thofe iflanders attach to the articles of drefs compofed of ‘the feattiers of this bird, while th compofed of red and yellow feathers were to. be obtained eafy terms. The cloak was the property- of one of the ir chieftai chieftain warriors of Owhyhee who among others were tempted by curiofity on board Englifh fhips; its beauty at- tracted the notice of an officer in the expedition, Lieute- nant Williamfon, who wifhed to purchafe it, but the cloak being confidered by the owner as extremely valuable, his propolals were rejected. The officer offered him a double “barrelled gun for it, which was #efufed ; and he afterwards ' _ offered his regimental coat which was refufed.. Some time after, however, the owner of the cloak obferved in the cor- ner of the cabin a bottie. and bafon of common white or + Queen’s ware, and was fo ftruck with the novelty that he haflily {matched them up in his arms, and throwing his cloak upon the floor without further ceremony jumped overboard,’ ) . and fwam afhore with his prize, which very fortunately he bore off unbroken. ’ Cocecrnea. Scarlet: wings, and tail black. Forfter. | —Hook billed red Creeper, Lath. Carmofiarothor Honigfauger, Merrem. Lev. Muf. | >. A beautitul fpecies that inhabits the Sandwich iflands, the feathers of which are thofe principally employed by the natives in the formation of their Bne fearlet cloaks, and other parts of drefs ; and in their grotefque feathered idois.. The length is fix inches. Bill three quarters of an inch long, and much curved, the colour pale Liown. . Some birds have the forehead buff coloured, and a mixture of buff and * dufky black about the head and neck which are fuppofed to indicate thofe not yet arrived at their perfect plumage. a Obf. This is called by Born Po/ytmus. Certhia vefliaria, ; Lath. Ind. Orn. Li aahil Sovi-manca. Green, beneath yeilowihh; rump. olive ; | breaft brown, with two tranfverfe bars, ove brown, the - other blue; tail black. Gmel. Certhia, Madagafcarien/fis wiolacea, and le Grimpereau violet de Madagafcar, Drill. Certhia Mada- gafcarienfis, Lath. Ind. Orn. , Size of a wren; length above four inches; bill three quar- ters of an inch, long and black; tongue rather longer than the bill, and bifid. The head, throat, neck, upper part of the back, fcapulars, and wisg-coverts, are fhining green — with an olive glofs; lower part of the back, rump, and upper tail coverts olive brown; breaft brown, with a blue _ band, and below that another of chefnut; belly and under tail coverts pale yellow. On the fhoulders a {pot of deep yellow; tail black. The feathers edged with grcen, except the outer feather,.which is grey brown for half its length, and the next tipped at the end with the fame. Legs and ’ claws black. The female is fimaller than the male, and hes the upper parts olive-brown; the under parts ycllow with a tinge of olive. Inhab:ts Madagafear. Manizuensis. Green, glofled with blue and violet ; be- neath greyith olive; neck barred with green, blue, violet, and yeilow; wings fufcous. Gmel. _ A native of Manilla; ~ fearcely four inches long. Obf There are two ycllow fpots between the flioulders, and the upp=r wing-coverts are brown. ‘This is confidered as a mere variety of certhia foul- ~ mavga by Latham. Ind. Orn. Buffon calls it foui-manga de Lugon. Buersonica. Green and fufcons; beneath varied with Soui manga, Buff. Vicl:t creeper, ge : ' grey 3 rump yellow ; wings and tail blackifh. Gmely Le Wout manga de Pifle de Bourbon, Bull. Grimpereau de Pifle ; Bourbon, Pi. enl..\ Yellow rumped creeper of La- am. ‘ The length of this bird is about five inches. The bill lack ; upp-r part of the head and body greenifh brown; he rump yellow, inclining to olive; under parts grey and ellowith varied; fides rufous; tail blackifh; legs black. nhabits the ifle of Bourbon. . > Vioracea. Two middle tail feathers very long; body : CERT BhA. gloffed with violet: brea and-abdomen pale yellow. Gmel. Certhia violacea, Linn. Certhia longicauda minor capitis bone Spei, Brifl. Soui-manga a longue queue et a capuchon violet, Buff. Petit grimpereau a longue queue du cap de bonne efpe- rance, Buff. pl. ent. Violet-headed creeper, Lath. his is rather more than fix inches in length. Bill black- ifh, and near an inch long. The head, neck, upper parts of the back, fcapulars, lefler wing-coverts bright violet, glcffed with green ; fore part of the neck bluifh; lower part of the back, rump, and upper tail coverts, olive brown; breaft, belly, and under tail-coverts bright orange; fides of the body orange, with a mixture of olive; tail blackith brown, wedge-fhaped, with the two middle tail-feathers an inch longer than the reft; the colour blackith brown, edged on the outfide with-olive; legs and claws blackihh. Inhabits the Cape of Good Hope. The neft, which con- fifts of materials of a filky nature, is conitruéted with great art.. Lev. Muf. Famosa. ‘Two middle tail-feathers very long; body glofled with green; arm-pits yellow; lores black. Gmel. Certhia lengicauda capitis bone fpei, Brill. Certhia famofa, Borowlk. Grand foui-manga vert a longue queue, Buff. Grim- pereau a longue queue du cap de bonne efperance, Bull. Pl. nl. F This is a large fpecies. Length nine inches. The bill an inch azd a quarter; the plumage is green-gold, with a glofs of coppery ; between the bill and eyes a black velvety itripe ; under the fhonlders a fine yellow fpot; greater wings coverts and quills blackifh, edged with green; tail blacks the two middle feathers exceed the relt by two inches and a half in length, and are edzed with gold, and coppery on both fides ; claws and legs black. The female has the head and upper parts of the body of a greenifh brown, witha mixture of bright green; rump green, with the quills and tail black brown 3 body beneath yellowifh, with a mixture of green featheis on the breaft; two middle tail-feathers nearly as long asin the male, but fo narrow as almoift to re- femble a thread. A native of the Cape of Good Hope. Putcuicis. ‘Two middle tail-feathers very long ; body glofled with green; breaft red. Gmel. Certhia longicauda Jenegalenfis, Bull. Avicula amboinenfis difcolor, Seba.» Soui- manga wert doxe changeant a longue gueuc, Bult. Grimperean @ longue queue du Senegal, Bult. Pl. Enl. Beautiful creeper, Lath. Length near feven inches and a quarter. Bill two-thirds of an inch, and blackifh. Fhe head, neck; baok, rump, belly, fides, fcapulars; upper and under tail-coverts, and upper wing-coverts are of a fine golden green, gloffed with copper, and the brea is’a beautiful red ; on the lower part of the belly is a mixture of white. ‘The greater wing- coverts and tail are brown ; tail blackifh, edged on the out- fide with green gold ; two middle tail-feathers rather more than two inches and a half longer than the reft, and very little rounded at the ends; legs blackifh. The plumaze of the female is tinged with brown above, beneath yellowith, mixed with brown, the under tail-cayerts white, fprinkled with browa and blue. This {pecies inhabits Senegal. Puitipeina. Two middle tail-feathers very long ; hody greenith grey, beneath yellowifh white. Gmel. Linn. &e.. Certhia philippenfis, Brill. Grimpercau des Philippines, Baff. Grimpereau jecand de l'ifle de Lugon, Sonner. Philip- pine creeper, Lath. Thedength of this bird is four inches and three quarters ; bill and. legs, with the claws, biack ; tongue tubular; two middle. tail-feathers black, gloffed with gold, the reft blackifh, and. white et the tip. Cyanea. lue, with the ocular band, fhoulders, wings, and tail black; legs fufcous. Gmel. Certhia Brafilicnfis caerulea, Brill. Guiracereba, Marcer. Guit-guit noir et bleu, Tt Bult, CHE KF FTA. Buff. Grimpereau du Brefil, Buff. Pl. Esl. creeper, Edwards, &c. This fpecies is rather larger than the common creeper ; the length four inches and a quarter. Bull two thirds of an inch long, and black, the tongue as long as the bil, and ciliated. The head, throat, fore part of the neck, breait, belly, fides, thighs, lower part of the back, rump, and upper part of the tail, and wing-eoverts fine blue ; the top of the head of a beautiful beryl blue; on each fide of the head a black {tripe pafling through the eyes; hind part of the neck, and upper part of the back velvety black ; tail black ; under wing-coverts yellowiih ; legs red, claws black. This inhabits Brafil and Cayenne, and is obferved to vary in the colour of the plumage in fome f{pecimens. Zeytonica. Cap green; back ferruginous; abdomen yellow ; throat and rump azure, Gmel. Certhia philippenjis clivacea, Brill. Grimpereau olive des Philippines, Buff. Sout- manga olive @ gorge pourpre, Bull. Hitt. Oif. Ceylonefe erecper, Lath. This is the fize of awren. Bill three quarters of an inch long, and black ; upper parts of the body dull brownifh olive ; under parts yellow, except the throat, fore part of the neck and breaft, which are of a beautiful deep violet ; togs and claws black. Inhabits the Philippine iflands. There isa variety of this bird of a green colour, and white beneath, with the chin, throat, brealt, and back fufcous ; tail black. Defcribed from a {pecimen in the Britifh Muféum. Lotenra. Blue, with golden-red pectoral band ; lores black. Gmel. Linn. Certhia Madagafcarienfis viridis, Briff. Angala-dian, Buff. Grimpereau verd de Madagajcar, Buff. Loten’s creeper, Lath. The length of this fpecies is five inches and a quarter ; bill nearly one inch and a quarter long, and black, and the tongue compreffed at the end. The head, neck, back, rump, {capulars, and upper tail-coverts, are green-gold;_be- tween the bill and eye on each fide is a narrow velvety line ; legs black. Buffon tells us this bird makes its neft of the down of plants, in the form of a cup, like that of the chaf- finch, in which the female lays generally five or fix eggs. Its greatelt enemy, he obferves, is a fpider as large, or larger than itfelf, which is very voracious, and often {eizes on the whole brood. This is the great bird-catching fpider, aranea avicularia. Loten’s creeper is a native of Ceylon and Mada- gafcar, and is named in compliment to governor Loten. Omnrcotor. Green, mixed with almoft every other colour. Gmel. &c. vis zeylonica omnicolor, Seba. Fal- cinellus omnicolar zeylanicus, Klein. Le fout-manga des toutes couleurs, Buff. Green-gold creeper, Lath. Length eight inches. Inhabits the fame country as the laft, and fuppofed by fome to be only a variety, but it dif- fers fo materially in fize, that Gmelin and Latham are led to think them diftinét, and defcribe them as two fpecies. Sannio. Olivaceous ; crown of the head fomewhat vio- let; fpot on the cheeks white; wings, and flightly furcated tail brown, Gmel. Mocking creeper, Lath. This inhabits New Zealand. It has an agreeable note in general, but at times fo varies and modulates its voice, that it feems to imitate the notes of all other birds, and hence it was called by the Englifh the mocking bird. The length is feven inches and a quarter. ‘Bill fomewhat bent, flender, long, and dufky; noitrils large, and covered with a membrane ; tongue fharp; head, efpecially on the crown, inclining to violet ; plumage, in general, olive green, inclin- ing to yellow on the under parts; quills brown, fecondaries edged with olive; tail the fame, and fomewhat furcated ; legs dufky blue; claws black, the pofterior one longett. Lev. Mul, Black and blue Avurantia. Green, beneath yellowith ; throat orange ; wings and tail black. Gmel.~ Orange-breafled creeper, Lath. Difcovered by Smeathman in Africa. The length is four isches. Bill about three quarters of an inch long, curved, and black. The head, throat, hind part of the neck, back, and wing coverts green ; quills and tail dufky- black ; legs black. Vravires. Green, beneath blae; wings and tail black. Gmel. Blue-throuted creeper, Lath. This kind inhabits Cavenne. ‘The length is four inches anda quarter. Bill nearly an inch long, curved, and black ; upper part of the head, fides, and back of the neck, and back green; chin, throat, and brealt, deep blue; blue on the belly paler; on each fide the neck, between the blue and green, yellowifh white ; quills and tail black ; legs yel- low, with black claws. Ocurocutora. Green; cheeks, throat, and abdomen yellow ; breaft and flanks yellowifh-green, fpotted with bluith. Gmel. Yellocv-cheeked creeper, Lath. Inhabits Surinam. This is about half the fize of the com- mon creeper. ‘The head, back, wings, and tail are green. Carpinatis. Black; head, collar, breaft, and Jine down the middle of the back red; tail equal. Gmel. Cardinal Be se Lath. efcribed from a fpecimen in the Leverian mufeum. It is the fame fize as our common creeper. Bill the length of the head, and curved, black, and whutifh at the bafe ; tongue long, and ciliated half way down from the tip; between the bill and eye a ftreak of black which encircles the eyes; wings and tail black; legs lead coloured, claws black. Inhabits the cultivated parts of the ifland of Tanna, and is known there by the name of duyameta. It fubfilts on the ne€tareous juices of flowers like the humming-bird. Caruncutata. Olivaceous; chin and throat orange ; breaft ferruginous ; abdomen afh-coloured; at the bafe of the lower mandible on each fide a yellow wattle. Gmel. Watiled creeper, Lath. ‘ A f{pecimen of this fingular fpecies brought by our navi- gators from Tonga-Tabu, or Amfterdam ifle in the South {eas, was preferved in the late Leverian Mafeum. The length was feven inches and three quarters. Bill an iach long, and rather bent; tongue longer than the bill, and divided for half its length into four fegments like threads ; wattle at the bafe of the bill furrounded by a patch of yellow feathers which extends under the eye; the plumage brownifh olive- green, darkifh on the middle of the biack; belly inclining to afh-colour; legs blue black ; claws black. Fusca. Fufcous; throat and brealt lineated with fufcous and white. Gmel. Brocun creeper, Lath. Lev. Muf. The length of this bird is fix inches. The bill is an inch long, moderately bent and dufky brown ; with a pale orange — fpot in the middle. General colour of the plumage brown $ belly very pale brown ; tail brown and even at the end; legs black, claws long and hooked. Inhabits iflands in the South — feas. ; Murari. Cinereous; wings with a tawny fpot. Gmel. — Certhia muralis, Brill. Grimpereau de muraiile, Buff. Wall creeper or fpider catcher, Willughby, Latham, &c. : Inhabits the fouth of Europe and Afia. Frequents old” walls in fearch of infeéts, efpecially {piders ; is folitary and ¥ migrates in autumn. , Pusitta. Fufcous, beneath white; eye-brows white; tail fufcous, the outer feathers white at the tip. Certhia indica. Briff, Sov magna brun et blanc, Buff. Lattle brown and white creeper, Edwards. Length three inches and a half. A black ftreak extend- ing edt Ro i ie 5 i wv ve ° C.E RT GAIA; ing from the bill to the eye; quill feathers edged with brafly. This inhabits the Cape of Good Hope. Capensis. Fufcous; tail feathers blackifh; outer ones fringed with white on the outfide. Gmel. Certhia capitis bone /pei, Brill. Carrucaria, Olivaceous, beneath yellowifh; tail fea- thers equal. Gmel. Certhia philippenfis. Bull. Grimpereau gris des Philippines, Buff. Grey creeper, Lath. Inhabits the Philippine ifles. Length four inches. Bill three quarters of an inch long, and black; tongue forked. Body above olivaecous ; under parts yellowifh white, deepett on the breaft; down the middle of the neck as far as the brealt a deep violet {tripe ; upper wing-coverts violet ; quills brown; tail feathers black, edged with fteely blue, and whitifh at the tips; legs and claws black. Jucurakis. Somewhat grifeous ; beneath yellow ; throat violaceous; two exterior tail feathers yellow at the tip. Gmel. Certhia philippenfis minor, Briff. Petit grampereau des Philippines, Buff. Certhia jugularis, Linn. Length three inches and a half. Tnhabits the fame coun- try aa the laft, and is fuppofed by fome wniters to be only a variety of it. Oxtivacea. Olivaceous ¢ beneath fufcous ; orbits whitith. Gmel. Certhia olivacea madaga/carienfts, Brill. Soui-manga olive & gorge pourpre, Buff. Grimpereau olive de Madaga/car, Buff. Olive creeper, Lath Length four inches. Bill above half an inch long, and black ; colour of the upper parts, from the forehead to the rump, dull olive green, inclining to brown on the forehead and crown; the under parts grey brown; round the eyes whitifh; quills and tail brown, with a tinge of olive green ; the two onter feathers white at the end; legs pale brown. Inhabits Madagafcar. Dr. Latham fufpeéts this may be the female of the Cey- lonefe creeper, certhia zeylonica. Cerurea. Blue; ocular band, throat, wings and tail- feathers black. Linn. Scopoli, &c. Certhia cayanenfis caru- lea, Brill. Avis hoitzilliu, papilio vocata Seba. Certhia of Guiana, Bancroft. Blue creeper, Edwards. : A native of Cayenne, where, according to Seba it makes its neft with great art in the fhape of a retort, which is fuf- pended from fome weak twig at the end of a branch of a tree, with the opening downwards. The neck at the en- trance isa foot in length, the neft itfelf being quite at the top, fo that this bird has to climb up this funnel-fhaped opening to gain accefs to its neft. The nett being fo fta- tioned is fecure; neither monkies, {nakes, vor lizards, daring to venture at the weak extremity of the branch to the net as it would not fupport them. The outtide of the nett is compofed of dry ftalks of grafs, the lining of fofter mate- rials. This bird is four inches in length. The bill is three fourths of an inch long, and black; the head fine blue ; legs yellow, claws black. Brasirana. Black; crown of the head gold-green; rump, chin, and throat violaceous; breait purple-cawny, Certhia brafilienfis violacea, Brifl. Guit-guit noir ct violet, Buff. Black and violet creeper, Lath. This kind inhabits Brafil. Length three inches and a quarter. Bill rather exceeding half an inch, and black; crown of the head is fine green-gold ; fides of the head, hind part of the neck, back and feapulars deep velvety black ; lower part of the back and rump, leffer wing, and upper tail coverts violet, with a glofs like polithed fteel; belly black ; thighs chefnut brown; quill black; tail black edged with violet. Varsecata. Waved with blue, black, yellow, and white; beneath faffron coloured; crown red; hind head blue. Gmel. Certhia americana varia, Briff. Guit-guit varity Buff. Variegated creeper, Lath. This {pecies inhabits America. The length is five inches. Bill three quarters of an inch in length. ‘The cheeks, and below the eyes are blue and white mixed; hind part of the neck, back, and rump undulated with blue, black, yellow, and white; {capulars, under-wing, and tail coverts, quills, and tail the fame. Cayana. Glofly-green, beneath ftriated with white ; tail feathers greenmifh, the lateral ones blackifh within. Gmel. Certhia viridis cayennenfis, Brill. Certhia corpore fupino viridi, gula lutea, Rofl. Tranf. Guit-guit vert tacheté, Buff. Ca- yenne creeper, Lath. Length four inches. Bill three quarters of an inch and black; upper part of the head, neck, back, and rump, fine palifh green ; {capulars, upper wing and tail coverts the fame; throat, and a {mall {pot between the nottrils and eye rufous ; cheeks white, each feather margined on both fides with green; under parts of the body green, with a mixture of blue; two middle tail-feathers wholly green, the reft black- ith, edged with green; legs and claws grey. The female has the plumage more obfcure, and is deftitute both of the rufous {pot between the noltril and eye, and that on the throat. Inhabits Cayenne. . Cuatysea Glofly-green; breaft red, with a fteel blue collar. Gmel. &c. Certhia torquata capitis bone fpeit, Briff, Sout-manga a collier, Buff. Grimpereau du cap de bonne ofpe- rance, Buff. pl. enl. Purple Indian creeper, Edwards. Col- lared creeper, Lath Length four inches and a half, Bill near an inch long and black. "The head, neck, throat, and upper parts of the body green gold, gloffed with coppery ; breaft a beautiful red, neck green, and feparated from the red by a fteel-blue collar, changeable to green. ‘The belly, fides, thighs, and under tail coverts grey, with a mixture of yellowifh on the lower parts of the breaft and fides ; tail fhining black ; outer margin of the ten middle tail feathers green gold, and all tipped with grey; legs and claws black. The female differs in baving yellow fpots on the fides according to Briflon. Buffon thinks this may be a young bird of the Linnzan Certhia fenegalenfis, and fuppofes further the Linnean Certhia capenfis may be the female. It isa native of the Cape of Good Hope. SENEGALENSIS. Violaceous-black ; crown of the head and chin green gold; brealt fcarlet. Gmel. Linn. &c. Certhia fenegalenfis violacea, Brill. Soui-manga violet @ poitrine rouge, Buff. Senegal creeper, Lath. This fpecies is five inches in length; bill nearly an inch and black ; top of the head and throat green gold, gloffed with coppery ; ret of the body above and beneath violet ; feathers on the neck and breait greenith, tipped with red, thighs violet brown; greater wing-coverts, quills, and tail brown ; legs and claws blackifh. A native of Senegal. ArFra, Green; abdomen white; breaft red; rump blue. Gmel. Soui-manga vert a gorge rouge, Buff. Red-breafled green creeper, Edward. African creeper, Lath, Length about four inches anda half; the bill an inch long, and dufky; head, neck, back, and wing-coverts fhin- ing green, gloffed with burnifhed gold and copper; on the breait a bar of red; upper tail-coverts blue; greater wing- feathers and tail dark brown; belly, thighs, and under tail- coverts white; legs black. Inhabits the Cape of Good Hope. ‘There are two or three varieties of this {pecies, one having the abdomen cinereous; a yellow tuft under the wing; and the tip of the tongue bifid: and another has the chin, throat, and breait blue-purple, with a pectoral red band. Latham i) ° confiders Chie TH TA: confiders the Gmelinian Trochilus varius as a variety of this fpecies. Sprerata. Purple, beneath fearlet; head, chin, and rump purple. Linn. Gmel. Certhia Pphilippenfis purpurea, Briff. Soui-manga marron-pourpré a poitrine rouge, Bult. Grimpereau des Philippines, Buff. Pl. En). Red-breafled creeper, Lath. Length four inches; bill two-thirds of an inch long, and black, with the bafe whitifh ; tongue furcated; head, throat, and fore part of the neck gloffy-violet; ‘hind part of the neck, back, and fcapulars purplifh-chefnut ; lower part of the back, rump, and upper tail-coverts violet changeable to green and gold; lower part of the belly yellowith olive; tail black, with a iteel-like glofs, edged exteriorly with violet, and gloffed with greehifh-gold; legs and claws brown. Female olive-green above, beneath olivaceous yellow. This fpecies inhabits all the Philippine iflands, and has a note like that of the nightingale. Obf. There is a variety of this bird with a violet chin, BC. gula violacca of Gmelin. It is called by Sonnerat Grimpereau troifieme de Pifle de Lugon, and by Buffon Soui- manga a gorge violette et poitrine rouge. Sperza. Green; head and wings blackith. Gmel. Mota- cilla fpiza, Linn. Syit. Certhia americana viridis atricapilla, Brifl, Guit-guit vert et bleu a téte noire, Buff. Black-headed ereeper, Lath. Size of a chaffinch; length five inches and a quarter; bill three quarters of an inch long and whitifh; head and throat velvety black ; hind part of the neck, back, rump, {capulars, upper wing, and tail-coverts, and quills fine green; fore part of the neck, breaft, belly, fides, and under tail coverts blue; tail deep green. This fpecies inhabits Ame- rica, and feems liable to vary confiderably ; the three folow- ing are defcribed as diftinét varieties of this {pecies. Certhia fpiza 8, Gmel. Green, with the cap black. This is the fize of the firlt, and has the upper mandible blackith, the lower whitifh, and both yellow at the bafe. In this the throat is not klack as in the firft, the black pafling downwards jult below the eye on each fide, and as far as the nape be- hind; legs lead colour. Inhabits Surinam, Brafil, and Guiana. Bancroft ca'ls this the Green black-cap. Sy- catcher. y. Green, with white chin, and crown of the head blue. Guit guit vert et blue a gorge blanche, Buff. Blue-headed green Jiy-caicher, Edwards. - Size of the lait, but the top of the head, and a!fo the wing-coverts, are blue; the throat white; plumage paler green; legs yellowifh; and claws black. In- habits fame countries as the laf. 3. Entirely green. Guit-guit tout vert, Buff. Grimpereau vert de Cayenne. Duff. Pl. Enl. Ail green creeper, Edwards. This is rather larger than the reft, with the biil longer, and rather more incurvated; blackifh, and fomewhat paler at the bafe; plumage above green, beneath paler. Found in Cayenne, and other parts of South America. Purpurea. Entirely purple. Gmel. Certhia virginiana purpurea, Bull. Avis virginiana phenicea de Atototl dida, Seba. are pourpré a bee de gritpereau, Buft. Purple creeper, sath, : Inhabits Virginia. Length four inches and a half; bill one inch and a half long. This bird is faid to fing well. Gutrurauis. Blackith; throat giofly-creen; brealt purple. Gunel. Grimpereau brundu Brefil, Bulk. Oifeau brun < bee de grimpereau, Buff. Hitt. des Ol. Green faced creeper, th. Length five inches. Bill an inch long, and black ; fore- head and throat green gold; head, upper part of the neck, and reft of the body blackifh brown feathers on the breatt red at the tip; tail rufous; legs black. Inhabits Brafil. Pinus. Yellow, above olive; wings blue, with two white bands. Gmel. Parus americanus, Briff. Figuier des fapins, Buff. Pine warbler, Lath. Pine creeper, Edwards, Catefby, &e. Ceaventata. Bluifh-black; beneath white; crown, neck, back, and rumpred. Gmel. Certhia bengalenfis, Briff. Sout- manga rouge, noir et blanc, Bult. Black, white, and red Indian creeper, Edwards. Red-/potted creeper, Lath. This kind inhabits Bengal; the jength is three inches and a quarter; bill fhort and black; quiils and tail blackifh-blue; legs black. SanGuines. Deep-red 5 wings, and tail black; abdomen dufky ; vent white. Gmel. Crim/on erceper, Lath. Length five inches, inhabits the Sandwich iflands. The bill is duflcy ; fecondary quill feathers edged with grey; tail-feathers pointed with white fhafts; legs black. : Virens. Olivaceous-green; wing and tail-feathers edged with yellow. Gmel. Olive-green creeper, Lath. A native of the Sandwich iflands. Length five inches; bill flightly curved, and of a dufky colour, paleft at the bafe; between the bill and eye dufky; quills and tail dufky-green; legs blackifh. Lev. Muf. It is fuppofed by Gmelin and others that this may be the female of Certhia /anguinea. Rusra. Red; wings and tail black; vent white. Gmel. Scarlet creeper, Lath. Inhabits the iflands of the South feas. Length fearcely four inches; the bill half an inch long, very little bent, and black. General colour of the plumage {carlet, except the wings and tai! ; lower part of the belly and vent white; legs and claws black. Lev. Muf. a Fraveora. Black, beneath pale yellow; eye-brows whitifh ; outer tail-feathers tipped with white. Linn. Gmel, Le grimperau, ou fucrier de la Famaique, Batt. Black and yellow creeper, Edwards, Lath. Thisinhabits Jamaica. Size of a wren; bill black; head, throat, neck, back, feapulars, upper wing and tail-coverts fine black; from the bale of the bill extends a white ftripe pafling over the eyes to the hind part of the head; breatt upper part of the belly, fides, edges of the wings, and rump fine yellow ; lower part of the belly, with the thighs, and under tail-coverts white; tail black, with all the feathers, except the two middle ones, with white tips; legs and claws blackifh. The yellow bellied creeper of Edwards is fuppofed to be the female. Gmelin makes it a var. PB. Several varicties of this bird are defcribed by authors, one of which, the Bahama titmou/e of Catefby, Certhia bahamenfis, Briff. is rather larger than the firft defcribed kind. General colour fufcous, pale yellow beneath ; throat pale; lower part of the abdomen and vent brownifh ; eye-brows white. This inhabits the Bahama iflands: and there is another Certhia bartholemica, Muf. Carli. cf a lead-coloured brown above, beneath yellow ; eye-brows yellowilh-green; rump greenifh; _ vent whitith ; bill, legs, wings, and tail fufcous. Length five inches. - Thefe birds fubfitt chiefly on the {weet juices of the fugar-canes, which they extract through the crevices of the italks, CinnamomeEa. Cinnamon colour; Uencath white. Gmel. Cinnamon creeper, Lath. Length five inches; bill rather bent and Black; tail formed as in Certhia familiaris ; legs dufky. Macassariensis.. Gulden-green 3; beneath blackifh- brown. Gmel., Polytmus indicus, Br f. Avis thioei indica orientalis, Seba. Macaffar creeper, Lath. Inhabits the lands of Bally and Macaffarin the Eatt Indices. Inpica. Bluc; throat whitith. Gmel. indicus, Brill. .dfvis colubri orintalis, Seba. Lath. Polytmus caruleus Lnaian creeper, Length ‘ CER Length four inches anda half. Inhabits India, The bill and lews are black. Ampornensts. Cinereovs; beneath green; head and collar yellow ; breaft red; wings black. Gmel. Polytmus amboinenfis. Briff. Avis amboinenfis, tfoci vel kakopit, Seba. Amboina creeper, Lath. Length two inches and three quarters 5 bill yeliowifh. A native of Amboina. Mexicana. Red; throat green; quiil-feathers bluifh at -the tip. Gmel. Trochilus coccineus. Linn, Avicula mexicana Ug Hoitzillin, Scba. Red creeper. Lath. The length of this bird is four inches and a half; bill nearly one inch and pale yellow; upper part of the head light fhining red; throat and fore part of the neck green; tail deep red ; legs and claws pale yellow. Suppofed to in- habit New Spain. Seba mentions a variety of this’ bird _ with a black head, avicula de tatac ex Nova Hifpania; Grim- pereau rouge a téte noire du mexique. Civerea. Cinereous; rump and’ wing-coverts green ; wings fufcous, abdomen yellowifh; vent white ; tail black. Ginel. Cinereous creeper. Lath. Inhabits the Cape of Good Hope. Length nine inches. Nove Hoxvanprz. Black; beneath’ ftreaked with white; eye-brows and {pot near the ears white; quills and tail-feathers edged with yellow. Lath. Ind. Orn. A native of New Holland. 4 Size of the nightingale. Bill dufky pale at the tip; noltrils covered with a membrane; tail rounded, with the two outer tail-feathers tipped within with white; legs pale. White’s Hift. New Holland. Incana. Somewhat- fufeons; neck and ‘wings hoary. TInhabits New Caledonia and is of a {mall fize. Anderfon. Perecrina. Olive, beneath yellow; wings with a pale bifid band; tail fomewhat furcated; two exterior tail fea- thers tipped within with white. Lath. Ind. Orn. Obf. This is of the middle fize, and has-the bill, wings, and tail dufky. Lev. Muf. _Verricatis. Olivaceous green; beneath afh-coloured ; crown gredh 5 wings and tail fufcous. Lath. Ind. Orn, Ajh bellied creeper. Gen. Syn, Inhabits Africa. Cantitrans. Buith grey; {pot on the back, and under parts of the body yellow. Lath. Ind. Ord. Orange backed creeper. Gen. Syn. A native of China. Erxytrsroayncuos. Olive; body beneath white ; wings and tail blackith; bill red. Lath. Ind. Orn. Red Billed creeper. Gen, Syn. Inhabits India. ; Grisea. Greyihh ; beneath reddifh ; tail cuneated ; two middle feathers brown, lateral ones grey ; andall barred with black at the tip. Lath. Ind, Orn. Inhabits China. The bill and legs are yellow. Prasinoprera. Black; fore part of the neck purple; wings and tail yellowifh greep. Muf. Carf. &c. Venusta, Gold-green; fore-head, chin, broad peGo- ral band, aed rump violet ; wings brown; belly yellow. Shaw. Nat. Mifc. Inhabits Sierra Leona. Tapnacina. Two middle tail feathers very long; head, neck, and upper part of the body fnuff-coloured, beneath green ; tail blackith green. Lath, Ind. Orn. Length eight lnches and a half. CERTIFICANDO de recognitione flapule, in Law, is a writ commanding the mayor of the flaple to certify to the Jord chancellor a ftatute ftaple taken before him, where the party himfelf detains it, and refufeth to bring in the fame. Reg. Orig. 152. There is the like writ to cer- tify a ftatute merchant ; andin divers othercafes, Ib. 148. igi, &e. CERTIFICATE, a teftimony given in writing, to affure GER and notify the truth of any thing to a court of juftice, or the like. See TesTimonta. A certificate is fometimes made by an officer of the court, where matters are referred to him, or a rule of court is ob- tained; containing the effe@ and tenor of whatis done. The clerks of the crown, affize, peace, are to make certiticates into B. R. of the tenor of indi&ments, convictions, &e. under penalties by ftat. 34 & 35 Hen. VIII. c. 44. 3 W.'& M, cng. CERTIFICATE of Affe, in Law. Certirication of Affe, Se. Certiricare for cols, relates to the cafe of the plaintiff, who, in an action of trefpafs, is allowed no more colts than damages, when the jury give lefs damages than 40s. unlefs the judge certify under his hand that the freehold or title of the land came chiefly in queftion. To this rule there are two exceptions : the one is grounded on flat. 8 & g W. III. c. 1f. whereby the plaintiff obtains full cofts, if the judge certify that the trefpafs was wilful and malicious. The other exception is by ftat. 4 & 5 W.& M. c. 23. which gives full colts again{t any iaferior tradefman, apprentice, or other diffolute perfon, who is conviéted of a.trefpafs in hawking, hunting, fifhing, or fowling upon another’s land. Blacktt. Com. vol. iti. p. 214. Upon this ftature it has been adjudged, that if a perfon be an inferior tradefman, as a clothier tor inftance, it matters not what qualification he may have in point of eftate ; but, if he be guilty of fuch trefpafs, he fhall be liable to pay full colts. Ld. Raym. 149. Certiricare into Chancery. If a queftion of mere law arifes in the courfe of a caule in Chancery, as whether by the words of a will, an eftate for life, or in tail, is created, or whether a future intereft, devifed by a teltator, fhall operate as a remainder or an executory devife, it is the practice of this court to refer it to the opinion of the judges of King’s Bench or Common Fleas, upon a cafe {tated for that pur- pofe ; wherein all the material faéts are-admitted, and the point of law is fubmitted to their decifion, who thereupon hear it folemnly argued by counfel on both fides, and certify their opinion to the chancellor. And upon fuch certificate the decree is ufually founded. Blackft. Com. vol. ii, p: 453: See Case flated, Se. Cerriricate of Bankrupt. See Banxrurrt. Certiricate of the Poor, is an acknowledgment from the parifh to which they belong of their being parifhioners : which prevents their removal till they become actually charge- able. Such certificated perfons can obtain a fettlement only by renting a tenement of ro/. per annum, or by ferving an annual office in the parifh in confequence of a legal appoint~ ment; but no apprentice or fervant of fuch perfons can gain a fetthment by fuch their fervice. Sandg W. III. 12 Ann. ftat. 1. cap. 18. There is, fays Dr. Burn, fomewhat of hardfhip in this’ matter of certificates, by putting itin the power of a parifh officer to imprifon a man, as it were, for life; how- ever inconvenient it may be for him to continue at that place where he has had the misfortune to acquire what is called a fettlement, or whatever advantage he may propofe to himfelf by living elfewhere., Although a certificate carries with it no teitimonial of good behaviour, and cer- tifies nothing bre that the perfon belongs to the parifh to which he really does belong ; it is altogether difcretionary in the parifh-officers either to gant or refule it. A manda- mus was once moved for, fays Dr. Burn, to compel the church-wardens and overfeers to fign a certificate ; but the court of King’s Bench rejected the motion as a very flrange attempt, See Poor. See Assis and CERTIFI- CER Certiricare, trial ly, is amode of trial allowed in fuch cafes, where the evidence of the perfon certifying is the only proper criterion of the point in difpute. Thus, 1. If the iffue be whether A was abfent with the king in his army out of the realm in time of war, this fhall be tried by the certificate of the marfhal of the king’s holt in writing under his feal, which fhall be fent to the juftices. Litt. § 102. 2. If, in order to avoid an outlawry, or the like, it was alleged that the defendant was in prifon, ultra mare, at - Bourdeaux, or in the fervice of the mayor of Bourdeaux, this fhould have been tried by the certificate of the mayor; and the like of the captain of Calais. But when this was law (2 Roll. Abr. 583.), thofe towns weré under the dominion of the crown of England. And therefore, by a parity of reafon, it fhould now hold that in fimilar cafes, ariling at Jamaica or other places belonging to the crown of England, the trial fhould be by certificate from the governor refpec- tively. 3. Tor matters within the realm; the cuftoms of the city of London fhall be tried by the certificate of the mayor and aldermen, certified by the mouth of their recorder ; upon a furmife from the party alleging it, that the cuftom ought to be thus tried; or elfe ir mult be tried by the country. As the cuftom of diftributing the effe&ts of freemen deceafed ; of enrolling apprentices ; or that he who is free of one trade may ufe another; if any of thefe points or others fimilar to them, come in iffue. This rule, however, admits of an exception, where the corporation of London is party, or interefted, in the fuit; as in an action brought for a penalty infli@ed by the cuftom; which fhall be deter- mined by a jury, and not by the mayor and aldermen, cer- tifying by the mouth of their recorder. Co. Litt. 74. 4 Burr. 248. Bro. Abr. t. trial, pl. 96. Hob. 85. But fee r Term Rep. 423. If the recorder fhall have once cer- tified a cuftom, the court is in future bound to take notice of it. Doug. 380. 4. In fome cafes, the fheriff of London’s certificate fhall be the final trial; as if the iffue be, whether the defendant be a citizen of London or a foreigner, in cafe of privilege pleaded to be fued only in the city courts. Co. Litt. 74. OF a nature fomewhat fimilar to this is the trial of the pri- vilege of either univerfity, when the chancellor claims cog- nizance of the caufe, becaufe one of the parties is a privi- leged perfon ; in which cafe, the charters, confirmed by act of parliament, dire&t the trial of the queltion, with regard to privilege, to be determined by the certificate and notification of the chancellor under feal; to which it has been ufual to add an affidavit of the fact; but if the partics be at iffue between themfelves, whether A is a member of the univerfity or not, on a plea of privilege, the trial fhall be by jury, and not by the chancellor’s certificate. 2 Roll. Abr. 83. j 5. In matters of ecclefiaftical jurifdition, as marriage, general baftardy, excommunication, and orders, thefe and other like matters, fhall be tried by the bifhop’s certificate. As if it be pleaded in abatement, that the plaintiff is ex- communicated, and iffue is joined thereon; or if a man claims an eltate by defeent, and the tenant alleges the de- mandant to be a baftard; or if in a writ of dower the heir pleads no marriage; or if the iffue in % guare impedit be, whether or not the church be full by inftitution ;—all thefe, being matters of mere ecclefiaftical cognizance, Shall be tried by certificate from the ordinary. But in an aétion on the cafe for calling a man a baltard, the defendant having pleaded in juttification that the plaintiff was really fo, this was directed to be tried by a jury; becaule, whether the . CER plaintiff be found either a general or fpecial baftard (fce Bas- TARD) the juftification will be good; and no quellion of {pecial battardy fhall be tried by the bifhop’s certificate, but by ajury. Co. Litt. 74. 2 Lev. 250. Hob. 179. Dyer. 79. Ability of a clerk prefented, admiffion, inftitution, and de- privation of a clerk, fhall alfo be tried by certificate from the ordinary or metropolitan ; becaufe of thefe he is the moft competent judge; but induction fhall be tried by a jury, becaufe it is a matter of public notoriety, and is likewife the corporal invettiture of the temporal pro- fits. Refignation of a benefice may be tried either way ; but it feems molt properly to fall within the bifhop’s cogni- zance. 2 Inft. 632. Shaw P.C. 88. 2 Roll. abr. 583, &c. Dyer, 229. 6. The trial of all cuftoms and praGtice of the courts fhall be by certificate from the proper officers of thofe courts refpectively ; and what return was made on a writ by the fheriff or under-fheriff, fhall be only tried by his own cer- tificate. Blackft, Com. vol. ili. p. 333, Kc. Certificate, in the Royal Navy, a jcertain written in- flrument, figned by the proper officer or officers, to fubftan- tiate, at any time, the validity of any civil tranfaction on board a fhip of war, without having recourfe to perfonal evidence which in all cafes would be troublefome, and in many impracticable. The captain gives certificates to the feveral officers under his.command, ftating the time they have ferved on board his fhip, or uader him, ard their be- haviour during that period ; other certificates are figned by the captain and mafter captain, mafter and boat{wain, doc- tor and the purfer, &c. CERTIFICATION of aff of novel diffifin, in Law, anciently awrit granted for re-examming a matter paffed by af- fifebeforejuftices. It was ufed where a perfon appeared by his bailiff to an affife, brought by another, and has lott the caufe ; but having fomething more to plead for himfelf, not ftated by his bailiff, he obtained a writ to the fheriff to call both the party from whom the affife paffed, and the jury that was impannelled on the fame, before the faidjuftices at a certain day and place, to be re-examined. It was called a certificate, becaufe mention is made in it to the fheriff, that upon the party’s complaint of defeGive examination, as to the affife paffed, the king hath direéted his letters patent to the juttices for the better certifying of themfelves, whether all points of the faid affife were duly examined. Reg. orig. 8vo. F.N.B. 481. Braen, lib. iv. c. 13. Horn’s Mirr. lib. ii. This writ is now wholly fuperfeded by the remedy afforded by means of new trials. See Asstse. CERTIFICATS mitrvatres, military certificates. Thefe are of various kinds according to the feveral objects or purpofes they relate to, and the different defcriptions of perfons empowered to grant them, in order to verify or give undeniable proofs of facts, whether they be governors, commanding officers, commiflaries of war, officers of detail, ftaff officers, paymatters, officers of cities, or communitics, &c. They are chiefly reducible, however, to the following heads, viz. = A certificate from a field-officer to the commander in chief affirming the cligibility of a young man to a commif- fion in his majefty’s fervice. The certificate of an officer upon honour, that he does not exceed the regulation in the purchafe of his commiffion. The certificate of a general officer to affirm and prove the loffes, which officers under him may have fultained in the field. The certificates of colonels of regiments to the board for the admiflion of proper objeéts to the hofpital at Chelfea. Certi- Ca Se eT, +e cz R ‘Certificates from magiftrates to identify the perfons of recruits, and to aflirm that they have enlifted themfelves vo- luntarily into the fervice, and that the articles of war have been read to them. Certificates. from regimental furgeons, whether men when they joinare fit and proper objects to be enlitted. Certificates from ditto of men’s being fit objects to be dif- charged. Certilicates of commanding officers for ftores, &c. Certificates to enable officers on half-pay to receive it. Certificates of furgeons and affiltant-furgeons to prove that they have pafled proper examinations. CERTIMA, in Ancient Geography, avery trong town of Spain, in Celtiberia, which was taken by Gracchus. CERTIORARI, or Cerriorari Facias, in Law, an ori- ginal writ iffuing out of tne Court of chancery or K, B., direét- ed in the king’s name to the judges or officers of iuferior courts commanding them to certify, or to return the re- cords of a caufe there depending, to the end that the party complaining may have the more fure and fpeedy jultice be- fore the king, or jultices affigned by him for determining the caufe. Fitz. N. B. fo!. 242. This writ is either return- able in the king’s bench, aud then hath thefe words, nobis mittutis, “fend to us ;’”’ or in the common bench, and then hath jufliciariis noffris de Lanco, “to our juttices of the bench ;” or in the chancery, and then it has in cancellaria nofira, “in our chancery, &c.” or into the court of parlia- ment, or into that of the lord high fteward of Great Bri- tain, in cafe of indiétments againit a peer. A whit of certiorari may be had at any time after indi&- ment found and before trial, to certify and remove indi¢t- ments, with all the proceedings on them, from any inferior court of criminal jurifdiction into the court of King’s-bench, the fovereign ordinary court of juftice in caufes criminal. And this is frequently done for one of thefe four purpofes ; either, 1. To cosfider and determine the validity of appeals or indi€tments, and the proceedings thereon ; and to quafh er confirm them as there is caufe: or, 2. In order to have the prifoner or defendant tried at the bar of the court of King’s bench, or before the juftices of Nii Prius, where it is furmrfed that a partial or infufficient trial will probably be had in the court below: or, 3. In order to plead the king’s pardon in the court of K. BD; or, 4. To iffue procefs of out- Jawry againft the offender, in thofe counties or places where the procefs of the inferior judges will not reach him. 2 Hal. P.C. 210. It is at this ftage of the profecution, that indi&ments found by the grand jury againft a peer muft in confequence of a writ of certiorari be certified and tranfmitted jnto the court of parliament, or ‘into that of the lord high fleward of Great Britain ; and that in places of exclufive ju- yildiction, as the two univerfities, indictments muft be deli- vered, (upon challenge and claim of cognizance), to the courts therein eftablified by eharter, and confirmed by a& of parliament, to be there refpectively tried and determined. A certiorari may be granted at the inftance of either the profecutor or the defendant ; the former as a matter of right, the latter as a matter of difcretion : and therefore it is feldom granted to remove indiétments from the juilices of gaol-de- livery, or after iffue joined on confeffion of the faét in any of the courts below. On indictments of perjury, forgery, er for heinous mifdemeanors, the court will not generally rant a certiorari to remove at the inflance of the defendant. ut in particular cafes, the court will ufe their difcretion to grant a certiorari; as, if the defendant be of good charaéter, or the profecution be malicious or attended with oppreffive cizcumitances.2 Hawk, P.C.c.27. 4 Burr. 749. Lord Raym. Vou. VII. Ce rm 1452- A certiorari lies in all judicial proceedings, in whicly a writ of error does not lie; and it is a confequence of all inferior jurif{di€tions, ereéied by a& of parliament, to have their proceedings returnable in K.B. Lord Raym. 469, 580. A certiorari lies to juitices of the peace and others, even-in fuch cafes, which they are empowered by ftatute finally to hear and determine; and the {uperintendency of the court of K. B. is not taken away without exprefs words. 2 Hawk. P.C.c. 27. Butacertiorari does not lie to remove any other than judicial ats. Cald. i. 309. Say. 6. Where ifue 1s joined in the court below, it isa good objection againft granting a certiorari ; and if a perfon does not make ufe of this writ till the jury are fworn, he lofes the benefit of it. Mod. Ca. 16. ftat. 43. Eliz. c. 5. After conviGion, a certiorari may not be had to remove an indi€&tment, &c. unlefs there be fpecial caufe ; as if the judge below is doubtful what judgment is proper to be given, when it may, Stra. 1227. Burr. 749.; and after conviction, &c. it lies in fuch cafes where writ of error will not lie. £. Salk. 149. The court on motion in an extraordinary cafe will grant a certiorari to remove a judgment given in an inferior court; but this is done where the ordinary way of taking out execttion is hindered in the inferior court. 1. Lill. abr. 253. In com- mon cafes a certiorari will not lic to remove a caule out of an inferior court, after verdiG&. It is never fued out aftera writ of error, but where diminution is alleged; and when the thing in demond does not exceed 5]. acertiorari fhall not be had, but a writ of error or attaint. Stat. 21. Jac. 1. c. 23. {tat 12. Geo. 1. c. 29. A certiorari is to be granted in matter of law only ;-and in many cafes there muft bea judge’s hand for it. 1. Lill. 252. Certoraris to remove indi&tments, &c. are to be figned by a judge; and to remove orders, the fiat for making out the writ muft be figned by fome judge. 1. Salk. 150. Certiorari lies to the courts of Wales, and the Cinque-ports, counties palatine, &c. 2 Hawk. P. C.c, 27. But without laying a f{pecial ground before the court, it cannot be fued out to remove proceedings in an action from the courts of the counties palatine. Doug. 749. IAtdoes not lie to judges of oyer and terminer to remove a recognizance of appearance. Lucas. 278. Nor to remove a poor’s rate. Stra. 932, 975. Leach’s Hawk. P. C. ii. CHa Things may not be removed from before juftices of peace, which cannot be proceeded in by the court where removed ; as in cafe of refufing to take the oaths, &c. which ts to be certified and inquired into, according to the ftatute, 1 Salk 145. Where the court which awards the certiorari cannot hold plea on the record, there merely a tenor of the record fhall be certified ; for otherwife, if the record was removed into B. R. as it cannot be fent back, there would be a failure of right afterwards. But a record fent by certiorari into B. R. may be fent after by mittimus into C. B. i. Dany. abr. 792, 789. And arecord into B. R. may be certified into chancery, and from thence be fent by miifimus into an inferior court, where an aétion of debt is brought in an in- ferior court, and the defendant pleads that the plantiff hath recovered in B, R.and the plaintiff replies, ‘¢ Nul ticl record, &c.”” 1. Saund. 97, 99. There are feveral {tatutes which reftrain, and many which abfolutely prohibit a certiorari; in order to avoid frivolous and unfounded delays in juftice. Among thefe we may fpecify the following. By 1 Anp. c. 18. concerning the repair of bridges, no certiorari fhall be allowed. Nor by & Geo. II. c. 20. for punifhing deitroyers of turnpikes, nor by 12 Geo. II. c. 29. for aflefling county-rates, nor on 19 Geo, II. ¢. 21. againft curfing and fwearing. Nor on 23 Ua Geo. © ER *Gco. Il. c. 13. againk feducing artificers. Nor on 25 Geo. II. c. 36. againft bawdy-houfes. Nor on 29 Geo. II. c. qo. againit ftealing lead, iron, &c. Noron 30 Geo. igi c. 21. for preferving fih in the Thames. Nor on 30 Geo. II. c. 24. for reftraining gaming in public houfes. Nor on 37 Geo. II. c. 29. for regulating bread. Nor on 2-Geo. III. c. 30. for preventing thefts in bum-boats. Nor on 10 Geo. III. c. 18. againit dog-ftealers. See on this fubject 2 Hawk. P. C! ci27, By ftat. 1 and 2 P. and M. cc. 13. no certiorari fhall be granted to remove any recognizance, unlefs figned by the chief juitice, or, in cafe of lis abfence, by one of the other judges. ‘By 5 and 6 W. and M. c. 11. and 8 and 9 W. LII.c. 33, a certiorari may be granted in vacation time by any of the judges of B. R. and fecurity is to be found before it is allowed. In cafe of certiorari granted in vaca- tion, the name of the judge and party applying are to be indorfed on the writ. Sce Hanreas Corpus. Nojudgment or order to be removed by certiorari without fureties found to the amount of 50!. 5 Geo. Ii.c. 19. Certicrari to remove convictions, orders, or proceedings of juitices, mult be applied for within fix calendar months, and upon 6 days’ notice to the juflices. 13 Geo. I].c. 18. Stra. gt. A writ of certiorari, when iffued and delivered to the infe- rior court for removing any record or other proceeding, as wéll upon indictment as otherwife, fuperfedes the jurifdi€tion of fuch inferior court, and makes all fubfequent proceedings therein erroneous and illegal: unlefs the court of B. R. remands the record to the court below, to be there tried and determined. But if a certiorari for the removal of an in- di€tment before juftices of peace be not delivered before the jury be {worn for the trial of it, the juitices may proceed. And they may fet a fine to complete their judgment after a certiorari delivered. 2 Hawk. P.C. c. 27. Ld. Raym. 1515. A certiorari removes ail things done between the tefte and return. Ld. Raym. 835, 1305. And as it removes the record itfelf out of the inferior court, therefore if it re- move the record againft the principal, the acceffary cannot be tried there. 2 Hawk. P. C. c. 29. And if the defend- ant be convicted of a capital crime, his perfon muft be re- moved by Habeas Corpus, in order to be prefent in court, if he will move in arreft of judgment. And herein the cafe of a conviction differs from that ofa {pecial verdict. Burr. 930. Although ona Habeas Corpus to remove a perfon, the court may bail or difcharge the prifoner; they can give no judg- ment upon the record of the indi@tment again{t him, with- out a certiorari to remove it, but the fame ftands in force as it did, and new procefs may ifflue uponit. 2 H.P.c. 211. If an indiétment be one, but the offences feveral, where four perfons are indi@ed together ; a certiorari to remove this in- dictment again{ft two of them removes it not as to the others, but as to them the record remains below. 2 Hale’s Hitt. 214. If a caufe be removed from an inferior court by certiorari, the pledges in the court below are not difcharged ; becaufe a defendant may bring a certiorari, and thereby the plaintiff may lofe his pledges. Skin. Rep. 244, 246. A certiorari from K. B. is a fuperfedeas to re‘titution ina forcible entry. t.pklawk, P. Cite 6x. The return of a certiorari is to be under feal ; and the per- fon to whom a certiorari is directed may make what return he pleafes, and the court will not ftop the filing of it, on affidavit of its falfity, except when the public good requires it: the remedy for a falfe return is ation on the cafe, at the {uit of the party injured ; and information, &c. at the fuit of the king, 2 Hawk. P.C. c.27. If the perfon to whom CEE the certiorari is direéted, do not makea return, then an alias, then apluries, vel caufam nobis fignifices:quare, tha!i bc awarded, and then an attachment. Cromp. 116. Black. Comm. vol. iv. Jecob’s Law Diétionary by Tomlins; CERTISSA, or Cratissa, in dacient Ceocraphy, atown of Pannonia, not far from the Danube. CERTITUDE, or Certainty, 1s properly a quality of the judgment, importing an adhefion of the mind to the propoiition we aflirm, or the ftrength with which we adhere to it. Certitude is of the fame nature with the evidence that produces it; the evidence is m the things that the mind fees and confiders, i.¢. in the ideas: certitude is in the judg- mevt which the mind makes of thole ideas. The fchoolmen ciflinguifh two kinds of certitude: the one of /peculation, arifing from the evidence of the thing ;— the other of adhefion, which arifes from the importance of it; which lait they epply to matters of faith. Y Further, the fchools diltinguifh three other kinds of ‘cer- titude, with regard to the three different kinds of evidence whence they arile. Certitupe, metaphyfical, is that arifing from a meta- phylical evidence; fuch is that which a geometrician has of the truth of this propofition, «* That the three angles of a triangle are equal to two right ones.” ; CertitupeE, phyfical, is that arifing from phyfical evi- dence: fuch is that which a man has, that there is fre on his. hand, when he fees it blaze and feels it burn. ; CeRTITUDE, moral, is that founded on moral evidence fuch is that which a perfon has, that he has got, ‘or loft a caufe, when his attorney and friends fend him an expréfs notice of it, or a copy of the judgment, &c. ‘ Moral certitude is frequently equivalent to metaphyfical certitude. Thus a criminal who hears his fentence read, frequently makes no doubt either of his condemnation or execution; and yet has rothing, here, beyond a moral cer- titude ; for metap!yfical certitude he has none: neither has he any phyfical certitude, except as to what relates to the reading of the fentence, and to the aétion of the executioner, when he takes him into his pofleflion. F It is obferved by Mr. Kirwan in his * Effay on Human Liberty,’’ (Irth Tranf. vol. vii. p. 306.) that certainty: differs from neceffity in this, that what is neceflary cannot, and what is certain ql! not, fail to happen. What is necef- fary is certain, but not vice verf2. Whillt that is faid to be morally neceflary, whofe non-exiftence is contrary to the Jaws by which moral agents conttantly and univerfally go- vern their condu@ 3 we, on the other hand, call that future object certain, which will not fail to come to pafs. He further obferves, that certainty is an ambiguous term; as it fometimes denotes the reality of an objeé&t, fometimes the foundation or caufe of that reality, and fometimes the firm perfuafion of the mind of the reality of an obje&. In the firft fenfe it is oppofed to unreality or non-exiftence; in the third, it is oppofed to uncertainty or mere probability. See Prospasivity and Cuance. See alfo Liserty and Ne= CESSITY. In the * Philofophical TranfaGtions” for 1699, (vol. xxi. P- 359—365-) we have an algebraic calculation of the de- grees of moral certitude, arifingfrom human teftimony in all? its cafes; whether immediate, mediate, concurring, oral, or written. ‘ $4 ' The author thereof thews, that if the report pafs through feveral reporters’ hands before it arrive, each conveyinf % of certitude ; after twelve tranfmiffions, it will only be an eq lay, whether it be true or not : if the proportion of certitud CER be fixed at 79°, it will come to half from the 7oth hand; if at 2999, from the 6g5th hand. For concurring evidences, if two reporters have each © of certainty, they will both give an affurance of 33, or of 35 to 1; if three, of 34%: and the co-atteftation of ten would give 4923, of certainty. He fhews, farther, that if there be fix particulars in a narrative, all equally remarkable ; and that he to whom the report is given has £ of certitude for the whole; there is 35 to 1 againft the failure in any one certain particular. He proceeds to compute the certainty. of tradition, both oral and written, in whole and part ; fucceflively tran{mi:ted, and alfo co-attefted by feveral fucceffors of tranfmittents. The learned Knittel has availed himfelf of this hint in:his commentary ona fragment of Ul!philas, p. r69—197, where he has examined by mathematical rules the evidence for and againft the readings of the Greek 'Teltament, and applied for that purpofe even algebraical feries. See alfo an inge- nious argument, deduced from the dotrine of chances, and applied to enforce the praétice of virtue, in the conclufion to Dr. Price’s Review of the principal Queftions in Mo- rals. * CERT-MONEY, Head-money, a common fine, paid yearly, by the refiants of {everal manors to the lords there- of ; and fometimes to the hundred, pro certo lete, for the cer- tain keeping of the leet.—This, in ancient records, is called cerium lete. CERTONIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia Minor, between Adramyttium and the river Caicus, ac- cording to Xenophon. CERUANA, in Botany, Jufl. p. ago. Forflk. Clafs and Order, finsensfia, polygamia fuperflaa. Wat, Ord. Corymbife- re; Juil. eo Ch. Florets of the ray ftrap-fhaped, linear, three- toothed. Calyx many-leaved, equal, converging, cylindrical. Seeds wedge-{haped, compreffed, crowned with {mall teeth which terminate in a brittle. Herb diffufe. Flowers fome feffile, axillary ; others pe- duncled, terminal; braétes three. Character from Forflcal. CERVANTES De Saavepra, Micuet, in Biogra- phy, univerfally recognifed as the author of Don Quixote, was born probably of an honourable family, as fome fay in the province of Andalufia in Spain, or according to others at Madrid, in the year 1549. He feems to have had every advantage of education, and to have been a matter in polite learning. But in other refpects fortune was not very in- dulgent tohim. He ferved many years in the army of Mark Antony Colonna in no higher {tation than that of a private foldier. In that capacity he fought at the battle of Le- panto, under Don John of Auftria, in 1571, where he had the misfortune, or, as he rather thought it, the honour to lofe his left hand. In this expedition, or in his fervice as cham- berlain to cardinal Aquaviva at Rome, he amafled a certain portion of wealth ; for in his captivity at Algiers, during 54 ears, which commenced in 1574, when he was taken by a arbary corfair, he was then well furnifhed with money, which he liberally diftributed among his fellow-captives. The high price of his ranfom and his fubfequent free man- ner of living exhaufted his ftore and reduced him to the dif- trefs of penury. However, his repucation for poetical talents had been already eftablifhed in his own country ; and it de- rived fuch acceffions by the publication, in 1584, of his « Galatea,’ a poem in fix books dedicated to Afcanio Co- Jonna. About the fame time he wrote many dramatic Pieces, which were ated with applaufe on the Spanifh theatre, and which acquired him: both money and fame. But though his fupplies were confiderable, his want of eco- CER omy and unbounded generofity diffipated them as they occurred ; and he had alfo married a wife, which involved him in additional expence. Accordingly, he was actually confined in prifon for debt, when he compofed the firft part of * The Hiftory of Don Quixote ;”’—a work which every body admires for its humour; but which ought alfo to be confidered as a moft ufeful performance, that brought about a great revolution in the manners and literature of Europes by banifhing the wild dreams of chivalry, and reviving a tafte for the fimplicity of nature. In this view, the publication of Don Quixote forms an important era in the hiltory of man- kind. Don Quixote is reprefented as a man, whem it is ims poffible not to efteem for his cultivated underftanding, and the goodnefs of his heart; but who, by poring night and day upon old romances, had impaired his reafon to fuch a degree, as to miftake them for hiftory, and form the defign of traverfing the world, in the character, and with the ac- coutrements, of a knight-errant. His diftempered fancy takes the moft common occurrences for adventures fimilar to thofe he had read in his books of chivalry. And thus, the extravagance of thefe books being placed, as it were, in the fame groupe with the appearances of nature and the real bufinefs of life, the hideous difproportion of the former be- comes fo glaring by the contralt, that the moft inattentive reader cannot fail to be {truck with it. The perfon, the pretenfions, and the exploits, of the errant-knight, are held up to view in a thoufand ridiculous attitudes. Ina word, the humour and [atire are irrefiltible ; and their effects were inftantaneous. ‘This work no fooner appeared than chivalry vanifhed. Mankind awoke as from a dream. They laughed at themfelves for having been fo long impofed on by abfurs dity ; and wondered they had not made the difcovery fooner. They were aftonifhed to find, that nature and good fenfe could yield a more exquifite entertainment than they had ever derived from the molt fublime phrenzies of :chivalry.: This, however, was the cafe; and that Don Quixote was more read, and more relifhed, than any other romance had ever been, we may infer from the fudden and powerful ef- fects it produced on the fentiments of mankind, as well as from the declaration of the author himfelf; who tells us, that upwards of 12,000 copies of the firft part (printed at Madrid in 1605) were circulated before the fecond could be. ready forthe prefs; an amazing rapidity of fale, at a time when the readers and purchafers of books were but an incon- fiderable number compared to what they are in our days. The: very childrem (fays he) handle it, boys read it, men under- ftand, and old people applaud the performance. It is no foon- er laid down by one than another takes it up ; fome ttruggling, and fome intreating, for a fight of it. In fine (continues he) this hiftory is the moft delightful, and the leaft prejudicial: entertainment, that ever was feen; for, in the whole book, there is not the leaft fhadow of a difhonourable word, nor one thought unworthy of a good catholic.” Don Quixote occafioned the death of the old romance, and gave birth to the new. TFiétion from this time divefted herfelf of her gigantic fize, tremendous afpeét, and frantic demeanour: and, defcending to the level of common life, converfed with man as his equal, and as a polite and chearful companion. Not that every fubfequent romance-writer adopted the plan, or the manner of Cervantes; but it was from him they learned to avoid extravagance and to imitate nature. And now probability was as much ftudied, as it had been formerly neglected. The publication of the firlt part of this work appears to have been the means of liberating the author from prifon and obtaining for him from the great a confiderable degree of patronage. Neverthelefs, the court and kingdom of Spain have by no act of .folid bounty exonerated them- Uu2 felves GER felves from the difgrace of fuffering their greateft genius to fink under the depreffion of habitual indigence. In 1613, he publithed his “ Novels,” which are agreeable fpecimens of that kind of writing, and became popular; they difplay his inventive and defcriptive talents in ferions ftory, as his Don Qnuixote had done in burlefque. While he was preparing for the prefs a fecond part of his Don Quixote, he was anticipated by an Arragonian writer of mean genius, under the name of Alonzo Fernandez de Avellaneda; who rot only debafed the original by a very infipid and abfurd appli- cation of its plan and characters, but loaded the author with much perfonal abufe. Cervantes, however, publifhed, in 1645, a true fecond part, which contained the character of the firft, and which was received with avidity by all who had been interefted in the genuine Don Quixote. About this time he alfo publifhed a poem entitled ‘© A Voyage to Parnaffus,’? which was an ironical fatire upon the Spanith poetry of his time, and upon the bad tafe of patrons. The effe@ of this publication was to increafe the number of his enemies, without acquiring for him any fubftantial favours from the great. At this period his indigence was fuch, that he waa obliged to feli eight plays and as many inter- ludes to a bookfeller, for want of means to print them on his own account. Being on bad terms with the aétors, they prevented his producing them on the ftage; and the rifing reputation of Lope de la Vega had allo cclipfed that of Cervantes as a dramatic writer. His laft performance was a novel, entitled « ‘The Troubles of Perfiles and Sigifmun- da,” which he did not live to print. In this work he re- lates an adventure which occurred to him in a journey on horfeback to Toledo, when a {cholar, being informed who he was, leaps in rapture from his afs, and after paying him high compliments, recommends to him a regimen for the eropfy under which he laboured. Cervantes, however, made an apology for not complying with his advice. ‘ My life,” fays he, ‘is drawing to a period, and by the daily journal of my purfe, which I find will have finifhed its courfe by next Sunday at fartheft, I hall alfo have finifhed my career: fo that you are come in the very nick of time to be acquainted with me.’? An affeCtionate dedication of this work to his beft patron, the count de Lemos, is dated April 19, 1617; and as he mentions in it that he had already received extreme un¢tion, it is probable that a day or two mere finifhed the fcene. In the September following a li- gence was granted to the widow of Cervantes to print this novel for her own benefit; and it is probable that this was the only property which this literary glory of his country had to leave. Life of Cervantes, prefixed to Smollet’s Tranflation of Don Quixote. Beattie’s Differtations, Moral and Critical. CERVANTESIA, in Botany, Bofc. Nouv. Di&. Flor. Peruv. pl. 7. Clafs and order, pentandria monogynia. Gen. Ch. Gal. perianth beil-fhaped, five-cleft. Cor. none. Five fcales inferted into the middle of the ealyx. Pif. germ fuperior; dtigma feffile. Peric. nut egg- fhaped, one-celled, furrounded by the calyx, which has imcreafed in fize and become flefhy. A fhrub; native of Peru. Cavanilles, pl. 475, has figured another f{pecies with alternate, petioled, oblong leaves, covered with rutt-coloured ae and fmall white flower, in terminal and axillary pani- cles. * CERVARIA, in Ancient Geography, a promontory at the extremity of Gallia Narbonnenfis, on the coalt of Spain. Its prefent name is Cervera. Csrvaria, in Botany, Rib. Pent. Gart. ir 105. tab. 21. fig. 10. See ATHAMANTA.cervaria. c E.R Cervaria valeriancides, Bauh. Pin. caruleum. CERVARO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in the province of Principato Citra; g miles E.N.E. of Poli- caltro. : CERVELIERE, in Military Language, a fort of cafque, helmet, or defenfive armour for the head. CERVELLE, a French word, literally fignifying brains. The French make ule of the phrafe, mine fans cervelle, when the miner works in earth fo loofe and devoid of cohefion, that it will neither ftand nor fupport itfelf at the fides, nor at the top of the gallery, and heis under theneceffity of having recourfe to contrivances to obviate this, defect. CERVERA, in Geography, a river of Span, which runs into the Segre, a little above Lerida, in Catalonia.—Alfo, a city of Spain, and capital of a viguery, to which it gives name, in the province of Catalonia. It is fituaied in a mot delightful vale, which is extremely fertile, and furrounded by hills, on one fide of chalk, on the other of lime ttone. This part of the country, between the Noya, which runs into the Lobregat, and the Segre, which joins the Ebro, is the higheft land in this part of Catalonia. ‘Lhe univerlity in this city was founded by Philip V. A. D. 1717, and has commonly about gco under-pgraduates, chiefly defigned for emp!oyments inthe church and at the bar, with fome few for medicine. Cervera is about feven leagues N.W. of Tarra~ gona. —Alfo, a town of Spain. in the province of Catalonia,, feated on the coaft of the Mediterranean, between Rofes and Collioure. —Alfo, a town of Spain, in New Cattile; G leagues from Cuenga.—Alfo, a cape of Spain, on the coatt. of Catalonia ; and another on the coaft of Valencia. CERVETTO, the elder, in Biography, an Italian pers former on the violoncello, of great merit, who arrived in. England in 1738 3 and was remarkable from feveral circum- ftances befides his profeffional abilities. Ele wes.an honett Hebrew, had the largeft nofe, and wore the fineft diamond, ring on the fore finger of his bow hand ;, had a fon (who is fill living) who, during childhood, furpaffed his father in tone and exprefiion on the violoncello ; and who, in riper years,, was as much noticed at the opera for his manner of accom- panying recitative, as the vocal performers of the principal charaGters for finging the airs. The rivalry between the admirable Crofdil and the younger Cervetto, in their youth, did them as much good in their itruggles for excellence, as, in riper years their friendfhip has done honour to their hearts. Another remarkable circumftance in the hiftory off the elder Cervetto, fo long and fo weil known at Drury-lane, play-houfe, is, that he extended his exiitence to 100 years complete, with the chara&ter, not only. of a good mufician,, buc a good man. CERVI, in Geography, a {mall ifland of the Grecian, Archipelago, near the coat of the Morea, on the eaft fide. of the entrance into the gulf of Kolokitia; 6 miles N. off Cerigo. Cervi cornu. « See Hart’s Horn. CERVIA, in Geography, a modern built town in the ftate of the chureh, and province of Romagna, near the- Adriatic-fea, about half-way betwixt Cafenatico and Savio, which, at the beginning of the lait century, entirely. changed, its fituation, on account of the infalubrity of the air, havin formerly ftood a quarter of a mile diftant from the-fea.. The new city is built with beautiful broad {treets, which, for the. greateit part, are under covering.. By an, infcription over. one of the gates it appears, that popes Innocent XII, and? Clement XI. removed the city of Cervia for, the benefit of a more falubrious air in the year 1703. Without this gate, fituate on the fide of the city oppolite to Savio or Ravenna, 18. See Tracnwerium CER is a beautiful and broad canal, through which, in June, July, and Auguft, (when the feafon is hotte(t and drieft), the water is let out into a low piece of ground covered with rufhes and weeds, about half a mile in length, and in fome places as broad. Here the heat of the fun totally exhales the water, and the falt remains at the bottom and fides, to the great profit of the court of Rome. The papal provinces Urbino, Ferrara, Ancona, Bologna, and Romagna, that lie near the Apennine mountains, derive from thefe falt-works the greatett part of the falt they ule. Cervia is the fee of a bifhhop, fuffragan of Ravenna, from which it is diftant S.S.E. 15 miles, and r4q N. of Rome. CERVICAL arteries, in Anatomy, fome arteries which are ditributed about the neck. See ArTERIES. CERVICAL nerves, thofe which come off from the medulla fpinalis, where it is lodged in the vertebra of the neck. See Nerves. CERVICALIS, or Cervicis Descenpsns, isa flen- der mufcle at the root of the neck, clofely connected to the upper part of the facrolumbaris. It arifes from the three or four upper ribs, near their tubercles, and is inferted into the fame number of tranfverfe procefles of the lower cervical vertebre. It extends the neck, and at the fame time twilts it toone fide. This mufcle is the tranver/alis gra- cilis of Winflow. CERVICAPRA, in Zoology. See AntriLope pygarga, the white-faced antelope. CERVICARTA, in Botany, a term ufed by fome authors to exprefs the thap/ia of the fhops, or leffer Libanotis of Theo- phratftus. Ceryicaria, is alfo a name given by fome to the trache- lium. CERVICIS tran/verfus, m Anatomy, a {mall mufcle at the back of the neck, connected to the upper end of the longiffinus dorfi, and lying clofe to the cervicalis defcendens, It arifes from the tran{verfe proceffes of the four or five upper dorfal vertebra, and is inferted into as many of thofe of the neck, defcendens and trache!o-maftoideus. Winflow calls it tran/- verfalis colli major. It carries the neck backwards, and at the fame time twits it towards its own fide. CERVIERES, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Rhone and Loire; 6 leagues S.W. of Roanne. CERVINARA, a town of Naples, in the province of Principatro Ultra; 12 miles S.W. of Benevento. CERVINE Antelope of Pennant, antilope bubalis, in Zoology, BovBxaros of Oppian and Ariftotle, bubalus of Pliny, Gefner, Aldrov. and Jonft. yachmur of the Bible, bucepha- lus of Caj. op. Gefn. quad. and Ray, capra dorcas of Hout- tuyn, autilope bulelaphus of Pallas, bubale of Buffon, vache de barbane of Act. Parif. and Valent, is a {pecies of ante- lope, whole horns are thick, twifted f[pirally, annulated, bent in form of a lyre, almoft ftraight, and upright at their ends; the head and tail are fomewhat lengthened. Pall. Sp. Zool. Erxleb..lib. Mam. This animal inhabits Africa, efpe- cially Barbary, and is alfo found near the Cape of Good Hope, and in Arabia. It is about four feet high, having an appearance between the generalform of the deer and ox tribes, with its head refembling that of an ox ; the horns are about 20 inches jong, very {trong and black, almoit clefe at their bafes, and diltant at the points; the general colour is a reddifh brown, the belly, inner fide of the thighs, and a {pace about the rump are white, with a dark-coloured bed on the ridge of the back, the upper part of the fore-legs, and hinder parts of the thighs ; the tail is about a foot long, is terminated by atuft of longifh hairs, and refembles that of an It is generally connected with the cervicalis , CER afs. It feeds folitarily, gallops heavily, and yet very {wiftly, and fights on its knees: its flefh is reckoned rather dry. This fpecies, according to Mr. Pennant, is the animal called * Hart-beelt,” at the Cape ; and Sparman deicribes it under the fame name in the Stockholm Tranfaétions . though the figure of the hart-beelt, in his journey to the Cape, differs very confiderably in the form of the horns, which bend much backward, at their ends, from which it is more probably the {pecies called Antilope Koba. CERVINI, in Ancient Geography, a people placed by Ptolemy on the weftern coalt of the ifland of Cortica. CERVIONE, in Geography, a town of the ifland of ny Srl or French department of Golo; 20 miles E. of orte. CERVISPINA, in Botany, Cord. Hitt. nus catharticus. CERVIX, in Anatomy, is a Latin term denoting that part of the body which we call the neck, The adje@tive: derived from this term is applied to feveral parts about the neck ; as cervical arteries, cervical nerves, &c. The word cervix is alfo ufed in the anatomical defeription of various parts of the body, where it indicates {ome con- traction or diminution in fize ; as cervix of the femur, of the humerus, of the bladder, of the uterus, &c..: for which we refer to the individual articles. CERUMEN, a thick, vifcous, bitter, excrementitious humour, feparated from the blood by proper glands placed! in the meatus audiforius, or cuter paflage of the EAR. This is alfo called cerumen aurium ; in Englifh, EAR-qwax.- See an account of experiments on cerumen, to difcover the beft method of diffolving it; with the cau%e of deafneds.. Lond. Medic. Obferv. &c. vol. iv. p.ig8. It is by fome ranked in the clafs of medicines ;: efpecially: that fpecies of it obtained /rom the human ears, aud which 1s ufed both internally and externally. CERVOCAMELUS, in Zoology. See Ruam- See CameELus: glama. CERVON, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Niévre, and. diftri& of Clamecy ; 3.miles E. of Corbigny. CERUSE, Cerusse, or wHite LEAD. The mode of manufaGuring this article was long made a particular fecret,- and it ftill continues fo with fome manufa€turers: the follow— ing account is obtained froma vilit to the works of a re- fpectable houfe in that line. The firit operation in making cerufe is melting the blue or. metallic lead, (the fofter quality is the better for this work ) into a cafe or mould which fhall form each theet nearly two: feet long, about five inches broad, and about the fixteenth of an inch thick, that it may with convenience roll: {pirally up fo as to leave the {pace of half an inch or an inch between each coil, and thus be placed. verti- cally, in earthen pots in fhape like garden pots, and capable. of containing from 14 pint to fix pints each; thefe pots are made with one projection or more riling within on the mid—- dle, fo as to prevent the lead refting on the bottom; on thefe the coil is. placed. perpendicularly, and upon its top-edge,. another piece near one foot acrofs is-laid horizontally : about half, or a whole pint, wine meafure, according to the fize of: the pots, of ftrong vinegar, or other acid liquor, is poured in to each pot, but care ought to be taken that it does not quite touch the lower edge of the leaden fpiral;. the princi- ple aGted on here being to expofe as much furface as pof-- fible to the aGion of the acid vapour: each pot ought to hold about 24 poundsavoirdupois weight, and having alfo a cover of the fame metal placed tight upon its mouth, by which means nearly the whole of the fteam will have an ob- ject. C*E-R jc& for its ation. A ftratum of thefe pots thas prepared being formed by packing them clofe to each other in rows, placing them in a layer of horfe dung about two feet thick, which is previoufly prepared, they are covered with boards, and then they are furrounded on every part with that ma- terial; thus isthis part of the work continued layer upon layer until it arrives at the height of the building prepared for it, which ought to be’ perfectly water-tight. Thefe ftrata (forming what the workmen call a “blue bed,’’ from the lead being placed there in its blue flate,) continue undif- turbed until the acid is exhaufted or evaporated, which is generally in about two or three months. It is fuppofed that the operation is effected in this {tate by the vapours of the vinegar (affilled by the tendency of the lead to combine with the pure part of the air which is prefent) corroding it and converting the external portion into a white calx. At the above time, the boards on being removed exhibit the ap- pearance of being ftrongly feorched, molt probably from the acid ftcam that may (after all the above care to preferve it) have efcaped during the immerfion in the dung: or, per- haps, the mere heat by opening and preparing the boards will make them more liable to the action of the acid, even though very little fhould efcape ; or indeed the continued heat may be alone fuflicient to account for this-change in them. At the expiration of the above time the beds are *« drawn,” that is, the pots are removed and opened, the lead is taken out and thrown. together into a large receiver full of cold water, having a partition running acrofs it flant- ing from the higheft part, where it may be only 12 inches from the top towards the lower, and the depth from the top of the receiver to the frame or partition may be three feet; this is pierced from its higheft to its loweft part with holes of about 4 inch diameter. In many manufactories a workman is employed here, who, with a long pole and a ftrong head annexed to it, flirs, beats, and breaks the pieces, by which means the corroded lead breaks off in flakes or as dutt, and falls through the holes to the bottom of the receiver: in other white lead works this part of the procefs is accomplifhed by a machine receiving its motion and ftrength from the power that turns the mill which is to grind the white lead into powder. The introduétion of wa- ter into this part of the procefs has been a great means of preferving the health of the people employed in the works; thus removing a ftrong objection againft apprenticing chil- dren to this butinefs. Formerly the lead was uncorered, and the corroded parts broken off without the intervention of water, and the lead duft got upon the lungs of the work- men, from which, owing to the peculiar delcterioufnefs of this metal in any fhape, few lived beyond 40 years. The blue lead left from this part is melted again, with a proper addi- tion of frefh metal, and fubmitted to the above operations. The white fubitance is transferred to the mill and ground ; the immediate act of grinding being condu@ed in the wet, almoft as fnuff is ground in the dry itate, by a large hori- zontal wheel, whofe power is derived either from horfes, fteam, wind, or water, with cogs turning from 8 to 16 or more pe(tle-fhaped pieces of metal which revolve in mortars in which the cerufe is put. After being finely levigated it is formed into cakes or ** pieces,”? and dried, in fome manufac- tories, inthe fame manner that glue, paper, dry colours, &c. are, on laths, in fhades placed in the open air, or in a long room, generally the attics of the ware-rooms; but in others, in a circular ftove with a ftove pan, or cockle, placed in the midft, as hats, &c. are dried. By this laft way the operation is effected in a few days, whilft, in the former, fome weeks, or even months, as in winter, mult elapfe before it is completed. Whep arrived at this ftate, it is ready for fale. CLE: Many manufa@urers have a pair of horizontal ftones like thofe of the flour-mill for the! purpofe,of) grinding it in oil. A patent was obtained: in this bufinels by Mr. Richard Fithwick, of Neweaftle upon Tyne, to preferve to himfelf the advantage of fubftituting exhautted tanner’s bark in the place of horfe-litter, or mixing a proportion’ of the one with the other. : Ceruffe makes a! beautiful white colour, and is much ufed by the painters, both in:oil and watercolours. It makes the principal ingredient in the fucus uled-by the ladies for the complexion. ‘Laken inwardly, it is a dangerous | poifon 5! it foon fhews its malignity, dpoiling the breath and teeth, and haflening’ wrinkles, and. all the fymptoms of old age. Even the external ufe of itas a paint or enamel, for itis faid that it has been fo ufed, is attended with very difagree- able, and, in the end, with fatal coniequences, Its cfle@s in nervous diforders are terrible; witnels the cafe of Mr. Butler at Mofeow. See a curious account of it, in the Phil. Tranf. vol. ]. parti. N° 2. an. 1764. Ceruffe is the only white hitherto found fit for painting in oil; the difcovery of fome cther white for this purpofe is defirable, not only from the faults of ceruffe as a paint, buts aifo from its injuring the health of its manufaCturers, and producing a dreadful difeafe, which lead and all its prepara- tions frequently occafion, called the Coxic of minerals, or the Coxic of painters. The Chinele make an ufe of this preparation of lead, which it is eafier to fee the advantages of, than to compre- hend the manner in which they are brought about. The China veffels when they have been baked and finifhed as to the matter, and even covered with their varnih, will yet re- . ceive into their very fubftance, the cofours which thofe peo- ple mix up with an addition of ceruffe, and, as fome of the old accounts fay, of copperas and faltpetre; but though thefe latter ingredients had ufed to be added, the ceruffe alone fupplies their place at this time, at leaft in very many things. It would be worth while to try an admixture of .ceruffe with the colours ufed in the painting of glafs; and: this, after a fecond baking, might perhaps be found to in- corporate itielf in the fame manner that it does into China’ ware, and recover the long fecret of letting in the ftrongeft colours, without hurting the tranfparence. Cerusse of antimony is a perfect oxyd of antimony, pre- pared by nitre. See Antimony. Cerusst, Cerussa Acetata, in Pharmacy. Both the cerufle, and particularly the acetited cerufle are largely employed in medicinal purpofes. An acetited oxyd of lead, fomewhat different from the fugar of lead, forms the common Goulard’s Extra@. For an account of the different pharma- - ceutical preparations of this metal with their refpective ufes, fee the article Leap. , CERUTI, Freperic, in Biography, an Italian philolo- logift, was born at Verona in 1541, educated in France, and at firft followed the profeffion of arms. But being ta- ken to Rome by his firft patron the bifhop of Agen, who wifhed to promote him in the church, he declined that mode of life and returned to his native place, where he married, and opened a {chool, which was much frequented. He be- came one of the heads of the academy of Moderati, and maintained a correfpondence with feveral perfons of the moft eminent literary chara@er. In 1585, he publifhed at Vero- na an edition of Horace, with a paraphrafe, and, in 1597, a - fimilar edition of the fatires of Perfius and Juvenal. He likewife publifhed a Latin dialogue “« On Comedy,’? and’ another * De re€ta Adolefcentulorum Inftitutione ;”? and a colle&tion of Latin poems. He left in MS. a tranflation of the ** Anthologia.” Ceruti died in 1579. _ Moreri. CERVULA, . CE R CERVULA, or Cervus, in Middle Age Writers, a kird of f{port, celebrated by pagans, and after their exam- ple by the Chriftians, on New-Year’s day; when they ran about in mafquerade, drefled in imitation. of deer, and other beafts. We find divers cenfures of the fathers, and decrees of councils agaialt the obfervance of this ceremony. Even litanies were, compofed, and fafting preferibed for that day, ed calcandum genlilium confuetudinem.. Ida-Cange. CERVUS, an fortification, a fort of forked ftake or pa- lifade, planted fometimes in the middle of the ditch, fome- times in the bottom ef the fame, clofe to the foot of the inner flope thereof, fometimes on the barm between the inuer edge of the ditch and the parapet of the retrenchment to prevent the approach and afcent of the enemy, and to annoy aod wound him in attempting to force or catry fuch a work. Cervi were alfo fometimes planted in holes, or ¢rous-de loup at fome little diflance, to impede and prevent the attack of an enemy. Czfar made ute of cervi, near Alelia, as appears from the c. 72. of the 7th book of his commentaries De Bello Gallico. Cervus, in Zoology, a genus of quadrupeds, in the order Pecora. The horns are folid, branched, thickelt at tip, co- vered while young with a downy fkin, and annual; front teeth in the lower jaw eight ; tufks none, or fometimes one folitary on each fide, in the upper jaw. Species é Pycarcus. No tail; horns trifurcated. Pallas It. and Schreber Sacugth. Cervus aha, Gmel. This-is truly an alpine f{pecies, inhabiting for the molt part the woody fummits of the mountains of Hircania, Roffia, and Siberia, in the fummer ; and defcending into the plains only in. winter. It is larger than the roe-buck, and is obferved to become hoary in winter. At other times the body is of a deep reddith-brown, with the lower part and limbs paler; round the nofe, and on the fides of the lower lip black; the tip of the lip, and alfo the rump, are white. The horns are tuberculated at the bafe. Ears white, and villous within, fringed with afew long black hairs; and in- ftead of tail, a broad cutaneous excrefcence. -Axces. Horns palmated, without ftems ; throat caruncu- Jated. Linn. Fn. Succ. Cervus alces, Brill. Alce, Pliny, Johntt. &c. Alces, Ceefar Bell. Gall, &c. Mofe, Laet. Moofe deer, Dudley, aie, &c. Ovignal, Charley. Evan, Boft. £i, Lawfon. Should the elk of Europe and Afia, and the moofe deer of America be the fame animal, it will rank as the largeft {pecies of the cervine tribe extant at this time, to our know- ledge, either in the old or new continent. It has been ufual with writers to confider the hifory of the two kinds toge- ther; and, for the fake of perfpicuity, it will not be amifs to follow their example, referving to ourflelves hereafter an opportunity of flating, in a few words, how far we diffent from this generally received opinion. The elk, when full grown, is fearecly inferior to a horfe in fize. In fhape it is much lefs elegant than the reft of the deer kind, having a very fhort and thick neck, a large head, horns dilating almott immediately from the bafe into a broad palmated form; a thick, broad, heavy upper lip, banging very much over the lower, very high fhoulders, and long legs. The colour is a dark greyifh-brown, much paler, or whitifhion the legs, and -beneath the tail, ~The hair is of a (trong, coarfe, and elattic nature, and is much Jonger on the pop of che fhoulders, and sridge of the neck, than on other parts, forming together a kind of {tiffith mane; beneath the neck alfo the hair is of -confiderable length, and in fome fpecimens of the animal, a ’ - Cc. E-R fort of caruncle, or excrefeence, covered with long hair, is pendent from beneath the throat ; a circumftance fpoken of by Linneeus as part of the fpecific charaéter of the animal, but which is more vifible at fome particular feafons than at others, and is fometimes wanting. The eyes and ears are large; the hoofs broad, and the tail extremely fhort. Ac- cording to Pennant, the greateft height of the elk is about feven bands, and the weight of fuch an animal about 1229 pounds. ‘The horns have been known to weigh 56 pounds, and to meafure each 32 inches m length. The female 1s rather {maller than the male, and has no horns. This applies only to the American moofe, which is obferved to arrive at a greater magnitude than the European kind. The clk of Evrope and Afia is found chiefly in Sweden and Norway, in the woody traéts of the Ruffian dominions, and in Siberia; but not in the flat countrics of the Arétic regions, norin Kamtfchatka. The American moofe inhabits the ifle of cape Breton, Nova Scotia, the weitern fide of the bay of Fundy, Canada, and the country furrounding the great lakes, almoft as far fouth as Ohio; both inthe old and new continent thefe animals. preferring the colder climates. The elk refides principally in the midit of forefts, for the convenience of browfing the boughs of trees; becaufe it is prevented from grazing with facility on account of the fhort- nefs of the neck, and difproportionate length of the legs. They often have recourle to aquatic plants, which they can readily obtain by wading into the water. Sarrafin tells us they are very fond of the {linking trefoil, Anagyris fatida, and will uncover the fhow with their feet to procure it. When pafling through the woods, they raife their heads to an horizental pofition to prevent their horns from being en- tangled among the branches. Their gait is remarkable ; their general pace is deferibed to be a high, fhambling, but very {wift trot, the feet being lifted up very high, and the hoofs clattering much during their motion, as is the cafe alfo with the rein-deer ; in their common walk they lift their feet very high, and will, without difficulty, ftep over a gate five feet high. They feed princrpally in the night, and whenever they graze are obferved to choofe an afcending ground, for the greater convenience of reaching the furfaee with their lips. ‘hey ruminate like an ox. The rutting feafon isin autumn. The femaleibrings forth two young at a birth, in the month of April, which follow the dam a whole year. During the fummer they keep in families. In deep fnows they colleét in numbers in the forefts of pines, for protection from the inclemency of the weather, under the thelter of thofe evergreens. The elk, though naturally of an inoffenlive and peaceable difpofition, difplays a confiderable fhare of courage when fuddenly attacked, defending himfelf with great vigour not only with his horns, but alfo by {trik- ing violently with his fore feet, in which he is fo dextrous, as eafily to kill a dog, or even wolf, at a. fingle blow.” The flefh of the moofe is extremely fweet and nourifhing : the Indians fay, that they can travel three times farther after.a meal of moofe, than after any other animal food. ‘The tongues are excellent, but the nofe is faid to be perfeély marrow, and is confidered the greatelt delicacy in Canada. The {kin makes excellent buff, being foft, ftrong, and light. The Indians drefs the hide, and after foaking :t for fome time, {tretch and render it fupple by a lather of the brainsin hot water. They not only make their {now-fhoes of the fin, but after the chace cover the hull of their canoes with it, in which they return home with the {poils of their chace. The hair on the neck, withers, and hams of a full grown elk is of confiderable ufe in making mattreffles and faddles 5° and the palmated parts of the horns are further excavated by the 2 Indians, CERVUS. Yudians, and converted into ladles, and other culinary ar- ticles. t he chace of the moofe deer forms an important occupa- tion among the natives of North America, and is performed by them in various methods. The firlt is the mott fimple, and is conducted in the following manner. Before the lakes and rivers are frozen, multitudes of the favages aflemble in their canoes, and form with them a vait crefcent, each horn touching the fhore. Another party perform their thare of the chace among the woods, furrounding an extenfive tract, letting loofe their dogs, and prefling towards the water with loud cries. ‘he animalsalarmed by the noife, fly before the hunters, and plunge into the lake, where they are killed by the other favayes in their boats, who are prepared to receive them with clubs and lances. Another method purfued at times by the hunters is more arttul. ‘Dhey enclofe a large {pace of ground wath flakes hedged with branches of trees, and forming two fides of a tnangle. The bottom tpace opens into a fecond {pace completely triangular. At the opening are hung numbers of fuares made of flips of raw hides. The Indians, as before, affemble in great troops, and with all kinds of noifes drive into the firlt euclolure not only the moofes, but the other kinds of deer, which abound in that country. Some forcing their way into the fartheft triangle, are caught in the {nares by the neck or horns; and thofe which efcape the {nares and pals the opening find their fate from the arrows direéted at them from all quarters. They are often killed with the gun. When firtt diflodged, the animal falls down, or {quats, as if difabled, for a moment or two, at which inftant the hunter fires; if he miffes, the moofe fets off at a {wift trot, making at the fame time a pro- digious clattering with the hoofs, hke the rein deer, and will oftentimes run 20 or 30 miles before he comes to bay, or takes to the water. ‘he ufual time for this divertion is the winter. he hunters avoid entering on the chace till the fun is trong enough to melt the frozen crult with which the fuow is covered, otherwife the animal can run over the firm furface: they wait till it becomes foft enough to impede the flight of the moole, which finks up to the fhoulders, flounders, and gets on with difficulty, while the fportfman purfues at his eale on his broad rackets, or {now-fhoes, and makes a ready prey of the diltreffed animal. An ancient fuverftition has prevailed that the elk is naturally fubject to the epilepfy, and that it finds its cure by {cratching its ear with the hoof tii it draws blood; and im confequence of this notion the hoofs of the elk form an article of the ancient ma- teria medica. A piece of the hoof was anciently fet ina ring, and worn as @ prefervacive againtt the complaint above mentioned ; and fometimes the hoof was held in the patient’s hand, or applied to the pulfe, to the left ear, or {uipended in fuch a manner from the neck as to touch the breait. ‘The hoof has been ufed by the Indians in the falling-ficknefs ; they apply it to the heart of the perfon afflited, and make him hold it in his left hand, and rub his ear withit. They alfo ufe it in the colic, vertigo, pleurify, and purple fever, pulverifing the hoof, and drinking it in water. It fhould be farther mentioned, that, although the fyno- nyms referred to by naturalifts for Cerous alces are repeated in the above account, we wifh to imprefs on the reader’s mind our diltrult of their accuracy in fome leading points. Perhaps on further inveltigation, the European elk and the moofe decr of America may prove, as we fulpect, to be two diltinét fpecies. With regard to the-enormous palmated, foffilifed horns that are fometimes dug up in Ireland and other parts of Britain, a more pofitive opinion may be ad- vanced ; they are certainly not the horns of the moofe deer, 8 as moft writers imagine, In point of fize they very far ex- ceed the horns of the largelt moofe,’and in their appearance differ fo materially that they could not poflibly have be- longed to that animal; they have long beams to fupport the palmated part inftead of fhort ones, as in the moofe ; they are alfo ftronger and thicker, and are commonly from 10 to 12, or fometimes 15 fect from tip to tip! It requires no argument to prove that fuch ftupendous horns cannot be referred to any fpecies of the Cervine race at prefent known, and that they muft of courfe have belonged to fome fpecies either totally extin@, or hitherto undifcovered. Taranpus. Horns ramofe, recurvated, round, with palmated fummits. Lion. Faun. Suec. Ameen. Acad. &e. Tarandus, Plin. Aldr. &c. Rangifer, Gefn. Aldr. &c. Renne, Buff. Rein deer, Penn. The Rein Deer, when full grown, according to Pennant, is four feet fix inches in height, the body cf a fomewhat thick and fquare form, and the legs fhorter in proportion than thofe of the common ftag. The general colour is brown above, and white beneath, but as it advances in age it often becomes of a Brevi white, and fometimes almoit entirely black ; the hair on the under part of the neck is of much greater length than the reft, and forms a kind of hanging- beard in that part. Both fexes are furnifhed with horns, but thole of the male are much larger and longer than thofe of the female. The hoofs are long, large, and black, as are alfo the falfe or fecondary hoofs behind; and thefe latter while the animal is running, by friking again{t each other, make a remarkable clattering found that may be heard ata confiderable diltance. No animal of this tnbe appears to vary fo much in the form and length of the horns as the rem deer. In general the horns are remarkable for their great length, and flendernefs in proportion, and are furnifhed at the bafe with a pair of brow antlers, and at the extremity with widely expanded and palmated tips direted forwards ; towards the middle of the horn rifes another large branch, which turns upwards, and is branched at the tip; the re- mainder of the horn runs on to a great length ina backward direction, and is more or lefs ramofe at the extremity. In the young and middle aged rein deer the horus are rematk- ably flender. Gefner gives the figure of a full grown male rcin deer, which Linngus has pronounced to be a good reprefentation of the animal, and in this, the horns which exe tend horizcntally along the back even proje& beyond the tail. The height of the dometticated rein deer is about three feet ; of the wild ones, four. It lives to the age of fixteen years. The female goes with young thirty three weeks. The male cafts his horns annually at the end-of November, the female not ull fhe fawns about the middle of May. The reia deer is celebrated for its fervices to the fimple and harmlefs inhabitants of Lapland, who, undilturbed by the founds of war, or the troubles of commerce, lead a kind of paftoral life even within the frozen limits of the arétic circle, and have no other cares than thofe of providing for the riyours of their long winter, and of rearing and fupporting their numerous herds of rein deer, which may be faid to con- ftitute almofl their whole wealth ; and which are ufed not only for the purpofes of food, but for travelling oceafionally over that frozen country during winter. ‘To the Laplander this animal is confidered as at once the fubflitute of the horfe, the cow, the fheep, and the goat. The milk affords them cheefe, the flefh food, the fkin cloathing, the tendons bow- ftrings, and when fplit, thread, the horns glue, and the bones {poons. During winter it fupplies the want of a horfe and draws their fledges with amazing {wiftnefs over the frozen. lakes and rivers, or over the {now which at that feafon cove the | CER the whole country. A rich Laplander is fometimes poffeffed of a thoufand rein deer. In autumn they feek the highelt hills to avoid the Lapland gad-fly, which at that time depofits its eggs in their fkin, and in many in{tances proves fatal to the animal. So dreadful is this feourge, that the moment a fingle fly appears, the whole herd perceive it, and betray every fymptom of terror by their geftures, fhaking, and tofling their heads, and running about for fhelter, or to avoid the ftroke of their diminutive but cruel enemy. The chief food of the rein deer is a f{pecies of lichen, commonly called ' the rein deer mofs, which covers vat tra&ts of the northern regions, and on which thefe animals particularly delight to browfe. In fummer they readily procure it in vaft plenty, and in winter dig with their feet and brow antlers through the {now to obtain it. The Lap'anders devote their whole care to the management of thefe ufeful animals, occafionally houfing and nurfing their herds during winter ; and attending them in fummer to the tops of the mountains. The mode of travelling in fledges drawn by the rein deer deferves mention.- There are in Lapland two races of the rein deer, the wild and the tame. The latter are preferable for drawing the fledge, to which the Laplander accultoms them betimes, yoking them to it by a {trap which gees round the neck and comes down between the legs. The flcdge is ex- tremely flight, and covered at the bottom with the fkin of a young deer, the hair turned to flide on the frozen fnow. The perfon who fits on this guides the animal with a cord, faltened round the horns, and encourages it to proceed with his voice, and drives it with a-goad. The wild breed are by far the ftrongeft, but thefe often prove refractory, and turn upon their drivers, who have then no other refource but to cover themfelves with the fledge, and let the animal vent its fury upon that. But it is otherwife with thofe that are tame ; no creature can be more active, patient, ard willing; when hard pufhed they will trot nine or ten Swedifh miles, it is faid, or between fifty and fixty Englifh miles at one ftretch ; butin fuch a cafe the poor obedient creature fatigues itfelf to death, and if not killed, to relieve it from mifery, will die in a day or two after. In general they can go about thirty miles without halting, and without any great or dangerous effort. This, which is the only mode of travelling in Lapland, can be performed to advantage only when the fnow is glazed over with the ice ; and though it be a fpeedy method of conveyance, it is incon- venient, dangerous, and troublefome. The Samoieds confider them as animals of draught. The Koreki, a nation of Kamtfchatka who keep immenfe herds of rein deer, alfo train them to the fledges. They ufually harnefs two to each carriage, and it is faid they will travel 150 ver{ts in one day, a diftance equal to about 112 Englith miles. The rein deer is a native of the northern regions. In Europe its chief refidence is in Norway and Lapland. In Afia it frequents the north coalt as far as Kamtfchatka, and the inland parts as far as Siberia. In America it occurs in Greenland and does not extend farther fonth then Canada. The Samoieds, the Efquimaux, andthe Greenlanders, all of whom poffefs this animal, confider it principally as an object of chace. Among the two Jalt people the flefh conftitutes their chief article of food. hey cat it either raw, drefled ‘freth, or dried and fmoaked with the frow lichen. The wearied hunters will drink the raw blood, but it is ufualiy dreffed with the berries of the heath. The fkin drefled with the hair on is foft and pliant, and is employed in making their drefs, the inner lining f their tents, or as blankets. ‘The tendons ferve for bow-{trings, and when fplit are the threads with which they few their jackets. Before the Greenlanders became acquainted with fire arms Vou. VII, VUS. they were accuftomed to take the rein deer by what was called the clapper-hunt ; in which the women and children furrounded a large fpace, and, where people were wanting, fet up poles capped witha turf in certaiaintervals to terrify the animals ; they then with great noife drove the rein deer into the narrow defiles, where the men lay in wait, and killed them with harpoons and darts. But they are now become fcarce in Greenland. The rein-deers are found in the neigh- bourhood of Hudfon’s bay in amazing numbers. Columns of eight or ten thoufand are feen annually paffing from north to fouth in the months of March and April, driven out of the woods by mufketoes. They go to rut in September, and the males foon after fhed their horns ; they are at that feafon very fat, but fo rank and muflcy as not to be eatable. The females bring forth their young in Juze, in the moft fe- queftered {pots they can find, and then they likewife lofe their horns. In autumn the deer with their fawns migrate north- ward. ‘The Indians are very attentive to their motions, for thefe animals conftitute the chief part of their drefs, as well as food. They often kill numbers for the feke of their tongue only ; at other times they feparate the fichh from the bones, and preferve it by drying it in the fmoke. The fat’ which they alfo fave, they fell to the Englith in bladders, who ufe it for frying inftead of butter. The fins alfo are an article of extenfive commerce with the Englifh. The Indians kill great numbers of them in the winter, and during the migratory feafons, lying in watch in their canoes, and {pearing them while{wimming over the rivers, or from one ifland to another. Authors make feveral varieties of the rein deer ;_ what is called the Greenland Buck, and Green- Jand deer, has the horns round, and covered with a hairy fkin; Capra groenladica, Ray, and var 6 groenlandicus, Gmel. Another variety, the Caribou of Hudfon’s bay, has the horns flraight with one branch at the bafe turned backwards, y Caribou. Gmel. Exaruus. Horns branched, round and recurvated, Ltnn. Fn. Suec. Cervus, Pliny. Gefn. Aldr. &c. Edler Hirfch, Wild Oder Thier, Riding. Cerf, biche et faon de cerf, Buft. Stag, Penn. &c. "The itag is a native of almoft all the temperate parts of Europe as well as Afia. It alfo occurs in fome few parts of Africa, and pretty generally in North America; in which latter country it occafionally arrives at a larger fize than in the whole continent, with the exception of Siberia, where Pennant informs us it is found of a gigantic magnitede. The ftag varies in different countries very confiderably, fo much indecd as to induce us to believe that travellers and other writers have oftentimes confounded animals of very dif- ferent {pecies under this general title in {peaking of the pro- dutions of diftant countries. Molt commonly the ttag is about three feet and a half high, and of a reddifh brown colour, beneath whitifh. Sometimes it is of a very dark or blackifh brown ; fometimes of a pale er yellow brown ; and, laltly, inflances occur of fiags being entirely white, which laft are mentioned both by Ariflotle and Pliny, but as rare. The horns alfo vary as to the fize and number of ramifications, according to the age of the animal. Eerxlcben mentions three diltin varieties of the tag (Cervus Llaphus) independent of the common European kind, vamely, Firlt, Hippelaphus B. Larger, with the hair on the neck longer. Cervus Ger- manicus, €Fc. Brill. Ixreratos, Ariftotle. Teay:Aados,.Pliny. Tragelaphus, Gefn. Hippelaphus, @. Gmel. Second, Corf:- canus, y. Gmel. C. minor fufcus, Erxl. Cerf de Cerfe, 3uft, This is fmaller than the laft and has the body fufcous. Third, C. €anaden/fis, 5. Gmel. C. cornitus ampliffimis, Ex. with very ample horns, Cervus Canadenfis, Brill. Stag of Virginia, Dale. Stag of Carolina, Lawion, Stag of America, Xx Catelby. CER V U's. Catefby. The hiftories of a'l thefe varieties are fo intimately blended with each other by writers that they can only be con- fidered under one general head. The ftag, fays the ingenious Buffon, is one oF thofe inno- cent and peaceable animals that feem deftined to embellifh the foreft, and animate the folitudes of nature. The cle- gance of his form, the lightnefs of his motions, the ftrength of his limbs, and the branching horns with which his head is decorated, confpire to give him a high rank among quadru- peds, ard to render him worthy the admiration of mankind. The fize and ftature of thefe animals differ according to the places they inhabit: thofe which frequent the vallies, or the hills abounding in grain, are larger and taller than thofe which feed upon dry and rocky mountains. The latter are low, thick, and fhort ; neither are they equally fwift, though they run longer than the former: they are alfo more vicious, and have longer hair on their heads; their horns are com- monly fhort and black, like a {tunted tree, the bark of which is always of a darker colour, but the horns of the flags which feed in the plains are high, and of a clear reddith colour, like the wood and bark of trees that grow in a good foil. Thefe little fquat flags never frequent the lofty woods but keep conftantly among the coppices, where they can more eafily elude the purfuit of the dogs. The Cor- fican race appears to be the fmalleft of thofe mountain ftags. This kind is fearcely more than half the height of the ordi- nary fort, and may be regarded as a terrier among flags. His colour is brown, his body fquat, and his legs fhort. Buffon feems convinced, however, that the fize and ftature of the Corfican ftag, and of {tags in general, depend on the quantity and quality of their food, for, having reared one of this breed at his houfe, and fed him plentifully for four years, he was much caller, thicker, and plumper at that age than the oldeft {tags in his woods, though thofe were of a very good fize. ‘The {tag appears to have a fine eye, an acute {mell, and an excellent ear. Like that of the cat and the owl, the eye of the ftag contracts in the light and dilates in the dark, but with this difference, that the contraGtion and dilatation are horizontally, while in the firft mentioned animals they are vertically. When the flag liltens, he raifes his head, ere€ts his cars, and perceives the found from a great diftance. When going into a coppice, or other half-covered place, he ftops to look round him on all fides, and {cents the wind to difcover if any objet be near that might difturb him. Though rather fimple, he has curiofity and cunning. If any one whiitles or calls to him from a diftance, he ftops fhort, gazes attentively, and with a kind of admiration ; and if thofe who difturb him have neither dogs nor offenfive weapons, he commonly paffcs along quietly, and without altering his pace. He appears to lilten with great tranquillity and delight to the {hepherd’s pipe, and the hunters fometimes make ufe of this inftrument to embolden and deceivethem. They will follow the founds of mufic for miles, proceeding while they hear it, halting the moment the players ceafe, and again advancing when the mufic recommences. In general the ftag is lefs afraid of men than of dogs, and is never fufpicious, or ufes any arts of concealment, but in proportion as he is difturbed. Heeats flowly, feleéts his food with care, and, after his {tomach is full, feeks a place to lie down and ruminate at leifure. He Seem3 to perform the aé& of rumination with lefs facility than the ox, and it appears only by violent efforts he can caufe the food to rife from his firft tomach. This difficulty arifes from the length and dire@tion of the paflage through which the aliment muft pafs: the neck of the ox is fhort and ftraight, but that of the ftag is long and arched, and therefore greater efforts are required in rumination, In winter and fpring the ftag does not drink, the dews with which the tender herbage is furcharged being then fuf- ficient to fatyfy his thirft, but during the parching heats of the fummer ah frequents the brooks, marfhes, and fountains, and in autumn is fo over-heated that he fearches every where for water to bathe and refrefh his body. He then fwims with more eafe than at any other time, on account of his fatnefs, and has been obferved croffing very large rivers, It has been afferted, that in the feafon of love, flags will throw themfelves into the fea, and pafs from one ifland to another at the diftance of feveral leagues in fearch of the hinds. Pontoppidan tells us that the Norwegian ftags, which are only in the diocefes of Bergen and Drontheim, have been feen to fwim in numbers acrofs the ftraits from the continent to the adjacent iflands, refting their heads upon each others cruppers, and that when thofe who lead are fatigued they retire behind, and the molt vigorous take their places. The ftag leaps ftill more nimbly than he fwims, and, when purfued, can readily clear a hedge or paling of fix feet height. ‘The aliment of the flags differs according to the feafons. In autumn they fearch for the buds of green fhrubs, the flowers of the heath, and leaves of bram= bles. In the winter, during the fnow, they ftrip the bark off the trees, and feed upon that, and the mofs which they find on the trees; and in mild weather they browfe in the corn fields. In the beginning of {pring they go in queft of the catkins of the trembling poplar, willow, and hazel, and the flowers and buds of cornel. In fummer, when they have abundance and variety, they prefer rye to all other grain, and the black berry bearing alder (rhamnus frangula) to all other wood. Stags, in general, caft their horns fooner or later in the fpring, in proportion to their ages. It feldom happens that both horns fall off at the fame time, the one generally pre- ceding the other by a day ortwo. The old ftags caft their horns firft, which takes place about the middle of February, or beginning of March: thofe in the feventh year or up- wards, do not caft their horns before the middle of March : a {tag of fix years fheds his horns in April: young ftags, or thofe from three to five years old, fhed their horns in the beginning, and thofe which are in the fecond year not till the middle or end of May. But in all this there is much variety : for the old flags fometimes caft their horns fooner than thofe which are younger ; and befides, the fhedding of their horns is advanced by a mild, and retarded by a fevere and long winter. As foon as the flags caft their horns, they feparate from each other, the young ones only keeping together. They no longer haunt the deep recefles of the foreft, but advance into the cultivated country, and remain - among brufh-wood during the fummer, till their horns are renewed. In this feafon they walk with their heads low, to avoid rubbing their horns again{t the branches. The horns of the old flags are not half completed in the middle of May, and acquire their full fize and hardnefs before the end of July. Thofe of the young ftags are in proportion later both in fhedding and renewing their horns. When full grown, the animals rub them ftrongly again{t the boughs of trees, or any other convenient objc¢t in order to free them from the fkin which covers them, and is then become ufelefs 5 and by the beginning of Auguft they begin to affume the full ftrength and confiftence which they retain throughout the remainder of the year. Soon after the {tag has cleared off the exuberant fkin from the horns, he evinces an inclination for the female. By the end of Augulft, or beginning of September, they leave the coppice, return to the foreft, and begin to fearch out their favourite hinds ; they cry with a loud voice, their neck and 5 throat CERVUG. throat fwell, they grow reftlefs, traverfe the fallow grounds and plains in open day, and dart their horns againit the trees and hedges. Ina word, they feem tranfported with fury, and range from place to place till they have found their fe- males, whom they have to purfue and overcome, before they fubmit to their pleafure. If two ftags approach the fame hind at this time a combat enfues : if their ftrength be nearly equal, they threaten, plough up the earth with their paws, make a terrible noife, and dart upon each other with the utmolt fury. Their battles are carried on to fuch extremities, that they often infli& mortal wounds with their horns, nor is the combat ever concluded but by the complete defeat or flight of one of them, when the conqueror enjoys the fruit of his victory, unlefs another male happens to appear, and then a fecond combat is fure to enfue. The oldett {tags are com- monly victorious, becaufe they are fercer, and poflefled of greater ftrength than the young ones. The old ttags are the moft ardent and inconftant, having commonly feveral females at the fame time, and when they have but one they remain attached to her but a few days before they go in fearch of a fecond, with whom they remain a {till fhorter time. and then wander to others. The rutting feafon lafts about three weeks, during which period they eat but little, ard are ftrangers to all repofe; night and day they are on foot, ranging about, fighting with the males, or enjoying the fe- males, and of courfe when the rutting feafon is over are fo walted, meagre, and fatigued, that they require a length of time to recover their ftrength. They then retire to the borders of the forelt, and graze on the belt cultivated lands, where they find food in abundance, and where they continue till their ftrength is reftored. The rutting feafon, among the old ftags, commences about the rt, and con- cludes about the 20th of September; with thofe of fix or feven years oldit begins in the middle of September, and ends the beginning of October; with the young flag it begins about the 2cth of September, and lafts to the 15th of Otober, by the end of which month the rutting is all over, except among the prickets, who, as well as the young hinds, are the latelt in coming into feafon: thus, by the beginning of November, the rutting time is entirely finifhed, and, at that period, the flags, being in the weakelk condition, are moft eafily hunted down, In thofe feafons, when acorns are plentiful, they recover in a very fhort time, and a fecond rut will take place towards the end of Oétober, but this is always of a much fhorter duration than the firft. In warmer climates, as the feafons are more forward, the rutting feafon begins fooner. Ariftotle tells us, in Greece it commences the beginning of Auguft, and concludes towards the end of September. The hinds go with young cight months and a few days, and feldom produce more than one fawn, which they bring forth in May or the beginning of June. They take the greatelt care to conceal their fawns, and will even prefent ‘themfelves to be chafed in order to draw off the dogs, and afterwards return to take care of their young. All hinds are not prolific, and fome of them are even barren ; thefe kinds ‘are more grofs and fat than the others, and are fooner in ‘heat. It is alfo faid fome hinds have horns like the ftags. The young are not called fawns after the fixth month, then the knobs begin to appear, and they take the name of knob- bers, which they bear till their horns lengthen into fpears, and then they are called brocks and prickets. Though they grow very faft. they do not quit the mother all the firtt fummer. In the winter they all refort together, and their herds are more numerous as the feafin is more fevere. In the (pring they divide, the hinds retiring to bring forth ; and they are only the prickets and young itags which then keep together. In general the flags are inclined to affociate, and it is only from fear or neceffity that they are ever found difperfed. At the age of eighteen months the ftags are capable of engendering, for thofe brought forth in the {pring of the preceding year will couple with the hinds in autumn, The ftag continues to increafe in fize till he has completed his eighth year. As the ftag is very quick at firft in his growth, a year does not pafs before this redun- dancy fhews itfelf. If brought forth in May, the horns be- gin to appear in May following, and continue to increafe till the end of Augutt, by which time they are full grown, The longevity of the flag, which became proverbial among the ancients, is in fome degree a vulgar error, for though the animal, compared with many quadrupeds, may be juftly con- fidered as long-lived, fince it is fuppofed in fome inftances to arrive at the age of 35 or 40 years, yet it is by no means pofleffed of the longevity afcribed to it by fome of the an- cients. Ariftotle difcountenances this filly prejudice; but it was, as Buffon obferves, again revived in the days of igno- rance, and fupported by the ftory of a fiag that was taken by Charles VI. in the foreft of Senlis, with acollar upon the neck bearing this infcription, ‘* Czfar hoc me donavit ;” the people rather choofing to believe this {tag had lived a thoufand years, and had received his collar from a Roman emperor, than that he came fiom Germany, where the em= perors affumed the name of Czfar. . In Britain the ftag is become lefs common than formerly its exceffive vicioufnefs during the rutting feafon inducing moft people to difpenfe with this {pecies, and rear the fallow deer, which is of a more placid nature, in its ftead. Some attempts have indeed been made to render the {tag domettic, by treating them with the fame gentlencfs as the Laplanders do their rein-deer : and it appears, in the Ifle of France, where the Portuguefe had introduced the European breed, they had fo far fueceeded by degrees as to render them quite do- meftic, many of the inhabitants keeping large flocks of them. But when the French took poffeilion of that ifland they de- ftroyed moft of thofe domefticated flags. Valmont de Bro- mare afferts that he faw in Germany a fet, or “ attelage,”” confifting of fix ftags, that were perfectly obedient to the curb, and ative to the ftroke of the whip; and in the mag- nificent ftables of Chantilly, in the year 1770, were two ftags that were. occafionally harneffed to a {mall chariot, in which they carried two perfons. The fleth of the old flags is very bad; that of the female is not amifs, but the flefh of the young fawns is {lill better. The fkin and the horns are the moft ufeful parts of this animal. The fkin makes a pliable and durable leather, and the horns, being extremely compaét, folid, hard, and weighty, make excellent handles for knives, and other inftruments. Stags are itil) found wild in the Highlands of Scotland, in herds of four or five hundred together, ranging at full liberty over the valt hills of the north, fome of which grow to a great fize. Pennant fays, upon the authority of Mr. Farguharfon, that one of thofe wild ftags weighed 314 pounds, exclufive of the entrails, head, and-fkin. Formerly the great Highland chicf- tains ufed to hunt with the magnificence of eaftern monarchs, affembling four or five thoufand of their clan, who drove the deer into the toils, or to the ftation their lairds had placed themfelves in. But as this pretence was frequently ufed to colleé their vaffals for rebellious purpofes, an a€t was pafled prohibiting any aflembly of this “kind. Stags are likewife met with on the moors that border on Cornwall and Devon- fhire; and in Ireland on the mountains of Kerry, where they add greatly to the magnificence of the romantic {cenery of the lake of Killarney. Pennant is perfuaded that the {tag is not a native of America, and confiders the deer known Xx 2 ia CERVUS. in that country by the name of ftag as a diftinG fpecies. It has been already mentioned that the American ftag is a variety, C. canadenfis of Evxleben. The Americas hunt and fhoot thofe animals, not fo much for the fake of the ficth as of the fat, which ferves as tallow in making candles, and the fkins, which they difpofe of to the Hudfon’s bay company. They are caught principally in the inland parts, near the vicinity of the lakes. Dama. Horns branched, recurved, and compreffed, with palmated fummits.’ Linn. Fn. Suec. Schreber, &c. Cervus palmatus, Dama, > Dama cervus, Klein. Cervus platyceros, Ray. Dann hirfch, Ridinger. Dain et Daine, Buft. The fallow deer is confiderably fmaller than the {tag, and is of a brownifh-bay colour, varying, in different individuals, to deeper or paler, and is {potted on the back with white ; and fometimes, though rarely, the whole of the back is white. Colour beneath, and on the infides of the limbs, whitifh. Tail rather longer in proportion than that of the common ftag, white beneath, and commonly bounded on each fide by a defcending ftreak of black; but the principal mark of diftinGtion between this fpecies and the ftag is the form of the horns, which, as in the itag, are peculiar to the male, and are ciliated at the upper part, and palmated or divided into proceffes which are continued toa confiderable diitance down the horn. An antler or fimple flender procefs rifes from the bafe of each, anda fimilar one at fome diltance above the firft, both pointing fomewhat forwards. In its general form the animal greatly refembles the flag, but is tmaller, and of a more gentle difpofition. The manners,of the fallow deer refemble thofe of the ftag, but he is obferved to be lefs delicate in the choice of his food, eating a variety of vegetables which are refufed by the other. He alfo preferves his venifon better, and even after the rutting reafon he does net appear exhautted, but continues in nearly the fame ftate throughout the year. He browfes clofer than the ftag, and is for that reafon more prejudicial to yourg trees. At the fecond year the fallow buck feeks the fe- male, and like the ftag is inconf{tant in his attachments. ‘The doe goes with young eight months and fome days. She commonly produces one fawn, fometimes two, and very rarely three. ‘They are capable of engendering from two years of age till fifteen or fixteen, and feldom live more than twenty. The horns of the fallow buck, like thofe of the ftag, are fhed every year, but at a fomewhat later period, happening about fifteen days later. At their firlt appearance they re- femble a pair of foft, tumid knobs, or tubercles, and are covered with a villous fkin ; they gradually enlarge, lengthen, and widen at the tops, and when full grown, the fin which had ferved to protect and nourifh the young horn becoming ufelefs, is rubbed off by the animal, the impreffion of the blood veffels ftill remaining on the complete horn, in the form of fo many ramified furrows. During the rutting fee- fon they are neither fo furious nor fo violent in their ardour as the common ftag. They never quit their own pattures in fearch of the females, though they will difpute ard fight furioufly for the poffeffion of them. It often happens when there is a number in one park, that they will divideinto two parties, and engage each other with much refolution ; but thefe contefts generally occur from a with they both have to graze upon fome particular fpot. Each of thefe parties has its chief; thefe lead on the engagement, and the relt follow under their diretion. One victory is not fuffi- cient, neither party yielding upon a fingle defeat ; but as the battle is renewed daily, the weakeft are at laft compelled to retire to fome fecluded part of the park, and be content with the worlt paiturage. This animal is not fo univerfal as the common ftag, and is even rare in fome parts of Europe, asim France and Germany. ‘They abound- in England, but are chiefly confined to parks. In Spain it is faid to arrive at a fize nearly equal to that of the common ftag. It is found in Greece, Paleftine, the north of China, and in Perfia. The fallow deer in America have been introduced there from Europe; for the animal called the American fallow deer is of a very different kind, and is peculiar to the new con- tinent. Vircintanus. Horns ramofe, turned forwards, and rather palmated. Penn. quad. Cervus wvirginianus, Gmel. Dama virginiana, Ray. Cervus platyceros, Sloane. Che- vreuil, Du Pratz. Fallow deer, Lawfon. Virginian deer, Penn. : This animal refembles the fallow deer, but is taller, has alonger tail, and is of alighter colour ; the horns are more flender with numerous branches on the infide, and has no brow antlers. The general colour is a light cinereous brown, the head of a deeper caft, and the belly, fides, fhoulders, and thighs whitifh, mottled with brown; “the tail, which is about ten inches long, is dufky above, and white below. This kind of deer inhabits all the provinces fouth of Canada, but in greateft abundance in the vatt favannas contiguous to the Mifiiffippi, and the great rivers. that flow into it, grazing in innumerable herds along with the flags and buffaloes. This fpecies is fuppofed by fome to extend as far as Guiana, and to be the daiew of that country, which is faid to be about the fize of an European buck, with fhort horns bending forward at their extremities. This opinion is erroneous, the daiew being now afcertained to be a very diftinct animal (Cervus mexicanus, Gmel.) The Virginian deer are fometimes tamed and ufed by the Indians, after being properly trained, to decoy the wild, efpecially at the rutting feafon, within the range of the hunters’? mufkets. Both bucks and does herd from Sep- tember to March, after which the does fecrete themfelves. to bring forth, and are found with difficulty. From this time the bucks keep feparate till the rutting feafon in September following. The deer begin to feed about twilight ; and fometimes in the day-time, but then only in the rainy fea- fon, otherwife they rarely venture to quit their haunte. Thefe animals are very rcitlefs and always in motion. Thofe which live near the fhores are lean and bad, and are greatly troubled with worms in their head and throat, the larva no- doubt of various infeéts that like the stobani, and o¢fri, or gad-fly, depofit their eggs in the flefh of the animal. Thofe which frequent the lulls and favannas are better, but the venifon of thefe is dry. In hard winters they are ob- ferved to feed much on the different fpecies of ufnea or ftring-mofs, which hangs from thetrees. ‘Thefe, in common with the other cloven-footed quadrapeds of America, are very fond of falt, and refort eagerly to the places impreg- nated with it; they are alfo always feen in great numbers licking the earth in the fpots where the ground has been torn by torrents or other accidents. Such fpots are called licking places in America, and the hunters are fure to find plenty of game in thofe fituations; for notwith{tanding they are fo often difturbed they foon return again in droves” to their favourite haunts. The deer are of the firlt importance to the Indians. The fkins form the greateft branch of their traffic, by which they procure from the colonifts in exchange many of the articles of life. The flefh is their principal Food throughout the year, which they prepare by drying it over a clear gentle fire, after cutting it into {mall pieces, and, in this ftate, it is not only capable of long prefervation, but is very portable in their fudden cexcurfions, efpecially when reduced to powder, C ER Weu S. powder. That the fkins form an article of very extenfive commerce will not admit of doubt; fo long ago as the year 1764. no lefs than 25,027 fkins were imported, according to Mr. Pennant, from New York and Pennfylvania. The trade is at prefent {till more confiderable. Axts. Horns ramofe, round, and ereét; fummit bifid ; body fpotted with white. Erxleb. Schreber, &c. xis, Plin. Ray, &c. This animal, which is known by the name of the Ganges ftag, is one of the moft beautiful {pecies of this genus. Its fize is nearly that of the fallow-deer, and its colour an elegant light rufous brown, diltin&ly and beautifully marked with numerous white {pots ; the under parts are paler, and a line of white generally feparates the colour of the upper from the lower parts; the tail refembles that of the fallow- deer, and is reddifh above and white beneath. The fpecies is faid to be very common in fome parts of India, about the banks of the Ganges, and in the ifland of Ceylon. It is defcribed by Pliny, among the animals of India, and is faid to have beem facred to Bacchus. It has been intro- duced into Europe, and is occafionally feen in parks and menageries. They are readily tamed and feem to fuffer lit- tle from a change of climate. Pennant makes two varieties of the fpotted Axis, the middle Axis and great Axis. The middle Axis is de- feribed as being of alight rufous colyur, but never fpotted. Sometimes, however, it is faid to vary into white, and in that ftate is confidered as a great rarity. It inhabits dry hilly forelts in Ceylon, Borneo, Celebes, and Java, where it is found in very numerous herds. he flefh is much efteemed by the natives, and is dried, and faltcd for ufe. The exiftence of the great Axis is afcertained from a pair of horns in the Britith Mufeum, refembling thofe of the former in fhape, but of a larger fize. They meafure two feet nine inches im length, are of a whitifh colour, and flrong, thick, and rugged. Pennant conjectures they were brought from Ceylon or Borneo, having been informed by Mr. Loten, who had long refided in the former of thofe iflands, that a very large kind of ftag as tall as a horfe, and of a reddith colour, with trifurcated horns, exilted there as well as in Borneo. In the latter ifland, where they are faid to frequent low marly tra&s, they are called water flags. ~ Porcinus. Horns flerder, trifurcated: body above fufcous, beneath cinereous, Schreber. Porcine deer, Penn. The length of this animal is three feet and a half; height two feet and a half; horns thirteen inches long, and the tail eight inches. The body is thick and clumfy, the legs fine and fleuder ; the colour on the upper part of the neck, body, and fides brown; of the belly and rump lighter. Mr. Pennant’s defcription of this fpecies was taken from a fpecimen in the poffeffion of the late Lord Clive, and was brought from Bengal. It is alfo faid to be found in Borneo, where it is called the hog-deer from the thicknefs of its body. Of their feet, Mr. Pennant fays, are made tobacco-ftoppers in the fame manner as of thofe of the fmaller kinds of antelopes and mutks. Arricanus. Horns flender and trifurcated; limbs fhort, thick, and brown; body above fawn-coloured with white fpots, beneath whitifh. Cerf-Cochon, Buff. fuppl. Spotted Porcine deer, Shaw. Gen. Zool. This animal, which is defcribed by Buffon under the name of Cerf-cochon or Hog-deer, is a native of the Cape of Good Hope. Dr. Shaw confiders it as a probable variety of C. Porcinus, and the French writers of the prefent day think it ouly a variety of the common ftag. If the defcriptions of this little known animal be corre&, we fhould however rather incline to admit it as a diltinét fpe- cies, and under this idea name it Africanus. It is the fame fize as the laft, but the limbs are not fine and flender as in that animal; they are on the contrary fhort and thick; the legs and hoofs are very fmall; the fur fawn coloured, darkeft on the back, and fpotted like the Axis with white ; the eyes are black ; and the upper eyelids fur- nifhed with long black hairs; the nofe is black ; head reddifh-white intermixed with grey; ears large with white hairs within; and the tail fawn-coloured above, beneath white. Mexicanus. ~Horns trifurcated at the tip and turned forward ; body rufous. Penn. Gmel. Cervus major, corni- culis breviffimis, Biche des bois, Barrer. Teutlal magame, Hernandez. Baieu, Bancroft, Gui. Chevreuil d’ Ame- rique, Buff. This {pecies is the fize of the common or European Roe- buck, and of a reddifh colour, but when young, is often fpotted with white. Whe horns are thick, ftrong, and rugged ; they bend forward, are about ten inches long, and trifurcated at the upper part, but vary fometimes in the number of procefles. The head is large: eyes large and bright, and the neck thick. The flefh is faid to be far inferior to the venjfon of Europe. This inhabits Mexico, Guiana, and Brafil. Capreotus. Horns ramofe, round, ere, and bifid at the fummit; body reddih brown. Linn, Fn. Suec. Schreber. Erxleben, &c.—Cervus capreolus, Brifl. Caprea, Plin. Ald. &c. Capreolus, Gelo. Jonft. Dorcas, Charlet. Chev- reuil et chevrette, Buff. Rehbock, Gefn. Ridinger, &c. Roe, Penn. &c. The ttag, fays Buffon, as being the nobleft inhabitant of the wood, occupies the molt fecret fhades of the foreft, and the elevated ridges of mountains, where the {preading branches form a lofty covert, while the roe, as if an inferior {pecies, is content with an humbler refidence, and is feldom found but among the thick folhage of the younger trees, and brufk-wood. But if he isinferior to the ftag in dignity, itrength, and ftature, he is endowed with more grace, viva- city, and courage. He is fuperior in gaiety, neatnefs, and fprightlinefs. His figure is more clegant and handfome: his eyes more brilliant and animated. His limbs are more fupple, his movements quicker, and he bounds feemingly without effort, with equal vigour and agility. His coat or hair is always clean, fmooth, and gloffy. He never wallows in the mire, like the ftag. He delights in dry and elevated places, where the air is pureft. He pofleffes allo more cun~ ning atid fineffe, conceals himfelf with greater addrefs, is more difficult to trace, and derives fuperior refources from inftin€&t, for though he has the misfortune to leave behind him a ftronger fcent than the ftag, which redoubles the ar- dour and appetite of the dows, he knows how to withdraw himfelf from their purfuit by-the rapidity with which he be- gins his flight, and by his numerous doublings.. He never delays, like the flag, to praétife his addrefs ull his flrength fails him, but as foon as he finds the firft efforts of a rapid chace unfuccefsful, he repeatedly returns by his former fteps, and after confounding by thefe oppofite movements the di- rection he has taken, after intermixing the laft emanations to thofe of the former courfe, he rifes from the earth by one great bound, retreats to one fide, where he lies down flat on his belly, and in this fituation ailows the whole troop of his deceived purfuers to pafs clofe to him without attempting to move, 4 The roe differs from the {tag and fallow deer, in difpofi- tion, temperament, manners, and almoft every natural habit. Iaftead s LER Tnftead of herding together, they live in feparate families ; the fire, dam, and young form a little community, and never ad- mit a ftranger mto it. ‘They are conftant in their amours, and never unfaithful like the ftag. During the period in which they are engaged in the taflc of nurfing a new family, they drive off the former brood, as if to oblige them to yield their place to thofe which are to fucceed, and to form new families for themfelves ; but when this feafon is paffed, the fawns again return to their mother, and remain with her fome time ; after which they feparate entirely, and remove to a diftance from the place which gave them birth. The female goes with young five months and a half, and brings forth about the end of April or beginning of May. The hinds, or female ftags, on the contrary, go with young above eight months, and this diflerence is alove {uffi- cient to prove that thefe animals are fo remote from each other in {pecies as to prevent their ever intermixing or pro- ducing an intermediate race. By this difference, as well as that of figure and fize, they approach the goat, as much as they recede from the flag, and go with young nearly the fame time. The female, when about to bring forth, retires to the deepeft receffes of the foreit. In ten or twelve days the fawns acquire fufficient ftrength to enable them to fol- low her. When threatened with danger, fhe hides them ina clofe thicket, and to preferve them allows herfelf to be the objeG@ of purfuit. But notwithftanding all her care and anx- iety, the young are fometimes carried off by men, dogs, or wolves. This is, indeed, the time of their greateft de- itru€tion. As the roes love hills, or plains on the tops of mountains, they never {tay long in the deep receffes of the foreft, nor in the middle of extenfive woods, but give the preference to the fkirts of woods which are furrounded with cultivated fields, and to open coppices which produce the berry-bearing alder. About the end of the firft year, when the fawns are fepa- rated from their parents, the firft horns begin to appear, in the form of two knobs, much lefs than thofe of the ftag. Contrary to thofe of the {tag, which are caft in the fpring and renewed in the fummer, the horns of the roe fall off at the end of autumn, and are replaced in the winter. When the roe-buck has renewed his horns, he rubs them again{t the trees, like the tag, in order to free them from the velvety fkin with which they are covered, andthiscommonly happensabout the month of March, before the trees begin to fhoot. The fecond horns of the roe have two or three antlers on each fide; the third three or four; the fourth four or five, and after this their horns are feldom furnifhed with a farther pumber of antlers. The horns of the old ones are dif- tinguifhed after this by the thicknefs of their ftems, the Jargenefs of the bur, pearlings, &c. As long as the horns continue foft, they are extremely fenfible: of this Buffon defcribes a ftriking example. The young fhoot of a roe- buck’s horn was carried off by a ball, the animal was ftunned, and fell down as if he had been dead. The thoot- er, who was near, feized him by the foot; but the roe-buck fuddenly recovering his fenfes and ftrength dragged the man, though he was ftrong and alert, thirty paces into the wood. After killing him with a knife, it was difcovered that the roe had received no other wound. As the female roe goes with young only five months and a half, and as the growth of the fawn is more rapid than that of the ftag, the duration of her life is much thorter, feldom extending perhaps beyond twelve or fifteen years. They are delicate in their choice-of food, and require a great deal of exercife, free air, and much room, which is the reafon they are unable, after the firft year of their growth, to refift the inconvenience of domettic life. They may be tamed, VU 6. but can never be rendered obedient or familiar. They al- ways retain a portion of their natural wildnefs, are eafily terrified, and then run with fuch violence againft the walls that they often break their limbs. _ However tame they may be apparently, they are not to be trufted, and the males in particular, being fubje& to dangerous caprices ; they take averfions to certain perfons, and make furious attacks with their horns, the blows of which are fufficient to throw a man on the ground, after which they continue to trample on him. The roe-buck bellows, but lefs frequently than the ftag, neither is his voice fo ftrong or loud. ‘The young ones utter a fhort and plaintive cry, mi mi, by which they indicate their want of food. This found is eafily imitated, and the mother, deceived by the call, will come up to the very muz- zle of the hunter’s gun. In winter the roes frequent the thickeft coppices, and feed upon brambles, broom, heath, and the catkins of the hazels and willows. In {pring they repair to the more open brufh-wood, and eat indifcriminately the buds and young leaves of other trees. They never drink except in the very height of fummer, when the weather is hot in the extreme, the moift dews with which the herbage at other times abound being fufficient to allay their thirft. The fich of the roe is excellent when in good order, but the quality of the venifon depends much on the country they inhabit ; and even the beft countries produce good and bad kinds. The flefh of the brown roe is preferred to that of the red - fort. All the males after the age of two years have the flefh hard and ill-tafted, but that of the females though far- ther advanced in age is more tender. That of the fawns, when very young, is loofe and foft, but at the age of eigh- teen months, it is in the higheft ftate of perfection. Thofe which live in plains and vallies are not good; thofe which come from moilt countries are ftil! worfe: thofe brought up in parks are infipid ; and, laftly, there are no good roes but thofe of dry elevated countries, interfperfed with hills, woods, cultivated and fallow land, where they enjoy plenty of air, food, freedom, and folitude; for thofe which have been often difturbed are meagre, and the flefh of thofe which have been often hunted is infipid. The roe was formerly very common in Wales, in the North of England, and in Scotland, but at prefent the fpecies exifts in no other part of Great Britain befide the Scottifh Highlands, and even there are far from common at this period. In France they were more frequent, but for the lait fifty years their numbers have been rapidly diminifhing. They are found in Italy butvery rarely, and they are much fecarcer in Sweden and Norway than formerly. According to Pen- nant, the firlt that are to be met with in Great Britain are in the woods on the fouth fide of Loch Rannoch, in Perth- fhire ; and the laft in thofe of Langwal, on the fouthern bor- ders of Caithnefs, but they are moft numerous in the beautiful forefts of Invercauld, in the middle of the Grampian hills. In Ireland they are unknown. The ufual fize of the roe is three feet nine inches from the nofe to the.tail; the height before two feet three inches, but behind two fect feven inches. The tail is ebout an inch long ; the horns fix or eight inches long ; the general colour of the. animal reddifh brown, with the rump white. Like other quadrupeds it is fometimes found perfeétly white, and Buffon mentions, upon the authority of Count Mellin, a race of coal black roes that exits in a very {mali German diftri& called the foreft of Lucia, in the dominions of the king of England as duke of Lunenburg. This varicty 1s faid to-be conftantly the fame, refembling the common fort in fize, and every other particular except in colour. Muntyac. With trifurcated horus originating from a eylindrical CER cylindrical hairy bafe, and the upper fork hooked ; from the horns to the eyes three longitudinal furrows ; upper tufk projecting, Cervus Muntjac, Gmel. Schreber. Ribfaced deer, Penn. Le Chevreuil des Indies, Buff. This fpecies, which is fomewhat fmaller than the common Roe-buck, and of a thicker form like the porcine deer, is a native of Javaand Ceylon. ‘The bony procefles upon which the horns are placed, are elevated three inches from the fkull, and covered with hair ; but what feems principally to diftin- guifh this animal is the appearance of three longitudinal ribs extending from the horns to the eyes. It alfo differs from moft fpecies of the fame genus in having a tufk in the upper jaw. The animal was firlt defcribed by Pennant, who informs us it is called by the Javans Munt-jak, whence its f{pecific name, and in the Malay tongue Kidarg. Mr. Pennant further adds, that the pedettals or pillars on which the horns ftand grow thicker as the animal advances in age, and the margins {well out all round, fo that if the horns are forced off the pedeltals, the furface of the laft has the appearance of a rofe. In Allamand’s defcription of this fpecies it is added, that the tongue is fo extremely long, the animal can extend it even beyond the eyes. Vide Buff. T. 6. fuppl. Guiyernsis. Grey, beneath blackifh. Cervus Guincenfis, grifeus, fubtus nigricans, Linn. Muf. Ad. Frid. Grey deer, Pennant. Defcribed by Linneus as being the fize of a cat; the colour grey, with a line of black above the eyes, and on each fide of the throat another black line pointing down- wards; the middle of the breaft black ; fore legs and fides of belly as far as the hams marked with black; tail beneath black ;_ears rather long. As the horns were wanting in the fpecimen deferibed by Linnzus, it is doubtful whether this obf{cure animal be of the cervine tribe, or not. It is mentioned as a native of Guinea. Cervus volans, in Entomology, the name given by certain authors to the infe& called in England the ftag-beetle, Lu- canus cervus of Linneus, cerf volant of the French. See Lucanus Cervus. CERYCIUS Mans, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of Greece, in Beeotia, according to Pauianias, who adds, that Mercury was faid to be born there. From his defcription, it appears that this mountain was comprifed in the town of Tanagra—Alfo, a mountain of Afia Minor, in Ionia, near the town of Ephefus. CERYNEA, a mountain of Peloponnefus, in Arcadia, according to Paufanias. Crrynea, or CERIN#, a town of Achaia, N.W. of Bura, and oear the gulf of Corinth. It had its name, fays Paufa- nias, from the {mall river Cerynite, which flowed from a mountain of the fame name, and paffed near it. The inhabit- ants of Mycenz retired to this city, when they were com- pelled by the fierce jealoufy of the Argians to quit their own country. At Ceryne was a temple of the Eumenides, faid to have been founded by Orettes. CERYNIA, a town in the northern part of the ifland of Cyprus, E. of Lapathus. CERYX, in Antiquity. The ceryces were a fort of pub- lic minifters appointed to proclaim or publifh things aloud in affemblies. The ceryx, among the Greeks, anfwered to the Prco among the Romans. Our cryers have only a {mall part of their office and au- thority. There are two kinds of ceryces, civil and facred. Ceryces, civil, thofe appointed to call aflemblies, and make filence therein ; alfo to go on meflages, and do the office of our heralds, &c. CES Ceryces, facred, were a fort of priefts, whofe office was to proclaim filence in the public games and facrifices, pub- lifh the names of the conquerors, proclaim feaits, and the like. The priefthood of the ceryces was annexed to a par ticular family, and the defcendants of Ceryx, fon of Eumol- phus. To them it alfo belonged to lead folemn victims to flaughter. Before the ceremonies began, they called filence in the afflembly, by the formula, EvQnp.eire ouyn wees exw Acws ; anwering to the favete linguis of the Romans. When the fervice was over they difmiffed the people with this formula, Aso a?eoss, [te miffa oft. Ceryx, in Conchology, a name by which Pliny and other old authors have called a variety of fhells in the duccinum and murex genus. CESALPINI. See Casatrinus. CESANO, in Geography, a {mall ftream of Italy, in the duchy of Urbino, between which, and the river Mifa, which runs through Senegaglia, are fome ancient ditches marking the limits of the Roman camp ; and on the other fide of the Cefano fome antiquarians imagine they have difcovered the traces of the Carthaginian camp. It is certain, however, that Afdrubal (whofe name a neighbouring mountain ftill bears), brother to Hannibal, loft both his army and his life in a bat- tle fought in thefe parts. CESAR. See Czsar. CESARE, in Logic, a mode of fyllogifms in the fecond figure wherein the major propofition and conclufion are univerfal negatives, and the minor an univerfal affirmative. Such is, CE Noman who betrays his country deferves praifz. SA Lvery virtuous man merits prai/e. RE Therefore no man who betrays his country is virtuous. CESAREA, in Geography, a town of Atiatic Turkey» in the province of Caramania; 40 miles S E. of Yurcup. CESARI, Guiseppe, in Biography. See ARPINAS, CESARIA. See Couanzy. CESARIAN /edion. See Cesartan fection. CESARINI, Juin, in Biography, a cardinal of Rome, was born of an ancient but indigent family in this city to- wards the latter part of the r4th century; and having ftudied at Perugia, Padua, and Bologna, he taught canon law for fome time at Padua. Accompanying cardinal Branda da Caftiglione as fecretary upon his legation to Bohe- mia, he was diflinguifhed by his {killin the conduét of public affairs. On his return to Rome, he was deputed by. pope Martin V. as his nuncio firft to France, and then to England, maintaining in both countries, with great firmnefs, the claims of the holy fee, and eftablifhing bis chara¢ter for integrity by refufing all prefents. As a recompence he was raifed to the purple in 1426; and then fent to Bohemia, in order, by arguments and arms, to oppofe the herefy of the Huflites. As his fuccefs was not equal to his zeal, he was recalled by Eugenius I[V. and deputed to prefide at the council of Bafil, where he gained fingular reputation by his learning and eloquence. He firft took part with the fynod againft the pope in their difputes ; but at length he was gained over, and fent to the papal fynod at Ferrara. Here he diltin- guifhed himfelf in his controverfy with the Greek {chifmatics, After the termination of this council, he was fent by Euge- nius as legate to Hungary, in order to induce Ladiflaus, king of Hungary and Poland, to break the treaty of peace which he had made with fultan Amurath. His reafoning prevailed again{ft the arguments of the hero Huniades ; and he folemnly abfolved Ladiflaus from his oath to the Turkiih monarch. The confequence was the fatal battle of Varna, in 1444, in which the Chriltians were defeated with great flaughter, and Ladiflaus was killed. Cefarini alfo-tell a widtim CES victim on this occafion to his own counfel. Of his letters, orations, and difputations, many are publifhed in the acts of the councils to which-they belong. Du Pin’s E. H. of the r5th century, vol. xiii, p. 87. Moreri. Cersarini, VirGinio, the defcendant of a noble family, was born at Rome in 1595, and at an early age perfected himfelf in almoft every kind of literature, fo that he was re- garded as an univerfal genius. He was not only learned in the Greek and Latin languages, but profoundly fkilled in philo- fophy, altronomy, hiftory, geography, medicine, jurifpru- dence, oratory, and poetry. Cardinal Bellarmine compared him to the famous Pico della Mirandola, and he was honour- ed with a medal which bore the head of Pico and his own united under a crown of laurel. He wasa very diftinguifhed member of the academy of Lyncei, and intimate with prince Frederic Cefi, its founder. Urban VIII. made him one of his chamberlains, and defigned him for the cardinalate ; but his courfe of honour terminated in 1624, at the early age of 30 years. His admirable intellectual qualities were united with modetty, civility, and private worth. His only publication was a collection of Latin and Italian poems, the former of which difplay fingular elegance and amenity, though the ftyle was not rendered perfect for want of time. Several of them are printed ina collection, entitled “ Septem Illuftrium Virorum Poemata,’? Antwerp, 1662, and fince reprinted, At the requeft of cardinal Bellarmine, he had undertaken an ample demonttration of the immortality of the foul, which, with fome other works, remained incomplete. His buft, in marble, was placed in the capital with 2 pompous eulogy. Tavoriti, a learned prelate, wrote his life. Mo- reri. Gen. Biog. ; CESARIO, Sr. in Geography, a town of Naples, in the rovince of Otranto ; four miles W.S.W of Lecce. CESATA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Spaia, be- tween Arriaca and Seguntia, according to the Itinerary of Antonine. Ptolemy, who calls it Ce/ada, fays, that it was a town of Celtiberia, in the Tarragonentfis. CESBEDIUM, atemple of Afia, in Pamphylia. Po- lybius fays, that it was dedicated to Jupiter, and that it ferved as a citadel to the town of Selga. CESCUM, a town of Afia, in Cilicia, according to Pliny. CESENA, in Geography, a town of Italy, inthe province of Romagna, feated on the road from Rimini to Ravenna, on the river. Savio, at the foot of a hill, on which ttands a ruined citadel: the fee of a bifhop fuffragan of Ravenna, It has good churches and convents, and the houfes are gene- rally well built ; 18 miles S. of Ravenna. Near it, on a hill, ftands a Benedictine convent, to which belongs the church ‘* Sta. Maria del Monti de Cefena.”” Cesena, an ancient town of Gallia Cifpadana, fituate to the S.E. of Forum Livit. It is faid to have been founded by the Galli Senones, 391 years B.C. It remained under the power of the Heruli, and was befieged without effect by Theodoric. This prince, however, gained pofleffion of tt after the death of Odoacer, when Liberius, the command- ant, furrendered it to him, A. D. 493. Having fuffered much in different wars, it was partly confumed by a fire. CESENATICO, a {mall fea-port of Italy, inhabited chiefly by fifhermen, in the Adriatic, in the province of Ro- magna, which has an excellent harbour and commodious canal, with a bridge, erected in 1716, near which are two fine marble pillars of the Corinthian order; 8 miles N.E. of Cefena. CEST, a town of Italy, in the province of Umbria ; feated on the edge of a lofty mountain, or rock, expofed to the fun during its whole courfe from its rifing to its fetting. CES CESION, or Cepes, in Ancient Geography, a town of Judea, in the tribe of Iffachar, according to the book of Jofhua. It was given to the Levites of this tube, who were of the family of Gerfhen. CESIS, in Botany, a name by which fome authors ex- pele the common daucus fylveflris, wild carrot, or bird’s nett. CESLES, in Geography, a town of Hungary; 5 leagues N.N.E. of Stul-Weifenburg. CESPEDES, Pasio (Paoro or Pavt) pe, in Biogra- phy, an eminent hiltorical painter of Spain, was born at Cor- dova, of which he was afterwards dignitary, between the years 1530 and 1540. He was a man of extenfive talents and profound erudition, fo that, by the Spanifh writers, he has been extolled as an univerfal genius. He travelled twice to Rome in order to perfect himfelf in the art of pamting, to which he was peculiarly addi¢ted; and he formed his {tyle after that of Michacl Angelo, whom he alfo imitated in uniting architecture and fculpture with painting. During his refidence at Rome, he fupplied a head to a famous an- tique trunk of Seneca in white marble; and when the ori- ginal head was afterwards difcovered, that of Cefpedes was thought to be fuperior. He alfo painted in frefco at the Trinita Monti at Rome and in other places. On his return to Spain he adorned with his performarces the churches of Seville and other cities in Andalufia; but his principal pic- tures are found at Cordova. His Laft Supper in the cathe- dral is fingularly famous, both for variety of expreffion and tone of colouring, in which laft quality he is thought to have approached the manner of Corregio. His drawing, anatomy, and perfpective, are eminently corre€t. The el- teem in which he was held by federico Zuccari is evinced by the following anecdote. When this artift was applied to by the bifhop and chapter of the cathedral of Cordova for an altar piece, he peremptorily declined the commiffion, al- leging that while Paolo de Cefpedes was in Spain, there would be no occafion to fend into Italy for piétures. As au author, Cefpedes wrote a treatife on the antiquities of the church of Cordova, proving it to have been a temple of Janus. Some of his works on painting are loft. His moral character was exemplary. He died at his native place in 1608, and was buried in the cathedral. Pilkington by Fufeli: Cumberland’s Anecd. of Spanifh Painters, vol. i. CESPITOSE, in Botany, producing feveral ftems from the fame root, fo intermingled and matted together as to form a turf. CESSARES, in Geography, a territory northward of atagonia in South America, in the 48th degree of S. lat. inhabited by a mixed tribe of that name, defcended from the Spaniards, being the crews of three fhips that were wrecked on this coait in 1540. CESSAT L£xecutio, in Law. In trefpafs againit two perfons, if it be tried and found againft one, and the plain- tiff takes his execution again{t him, the writ will abate as to the other; for there ought to be a ceffut executio till it is tried againft the other defendant; 10 Edw.iyv. 11. CESSATION, the a& of intermitting, difcontinuing, or interrupting the courfe of any thing, work, action, or the like. Cessation of arms, ina Military Senfe, fignifies a total difcontinuance or fufpenfion of warlike operations or ats of hoktility for a limited time during a ftate of warfare. See CapiTuLaTion. Cessation, Ceffatio a dtvinis, in the Romi/h Church, isa penalty infli€ted for any notorious injury to the church, by putting a ftop to all divine offices, and the pga 7 © 1z Ces of the facraments, and by depriving Chriftians of church- burial. ; CESSAVIT, in Law, a writ, which lies by the flatute of Gloucefter, 6 Edw. I. c. 4, and of Weltm, 2. 13 Edw. I. c. a1 and 41.; when aman who holds lands of a lord by rent or other fervices, negleéts or cea/es to perform his fervices for two years together ; or when a religious houfe hath lands given it, on condition of performing fome certain fpiritual fervice, as reading prayers or giving alms, and negleéts it: in either of which cafes, if the cefer or negle&t have conti- nued for two years, the lord or donor and his heirs fhall have a writ of ceffavit to recover the land itfelf. F.N. B. 208. This, in fome inftances relating to religious houfes, is called eeffavit de cantaria. By the fatute. of Gloucefter, the ceffavit does not lie for lands let upon fee-farm rents (coffavit de _fco- firma), unlefs they have lain wafte and uncultivated for two years, and there be not fuilicient diftrefs upon the premiffes ; or unlefs the tenant hath fo enclofed the land, that the lord cannot come upon it to diftrain. F.N. B. 209. 2 Init. 298. For the law prefers the fimple and ordinary remedies, by diftrefs, &c. to this extraordinary one of forfeiture for a cefavit ; and therefore the fame ftaiute has provided further, that upon tender of arrears and damages before judgment, and giving fecurity for the future performance of the fervices, the procefs fhall be at an end, and the tenant hall retain his land ; to which the ftatute of Weltm. 2. conforms, fo far as may ftand with convenience and reafon of law. 2 Intt. 401.460. The ftatute 4 Geo. II.c. 28. (which permits landlords who have a right of re-entry for non-payment of rent, to ferve an eje&ment ou their tenants, when half a year’s rent is due, and there is not fufficient diltrefs on the premiffes) isin fome meafure copied from the ancient writ of cefavit; efpecially as it may be fatisfied and terminated in a fimilar manner, by tender of the rent and cofts within fix months after. And the fame remedy is, in fubitance, adopted by ftatute 11 Geo. II. c. 19. § 16. which ena&ts, that where any tenant at rack-rent fhail be one year’s rent in arrear, and fhall defert the demifed premiffes, leaving the fame uncultivated or un- occupied, fo that no fufficient diltrefs can be had; two jultices of the peace (after notice affixed on the premiffes for 14 days without effect) may give the landlord pofl fion thereof; and thenceforth the leafe fhall be void. By ftat. Weftm. 2. § 2. the heir of the demandant may maintain a ceffavit againtt the heir or affiznee of the tenant. But in other cafes, the heir may not bring this writ for ce/fure in the time of his anceftor ; and it only lies for annual fervice, rent, and fuch like, and not for homage or fealty. ‘Termes de la ley. New Nat. Brev. 463, 464. ‘The lord fhail have a writ of ceffavitagaintt tenant for life, where the remainder is over in fee to another; but the donor of an eftate-tail fhall not have a ceffavit againft the tenant in tail; though if a man make a gift in tail, the remainder over in fee to another, or to the heirs of the tenant in'tail, there the lord of whom the lands are holden tmmcciate, fhall have a ceffavit againit the tenant in tail, becaufe that heis tenantto him. Ibid. If the lord diftrains, pending the writ of cefavit againit his tenant, the writ fhall abate. The writ ceffavit is direed to the fheriff, “* to command A. B. that, &c. he render to C.D. one mefluage which he holds by certain fervices, and which ought to come to the faid C. by force of the ftatute, &c. becaufe the faid A. in doing thefe fervices had ceafed two years, &c.”’ Blackft. Comm. vol. iii. p. 232. Jacob’s Dict. by Tomlins. _ CESSE, fignifies an affeflment or tax, and is mentioned In the ftat. 22 Hen. VIII. c.3. Cefe, or Ceaffe, in Ireland, is an exaction of victuals, at a certain rate, for foldiers in garrifon. a oVoL. VII. CES CESSENON, in Geography, atown of France, in the de- “partment of Herault, and ditri@ of St. Pons; 3 leagues N- of Beziers. CESSERO, in Ancient Geography, atown of Gallia Nar- bonnenfis, on the frontiers of the Te€tofages, according to Pliny. This town was built in a valley, near the river Arauris or Erault. CESSIEUX, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Ifere, and diftric&t of La Tour-du-pin ; 27 miles E.S.E. of Lyons. CESSIO Bonorum, in Scots Law, the name of that action by which an infolvent d-btor may apply for liberation from prifon, upon making over his whole real and perfonal eltare to his creditors. CESISION, in a Legal Senfe, an at whereby a perfon furs renders up and tranfmits to another perfon, a right which belonged to himfelf. Ceffion is a general term; the {pecies whereof are a Surrender, relinguifhment, transfer, and fubrogation ; which fee. Cession is particularly ufed in the Civil Laqw, for a volun- tary and legal furrender of a perfon’s effeéts to his creditors, to avoid imprifonment. This practice ftill obtains in France and other countries ; and is done by virtue of letters patent granted in favour of the poor.and honeft. The ceffion originally carried with it a mark cf infamy, and obliged the perfon to wear a green cap or bonnet; at Lucca, an orange one: to neglect this, was to forfeit the privileges of the ceffion. This was ori- ginally intended to fignify, that the ceffionary was become poor through his own folly. The Italian lawyers defcribe the ceremony of ceffion to confilt in ftriking the bare breech three times againft a ftone, called /apis vituperti, in the prefence of the judge. For- merly it confilted in giving up the girdles and keys in court, the ancients ufing to carry at their girdles the chicf utenfils wherewith they got their living 5 as the fcrivener his efcri- toire, the merchant his bag, &c. The form of ceffion among the ancient Romans and Gauls was as follows. The ceffionary gathered up duft in his left hand, from the four corners of the houfe ; and, ftanding on the threfhold, holding the door-pott in his right hand, threw the duft back over his fhoulders ; then {tripping to his fhirt, and quitting his girdle and kags, he jumped with a pole over a hedge ; hereby letting the world know, that he had nothing left, and that when he jumped, all he was worth was in the air with him. The judicial ceffion is that which is made by a merchant or trader, who is adtually kept in prifon by his creditors, and who being abfolutely incapable to fatisfy them, petitions a court of juftice for leave to make ceflion. "Chis judicial ceflion is certainly compulfive on the part of the creditors; fince the debtor is commonly allowed the benefit of a ceffion by an order from the judges, notwithftanding the oppofition made by the creditors to prevent it; which renders this ceflion more infamous than that which is voluntary. See Bankrupt, Cesston, in the Leclefiaflical J.aw, is one manner of va~ cating or voiding an ecclefiaftical benefice. Ceflion is an implicit kind of refignation, underftood where a perfon does fome aét, or takes on himfelf fome charge, which is inconfiitent with his holding the benefice of which he was before poffeffed. dy flatute 21 Hen. VIII. c. 13. if aclerk have one bene- fice of 81. per annum, or upwards (according to the prefent valuation in the king’s books), and takes another, of what value foever, with cure of fouls, and without difpenfa- Vy tion ; CES tion; the former living is, i/o fado, void; and this kind of yoidance of a living is cailed ceffion, See Dispensa- TION, Iu cafe of a ceffion under the ftatute, the church is fo far void upon inftitution to the fecond living, that the patron may take notice af it, and prefent if he pleafes; but it feems that a lapfe will not incur from the time of inftitiition againft the patron, unlefs notice be given him; but it will from the time of indu€tion. 2 Wilf. 200. 3 Burr. 1504. What is called ceffion in other benefices, is called confecra- tion'in relation to a bifhoprick ; for if an incumbent be made a bifhop, his benefice is faid to be void by confecration: and to fuch benefice or benefices the king fhall prefent for that time, whoever is patron of them ; in the other cafe the patron may prefent. See CommMENDAM. CESSIONARY, a bankrupt. affignee. CESSITANUS, in Ancient Geography, an epifcopal town of Africa} in Mauritania Ceefarienfis. CESSOR, in Law, one dilatory and delinquent in his duty, or fervice, and who thereby incurs the danger of the law, and is liable to have the writ ceffavis brought againt them, When it is faid the tenant ceffeth, it is meant, he ceafeth to do his duty, or fervice, to which he is bound. CESTAYROLS, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Tarn; 3 leagus N. of Alby. CESTI, 11 Papre Marc’ Antonio, d’duzzo Minor Conventuale e Cavaliere dell? Imperatore, in Biography, an Italian vocal compofer of mufic, of confiderable eminence in the 17th century. He fet an opera for Venice, in 1649, called Orontea, which was revived at Milan, with the fame mufic, in 1662; at Venice, 1666; at Bologna, 1669; and again at Venice, 1683; always colla Mufica fleffz, during 34 years | ’ Ip has been extremely difficult to find any of the mufic of the early operas that was not printed. Luckily, a fcene of Gelti’s.celebrated opera of Orontea, conipofed in 1649, and afterwards fo frequently revived, was found in the mufic- book-of Salvator Rofa, in that painter’s own hand-writing. (See Hitt. Muff. vol. iv. p. 67.) This air is fuppofed to have been the firft {trainin meafured melody that was intro» duced at the termination of a fcene of recitative. Cofti is faid tohave beena difcipleof Cariffini, which is hardly reconcilable with the date of this opera, as Cariflimi did not begin to be known at Rome till after the year 1640. Adami fays, that Cefti was admitted as a tenor finger in the Pope’s chapel, 1660; and that “the moft celebrated of all his operas, of which five were compofed for Venice, was La Dori, il lumi maggiore dello fil Teatrale.’? "This opera fir appeared at Venice, 1663, and was not only revived there in 1667, and 1672, but frequently performed with great applaufe in the other principal cities of Italy. Songs have, fince thefe times, been fo much compofed to difplay the peculiar talents and abilities of fingers, that operas can * never be fuccefsfully revived but where the fame performers, who fung in them originally, happen-to furvive, and to be engaged at the fame theatre; which is not likely to happen at the diftance of many. years, Indeed, if, contrary to the chances. againft it, fuch a concurrence of circumftances fhould take place, twenty or thirty years generally make fuch havock with fine voices, fine tafte in finging, and fine feelings. in judging, that it is by no means certain that they would then pleafe the fame critics as much as for- merly. ‘The number of cantatas that Céfi produced, feems incal- eulable.; as in every old library or colle@tion of Italian old Sometimes it denotes an yocal:mufic, that we have examined abroad and at home, . CES we-find more of his cantatas than of any other author, At Chrift Church, Oxford, in the colle@tion or Dr. Aldrich,’ in the Britith Mufeum, in the d’Arcy colleGtion of the late Earl of Holderneffe, in that of Lord Keeper North, of Sir Roger l’Eftrange, and of all the ancient families who culti- vated mufic in the r7th century, we found innumerable can- tatas by Ceili; and it appears in thefe cantatas, tnat he was a great jmprover of recitative. Sce Orera, Canara, and RecipaTive. CESTLA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy, in Liguria, at a fmall diftance E. of Quadrata, and N. of Ri- gomagus. ; CESTISSA, a town of Lower Pannonia, according to Ptolemy. The Itinerary of Antonine marks it on the route from AZimona to Sirmium, between Leuconum and Cibalee. CESTRATUM, a work enamelled, or painted with a ceflron. The word is alfo written ceroffrotum and cerov. Jfratum. CESTREUS, or rather Cesreus, in J¢hthyology, the name of a fifh defcribed by old writers as being of the mullet kind, but having a much {maller and narrower head, and its fides variegated with much fhorter longitudinal lines. From this defcription we fufpe&t the Gmelinian Gobius Gronovit: mu{t be intended, a fifh which Ray defcribes as a mullet (Mugil Americanus), and Klein as Ceffeus argenteus, onifeis lineis intertextis, oculis ellipticis, pinnis albicantibus, pinna dorfalt maxima... See Goaius Gronovit. CESTRI, in Ancient Geography, an epifcopal town of Avfia, in Tfauria. CEST RINA, a fmall country of Epirus. CESTRON, in Antiquity, the inftrument wherewith they. ainted or enamelled, in horn, or ivory. CESTROPHENDONUS, or rather CestrosPHEN- DONE, from xiorza, or x . a a 4 CE ¥ BO N. faid he, ‘that if they will only be willing to build a fort in this iland, myfelf, my wife, and my children will be the firlt to fupply them with the neceflary materials.”? The Dutch loft no time in availing themfelves of the advantages that were offered; and next year Sebald de Wert and Van Wearweck arrived with feven fhips, and in a conference with the king, propofed to conclude a treaty. A ferious difpute, however, occurred, and Don John, under the fudden impulfe of refentment, caufed the Dutch commander, De Wert, and his atcendants, to be inftantly murdered. The king foon repented of this rafh aét; and it is faid that to the day of his death, which happened foon after, he lamented the murder of the Dutch. After the death of Don John, the inferior princes, hitnerto awed by his authority, began to affert their independence ; and the prince of Ouvé, the moft powerful ‘among them, openly afpired to the fupreme dominion. 3 ‘he eaprefs Donna Catherina, however, foon fucceeded, by her aftivity and addrefs, in reducing thefe difturbances. | ‘She refufed an alliance with the Portuguefe, and afterwards married Coniveirat, a kinfman of the late king, and fent a deputation to the Dutch, requefting their affillance againtt the Portuguefe. The Dutch fpeedily complied; and in 1612 Marvellus de Bouchover arrived at Candy as ambafla- dor from the States of Holland, and was received with every poffible mark of diftin&tion ;. a chair of gold being prepared for him, and alfo robes of white, which is the royal colour. He concluded with the king a treaty, confifting of 33 arti- cles. Among other ftipulations, it was agreed that a per- manent peace fhould be eftablifhed between the Dutch and Candians ; and in cafe of an attack by the Portuguefe, the Dutch agreed to refift them with all their forces. In return, the king allowed the Dutch to build a fort at Cottiarum. They were alfo allowed to ere& at Candy warehoufes for oods. The king likewife engaged to convey all the mer- chandife of the Dutch to Candy, and whatever they pur- chafed in his dominions to Cottiarum at his own charge. All his fubje&ts were to be at liberty to traffic with the Dutch, who were allowed to export all forts of merchandife free of duty. He alfo engaged to deliver to them all the cinnamon grown in his country, to be patd for in goods at the ufual exchange rate. The king ftipulated further not to grant free commerce to any European nation, without the exprefs confent of the Dutch. The cuitoms agreed upon by both parties were to be fhared equally by the contracting powers. The king agreed to furnifh the Dutch with tim- ber, and other materials for fhip-building, at a moderate rate, and he obliged himfelf to difpofe of all his precious ftones and pearls to the Dutch, at a fair rate ; and they, on their part, ftipulated to fupply him with fet jewels and other valu- able ornaments. ‘The king alone was to have the power of coining money, or to fixits value; and any fubjects of either power who were convicted of coining bafe money were to be put to death. A\ll the officers of the Dutch company were to be exempt from his majefty’s jurifdifdiGion, and to be tried for any offence by their own countrymen ; and the fame privilege was reciprocally extended to the fubjects of the king. All prizes taken on the coaft of Ceylon were to be fhared equally between the contracting parties, provided the prifoners be ranfomed and not put to death. Pafles were to be granted by the Dutch officers to fuch of his ma- jefty’s fubjeGts as intended to trade in the parts poffeffed by the company, and the fame from the king to the Dutch fub- jeGts intending to traffic in his dominions ; and a!l who traded without fuch pafles were liable to be feized, and to have their goods confifcated. The contracting parties engaged to do their utmoft to preferve inviclate the ftipulations of this treaty, the principal of which have been above recited, ry ; and to give full fatisfaGtion for amy damages incurred by the violation of them, as well as to infliG@ fevere punifhments on thofe who were guilty of infringing them. his treaty, which was concluded in the name of the king of Candy and the prince of Orange, difplayed much feeming moderation on the part of the Dutch; and it would have been happy even for their own interells if they had maintained the fame moderation in their tranfactions with the natives, after hav- ing gained a firm footing in the ifland, as while they were attempting to obtain a fettlement by the arts of infinuation. The Portuguefe were alarmed at this alliance, and attempted to prevent its cffe@ ; but their efforts, though renewed with vigour for feveral fucceflive years, proved ultimately unfuc- cefsful. In 1656 the Portuguefe were reduced to the ne- ceffity of furrendering Columbo to the Dutch, alter a fiege of feven months, and a lofs to the combatants of not fewer than 3000 lives. By the fall of this place, an end in fac& was put to the dominion of the Portuguefe, about a century and. a-half after their firft arrival. In 1658 the Dutch, urider Vander Goens, took Manaar, and the Portuguefe were fhut up in Jafnapatam, the only fort remaining in their -pof- feffion. At length, after an obftinate defence, a Portuguele fleet, which attempted to relieve the place, being defeated, and no hope of fuccour being left, the garrifon furrendered, and the Portuguefe were thus totally driven from the ifland. The joy of the Ceylonefe, on being refcued from the yoke of thefe tyrannical invaders, and their gratitude to their deliverers, at firft knew no bounds. The king of Candy voluntarily paid the expences of their armaments in cinnamon ; and conferred upon his new allies the principal pofleffions, from which he had by their affittance expelled the Portuguefe. Among thefe were the port of Trincoma- lee, and the fortrefs of Columbo. The former of thefe, which lies on the N.E. part of the ifland, is that harbour which renders Ceylon the moft valuable ftation in the Indian Ocean. Columbo was originally built by the Portuguefe in the S.W of the ifland, in the heart of that tra€& moft cele- brated for the production of cinnamon, as the moft commo- dious for colle&ing that ftaple produ€tion of ‘the country. Along with this port, the king of Candy alfo beftowed on the Dutch the towns of Nigumbo and Point de Galle in the fame quarter, together with a large traét of rich land ad- joining to them. ‘The Dutch appeared exceedingly grateful to the Candian monarch for all thefe conceffions 5 they af- fumed only the humble appellation of ‘* Guardians of his coaits;”” and began to fortify the differest {tations put into their hands, merely, as they faid, for his fecurity ; and the Candians were fo well convinced of the ‘good intentions of their new allies, that they affilted them to the utmoft of their power in completing their operations. The Dutch took this opportunity of increafing the ftrength of their principal port at Columbo; enlarging the town and ren- dering the fortifications as complete as poffible. Their port of Trincomalee they alfo endeavoured to fecure againft any attack either from an external or a domeftic enemy. Their numbers in the mean while were daily increaling by the ac- cefs. of new adventurers from Europe. The parts affigned to them were the heft fitted for cultivation in the ifland; and they loft no time in turning them to the beft account. By means of thefe prudent meafures, and perfevering induftry, the colony was foon brought into a flourifhing itate, and was able to depend upon its own internal refources. During this’ period, they maintained the moft friendly intercourfe with the natives, and this condudt, befides favouring the un- interrupted profecution of their plans of improvement, was alfo of very confiderable benefit to their commerce. | If the Zz2 Dutch cH yt OM Dutch had perfifted in the fame wife and moderate policy, it is probable that Ceylon would, in procefs of time, lave become as profitable to them from their intercourfe with the natives, as if it had been wholly poffeffed by Dutch fettlers. But the ruling paffion of the Dutch, their avarice, foon began to over-reach itfelf; and by rapacionfly feizing every op- portunity of gain, they quickly difgufted and alienated the natives. By pufhing their polts farther and farther into the interior, and fixing upon every {pot that feemed to be fit for cultivation; and at the fame time by increafing their demands on the king for the prote@ion they afforded him; the king foon found that all the cinnamon which grew in his dominions was infufficient to gratify the Guardians of his coafts.”” At length, enraged by their repeated extor- tions, he fell fuddenly upon their fettlements, and committed the greateft devaftations. ‘This breach between the Candians and the Dutch was fucceeded by along courfe of holtilities, which occafioned the fhedding of much blood, and afforded no permanent advantage to either party. ever, were the greatelt lofers. Their fucceffes in-the inte- rior, amidit woods and defiles, were dearly purchafed ; whilft the incurfions of the natives into their cultivated poffeflions on the coafts, though in general eafily repulfed, often de- itroyed the labour of years. Several of the Dutch governors were induced by thefe confiderations to attempt the reftora- tion of tranquillity, rather by conciliating the natives than by ineffectual ftruggles with them. Accordingly they fent ambaffadors to the Candian king, with rich prefents, and with various expreflions of refpe&. They wrapped their letters to him in fikk embroidered with gold and filver, and their ambaflador carried them all the way on his head, the higheft token of refpeét known in that country; and in thefe letters, they dignified the king with the high-found- ing titles ufually conferred upon an eaftern monarch. Such conciliating meafures, though not often adopted, produced effet. The renewed oppreffions of the Dutch were the conftant fignal for the renewal of hoftilties between them and the natives, in which the Dutch were frequently great fufferers; though European difcipline and Dutch perfeve- rance generally furmounted all difficulties, occafioned by the woods and fortreffles to which the natives retired. The Dutch, however, fuffered much from the climate, which, in the interior parts, is exceedingly unwholefome to Euro- peans. See Canpy. Indeed, the behaviour of the foreign nations, which have fucceffively invaded Ceylon, has tended greatly to nourifh fentiments of independence and of allegi- ance and:attachment to their native kings among the inha- bitants; and ‘the cruelties of the Portuguefe and Dutch have fo exafperated them againft all Europeans, that it will require much pains to reconcile their minds fo far as that any confidence can be rep fed in them. Thefe and fimilar caufes combined to frultrate the attempts of the Dutch at forming a fettlement in the interior of the ifland ; whilit the difficulties which they encountered made them affe4t to de- fpife the advantages which they could not attain. But not- withftanding they feem to have been convinced that it was impraticable to retain poffeffion of the interior, yet their own mifconduct had fown fo many feeds of jealoufy between them and the Candians, that they were often obliged to have recourfe to arms. The lalt great war which they carried on with the natives was about the middle of the laft century. In 1764 they penetrated intothe heart of the king’s dominions, and made themfelves matters of Candy. But after experiencing great hardfhips from the climate, and from the activity of the natives, they were at laft obliged to evacuate the capital. Notwithftanding the difafters which they fuffered, they continued to harafs the king of Candy ; The Dutch, how. and, particularly, by depriving him of falt at pleafure, the compelled him to comply with all their demands. In ae he was under a neceflity of acceding toa treaty which greatly curtailed his dominions, and reduced him almoft to the con- dition of a prifoner at large in thofe that remained:to him, All thofe parts of the fea-coaft, which had not formerly be- longed to the Dutch, were now ceded to them, with the ad- dition of feveral other advantageous tra€ts. They infifted. that the king fhould have no intercourfe with any other power, and that he fhould deliver up all foreigners or fubje&ts of other princes, who fhould happen to come into his domi- nions. Al] cinnamon which grew on the coafts was deemed as exclufively Dutch property ; and the natives, by way of {pecial privilege, were allowed quictly to eut and carry it to- the feveral Dutch faGtories in the ifland. The cinnamon that grew in the woods was allowed to be, in fome degree, the property of the natives; they were obliged to peel and fell it to the Dutch at a rix-doilar per pound ; that is, a co'n of nominal value, which exchanges for about the worth of two fhillings fterling of their copper-morey. Independently of cinnamon, the other produétions of the ifland were not over-looked ; but the king of Candy was alfo obliged to fli« pulate, that his fubjeéts fhould gather the pepper, cerda- moms, coffee, and cotton growing in the iuterior, and fell them to the Dutch at certain very low prices. A certain proportion of elephant’s teeth, arcka nut, and betel-lcaf, toge- ther with a hare of the precious ftones found in the country, formed part of the tribute impofed on the natives. The number of elephants to be delivered up was 50 in the two feafons ; which the Dutch tranfported to the oppofite coaft of the continent, and fold to the native princes there at very high prices, as the elephants of Ceylon are accounted fupe~ rior to all others. The peari-ffherics on the weft and north- weit fhores, ‘where the pearl-banks are fituated, formed ane- ther acquifition to the Dutch by this treaty. Several per- fons from the Malabar coaft, and other parts of the conti- _nent, had eftablifhed cotton manufaétories in the northern towns of the ifland, particularly at Jafnapatam: all of which were now given up to the Dutch. In return for all. thefe valuable acquifitions, the Dutch acknowledged the king of Candy to be the emperor of Ceylon, with a long firing of other founding titles, which ferved only by their mockery to aggravate his mortification ; and under which magnificent appellations, they engaged, as his dutiful fubje€s, to pay him a tribute, and to fend ambafladors yearly to his court. The moit important ftipulation, on the part of the Dutch, was that of fupplying his people with falt, free of expence, and in fuch quantity as to equal their confumption. The article of tribute was foon infringed; and, indeed, fcarcely one fizpulation of the treaty was fulfilled with good faith. By this treaty the Dutch obtained a monopoly of all the valuable produGions of the ifland, and left to the king and his fubjcfis only the hard condition of aiding tem in avail- ing themfelves af their acquiiitions.. Such degrading and harfh terms naturally exafperated the Candians and cherifhed in their breafts the molt rooted and inveterate hatred to their oppreflors. The confequence was a renewal of hoftilities;. and about 20 years ago the Dutch again penetrated inta the king’s country ; but they were fo vigoroufly attacked by the natives that general de Mcuron, then a éolonel in the Dutch fervice, narrowly efcaped being cut off with a large detachment near Sittivacca, and got fafe to Columbo. At length hoftilities, which were unavailing, were difconti~ nued by mutual confent. The Dutch were chiefly anxious to prevent any conneétion from being formed between the natives and foreigners; and the king of Candy was refolved to prevent any intercourfe hetween his fubjects and a nation, & which CE Y ERO N. which he found ready on every occafion to deprive him of his rights in order to gratify their own avarice. A few ar- ticles of no great value, fuch as betel-leaf, areka, and cocoa- nuts, were occafionally f{muggled by the natives down. to the Dutch provinces; but thefe practices, when difcovered, were feverely punifhed by the king. Such was the fituation in which affairs ftood between the Dutch and the native Ceylonefe, towards the commence- ment of the late war. It was now about 140 years fince the Portuguefe had been finally expelled, and no other Eu- ropean. power had fince that time been able to acquire a permanent footing on the ifland. Soon after the expulfion of the Portuguefe, about the year 1672, the French feem- ed inclined to dfpute the poffeffion of Ceylon. Accord- ingly they appeared off the ifland with a large fleet, entered into a treaty with the native prince, and avowed their deter- mination to expelthe Dutch. But their enterprife planned without wifdom was executed without Spirit, and imaginary obftacles prevented the French from even attempting to gain a fettlement on the ifland. Towards the conclufion of the American war the Englifh made a more formidable attempt againft the power of the Dutch in Ceylon. A fleet, under the command of Sr Edward Hughes, having on board a detachment of Jand-forces, commanded by Sir Heétor Munro, was difpatched about the beginning of the year 1782, to attempt the reduction of this land. This e:ter- prife, which’ ,commenced profperoufly, by gaining poflef fion of fort Oftenburg, a {trong fort in the vicinity of the bay of Trincomalee, afforded an encouraging profpe@ of f{peedily reducing the whole ifland; and lord Macartney, then governor of Madras, determined to lofe no time in fecuring and improving this valyable acquitition. But dilatory meafures, always incompatible with fuccefs in mili- tary operations, afforded to the French admira. Suffrein an Opportunity of taking poflfeflion of Trincomalee, and of mooring in the bay a fleet of ‘thirty fail of the line. Al- though the Britifh fleet, after being refitted in the roads of Madras, arrived off Trincomalee, and notwith{tanding its in- feriority in number, attacked and routed the French; the latter found a fecure retreat under the cannon of thofe forts, which their a¢tivity, and the want of precaution on the part of their enemies, in not leaving a garrifon and ftores fuflicient to undergo a fiege, had fuffered to fall into their hands. ‘Thus, the attempts of the Englith to attain pof- feffion of Ceylon were, for this time, fruftrated. As the har- bour of Trincomalee, which is equally fecure at all feafons, offered to the Enghfh the means of obviating difadvantages to which the coaft of Coromandel is fubjeé&, it mult be evident that, on the firlt rupture with the Dutch; our coun- trymen would again attempt to gain poffcffion of it. Ac- cordingly, the junétion of the Detch with the French re- public in the late war was the fignal for the commencement of our operations againft their colonies in the Eaft. In 1795, a body of troops: was detached for the conquelt of Ceylon ; and this enterpnfe was crowned with fuccels, after a courfe of military operations which will be detailed in defcribing the feveral places where they were carried on. After this abftra@ of the hiftory of Ceylon, we thall now proceed to give a particular account of the ifland itfelf; which is become of peculiar importance to this country, fince, by the fifth article of the treaty of Amiens in 1802, the Batavian republic has ceded and guaranteed, in full property and fovercignty, to his Britannic majetty, all the poffeffions and eftabliflments in the ifland of Ceylon, which, previous to the war, belonged to the republic of the United Pro- vinces, or to the Dutch Ealt India Company. Ib approaching this ifland from the fea, it prefents to view'a frefher green, and more fertile appearance than moft parts of the Malabar and Coromandel coaits. All the flat tra&ts on the fea-fhore are bounded by beautiful safes, or groves of cocoa-nut trees, while the intermediate plain is covered with rich fields of rice ; and the profpe€t commonly- terminates In woods, which cover the fides of the moun- tains, and difplay a verdant foliage through every feafon of the year. The eaftern coaft appears bold and rocky, and a few reefs of rocks run out into the fea on the S.E. be- tween Point de Galle and Batacolo. ‘The deep water on the eaftern fhore admits the accefs of the largett veffels in fafety ; and if that fide of the ifland be the leatt fertile, its other defects are amply compenfated by the harbours of Trincomalee and Bataco'o. The north and north-weft coat from point Pedro to Columbo is flat, and indented with confiderable inlets of the fea; the largeft of which extends almoft quite acrofs the ifland from Muilipatti to Jafnapatam,, on the N.W. point of the ifland, forming the peninfula of Jafnapatam. Several of thefe inlets form fmall harbours, acceflible to veflels of {mall fize. The interior of the ifland abounds with fteep and lofty mountains, covered with forefts and full of almoit impenetrable jungles. The woods and mountains completely furround the dominions of the king of Candy : and the ifland is divided by the mott lofty range of mountains nearly into two parts, fo completely feparated from each other, that both the climate and feafons on either fide are eflentially different. Thefe mountains alfo terminate the effe&t of the monfoons, which fet in periodically from their oppofite fides; {o that not only the oppofite fea-coaf, but the whole country in the interior, fuffers very little from thefe ftorms. The monfoons fet in much fooner on the weltern than on the eaflern fide of the ifland. On the weit fide, the rains prevail in the months of May, June, and July, and this is the feafon when they are felt on the Mala- bar coalt. This monfoon is very violent, being accompanied with dreadful ftorms of thunder and lightning, together with vait torrents of rain, and violent fouth-weft winds. In the meanwhile, the northern parts of the ifland are very lit- tle affeted, and are even generally dry. In the months of OGober and November, when the oppofite monfoon fets in on the Coromandel coaft, the north of Ceylon is affeéted, and fearcely any impreffion is felt in the fouthern parts, with the exception of fome partial rains. Thefe monfoons pafa flightly over the interior of the country, which neverthelefs experiences dreadful ftorms. During its own periodical feafon, in March and April, the rain defcends in torrents, and the thunder and lightning are extremely awful. The days and nights in this ifland, lying near the equator, are of nearly equal length : the variation, during the two feafons, not exceeding fifteen minutes. ‘The feafons are more regu~ lated by the monfoons than by the courle of the fun; the cooleft feafon being at the fummer folitice, while the weftern monfoon prevails. The fpring commences in October, and the hotteft feaf.n is from January to the beginning of April. The heat, in the day, is much the fame throughout the whole year; but in the rainy feafon, the nights are much cooler. Upon the whole, the climaté is much more temperate than on the continent of India; as the heat is fanned by the conftant fea-breezes, and it is not annoyed by the hot and fuffocating land-winds. he fhade of the houfes furnifhes a tolerably cool retreat. In the interior of the country, however, where thick and clofe woods and the hills crowd upon each other, the heat is greater by many degrees than on the fea-coalt, and the climate is often very fultry and infalubrious. The principal harbours in the ifland for large fhips are Trincomalee and Point de Galle ; and they alfo ee in CY LOW: from the beginning of December to the latter end of March moor fecurely, in the roads of Columbo. Smaller coalting veffels find fhelter in feveral other imferior ports ; fuch as Batacolo, Matura, Barbareen, and Caltura, on the S.E.; and on the N. and W., Nigumbo, Chilou, Calpen- teen, Manaar, and Point Pedro. At all thefe places are rivers of greater or lefs magnitude, that empty them- felves into the fea; and thefe rivers, which are generally broad, deep,’ and navigable to fome diltance for {mall craft, are very beneficial to the inhabitants of the parts that are adjacent to the fea-coalt, as they furnifh a cheap and eafy conveyance of their produce and merchandife to places where the European ‘veffels wait to receive them. See Canpy, has many lakes and canals of confiderable extent commu- nicating with them, particular:y in the neighbourhood of Columbo and Nigumbo. Along the coalts there are roads and ftations fortravellers ; but they are, in many places, rug- ged and fteep, and incommoded with large traéts of heavy fand; and, befides, they are rendered dangerous by the multitude of wild hogs, buffaloes, and elephants, which in- felt them. Thefe animals are met with particularly from Chilou to Manaar on the weft fide of the ifland; and from Matura to Batacolo on the eaft. Since the Englifh have had poffeffion of the ifland, the roads have been greatly improved. The foil of Ceylon is, in general, fandy, with a {mall mixture of clay. In the S.W. parts, however, par- ticularly about Columbo, there is much marfhy ground, very rich and produtive; which is chiefly occupied with cinna- mon plantations. The. ifland does not produce rice enough for the ufeof its inhabitants, but requires annual fupplies from Bengal, and other places on the continent. The culture of rice, however, has increafed fince March 1800; and many tra¢ts on the weit coafts, hitherto wild, marfhy, and uncultivated, have been applied to this purpofe. The ifland of Ceylon was originally divided into a num- ber of diftin& petty kingdoms, feparated by rivers and mountains, and fubje€t each to its own independent fovereign. In procefs of time it was reduced under the dominion of the king of Candy, who divided it into a few Jarge provinces, from which were derived feveral of the numerous titles which he itill retains. Thefe provinces were Candy, Coiton, Ma- tura, Dambadar, and Sittivacca, which included the rich diftris on the weft coaft. The chief of thefe was Candy, which fee. Thefe provinces were fubdivided into diftri@s, known by the name of © Corles,”? and correfponding to our fhires or counties. Thefe fubdivifions are {till continued in the parts wrefted from the natives by the Dutch ; and the government of each is given to the civil and military officers, who hold pots in their vicinity. The great divifions of the ifland are now reduced to two: the one comprehending thofe parts that are under the dominion of Europeans, and the other thofe which ftill remain in the poffeffion of the natives. The European dominions, it is obferved, like a ring, com- ‘pletely encircle the territories of the king of Candy. The capital of the European dominions is Columbo ; which fee ; though Trincomalee (fee Tris comaves), is of much fuperior importance, on account of its excellent harbour. The next pott to Trincomalee on the N.W. is Malativoe ; which fee; and beyond, in the northern dire@tion, the-extremity of the illand is ftretched out into an oblong peninfula, by a branch of the fea, which penetrates acrofs the ifland, except that a {mall ftrip of land remains, which is nearlyinundated at high water. This diftri€t is named Fafnapatam ; which fee. Dependent upon the diftri& of Jaffua, and ata {mall diftance in the fea to the N.W. of Point Pedro, are feveral fmall iflands, which the Dutch have named Delft, Haarlem, Befides the rivers with which Ceylon abounds, it’ Leyden, and Amfterdam. Thefe iflands they employed in breeding horfes and cattle, as from their excellent pafturage they are better adapted to this purpefe than any: part of Ceylon; and the Englifh government has adopted the fame fyltem. The woods, towards the interior, leparating this diltri&t and others from the king of Candy’s dominions, are inhabited by a race of favages, fuppofed to be the aboriginal inhabitants of the ifland, end denominated Bedahs ; which fee. The narrow fea which lies betwixt this fide of the ifland and the continent is called the gulf of Manaar ; which fee. DBetwecn Manaarard Ramiferam (which fce), on the Coromandel coatt, is a line of fand-banks, called «* Adam’s bridge,” (which fee), and Ramas bridge, frem a tradi- tion that the god of this name came by this way into Cey- lon. This tradition is connected with a variety of others — that fubfift among the natives, who univerfally believe that Ceylon was either the paradife in which the anceiter of the human race refided, or the fpot on which he firft touched on being expelled the ccleftial paradife. Accordingly, Adam’s bridge is, in their opinion, the way by which he | paffed over to the continent ; and fome imagine, that the gulf of Manaar, like the Red Sea, in fceripture-hiftory, clofed after him to prevent his return. But waving thefe traditionary tales, it is an almoft univerfally received opinion, that Ceylon at fome diftant period formed a part of the continent, and was feparated from it by fome great cor- vuifion of nature. Nor is this improbable, if we confider the narrownefs of the intervening fpace, and the numberlefs fhallows with which it abounds. Befides, the appearance of the foil and the furface of the country, on the welt coa{ts of Ceylon, and the oppofite continent, very much re= {emble one another. A ftratum of flat calcareous rocks feems to run quite acrofs Adam’s bridge; and it is found to the water’s edge on both fhores, and in the low iflands that lie on the paflage. In proceeding along the coaft of Ceylon from Manaar, the country is fandy, wild, and bar- ren; equally deititute of accommodation’ and provifions. The woods are fo much infefted with wild animals, that it Is very dangerous to travel this way without a proper guard. Here are none of thofe lofty eminences which diverfify the N.W. and S.E. parts of the ifland. Tie fea is ikirted by a tra&t of low flat fand; but farther inland there are rice and paddy fields, with fome fcattered houfes. This appearance continues about 30 miles to the fouthward of Manaar, when the wood and jungle again begin to approach the fhore, and to cover the whole furface of the country, till at Chilou the cinnamon woods fhew the commencement of the diitriG& oF Nigumbo. About twelve miles onward from Manaar is the village of Arippo, where the civil and military officers who attend the pearl-fifhery refide during the feafon. For their accommodation they have built here a ** Choultry,”” or flone=— barracks, which allo ferves for the reception of occafional travellers. Arippo is the only place in this quarter where good water can be procured. Here is alfo a chapel for perfons of the Roman Catholic perfuafion, confitting chiefly of the Parawas and Malabars, who refort hither during the feafon of the pearl fifhery. It is their conftant prattice de- voutly to offer up their vows and offerings before they com-= mence diving for the oytters. In the neighbourhood of Arippo the woods are full of deer and wild hogs, which are brought by the Cinglefe-peafants to the officers ftationed here during the feafon of the fifhcry. About twelve miles” from Manaar lies the bay of Condatchy ; which fee. Ta paffing along from Manaar to Columbo, a diflance uf about 150 miles, the coaft prefents in general nothing ‘but the moft defert and barren appearance, except where it is covered by almoft impenetrable jungles. Detachments are poited 1 j : fome GE Y Le N. fome few places for the protection of travellers; but the road is for the greateft part extremely bad, and the country is much infefted with boffaloes and elephants. At Pompa- ripo is a broad lake, which cannot be paffed during the rainy feafon; and befides, there occur in the way two or three broad rivers, as the Mofulec and Madragar, which fue from the mountains in the interior, The firft polt at which you arrive is Calpenteen ; which fee. For an account of Putallom, Chilou, and Nigumbo ; fee thefe articles. From Nigumbo fouthward the road is extremely pleafant ; being * fhaded the whole way, and provided with a number of reft- ing places for travellers. About half-way to Columbo is a very large ‘* Choultry,” or barrack, to which the officers of the garrifon frequently refort on fhooting.parties. Lt is fituated on a very delightful {pot in the midit of a piGturefque country, abounding with fuipe and feveral fpecies of game. For an account of Columbo, the capital of the Dutch domi- nions in Ceylon; fee CovumBo. The country round this capital is, for feveral miles, flat and very rich ; diverfified with fields of rice and pafture, and a variety of groves, in which the cocoa-tree is moft confpicuous; and embel- lihed with gentle eminences, together with a number of fmall rivers, lakes, and canals. Shady roads every where interfect the country, which prefents to view country feats and gardens; and on the banks of the river Mutwal is an elegant building, in which the governor refides ; and there are alfo on the fame banks and in the adjoining groves feveral temples of the natives. Cinnamon-trees abound, both wild in the woods and cultivated in the gardens. ‘The road from Columbo lies by the fea-fide for fix miles, a3 far as Gal- kieft, a {mall village, in which is a church for the accommo- dation both of the Dutch and Cinglefe ; and from hence to Pantura, a diftance of 12 miles, the road is well fhaded, and agreeably diverlified by a part of the cinnamon gardens, which croffes this traét. From Pantura to Caltura, (which fee), an interval of ro miles, the whole country feems to be one delightful grove; and the road appears like a broad walk through a fhady garden. In tracing the ealtern coatt, we find Barbareen and Bentot, (fee Carrura), and at length arrive at Point de Galle, for an account of which, fee that article. About 20 miles to the fouth is Billigamme or Bolligam, feated on a bay formed by an indenture of the coaft, and inhabited by fifhermen; and at the diltance of 30 miles from Poist de Galle lies AZatura ; and about four miles from Matura is the. moft fouthern point of Ceylon, called Dondre-head. See Marura and Donpre- heap. For an account of the principal places in the European dominions on the eaflern fide of the ifjand; fee Baracoto and Trincomacee. It appears, from the furvey of this ifland, made by captain R. Percival, and delineated in a manner no lefs entertaining than inftructive in his * Account of the Ifland of Ceylon,’? which has enabled us to enrich this article with interefting information, that the internal wealth, as well as the population of “the Exropean dominions,” lies on the wett and fouth-welt coalts; while that fecure ftation for fhipping, which renders Ceylon of fo much importance to our other Ealt Indian dominions, lies at the oppolite fide, and in the molt barren quarter of the ‘ifland. The prefent ftate of the roads is fuch as almoft en- tirely to preclude all intercourfe by land between the oppo- fite fides of the ifland, which are thus prevented from im- parting their advantages to each other. In time, however, thefe defects may in a great meafure be remedied; and many beneficial plans have already begua to be executed by the intelligent officers who at prefent command in the ifland. It is probable alfo, that in time the poorer lands in the north a and eaft parts may be employed to raife the neceffaries of life, while the rich plains around Columbo are entirely de- voted to its valuable fpices. The inhabitants of the fea-coafts of Ceylon are compofed of a variety of different races. At Columbo, in particular, the natives of every country in India appear to have their reprefentatives ; and the manners and cuftoms of thefe dif- tinct tribes are fuch as belong to their native countries. Befides the native Ceylonefe, who live under the dominion of the Europeans, and who-are denominated Cinglefe, the coalts are chiefly inhabited by Dutch, Portuguefe, and Ma- lays. The Dutch, who are born and refide in India, are very different in their habits and modes of life from thofe of Europe. he chief trait that diftinguifhes their original Dutch charaéter is their fondnefs for gin, and tobacco. In other refpeéts they adopt the cuftoms and liftlefs habits of the country. A Ceylonefe Dutchman rifes about fix, and begins the day either with a walk, or with fitting down by his door in a loofe robe and night-cap to fmoke a pipe. This, with a glafs of gin, fills up the firft hour. At 7,a dith of coffee is handed to him by his flaves, and his loung- ing polture and pipe are again refumed. He afterwards drefles, and either goes to bufinefs or to pay vifits, in which he ufually takes a pipe and glafs at every houfe where he calls; and in his falutations on thefe occafions he is very ceremonious. If he prolongs his vifit, he throws afide_ part of his drefs, and puts on a night-cap, and then he and his companions {moke and talk till noon. At 12 he fits down to dinner, regaling himfelf with very grofs and heavy food. After dinner he refumes his {moking in an un- drefs, and then flzeps for an hour. As foon as he is again dreffed, he pays vifits abroad or receives company at home ; and this, with another pipe, occupies the interval till the hour of nine announces fupper. Capt. Percival reprefents them as proverbialiy indolent and lazy, ignorant and ftu- pid, without capacity, and without defire of acquiring ex- cellence by exertion. Their children are commonly ne- gleé&ted, and committed to the care of flaves. Their own minds become felfifh and contraéted, callous to the feelings of humanity, and prone to treat their flaves with feverity up- on the flighteft provocation, and often from mere caprice. Their women are generally treated with negleét; nor can it be expected that, in fuch circumftances, they fhould much ftudy the art of pleafing. In the forenoon their drefs is flovenly ; but at their evening parties they appear decked out in abundance of finery. The culture of their minds occupies as little of their attention as the adorning of their perfons; their education is difregarded ; and from thcir infancy they imbibe manners and fuperttitious notions from the female flaves to whofe management they are entrufled, of which they can never afterwards diveft themfelves. Neglected by the men they affociate with their flaves; and thus their morals are as deftitute of dignity or virtue, as their manners are of politenefs, After marriage, much as they are difre- garded by the men, they treat their hufbands with great ve- neration and affetion ; confider their carefles as a hich ho- nour, and are therefore extremely jealous of their favour. The Dutch ladies, while young and unmarried, drefs well, and are tolerable in their perfons, and many among them are pretty, and even handfome; but afterwards they con- tract fuch indolent habits that they become coarfe, corpulenty and dirty in their perfons ; and their drefs during the day is flovenly and negligent to excefs. In fuch a climate as that of Ceylon, and with fuch habits, we mutt not look for the bloom of health and the red and white of European complexions. Theirs are for the mroft part of a.pale deadly white, with fome exceptions, Thofe who have a mixture of the native 6 blood, CEYLON. Blood, are eafily diftinguifhed by a tinge in the colour of the fkin, and their flrong thick black hair ; marks which are not removed in the courfe of many generations. The women of this mixed race, of whom there are many in the Dutch Tettlements, fooner begin to look old than thofz who are wholly of European extraGion. The Dutch ladies have a cuftom of cracking their joints, and rubbing them over with oil, which renders them uncommonly fupple. The principal amufement of the younger females ts dancing 5 and that of the married and elderly ladies confifts in paying ‘formal and ceremonious vifits; on which occafions they are attended by a number of Mave girls, dreffed for the purpofe, and walking after them, with their betel boxes, or bearing umbrellas cver their heads. Their chief fivery confifts in thefe female attendants, and their fplendour is eftimated by the number of them which they can afford to keep. Nei- ther the perfons nor the apartments of the women are in general very cleanly. Many of the elderly ladivs, and molt of the lower erders, chew the betel-leaf and areka nut, with a mixture of ‘‘chinam’’ or lime made of burnt fhel!s, in order to render it hotter and more purgent to the talte. Ia every houfe, therefore, they have a number of brafs vafes which are ufed as fpitting pots for the women who chew thefe fubftances, and for the men when they fmoke. The women are generally very neat and exact in the arrange~ ment of their fitting-rooms, and when they receive com- pany; thefe are kept remarkably clean, and the tiled floors are highly polifhed: but their inner apartments, and other parts of their houfe, are quite the reverfe. Another clafs of the inhabitants of Ceylon confilts of a race known by the name of Portuguefe. They are not the defcendants of the European nation whofe appellation they bear; but they derive their name from the fpurious defcend- ants of that people by native women, who were fcattered in great numbers over this ifland and all their other fettle- ments in India. But both the manners and colour of thefe original Indian Portuguefe are now equally loft among that race which now bears their name. The prefent Portuguefe of Ceylon are a mixture of the {purious defcendants of the feveral European poffeffors of that ifland, by native women; joined to a number of Moors and Malabars. A colour more approaching to black than white, with a partieular mode of drefs, half Indian and half European, is fufficient to procure the appellation of a Portuguefe. Thefe people are found in all the European fettlements in India, particularly in thofe belonging tothe Dutch, who often form intermar- riages with them. The manners of the Portuguefe inhabit- ants differ from thofe of the Moors, Malabars, and other Mahometans. They affe&t to adopt thofe of the Europeans. Although the black Portuguefe univerfally profefs the Chrittian religion, and are commonly Roman Catholics, they neverthelefs retain many Pagan cuitoms, and their religion may be confidered as a compound of both. The Dutch have allowed priefts and other miffionaries to go among them; and many of them profefs the Proteftaat religion and frequent the churches of the Dutch. They are in general fomewhat fairer than the Moors and Malabars; but com- plexions of all forts are found among this mongrel race, from a jetty black to fickly yellow, or tawny hue. Their hair, which is black or dark brown, is worn long, and ufuaily hid, contrary to the cuftom of the Mahometans. Some of their women are pretty, and much admired for their figure. The men are about the middle fize, flender, lank, and ill- made. They are fond to excefs of fhew and finery in their refs, and never ftir out without putting on their belt clothes. They are lazy, treacherous, effeminate, and paffionate to ex- cefs; and retain fo much of the charaéter of their boatted progenitors, as to be diftinguifhed for a ridiculous pride. - They have no regular cait, end are ufually efteemed the worft race of people in India. Originally a fpurious and outcaft brood, they rétain only the blemifhes which tarnifhed the charaGters of their anceftors; and they combine all the vices of the Europeans and Indians, without any of their virtues. T'rom thefe black Portugucfe were derived the troops, now saown by the name of Topafics ;”” fo called from their wearing hats inftcad of turbans; the word fopce er chaupee, feeming to be acorruption of the French chapeau, being ufed in their language for ahat. They were never reckoned good foldiers, being neither fo hardy nor fo brave as the Seapoys, and therefore they were feldom employed in the Englifh fervice: the French, however, had very gene- rally corps of them at Pondicherry, and in their other fettle- ments. Vhe Afalays are another race, who form a confiderable proportion of the izhabitants of Cey'on. This ferocious race is widely fcattered over the eaitern parts of Indie. Their original empire lies in the peninfula of AZa/acca (which fee) ; and they have extended themfelves. from thence over Java, Sumatra, the Moluccas, and Philippines, and a great number of other iflands in the Archipelago of India. The era of their firft introdu€#on into Ceylon is not eafily af- certained ; but the Dutch have been accuftomed for many years to introduce them to this and their other fettlements in Afiaand Africa, for the purpofe of carrying on various branches of trade and manufa¢turés, and alfo to employ them as foldiers and fervants. The religion, laws, manners, and cultoms of the Malays, as well as their drefs, colour, and perfons, differ very much from thofe of all the other in- habitants of Afia. Thole of the various iflands or fettle- ments differ alfo among themfelves, according to the habits and appearance of the nations among which they are dif- perfed. For, although they intermarry with the Moors and other calts, particularly in Ceylon, and thus acquire a much darker colour than that which is natural to a Malay, their characteriltic features are {til fo itrikingly predominant, that they cannot be miftaken. Thofe who are born and brought up in the European colonies naturaily contract more of the habits of civilized fociety; but they never en- tirely get nid of their natural ferocity, though they become much lefs cruel and vindi€tive than thofe of their race who refide in the peninfula of the Malacca and their other na- tive pofleflions. The men are of a middling ftature, remark- ably well proportioned, and of a ftrong and mufcular con- ftitution. Their legs and arms are particularly well-fhaped and very flender at the wrilts and ankles. They are of a light brown or yellow colour, approaching, in old age, or when much expofed to the fun, to a copper hue. Their forehead is broad and flat; their eyes are {mail, black,and very deep funk in their orbits: their nofe is flattifh, broad towards the noltrils, with a fort of curve at the extremity approaching the lip. Their hair is long, coarfe, and black, and always motftened with a quantity of cocoa-nut oil ; fome of the poorer fort bind it up with a coloured handkerchief. The Malays of a higher rank wear a wide Moorith coat or gown, called dadjour, refembling our drefling-gowns, and compofed of rich flowered filk, or party-coloured cotton: and their under drefs is a veft of filk or calico, called 4adjou, worn clofe to the body, with loofe wide drawers of the fame ftuff. The drefs of their head is of a fingular fhape, and is often elegantly ornamented. Their fhoes or fandals are like thofe of the Moors. The drefs of the poorer fort confifts of a piece of cotton wrapped round their waifts, with one end drawn between their legs, and tucked up at the lower part of the back: the arms are left completely bare. Some - wear — CnvVYS LO! Ni wear a kind of veft or jacket without fleeves; but moft of the flaves in the fervice of Europeans, inftead of the piece of cloth, wear breeches of coarfe ituff. None of the Malays fuffer their beards to grow, but, in conformity to their reli- gion, pluck out the hairs as foon as they appear. The drefs of the poorer claffes of the women confifts merely of a large piece of coarfe calico, or cotton, called a Sarow ; which is folded and wound round the body above the bofom, and reaches down to the ankle, or middle of the leg; the upper part is tucked up and faltened under the arm-pits. Their hair is twifted up like that of the men, and faftened with a fil- let or with pins or fkewers, called condés. The drefs of wo- men of a fuperior ftation is feleed with talte, and is very fplendid. Inftead of the upper garment, called dadjou, re- fembling that of the men, fome ule the /alendang, which isa piece of filk or muflin about five feet long, thrown loofely around the neck and fhoulders, falling down before, and brought acrofs the waift backwards. On the crown and back part of the head are {tuck three or four tortoife-thell combs with plates of gold. About their necks and arms they wear chains or filigree, and are all provided with ear- rings. The Malays make very beautiful filigree work in gold, which they ufe as ornaments for their perfons. The faces of the Malays are generally very ugly ; and their features indicate their ferocious, treacherous, and re- vengeful difpofitions. Some, however, have comely counte- nances ; and many of the women might be confidered as beautiful, if they were not much expofed to the fun, and had not their nofes compreffed. It is a common practice among them to break by compreffion the griftle of the upper part of their nofes in infancy ; a flat nofe being regarded asa {ymbol of beauty. The men are extremely jealous, particularly of the decided preference which the women give to Europeans ; nor do they ever pardon infidelity in a wife. The paflions of the women are no lefs violent than thofe of the men, and they are equally capable of taking the moft terrible revenge ; either by ttabbing the obje@s of their refentment, or dif- patching them by poifon. The Malays go naked till about 12 years of age, and are foon after married. As they are of the Mahometan religion, thofe of the higher cafts marry as many wives as they can maintain, while the poverty of thofe of the lower claffes reftri€ts them to one wife. Their ufual food confifts of fowl, fifh, rice, and vegetables. The better fort eat alfo beef and mutton, when killed by one of their own race, and prepared in their own manner. They hold {wine in fuch abhorrence, agreeably to the prejudices of their religion, that they will not fo much as touch their flefh ; nor will feveral of the Malay cafts carry a plate which has ham or bacon on it. Their common drink is water, or the juice of the palmyra; though fome will not fcruple to drink arrack when they can procure it. They are conftantly chewing betel, or penang, and they fmoke dang, from which herb they extraG& a kind of opium, that is ufed by them in great quantities for exhilarating their fpirits. The amufements of the Malays are fuited to their difpo- fitions, and are either bold, vigorous, or ferocious. Both men and women are much addicted to bathing, which they ufe feveral times in a day. Their felect amufements are gaming and cock-fighting ; and they are fo inordinately fond of gaming, that the poorer fort will fell themfelves and their families to procure 'the means of gratifying their paflion for play ; and after having Joft their laft ftake, they often facri- fice themfelves and their lucky antagoniit to their de- fpair. The Malays have a great variety of mufical inftruments, which are ufually employed in a band or concert, at their re- ligious ceremonies, their marriages, and their feaits. One Vor. VII, of their principal inftruments is the gong-gong, which confifts of a hollow plate of a compound metal, fo contrived as to emit a very loud noife when ftruck. The ¢om fom is a drum of a peculiar form; and they have other inttruments, made of bamboos bound together with iron wire, fomewhat in the fhape of a dulcimer. The Malays univerfatly profefs the Mahometan religion ; though with regard to fome inferior points and duties, the feveral claffes differ among themfelves. They have temples and mofques dedicated to their faints and their dead, where they attend with great devotion. They value themfelves much on their {kill in medicinal herbs, and the application of them in the cure of difeafes ; and they are fond of gardening, to which they are addicted from their infancy, and in which they excel. In all forts of cane-work, and in ratanning couches and chairs, they are fingularly ingenious; and they are accounted capital builders of dungaloes, or houfes of the cocoa- tree. In other refpects, fuch as the manner of eating their viGtuals, and their modes of falutation, they much refemble the natives of the Malabar and Coromandel coalts; though they are fufficiently diltinguifhed from the other natives of India, by the difference of their conftitutions, and the pecu- liar ferocity of their difpofitions. The government, under which the Malays live in their own country, refembles in fome degree the ancient feudal infti- tutions of Europe ; and, confequently, war is the bufinefs of the nation. Their arms are all fuited to their favage and fanguinary difpofitions. Thefe confift of a kind of dagger, called a Arecfe, or Crisse (which fee), in the ufe of which they are particularly dextrous. Before they enter upon any defperate enterprifc, or a of revenge, the Malays take a quantity of opium, or, as they exprefs it, dang themfelves, (See Bancue.) Having thus previoufly prepared them- felves, and poifoned their criffes, they rufh headlong into the ftreet, ftabbing every one indifcriminately that comes in their way, and at the fame time vociferating amok, amok, or kill, kill, whence this horrid mode of revenge is termed by Euro- peans “ running a muck.” (See Amox.) This ferocious practice was repreffed by the Dutch government at Ceylon, by the feverelt punifhments; a reward of one or two hundred rix-dollars having been offered for the deftru@ion or capture of thofe who ran a muck, and thofe who were taken alive having been put to death with the molt excruciat- ing torments. Since the arrival of the Englifh at Ceylon, this barbarous pra¢tice has been almoft unknown ; anda few private murders committed on the Sepoys and black people in the Pettah, were the only crimes of this nature attributed tothe Malays during Capt. Percival’s ftay at Columbo. The Malays, however, in their prefent ftate are, from their ideas of morality, almoft incapable of being admitted into focial life; they have no idea of revenge being a crime, and they triumph in fhedding blood on fuch an occafion. It is hoped that the introduétion of Chriftianity among thefe people will meliorate their difpofition ; and it is confequently of great moment that the Malays in our fettlements fhould embrace this religion, It would ferve, not only to foften their tem- per, but to unite them by the firmedt bond with this country. The Dutch government of Ceylon had always a regiment of Malays in their fervice; and this corps conflituted the ftrength of their garrifons, as they were the only troops which maintained difcipline, or difplayed any fort of bravery in the field. ‘They feemed, however, to have imbibed, by the ungenerous policy of the Dutch, fuch a rooted averfion from the Englifh, that there was at firft little appearance of their ever becoming our friends. Soon after the arrival of governor North on the ifland, he new-modelled this corps, and put it on a larger and more refpectable eftablifhment ; 3A and GrEgy IbyOrn: and it has now obtained a place among our other regiments ofthe line. ‘The Malay troops are armed and clothed much in the fame manner as the European, with the exception of fhoes, the wearing of which is contrary to their religion ; inttead of thefe they ule a particular fort of fandal. Along with their other arms they always wear their kreefes by their fides; and in the heat of an engagement they often throw down their mufket and bayonet, and, rufhing upon the enemy with ‘thefe kreefes, carry terror and deitruction wherever they come. ‘The patience with which the Malays {ubmit to the fentence of their courts martial, compoled, by the*new regulations introduced among them, of their own native officers, who are acquainted with their language and cuftoms, and their refraining from revenge when they are affured that jultice is intended them, afford reafon for con- cluding, that mild and generous treatment will in the end have the effeét of fubduing their natural ferocity. The far greater proportion of the inhabitants of Ceylon confifts of the native Ceylone/e, who have fubmitted to the dominion of the Europeans. Thefe retain their original ap- pellation of * Cinglele,’”? while thofe who live in other. parts which acknowledge only the authority of their native princes, are diltinguifhed by the name of ‘* Candians,’’?: from the country they inhabit. In moit points thefe two clafles continue to refemble each other, though they are refpec- tively diltinguithed by fome peculiar characteriftics. Whe- ther the Cinglefe were the original inhabitants of the ifland, or from what other country they came, and at what peviod they f{ettled there, are points of which we have no diltin& account, either from them or from other perfons. The diftance is fo {mall between Ceylon and the continent, that it is the moft probable, and the moft generally received opinion, that it was peopled either from the Coromandel or Malabar coatts. Some circumflances, however, are fuggelted by Capt. Percival, which feem to indicate that they have mi- grated from a greater diftance. Their complexion, features, language, and manners are fo fimilar to thofe of the Maldi- vians, as to afford reafon for concluding that both were of the fame ftock. The Maldive iflands are only two or three days’ fail from Ceylon; and from the diffimiarity of the habits found among them to thofe of the Indians on the continent, it might be argued that the natives of thefe ilands have not diredt!y onginated from thofe of Hin- dooltan, The Ceylonefe are of a middling ftature, about five feet eight inches, and fairer in complexion than the Moors and Malabars on the continent 3 but they are neither fo well made nor fo (trong, and in appearance much rcfemble the Maldivians... The Candians are fairer, better formed, and lefs effeminate than the Cinglefe in cur fervice. ‘The wo- men are proportionably lefs tall than the men, are much fairers and approach to a yellow or mulatto colour. They continually anoint their bodies with cocoa-nut oil, with which alfo they moilten their hair. Both fexes are re- markably clean and neat in their perfons aud their houfes: and ia drcfling their vidtuals they are ferupuloufly nice. In order to avoid touching the veffel from which they drink with their lps, they hold it at fome diftance aver their heads, and pour the liqnor down their throats. In their diet, they are very abltemious ; fruits and rice conftituting the chief articles of their food. They ufe fome fih when it is abundant, but fiefh is fcarcely any where eaten. They are courteous and polite in their demeanour, and in many qualities much fuperior to other Indians. They neither fteal nor lic; their difpofition is generally mild; but when their anger is roufed, it is proportionably furious and latting.. Their hatred. is exceflive and invincible, infomuch that they will frequently deftroy themfelves in order-to ob- tain the deftrudiion of the obje& they deteft. If a Cey- lonefe cannot obtain money due to him by another, he goes to his debtor, and threatens to kill himfelf, if he is not in- {tantly paid. This threat, fometimes executed, obliges the debtor to comply immediately, if it be in his power, with the demand ; as by their law, if any man caufes the lofs of another’s life, his ownris the forfeit. ‘* An eye for en eye, and a tooth for a tooth,”’ is a proverbial expreffion which is continually in their mouths. This dreadful fpirit of revenge is ftill cherifhed among the Candians; but it is mitigated, in a great degree, among ‘the Cinglefe by their intercourfe with Europeans. ranks is maintained with {crupulous exactoefs ; and extends to the dimenfions and appearance of their houfes; fo that the Candians are not allowed to whiten their houfes, nor to cover them with tiles, which isa royal privilege, and re- ferved folely for the great king. The Ceylonefe never em- ploy nails in their houfes, either from the remains of a ty- rannical prohibition, or a fupertlition arifing from the dan- ger of the eletrical fire in their climate. Their huts are {mall and low, confiiting of one ftory, and faltened with withes of rattan or coya rope. They are conftruéted of flender pieces of wood or bamboo, daubed over with clay, or covered with rice-itraw, or leaves of the cocoa-tree. Round the walls are banks or trenches of clay, on which they fit and fleep; and thefe benches, as well as the floors of their houfes, are covered with cow-dung for keeping away vermin and prelerving the furface fmooth and clean. Their furniture is of the moft fimple kind; confilting of a few earthen pots for cooking their rice, and one or two brafs bafons out of which they eat it ; a wooden mortar and peftle for grinding it, with a flat flone on which to pound pepper, turmeric, and chillies for their curries; a Aomeny, or kind of grater, being an iron initrument like the rowel of afpur fixed on a piece of wood like a boot-jack, and ufed in rafping their cocoa-nuts. ‘They ufe neither tables, chairs, nor {pcons ; but placing themfclves on the ground, eat their food with their hands. The Noufes of the Can- dians are neater and better couitructed than thofe of the Cinglefe, whofe minds have been reduced to an abje& flate, by the fucceffive tyranny of the Portugucfe and Dutch, Their villages and towns appzar like a number of diltin& huts fcattered in the midft of a thick wood or foreft. When they are in danger of being infeited with reptiles, or overwhelmed by inuzdations, they ereét their huts on the fummits of high rocks, or on the t_ps of high trees. Some of them fix polls in the ground, and place upcn them @ fort of hurdle, which ferves tor their nightly habitation. In order to preferve themfzlves from the extreme heat of the fun, they have univerfally the large leaf of the talipot-tree carricd over their heads. The Ceylonefe are extremely polite and ceremonious : and as a token of ref{pect and friendihip, prefent cach other with the betel-leaf, which is chewed by perfons of all ranks, and fupplies the d-flert in all their entertainments. The mix with it tobacco, areka-nut, and the lime of burnt fhells, The black ftain occafioned by this mixture, which is indeli- ble on the mouth, lips, and teeth, is confidered as an addi- tton to their beauty; but it renders them toothiefs at an early age. The Ceylonefe manifeit a furprifing degree of gravity in converfation, even among relations and intimate friends ; fitting for a long time mute and chewing betel- leaf. In their falutations they are very punétilious, ufing the form common among the Indians of bringing the palms of the hands to the forehead, and then making a /alem, or low bow. The natives of Ceylon are more continent with regard Among the Ceylonefe the diftinction of ———— le GE Yt L#O'N, regard to women than the other Afiatic people, and they treat their females with greater attention. Mr. Knox has drawn a picture of theit total difregard to chattity, or any bounds to fexual intercourfe, which is extremely abhorrent to the ideas not only of an Afiatic, but even to the inha- bitants of the moft diffolute metropolis in Europe: and Captain Percival is convinced, from his own obfervations among the Cinglefe, and from all the accounts which he could obtain of the Candians, that he has not in many inflances exaggerated their licentioufnefs. A Cinglefe hufband is ucither jealous of his wife, nor particularly offended at her infidelity, unlefs fhe be caught in the fact ; in which cafe he thinks himfelf warranted in executing the rights of an Afiatic hufband. Many of the men have only one wife, while others have as many as they can maintain. The eafe with which promifcuous intercourfe is carried on, and with which marriages are diflolved, is, together with their po- verty, the true caufe why polygamy is not more general among them. The marriage ceremony is better regarded among the Ceylonefe, and marriages are often contracted by the parents while the parties are in a ftate of childhood, for the purpofe of matching them according to their rank ; and they are often diffolved by confent almoft as foon as confummated. It is aifo cuftomary for thofe who intend to marry, previoufly to cohabit and try each other’s tem- per; and if they find they cannot agree, they break off without the interference. of the prieft or any further cere- mony. When they have agreed to marry, the man prefents his bride with the wedding clothes, confilting of a piece of cloth, 6 or 7 yards long, for the ufe of the bride, and ano- ther piece to be laid on the bed. Prefents are delivered by the bridegroom in perfon, and the following night he is in- titled to cohabit with the bride. On this occatfion a day is appointed for bringing her home, and celebrating the wed- ding with feftivities. On this day he and his relatives re- pair to the bride’s houfe, and carry with them what they are able to contribute to the marriage fealt. The bride and bridegroom, in the prefence of this affembly, eat out of the fame difh, to denote that they are of the fame rank. Their thumbs are then tied together, and the ceremony is clofed by the neareft relations, or the prieft, when he is prefent, cutting ‘them afunder. Fora more firm and indiffoluble union, the . parties are joined together with along piece of cloth, folded feveral times round both their bodies; and water is then poured upon them by the prieft, who always officiates at this ceremony, although rarely at the former. After the ceremony is performed, the partics pafs the night at the bride’s houfe ; and in the morning the hufband brings her home, accompanied by her friends, who carry with them rovifions for another featt. The Cinglefe women are much more pleafant in their manners, and more elegant in their perfons, than thofe of the other Indian nations. The Ceylonefe are fond of bathing, like other inhabit- ants of warm climates, and plunge into the water feveral times aday. Gravity is their chara@teriftic quality : they imbibe from their infancy fuperititious fears. that haunt or torment them through life; and fports and diverfions are almotft totally unknown among them. During the wet feafon, they are fubje& to a variety of Gifeafes ; leprofy appears to be very prevalent ; but their ap- prehenfions are chiefly excited by the fmall-pox, and if any one dies of it, he is looked upon as accurfed, and his body is denied the rites of burial, Every man in Ceylon is his own phytician; and a plaiter of herbs, or cow-dung, is usiverially applied to the part affected. The language of the Ceylonefe feems to be almoit wholly peculiar to this ifland, and, as Captain Percival fays, is moft nearly allicd to the Maldivian. OF this language there are two-dialects, which differ confiderably from each other and have each a feparate grammar. The poetic or court language, called the ‘ Candian Sanfcrit,’”? or more properly the “ Paulee’? or «* Mangada,” is retained . in thofe parts, where the language may be {uppofed to be preferved in its greate(t purity ; it contains a confiderable mixture of Arabic, and is accounted the moft elegant as well as the molt fmooth and fonorous. Among the natives it is a current opinion, that Arabic is their original language, and that fome mixture of the Sanferit was introduced by a colony who came over by Adam’s bridge from the continent of India. Among the Cinglefe on the coafts, the vulgar dialect, denominated *' Cinglefe,”’ is fpoken ; and it appears to have been greatly corrupted by the introduction of foreign words, fo that it has loft in a great degree that melody and force, which are attributed to the language of the interior. In the pronunciation of the Ceylonefe there is fomething peculiar, asthey hurry out the firtt part of a fentence withour commanding any attention, and dwell with a loud and long accent on the concluding fyllables. 2 or ah forms the lait fyllable of a great number of their words, and with this they are fond of cloling. The language univerfally fpoken among the Ciuglefe who have any intercourfe or conneCtion with Europeans is the low Portuguefe ; and this isalfo fpoken by the Moor and Malabar fervants. The Ceylonefe divide their time nearly as we do: except that their year commences on the 28th of March: and they allow for leap-year or any odd portions of time by beginning this year a day fooner or later, or by adding a day to the former year, ‘Their months, like ours, are divided into weeks of 7 days: Wednefday and Saturday are the days on which they perform their religious ceremonies. ‘lhe day, which is reckoned from fun-rife to fun-fet, is divided into 15 hours, and the night alfo into as many ; and in this latitude the length of the day and night is fubject to little variation. Before the arrival of the Europeans on the ifland, it does not appear that the Ceylonefe had contrived even the rudett fpecies of dial. Onany particular occafion, they employed a veffel witha hole in the bottom, that let out the water with which it was filled in one hour according to their divifion ; but this rude inftrument was feldom employed except at court ceremonials. ‘I'he learning of the Ceylonefe confifts chiefly in fome pretended fkill in aftrology ; although it ap- pears from certain infcriptions on the ruins of fome of their temples, that they formerly poffeffed fome literature, as well as fome refinement in the arts. Reacing and writing are no ordinary accomplifhments among the natives of Ceylon. Among the Candians they are chictly confined to the learned men of the feét cailed ‘*Gonies,”’ who are retained by the king to execute all the writings of ftate, and thofe which refpect religious affairs: and the Arabic is the charaéter employed on thefe occafions. For writing, as they do not underfland the manufaGture of paper, they ufe the leaf of the talipot tree; and from thefe leaves, which are very large, they cut out flips, about a foot to a foot and a half long, and about two inches broad. ‘hefe flips are fmoothed ; and the let- ters or charaéters are marked on them with a fine-pointed {tecl pencil, like a bodkin, fet in a wooden orivory handle ; and in order to render the charaéiers more vilible and diltingt, they are rubbed over with oil mixed with charcoal powder. Several of thefe flips are {trung together by a piece of twine pafled through them, and they ave attached to a board as we file our news- papers. Palm-lcaves are fometimes employed for the fame purpofe ; and they occafionally ule a fort of paper made of the bark of a tice. Some of the talipot. books or files, called by the natives ‘ Olioes,” are richly ornamented, and bound in thin lacquered boards of ivory, or 3 A2 ever GETY;LAQgn. even filver and gold. Letters or difpatches fent by the king formerly to the Dutch, and now to the Englifh governor, are enclofed in leaves of beaten gold like thofe of the cocoa-leaf, rolled up in a cover richly ornamented, and almoft hid in a profufion of pearls and other precious ftones. The whole ts enclofed in a box of filver or ivory, which is fealed with the Emperor’s great feal. The progrefs of the Ceylonefe in the other arts of life bears proportion to their literature. Their agriculture re- mains in the rudeft fate; and the Ceylonefe are naturally indolent in the extreme. Their foil, where it can be wa- tered, yields, with little cultivation, a fufficient quantity of rice for their fubfiftence, and with this they are fatisfied. Their plough confifts merely of a crooked piece of wood, fhaped fo that one end ferves for a handle, while the other, fhod with iron, ploughs, or rather tears up the ground. After a firft ploughing, the fields are flooded, and fome time after they are again ploughed. The other tools employed in their agriculture are a board for fmoothing their fields, which is dragged over them edgewife with their oxen ; and a piece of board faftened to the end of a long pole, which ferves inftead of rakes. Atthe feafon of ploughing, each village makes it a common concern ; every one attending with his plough and his oxen till the whole of the ficld belonging to that fociety is finifhed. The fame method is purfued in reaping the corn. Seed-time and harvelt are fea- fons of general induftry and good fellowfhip. The women are not employed in either of thefe laborious operations ; their bufinefs being to gather the corn after the reapers, and to affift in faving it. Oxen are employed both in ploughing and in treading out the corn. For unhnfking their rice, they beat it in a mortar, or more frequently ona hard floor; and if it be of a brittle fort, they boil it before they beat it. The only manure they think requifite is water. Although the labour required for the cultivation of their rice is incon- fiderable, many of them let their ground to their neighbours, lefs indolent than themfelves, for a certain proportion of grain, which is commonly about one-third of the produce. A confiderable proportion of grain is carried off by the priefts for the fervice of their temples, or is offered up for protection and thank{giving, both on account of the bleff- ings they have received, and in the hope of farther affift- auce. The religion of the Ceylonefe forms a very prominent and diftinguifhing feature of their character; and there are few people, if any, that are more under the influence of fupertti- tious fears. Omens regulate their whole condu&, and even determine their deftiny from their birth. When a child is born, they immediately call the aftrologer, who pronounces whether it is deftined to be fortunate or unfortunate. If he declares that it was born to misfortune, they often anticipate its future evils by deftroying it. By various omens they de- termine whether the bufinefs they undertake will be profper- ous or unfuccefsful. A white man, or a woman with child, when they prefent themfelves in the morning, are very fa- vourable omens; but a beggar or deformed perfon is ac- counted a grievous mifchance, and the fight of him will prevent their proceeding on that day with any bufinefs pro- pofed, if it be in their power to avoid it. Under the im- preffion of fuperititious fears, the poor Ceylonefe confiders itorms of thunder and lightning, which frequently occur, as a judgment from heavén, and as direGed by the fouls of bad men who.are fent to torment and punifh him for his fins; and the frequency of their occurrence is regarded as a proof that the ifland is abandoned to the dominion of devils. The Ceylonefe conceive fiends without number to be hovering round them, and they afcribe every difeafe or trouble 7 that afflits them to the immediate agency of the demons that are fent to punifh them; while, on the other hand, they regard every blefling and every inflance of fuccefs, as coming direétly from the hands of the beneficent and fu- preme God. In order to guard themfelves againft the power of inferior deities, whom they confider as wicked {pirits, they wear various amulets, and employ charms and {pells, imagining that they may thus ward off the influence of witchcraft and enchantments by which they think them- felves befet on all fides. Many even of thofe who have been converted to Chriftianity, ftill labour under their original terrors ; though they believe them to be delufions. Some of the Cinglele, when their defires are difappointed and their prayers difregarded, quarrel with their deities, revile them, and even trample their images under foot. The inhabitants of the more mountainous parts of the country are diftreffed by their fuperftitious terrors to fuch a degree, as to be dri- ven to madnefs by their difturbed imaginations. The progrefs of civilization, and the removal of thefe fuperftitious fears, are greatly oppofed by the interefted arts of their priefts, who contrive to dire€t their operation to their own emolu- ment. The devotion of the Ceylonefe towards fupernatural beings derives its peculiar charaéter from their fuperftitious fears, and confiits of various ceremonies created by them. With regard to what may be properly termed their religion, a difference of opinion has prevailed. Some have faid that with a flight variation of names and forms, it is the fame with that of the Hindoos ; but there is little reafon to quef- tion its being founded on a different fyftem of idolatry from that practifed among the Hindoos. Many of their notions feem to be borrowed from the latter, and with thefe they have blended a confiderable mixture of Mahometanifm. In one point, it is faid, they agree with both, as well as with Chriitians ; viz. in acknowledging one Supreme Being who made and governs all things; but they differ from the Ma- hometans and rigid Hindoos in another refpeét ; for though they are unable to conquer their original fuperflitions, they entertain the higheft reverence for the Chriftian religion, and fome of the Cinglefe have been converted without incurring fearcely any cenfure from others for their apoftacy. Never- thelefs, whilit thefe people adore one Supreme Being, more powerful than all others, they offer up their devotionsto devils, animals, and the very produétions of the earth. Befides the one Supreme Being, who is worfhipped as the creator and ruler of heaven and earth, the Ceylonefe acknowledge a number of inferior deities, as well as tormenting demons: the former, who watch over them for their good, are fup- pofed to be the fouls of good men, and the demons the {pirits of the wicked; but both are regarded as aGing by the permiffion of the Supreme Being. The objeét of their immediate worfhip is Buddou, or Boopx (which fee), who is reprefented under a variety. of different forms and images. Some have fuppofed that the worfhip of Buddou was intro- duced into Ceylon about 40 years after the Chriftian era; at which time, as it is faid, a violent quarrel took place be- tween the Brahmins and the votaries of Buddou, who then formed one of the religious fects on the continent. The Brahmins, as they fay, prevailed, and the Buddites were com- pelled to take refuge in Ceylon. The Buddites are faid to have been originally a clafs of hermits, who led a wandering folitary life, remarkable for chaftity, renouncing all the purfuits of the world and all attention to property, and con- tented with the pra¢tice of devotion amidft the extremeft poverty. Others, however, have traced the religion of Beddou to a much higher original ; and pretend that it was introduced in the reign of Vegirajah, who came with his people to Ceylon in the 6th century before Chrilt ; and that : Goutama -@ CEYLEQN. Goutama Buddou, the fame that is now worfhipped, was fuppofed to have made his appearance 542 years before the birth of Chrift. Accordingly it has been fuppofed, that the worfhip of Buddou originated in Ceylon, and that it fpread from thence to ancient Hindooftan, to exterior India, Tibet, and even to China and. Japan. See Boopu. Be- tween the prieits of Boodh and the Brahmins, three princi- pal diflinctions have been noted: the former may lay down the priefthood ; they eat flefh, but will not kill the animal ; and they form no catt or tribe, but are feleéted from the mafs . of the people. : The priefts of Boodh or Buddou are in Ceylon accounted faperior to all others. They are called “ Tirinanxes,” and are held in high eftimation at the court of Candy, where they are entrutted with the chief management of affairs. The king has no authority over them, but endeavours to gain their good will by refpecting their immunities, and conferring upon them numerous diltmétions. The followers of Buddou believe in the immortality of the foul, and its tranfmigration into various bodies before it reaches Nimban or the region of eternity. ‘Che perfons of the Tirinanxes are held facred; and the king of Candy, although his power be abfolute, cannot take away their lives, or in any way punifh them even for confpiring again{t his own life. They chufe their own fuperiors ; and their chief prieft is invefted with the pre- rogative of fettling all religious difputes. They are exempt- ed from all taxes; but they are totally debarred from wine or women, hey never eat meat, or any thing that has had life, To their girdles they fufpend ftrings of beads made of a brownifh or black wood, and mutter prayers as they goalong. Their drefs confilts of a large loofe piece of yellow cloth thrown over their left fhoulder, and faftened round the wailt by a girdle of the fame. ‘The right fhoulder, the arms, the head, and the feet, are completely bare. In one hand they carry a painted cane, and in the other an umbrella of the broad end of the talipot leaf. The temples of Buddou are fuperior to thofe of all the other deities ; for they never dedicate tempies to the Supreme Being, nor re- prefent him by any image. In the temples of Buddou, are figures of men habited like his priefts, and placed in various poftures: fome of them are feen fitting crofs-legged on the ground with long bufhy heads of hair like their women, while others recline at full length on the ground. In various parts of the ifland a number of images of the zod Buddou are found, which by their extraordinary fize indicate the great reve- rence in which he is held. It would be endlefs to defcribe thefe images, and the various temples in which they are found. He has a temple at Calane, 6 miles N.E. of Co- lumbo ; anotherat Oogulbodda, 6 miles from Caltura, which is much frequented ; and in Bilizamme Corle is an immenfe figure of a man 6 yards high, which ftands about 10 miles N from Matura, and is faid to reprefent the Cotta Raja, an ancient prince who taught them the planting and ufe of the cocoa-nut, and inftru&ed them in its various falutary qualities. In the interior of Ceylon, there are many ruins of pagodas and temples, of hewn {tone, and of much fuperior workmanfhip to thofe in the lower parts of the country. Several of them are in a ftate of pertect prefervation ; and when compared with thofe that have been ereéted in later times, they afford the ftrongeft proof either that the Cey- lonefe had formerly attained a much higher ftate of civiliza- tion, or that the ifland had anciently been inhabited by a different race from its prefent poffeffors. But many of them have fuffered much from the ravages of the Portuguefe. The temples dedicated to the inferior gocs are poor, mean, and contemptible, being ufvally conftruéted of clay and wood ; aud mere huts, one ftory high, without windows, and covered with cocoa-tree leaves. Without are elephants? heads of earthen ware, little pots, &c. in which paf- fengers depofit their oblations ; and at the doors is a pole or flag, near which fits a prieft who remains there the whole day ; and within are * {wammies” or facred images of dif- ferent conftruétion, fuch as gigantic figures of men with boars’ heads, reprefentations of beats, birds, and pieces of confecrated armour, and fome very indecent figures of men and women. The priefts of the inferior deities, called ‘© Gonies,” are eafily diftinguifhed from the Tirinanxes by the little refpeét that is paid to them. hey are continu- ally met with in their wandering excurfions over the ifland, and are a fet of lazy, impudent vagabonds, who live well on the extortions which they praétife on the people. The fuperitition of the Ceylonefe fupplies ample provifion for the fupport of their religious eftablifhments. The Can- dians allow certain portions of land and particular taxes to maintain their pricits and religious houfes; whilft the infe- rior prieits fupport the temples and themfelves by their own dexterity. As all difeafes are accounted immediate indica- tions of the divine wrath, a time of ficknefs is the feafon when the temples are thronged, and when the prielts ex- pect their principal harvei}. There are feveral particular feftivals which are held by the Ceylonefe in honour of their gods, and for the purpofe of conciliating their favour. In the month of June or July at the new moon, called « pera- har,”? a folemn and general concourfe takes place to the various religious reforts on the ifland. At Candy this fefti- val is celtbrated with great pomp, and is attended by the king with\ his whole court. In November, at the time of full moon, there is another feftival, which is celebrated in the night. Thefe feftivals, which are more folemn and {plendid in the domhions of Candy than among the Cinglefe of the coalt, are ry numerous, amounting in the whole to 48, Thofe in i of Buddou are not held in the temples, where he isufually worfhipped, but on a high hill, called «© Hammallell,”? or Adam’s peak, one of the higheft in Ceylon, and & the diftance of about so miles to the N.E. of Columbo, andqat a confecrated tree, denominated the * Bo- gaha,”” whicl| fee. Notwithftanding the many religious ceremonies anq fuperttitions that prevail among the Ceylo- nefe, they are Jar from being fuch devotees and zealots as any of the fect] on the continent. ‘They are firm believers in the doétrine\ of the immortality of the foul, and the refur- rection of the body. It is their opinion, that the fouls of the jut are imiediately after death admitted into the rank of gods, and th¢ their ancient prophets and good kings are long fince empliyed in exercifing the powers of this {tation ; while, on the otltr hand, the fouls of the wicked, particularly of unjuit tyrants ad impious priefts, are fuppofed to have pailed into wild beafts ad reptiles. The Ceylonefe are rigid pre- deftinarians, andbelieve that people are born to their pecu- liar dettinies, whdher good or bad, which they are incapable of avoiding or altring. They imagine, however, that their calamities may bjalleviated by fpells and cAarms, and they place confiderabl4 reliance on giving alms; and hence the Ceylonefe are vay liberal in the diftribution of charity, Prefents to theirprieits and alms to their beggars are con- fidered by them ageffential ats of goodnefs. The Cinglefe in our fervice, whfe natural ferocity is in a great meafure fubdued, referve dcertain proportion of their food for the oor; nor do thy withhold relief from the Malabar cr oor who afks it.) They extlnd their compaffion even to the brute creationjfo that during certain feltivals or feafons of devotion, theyfefrain from killing any living creature, and fubfift wholly\n herbs and fruits. The Cinglefe, who are naturally abitejious, frugal, and free from covetoufnets, are CHY LOW. are never tempted by indigence to purloin the property of their neighbours; but the Candians, though endued with much more pride and {pirit, are by no means fo confcientious or honeft. The burials among the Ceylonefe are not at- tended with any: particular religious folemnity. Mr. Knox {tates, that in his time it was cuftomary to burn the dead, particularly the bodies of perlons of diltinGtion. But this praGice, if it {till continues in any part of Ceylon, has ef- caped the refearches of captain Percival: and it muff there- fore be rare, and confined to the remoteft parts of the in- terior. "Che ceremonial of burial is very fimple ; the body being wrapped in a mat or piece of cloth, and carried to fome unfrequented fpot, where it is depofited. mile Captain Percival has pointed out, with hisaccurate difcrimi- nation, fome particular fhades of difference which arife between the Candians and Cinglefe, both from the nature of the country they refpe€tively inhabit, and from the more fre- quent intercourfe of the latter with foreigners, Thefe chiefly relate to their political fituation, and their forms of adminiftering juftice, which, among the Cinglefe, are of courfe confiderably affimilated to thofe of the people who hold them in fubjetion. The Cinglefe, he fays, are/a quict inoffenfive people ; exceedingly grave, temperate, and fru- gal. In their application to labour, though their bodies partake of the indolence of their minds, they are capable, when roufed, of confiderable aétive exertion ; but being lefs robuft than the Moor or the Malabar race, they n-ver make good palankcen bearers, or coolies to carry burdens. They are gentle, charitable, and friendly, and have fearvely any of the falfe, treacherous, and defigning arts, whicl are often found among the Candians. ‘The countenance cf the Can- dian is erect, his look haughty, his mien lofy, and his whole carriage marked by the pride of independence. The humble yielding deportment of the Cinglefe, «n the other hand, with the patient or rather abject enduraice which is cepictured in their faces, plainly denotes the dependent and helplefs ftate to which they are reduced. A mild and equitable government, with a ftriGt adminiltraton of juttice, cannot fail to conciliate the minds of thefe peple who have already been trained to fubmiffion, and an urbounded reve- rence for Europeans. As the natural difpeftions of the Cinglefe are mild and humane ; their morals except in the promifcuous intercourfe of the fexes, are farfrom being de- praved. The Candians, who have acquiredwarlike habits, are thus induced to look with contempt o the Cinglefe, who are almolt entirely unacquainted with ne ufe of arms. The drefs of the poorer iorts of the Cnglefe indicates their indolence and wretchednefs; and th women of this clafs are employed in performing all kinds of fervile work, and in bringing the fruits and vegetables 0 market. Per- fons of fuperior rank pay particular attenton to their drefs. They wear a piece of calico wrapped rund their wailts, which either hangs loofe down to their akles, or 1s drawn together becween the legs, in the form of wide trowlers. The body is covered by a jacket with feves, having the appearance of a (hirt and wailtcoat, ands buttoned at the neck and wrifts. The buttons are numeous, and they are either of filver, gold, or precious ftones. To their ears they fix enormous ear-rings, which are adaptecfor receiving them by applying pieces of wood to the orifics in their infancy. The thoulders and body are left completly bare. On their heads they wear caps of various fhapes, ud others of them coloured ‘handkerchiefs, as fancy fuggts, or the rules of their caft preferibe. The drefs of the hiherrank of women is fimilar to that worn by the black Poruguefe ladies ; and that of the young Cinglefe females 1s nc inclegant, nor are their appearance and manners difagreeake. The Cinglefe are ingenious and expert artificers, and dif- play their dexterity in gold, filver, and carpenters’ work. The number, of perfons employed in all forts of handicraft work renders furniture, and other fimilar articles, both good and cheap. The Cinglefe fupply the Englith garrifons with beef, fowls, eggs, and other fuch articles, at a very moderate rate, as they feldom ule them for their own confumption 3 beef, in particular, they never talte, as the cow is an object of their worfhip. Some of them drink arrack, and all ranks ufe toddy, both as a medicine, and for the fake of the liquor itfelf. The veflels which they ufe for holding the juice of the palmyra and cocoa-trée is a rind of the betel-tree, re- fembling in colour and texture bleached fheep-fkin, and be+ ing as {trong and better adapted for retaining liquor. Fowls are plentiful, and fold at from 4d. to Sd. each ; eggs at 2d. a dozen; and a good difh of filh may be bought at from 1d, Howden As the Cinglefe live under the protection of the Britith government, they are fubje& to our laws and forms of ad- miniltering jultice, except in very few points, with regard to which they are permitted to retain their ancient cuftoms, The fame laws of inheritance remain among all the Cey- lonefe: the lands defcend to the eldeft fon, if the father makes no will; but a certain proportion of the property mutt always be apprepriated to the maintenance of the widow and the younger children. The Cinglefe under the Britith dominion are governed by the native magiltrates, the con- trouling power refiding always in the fervants of the Britifh government. All our poffeffions in the ifland are divided into corles and diftriéts, the f{ubordinate fuperintendance of which is affigned to the ‘* Moodeliers,”’ or native magiltrates, who are always chofen from among the clafs of the nobles ftyled «* Hondrews,”’ and ** Mahondrews.’”? The nobles, or “* Mahondrews,”? from whom the Moodeliers are chofen, form a particular calt completely diltin& from the others, and their appearance, drefs, and manners indicate fuperiority to the reft of the natives. Thefe Mahondrews are fairer than the other Cinglefe, from their being lefs expofed to the fun ; when they go abroad, they are entitled, by their rank and wealth, to be carried in coolies or palankeens; or when they go on foot, their attendants hold over their heads the leaf of the talipot. In public their fervants carry their um= brellas and betel-boxes, which latter are ufually made of ivory, torzoife-fhell, filver, or calamander wood inlaid. In their own hands, they carry a {mall filver box, like a watch, to hold their chinam. In their manners they are very affable, and much more polite and engaging than the natives of the continent of India. They are partial to the Luropeans, who have been accuftomed to treat them with confidence and gentlenefs; and on all occalions they have manife(ted a defire of copying the manners of the Europeans. Their drefs is very rich, and combines the ancient European with the Afiatic. They are fond of magnificence, and par- ticularly at their wedding-featts they are anxious to exhibit their {plendour. Mavy of the Cinglefe have been converted to the Chriftian faith ; and whilft fome profefs to be Roman Catholics, others attend the Calvinitt and Lutheran worlhip; but the funda: mental principles of Chrittianityare underltood by {carcely any one ofthem. The natives of Ceylon, fays Capt. Percival, bes longing to our fettlements, are already become much attached to the Englifh; and there is every reafon to expect that their prejudices againit foreigners will foon be done away by our liberal conduG@ towards them. For an account of the Can dians, fee Canpy. OF another clafs of the inhabitants of Ceylon, a brief account has already been given under the are ticle Bedahs. Thefe Bedans, or Vaddahs, are [cattered ; over ee C7ROY. ILyQN: over the woods in different parts of the ifland but they are moft numerous in the province of Bintan, whieh hes to the N.E. of Candy in the direétion of Trincomalee and Batacolo. Here they are completely favage, and have never entered into any intercourfe with the other natives, or have fearcely ever been feen by them. They acknowledge no authority befide that of their. own chiefs and religious men. ‘Thofe that border on the dillri@ of Jafnapatam, and the tribes that inhabit the W. and S.W. quarters of the ifland, between _ Adam’s peak and the Raygam and Pafdam corles, are the only Bedahs who have been teen by Europeans; and they are much lefs wild and ferocious than thofe who live in the forefts of Bintan. The Bedahs, as they acknowledge no power but that of their own chiefs, adhere, from generation to ge- neration, to their own laws and cuftoms, without the flighteft variation. They fubtift entirely by hunting deer and other animals, with which their forelts fupply them. The flefh of thefe animals, and the fruits that grow fpontaneoully, compofe their whole food. They fleep either in trees, or at the foot of them; and in the latter cafe fecure themfelves from wild beafts by placing thorns and buthes all round them. As foon as the leaft noife roufes the apprehenfion of a Be- dah, he climbs up the tree with the utmott expertnefs ard celerity. The dogs of the Bedahs are remarkable for their fagacity, and not only readily trace out game, but alfo dif- _tinguifh one {pecies of animals from another. Thefe faith- ful animals conttitute their chief riches. When their daugh- ters are married, hunting-dogs form their portion; and a Be- dah is as unwilling to part with his dog as an Arabian with his horfe. Thofe Bedahs who converfe with the other natives are reprefented to be courteous, and in addrefs far beyond their ftate of civilization. Their religion is little known; they have their inferior deities, correfponding to the demons of the Cinglefe, and obferve certain feftivals. On thefe occa- fions victuals of various forts are placed at the root of a tree, and the ceremonies of the feftival confilt in dancing around them. ‘Their origin has never been traced; but they are fuppofed to have been the aboriginal inhabitants of the ifland, who, vpon beirg overwhelmed by their Cinglefe in- vaders, preferred the independence of favages to a tame fub- mifion. For another account of them, fee Bepaus. At the head of the clafs of quadrupeds in this ifland, and fuperior to thofe of the fame {pectes found in any other part of the world, are its clephants. See Evernanr. Of the animals applied to domeitic purpofes Ceylon produces but few. The horfe and fheep are not natives of this iflend, and can fearcely be made to thrive when imported. |The horfes, which are bred on the fmall iflands beyond Jafnapa- tam are a mixture of the Arab and the common horfe of the Carnatic. They are chiefly ufed for drawing gigs and other light vehicles for pleafure: the Manilla, Pegu, and Atcheen horfes are alfo ufed forthefe purpofes. Sheep. as well as horfes, are much dearer here than in any other part of In- dia. Sheep. in particular, fometimes fetch 10 and even 20 times the price they bear on the oppofite coaft of Coroman- del. In Ceylon horfes are never employed in fervile work, or fordrawing burthens. As they are {careely ever cailrated, they are fo {pirited and vicious as in fome degree to be unfit for thefe purpofes. The oxen of Ceylon are remarkably {mall, generally of a black colour, and fearccly exceed in fize our calves of a year old ; the beef, however, is fat, and tolerably good. The price of an ox is about 11. 5s. fter- ling. Thefe bullocks, though fmail, are very ufeful, and are employed in drawing artillery, and conveying burtheus whicli are too large for the coolies to carry, and which they draw in carts, known in the ifland by the name of * bandies.”” Thefe are long, narrow. clumfy vehicles, with the body 3 refting on a beam, which projeéts like the pole of a car= riage, to the end of which is attached crofs-wife a piece of wood, very thick, and about fix feet long. Under it are hoops for the necks of the oxen, which are kept fait by pegs; fo that the whole weight of the load reits on the neck and fhoulders of the cattle, while they drag the cart along. The fides of the cart are compofed of thin boards, the fkins of buffaloes, or fplit bamboes; while a ftrong poft of wood is placed at each of the four corners to give it {hape or hold it firm. The bottom is formed of boards, or interwoven bamboes: the axle-tree and wheels refemble thofe of the Irifh truckles, or cars, being blocks of wood rounded. Buffaloes, which are much larger and ftronger than the oxen, are much more frequently employed in draw- ing burthens. Thefe animals are found in great numbers on the ifland, both wild and in a tame {ftate, and are all of the fame fpecies and appearance. See Burrato. The markets of Ceylon are well fupplied with pigs, which may be always had at a moderate price from 5s. to 10s. ‘The forefts of this ifland are rendered dangerous by beaits of prey and noxious reptiles of various kinds. Varieties of deer and elks are every where met with in the woods and jungles. | Hares, like the common ones of Europe, abound In every quarter of the ifland. The wild hog is more ef- teemed than the tame; and the wild bears, which are large and fierce, add much to the dangers of the Ceylonefe foretts. The {maller fpecies of tiger infelts the woods; but the lar- ger kind, called the royal tiger, is not an inhabitant of the ifland. Ceylon has alfo the tiger-cat, the leopard, jackals, the hyzena\ and bear, great number of monkies of different fpecies, an a variety of porcupines, racoons, armadilloes, {quirrels and mungoofes ; the ichncumon, flormoute, orflying- fox, feveral{pecies of rats, and the ant-eater are alfo animals found in thi} ifland. The birds of Ceylon form a very nu- merous clafs\_ All forts of our domettic poultry, turkies excepted, ar{ natives of this ifland ; and there are few birds found in out marfhes that do not abound here. Ducks, geefe, pheafa\ts, parrots, and parroquets, are found in great numbers, both wild and tame, and ufually in flocks. Snipes are alfo plentibil in the wet feafon, which is the beit time for fhooting them| The florican, which is.a fpecies of the crane kind, about thqfize and weight of a large capon, lives among the woods, andis elteemed excellent for food. The banks of the rivers aml lakes abound with ftorks, cranes, herons, and water-fowllf various defcriptions. Wood-peckers are alfo found witl beautiful top-knots of a golden colour. Pigeons, both Wld and tame, form a principal part of the birds of Ceylon and the cinnamon p:geon, in particular, which is of a Bautiful green colour, and as large as our common fowl, {warms in Ceylon at all feafons of the year. There are a few prtvidges of the {mall red-legged kind, which are found on the felt coafts between Nigumbo and Manaar. Among a great Yriety of {maller birds, the honey bird and tailor bird attrad| particular notice. The crows are here, as in every other Jart of India, exceedingly impudent and troublefome, and are with difficulty excluded from the houfes. Here arjalfo kites and vultures, the Indian roller, the yellow-crownd {pecies of peacock, and the jungle-fowl, which refembles i] fize our common fowl, but. prefents a much more beaujful plumage and is diftinguifhed by its double fpurs. Tk reptiles and infe&ts of Ceylon are very. numerous, and thre are feveral fpecies very little known, Serpents alfo aboud to the great annoyance of the inhabit ants; among whih we may reckon the covra capello or hooded {nake, fro 6 to 15 feet long, the covra manil- la, the molt dreadhl of ali fnakes, about two feet long, whofe bite proves hftantly fatal; the whip-fnake and grafs. fnakes,. GfEVY. ‘LY OUN? fnakes, both poifonous, the water-{nake, wood-{nake, and a few other {pecies among old ruins that are perfetly harm- lefs. The rock-fnake extends to 30 feet in length, and in- habits chiefly the rocky banks of rivers. Alligators of an immenfe fize infeft all the rivers of Ceylon, and render them every where very dangerous. The guana refembles the alligator, but is perfeétly harmlefs. It lives in holes in the ground, is efteemed good food by the natives, and makes excellent curry, or rich foup. An immenfe number of toads, lizards, blood-{uckers, chamelecns, and a variety of others of the fame clafs, abound every where throughout the ifland. Befides the leeches which are employed in the materia me- dica, there is another fpecies which infefts the woods and {wampy grounds of Ceylon, particularly in the rainy feafon, to the great annoyance of paflengers. ‘The infects of Cey- lon are very numerous ; but the moft mifchievous 1s a {pecies of ant, called the white ant, which is equally deftructive in the fields and the dwelling houfes. Land tortoifes abound in many parts of the ifland. The black {corpion of Ceylon is a very dangerous infect, and its fting is frequently mortal. The centipedes, or common large fpider, and an overgrown beetle, called the carpenter, from its boring large holes in timber, are met with in Ceylon. Fith of every fort, in great abundance, are found in the lakes and rivers of Ceylon, as well as in the furrounding feas. Many excellent kinds of fith are caught all round the coafts of this ifland, and form a principal article of the food and traffic of the natives. Ceylon is particularly prolific in plants. Except in one or two fpecies, the mangoes of Maffegon, and themanderine orange of China, this ifland maintains an undenable {upe- riority over all our fettlements on the continen: of India. Among the fruits which grow fpontaneoufly are found pine- apples, oranges, pomegranates, citrons, limes, m 3 leagues E. of Auxerre. The place contains 2223, and the canton 7736 inhabitants: the territory includes 1824 kiliometres, and 13 communes. , CHABNAM, or Roses, in Commerce, a kind of muflin or cotton linen, very clear and fine: it comes from the Eaft Indies, particularly from Bengal. CHABNO, CHA CHABNO, ia Geography, a town of Poland, in the pala- . ‘tinate of Volhynia ; 68 miles N.E. of Zytomiers. CHABON, or CuHEnson, in Ancient Geography, a town of Palettine, fo called by Eufebius and Jerom, who place it in the tribe of Juda. CHABONS, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Ifere, and diftnit of La Tour-du-Pin ; 30 miles S.E. of Lyons. CHABOR, or Cuasora, in Ancient Geography, a ftrong place of Afia, in Mefopotamia, fituated at the confluence of the Chabor and Euphrates, according to Ptolemy. Cuasor, or Cuasoras, Khabour, a river of Afia, in Mefopotamia, fpringing, according to Ptolemy, from mount Mafius. It ran towards the S.W., paffed near the town of Anemufia, and difcharged itfelf into the Euprares, in the {trait on which were fituated the towns of Chabor and Cercafium. Julian is faid to have erofled this river on a bridge of boats. Strabo and Ammiatus Marcelliaus cail this river Aborras. See Anoras. CHABORA, a town of Mefopotamia, pleced by Pto- lemy near the Euphrates. CHABORAS, a mountain of Affyria, which, according to Ptolemy, Jay on the borders of Media. CHABOT, in Zchihyslogy, the common French name of the {mall ffh, vaguely called by the Englith ffhermen the miller’s thumb. Sve Cortes gobio. CHABOTTES, in Geography, a town of Trance, in the department of the Higher Alps, and diitri&t of Gap; 7 miles N. of Gap. CHABRIA, a town of Perfia, 60 miles N.E. of Aftera- bat. ‘CHABRILLAND, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Drdme, and diltri@ of Creft; 3 miles W. of Creft. CHABRIS, a town of France, in the department of the Indre, and diltri&t of Iffoudun; 74 leagues N.N.W. of If- foudun. CHABRIUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Mace- donia, which had its fource in mount Bertifeus, ran towards the fouth, watered the town of Anthemufia, and difcharged ifelf into the fea. Ptolemy. CHABURA, a fountain of Afia in Mefopotamia, men- tioned by Paulanias, Athenzeus, and Pliny; the latter of whom fays that its waters were naturally perfumed. CHACA-HAMAR, in Geography, a town of Chinefe Yartary. N. lat. 44° 50’. E. long. y2° 37’. . CHACAL, in Zoology, the French name of the animal we denominate jackal, canis mefomelas, Linn. Buffon calls it chacal, and likewife calls the canis aureus of Schrcber and ‘Cmel. chacal adive. CHACAMEL, in Ornithology. the name given by Buffon 'to the crying curaflaw, crax wvociferans, Gmel. It is alfo called chachalacameil in the Hilt. New Spain. Fernand. *Sc. CHACANGA, in Geography. See CHicanca. CHACA-TERGASO, a town of Afia, in the country of Tibet, 42 miles N.N.£. of Tchonteti. CHACAO, a port town of South America, in the ifland ‘of Chiloe, where the governor ufually refides. CHACE. Sce CuHase. Cuace, La Chafe, French, Al/a Caccia, Ital. in ATu/fie, ‘all equa'ly imply a bunting-picce, or movement, iv which “the French torn, feale, and ttyle chiefly prevail. ‘early horn,” an admirable fong in the hunting ft vie, acco:npanied by the Trench horn, compofed by Gallrard for ‘@ pantomime entertainment at Covent Garden, 60 years ago, was in fuch favour during the middle of ‘the lait century, With’ CTTrA that Beard and Lew hardly ever efcaped being called upon every night, fora long time, to fing it at the theatres be- tween the a¢ts, or in the play and farce. One of the moft animated and pleafing of Haydn’s fymphonies is called «Ta Chaffe.”? Schobert, Kotzeluch, Clementi, Daffec, Steibelt, Cramer, and other great players and eminent com- pofers for the harpfichord and piano forte, have feverally publifhed a chaffe that has never failed to pleafe whenever well played. See Russran Muste. In the “ Almanac de Gotha” for 1772, there is an abridged hiftory of mufic in Ruffia, well drawn up, and al- lowed by the natives themfelves to be authentic. In this fetch of mufical hiftory we have an account of a band which attends fome of the grandees of that empire in the chafe of fo extradrdinary a kind, that it was long regarded as fabulous by the reft of Europe, till the late coronation of the prefent emperor Alexander, at Mofcow, at which {plendid folemnity many of our countrymen were prefent, who have fent and brought hither a defcription of the extra- ordinary performance of this band, which exaély tallies with, and confirms that in the Gotha almanac 30 years ago. We fhall, therefore, under the prefent article on the mufic of the ehafe, give our readers, in our own language, a tranf- lation of this part of the hiltory of Ruffian mufic. “ The lovers of the chafe in Ruffia formerly knew no other mufical inftrument than an ordinary brazen horn of a {trait conical form, a little curved. «“ Thefe clumfy and ill-fhaped horns in themfelves refem« bled each otherin length and caliber, and, confequently, pro- duced the fame tone in tuning them together. It was not mufic which they produced, but a kind of frightful f{cream, fit at beft but to terrify and ilart game, The grand vizier, Narifkin, undertook to reform this mufic, or, at leaft, to render its effects lefs barbarous. With this view, he applied to one of the huntfmen of the court, named Marzlch, a name which ought to be recorded in the hiftory of mufic. This inventive {pirit began by having 37 horns made of the fame kind, but of different length and diameter; fo that by each producing a different tone, he acquired a feries of founds, extending to three complete oGtaves. Thefe 37 horns were diftributed toas many young men of the hunt, who were taught to blow them in fuch a manner as to pro- duce the cleareft and {weetett tone poffible. After this, they were taught mufical meafures, and to count the time not only of founds but of filence, fo as to know precifely when the tone of their inftrument would be wanted, and for what duration, in proportion to the meafure of the air or piece of muiic that was to be executed. This was certainly the moft difficult part of the tafk ; but the Ruffians accuftomed to difcipline and obedience, and manifeftiug dacility, and a dif- peition for fo pleafing an art, by a little patience on the part of the matter, and great perfeverance in the pupils, the undertaking was crowned with fuccefs. VYhe reit was the bufinefs of the compofer, who diflribuced the feveral parts to the performers of each note, with the refls in whole bars and fra@tions, which they bad to count between every two notes in their part. From this fingular invention, in a fhort time, thefe young chaffeurs were able to perform what- ever was put before them, and they are at prefent in fuch high practice, that they play marches, airs, entire fympho- nies, with their allegros, andantes, and preitos, executing with aftonifhing precifion the moit difficuit compofitions, crowded with femiquavers, and even demi-femiquavers, During performance every ove holds a paper in his hand, on which the notes, or rather the repetition of the fingle tone of his inflrument ig marked, as well as the refts which he has to count, in order to be ready at the infant his 3 B2 tone CO TA tone is wanted, either loud or foft, fhort or long, according to the pleafure of the author. ** The ear of the auditor is fo deceived, that he imagines paflages to be played by one inflrument, which, if no one note 1s repeated, is performed by as many different inftru- ments as there are notes in the melody. me: This mufic has the moft altonifhing effect, particularly in the epen air, where it has room to expand without the vibration being reflected back by the echoes which thefe fonorous initruments excite.. The effet is at once grand, majeltic, and pleafing : indeed, it is impoffible to form an accurate idea of it without hearing it. ‘Twenty-four or thirty common Trench-horns may, perhaps, if unired, fomething approach to the fame eflect ; but always of an inferior kind to the aftonithing harmony of thefe Ruffian-horss, which, by the undulation and vibration of fuch full and round tones, which no one inflrument can produce in fucceffion with that equal force, at once altonifhes the ear and the hearer.”” At Peterburg, this muiic is often heard in a fine evening on the Neva, where it generally precedes the barges of the court; and we have been affured by good judges of mufic with nice ears, that they have not difcovered, till they were told, how this mufic was produced ; and that, as ina belfry, where no ringer has more than one bell or note to his fhare, fo here a man’s whole life is devoted to one and the fame found or note. Cuace ofagun. See Cannon. Cuacr, order of, or grand order of Wurlemburg, was in{ti- tuted by Eberard Lewis, Duke of Wurtemburg, in 1702, in allufion to his being grand buntfman of the empire. ‘The enfign isa crofs of gold ofeight points, enamelled red, with an eagle difplayed, and-bugle horns. On the centre is the letter W, and over, a ducal hat of the empire. The crofs is worn pendent toa fearlet ribbon, from the left fhoulder to the right fide: on the left brealt of the coat isa filver ftar, and the raotto ina green circle is * Amicitie virtutifque foedus.?? Cuace, in Geography, a town of France, in the department ‘sof the Mayne and Loire, and diftri& of Saumur ; one league S. of Saumur. : CHACHALACAMETL, in Ornithology. See Cuaca- meEL and Crax vociferans. CHACHAPOYAS. in Geography, a jurifdiGtion of South America, in Peru,in the diocefeof Vruxiilo. Asit lies without the Cordilleras, its temperature is hot, and towards the ealt its territories Nave a low fituation, It is of great extent and thinly inhabited ; and the produéts of the earth are only fuch as naturally flourifh im fuch a climate. The Indians here are very ingenious in making cottons, particu- larly tapeftry, which, by the liyelinefs of the colours, and delicacy of the work, exhibit an elegant appearance ; th. fe, together. with the fail-cloth, yicld great profits to the country, as they are nighly valued in the other provinces, CHACING. See Cuasine. CHACK, in the Manege, is taken in the fame fenfe as beat upon the hand 3 it is applied to a horfe when his head is not fteady ; but he tgfles up his nofe, and fhakes it all of a fudden, to avoid the fubjeGion of the bridle. Turkith horfes have this fault frequently. We fay, they beat upon the hand ; and neither the belt bits, nor the belt hand, can ever fix their heads. _ Croats, or Croatian horfes, are alfo fubje& to beat upon the hand ; which proceeds from this, that the bars are too fharp and ridged, or edged, fo that they cannot bear the preflure of a bit, though ever fo gen- tly. If ahorfe had not too fenfible, or too tender a mouth, he would not beat upon the hand: but in order to fix and fecure his head, you need only put under his nofe-band a CHA fmall flat band of iron, bent archwife, which anfwers to a martingale. This“ will hinder him to beat upon the hand, but will not break him of the habit; for as foon as the martingale is taken off, he will fall into the fame vice again. * CHACO, Lx, in Geagraphy, a province of South America, in the country of Buenos Ayres, reckoned 200 leagues in length, and 125 broad, on the weft fide of the river La Plata, and bounded on the eaft by a chain of mountains: it is in- habited by Indian nations that are little known. CHACONNE, French, a ferious and fplendid dance to mulic formerly written on a ground bafe; but that re- firaint has of late been given up. The meafure, however, is invariably that of 3, aud there are frequent returns to the fubje& or firit ftrain, after epifodes and excurfions into new modulations and ftyles. The word is formed of the Spanith chacona, which may probably be deried from the Perfian flack, a king, thus intimating, that this might have been a royal dance; not, as others pretend, from the Italian Cecone, a blind man, the inventor. f CHACRELAS, the name of a race of people, ac- cording to Buffon, who, like the Bedas of Ceylon, are of a white colour, and inhabit the ifland of Java. Similar to thefe are the white Indians of the ifthmus of Darien, and the white negroes of Africa. Some have fuppofed that thefe people form adifting race, inhabiting the itthmus of Darien, the negro country, and the ifland of Ceylon, all which are under the fame parallel. Others imagine, that they are in- dividuals who have accidentally degenerated from their ori- ginal flock. ‘To this laft opinion Buffon inclines. The pro- duction of whites by negro parents, he fays, which fome- times happens, adds great force to this theory. In the hiftory of the French Academy we have defcriptions of two of thefe white negroes; and Baffon adds, that they are very fre- quent among the negroes of Africa. This variation of nature, which is a fingular circumftance, takes place from black to white only, and not vice verfa: and it is no lefs fin- gular, that all the people in the Ealt Indies, in Africa, and “America, where thefe white men appear, are under the fame latitude. CHACTAW Mills, in Geography, hills of America, fituate in the N.W. corner of Georgia river. CHACTAWS, or /'Vat-heads,a powerful, hardy, fubtle,and intrepid race of Indians, who inhabit a fine and extenfive traét of hilly country, interfeéted:with large and fertile plains, be- tween the Alabama and Miffiippi rivers, and in the weftern part of the {tate of Georgia, in America. To this nation be- longed, not many years ago, 43 towns and villages, in three. d:vilions,containing 12,123 inhabitants, of which 4,04 1,o0r, as fome fay, 6,000, were warriors. They are called by the traders Flat-heads ; all the males having the fore and hind part of their fkulls flattened when young. Thefe men, unlike the Mufcogulges, are flovenly and negligent in every part of their drefs ; but they are faid to be ingenious, ferfible, and virtuous men; bold and intrepid, and yet quiet and peaceable. Some late travellers, however, have obferved, that they pay little attention to the moft neceflary rules of moral condu@; or at leaft, that unnatural crimes are too frequent among them. Different from moft of the Indians bordering on the United States, they have large plantations, or country farms, in which they employ molt of their time in agricul- tural improvements, after the manner of the white people. Although their territories are not one-fourth fo large as thofe of the Mufcogulge confederacy, the number of inha- bitants is greater. ‘Ihe Chataws and Creeks are inveterate enemies to each other. } . CHADACA, CHE CHADACA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Albania, placed by Ptolemy, between the Albanus and the Caflius. CHADAI, a people who inhabited the eaftern part of Arabia Felix, according to Pliny. CHADAGHI, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the rovince of Farfiftan, five miles W. of Schiras. CHADARA, in Botany. Forfk. See Grewia popu- lifolia. CHADBOURNEP’S river, in Geography, ariver of America, in the diltriét of Maine, called by fome Great Works river, * about 39 miles from the mouth of the Bonnebeag pond, from which it flows. Itis faid to have derived its latter name from a mill with 18 faws moved by one wheel, erected by one Lodors; but the projet was foon laid afide. The former name is derived from Mr. Chadbourne, one of the firit fettlers, who purchafed the land at the mouth of ir, of the natives, and whole pofterity poflefs it at this day. CHADCHOD, in Feawifh Antiquity. Lzekiel mentions chadchod among the feveral merchandizes which were brought to Tyre. The old interpreters, not very well knowing the meaning of this term, continued it in their tranflation. St. Jerom acknowledges that he could not dif- cover the fignification of it. The Chaldee interprets it pearls; others think that the onyx, ruby, carbuncle, cryttal, ordiamond, is meant by it. Ezek. chap. xxvil. ver, 16. Calmet. Di&. Bibl. in voc. CHADDG IR, in Ornithology, aname given by the French to the Merors =Gyprius. CHADER, in Geography, an ifland ef Afia, formed by a river which runs from the Euphrates to the Perfian gulf, and extends from Baflora nearly to El Catif, 240 miles long, and 30 wide. . CHADISIA, in Ancient Geography, a viver of Cappadocia, whichruns between the town of Amifus and the river Lycaite. CHADRAMOTIT A, or Cathramote, (Ptol.) a peo- ple of Arabia Felix, who inhabited the fouthern coalt op- polite to the Indian ocean, near the {trait in which the river Prion difcharges itfelf. CHZANOITA, a people mentioned by Strabo, and laced in Afiatic Sarmatia. CHEDENI, a people placed by Ptolemy in Scandi- navia. CHELZ Cancrorum. Sce Cran’s claws. CHAM, in Ancient Geography, a people of Germany, who inhabited the diitricis near the river Amafius, according to Ptolemy. CHENIDES, a people of Afiatic Sarmatia, according to Ptolemy ; fuppofed to be the fame with the Chwanoitz of Strabo. CHZRCELA, a town of Africa, in, Cyrenaica. .. CHAERETAPA, a town of Afia Minor, in Phrygia. CHAZ ROPHYLLO /milis, in Botany, Baul. pin. See _APHANEs. _ CHEROPHYLLUM, (from yee, rejoicing; and Quaroy, leaf ; alluding to the luxuriance and beauty of its Jeaves.) Linn. gen. 358. Schreb. 4go. Jufl. p. 220. Clals and. order, pentandria digynia. Nat. Ord. Umbellate, Linn. WUnilellifere, Sufi. Vevt. ~ Gen. Char. Cal. Umbel univerfal {preading ; partial ne-rly equal in the number of its rays. Jnvol. univerfal generally none ; partial five-leaved or more; leaflets lanceo- ate, concave, reflexed, about the length of the partial umbel. Perianth proper {earcely difcermble. Cor. univer- fal vearly uniform ; florets of the difk often abortive. Proper, petals five, inflexed, heart-fhaped, with an inflexed point, n> outer ones a little larger. Stam. Filaments five, ple, the length of the little umbel; anthers roundith, w- CHE Pif. Germ inferior; ftyles two, reflexeds ftigmas obtule. Peric. none. Fruit oblong, acuminate, evens divifible into two. Sveds two, oblong, attenuated upwards, convex on one fide, flat on the other. Eff. Ch. Involucre reflexed, concave. Petals inflexed, heart-fhaped. Fruit oblong, even. Sp. 1. C. fplvefire, {mooth cow-parfley, or wild chervil. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1. Mart. 1. Willd. 1. Lam. 8. Jacq. Autt. tab. 149. Curt. Flor. Lond. tab. 25. Eng. bot. tab. 752. (C. fylveftre perenne, cicute folio; Tourn. Inft. 314. Ce- refolium; Hali. helv. n. 748. Riv. tab. 43. Myrrhis fylvei- tris, feminibus levibus; Bauh. pin, Cicutaria vulgaris ; Dod. pempt. 701. Bauh. hift. 3. p. 181. Rai Syn. 207.) ‘ Stem {triated, flightly {welling bclow the joints.’ Root perennial, fpindle-fhaped, flightly milky, but little branched. Stem about three feet high, erect, branched, leafy, round, downy towards the bottem, almolt always void of pubefcence above. Leaves triply pinnated, deeply cut, rough at the edge, pe- tioles fhort, dilated, ribbed. /Vowers whitith ; umbels erect, terminal ; leaves of the partial involucre egg-fhaped, mem- branous, fringed with thick-fet white hairs; petals more or lefs emarginate, rarely entire. J ruit oblong, fomewhat el- liptical, roundifh, very flightly ftriated, quite {mooth. Com- mon in meadows and paitures in moft parts of Enrope; flowering in April. The whole herb has a fweetifh carrot- like fmell and tafte; and is eaten by domeltic cattle. Dr. Smith. John Bauhin mentions inftances of two families having been poifoned by eating a {mall quantity of the root; and a few years fince there was an account in the public papers of a fimilar difafter with refpeét to fome children in the neighbourhood of Chefter. 2. C. dulbe/um, Linn. Sp. Pl. 2, Mart. 2. Lam. 4. Willd. 2. (Myrrhis; Hall. helv. 752. Pluk. tab. 206. fig. 2. Barrel. Ic. 555. Cicutaria bul- bola; Bauh. pin. 161. Scandix bulbofa; Roth. germ. 1, 123. 2,318.) ‘ Stem even, fwelling at the joints, rough, with hairs at the bafe.’? Root biennial, flefhy, fucculent, of a pleafant tafte. Svem fix feet high, marked with reddith- brown fpots. Leaves triply pinnated, deeply cut, the upper furface {mooth, the petioles and midrib befet with feattered white hairs underneath. Umdbels {mall, terminal; leaflets of the partial involucre awl-fhaped, unequal, a little united at the bafe. Petals white, inverfely heart-fhaped, unequal. Some of the florets of the dife abortive. Seeds flightly ftriated. A native of hedges and wood fides in France, Switzerland, Hungary, and Norway ; flowering in June and Joly. The roots taken up early in the {pring are eaten boiled with oil, falt, and vinegar. Gmelin aflerts that both thefe and the feeds occafion vertigoes; but this is probably in a more advanced time of the fummer. 3. C. ariflatutty Murray Syft. 288. Wiltd. 3. Thunb. jap. 119. *¢ Stem even, {welling at the joints; feeds rough with hairs, two- awned.? Sem round, itriated, fmooth, ere&t. Leaves twice pianated, villous; fheaths of the petioles ciliated. Umbels terminal, compound; general and partial involucres awl- fhaped, reflexed. Seeds oblong, awned with the divaric ated ftyles, rough with white hairs. Thunb. 4. C. temulum, rough cow parfley, or rough chervil. Linn. Sp. Pl. 3. Mart. 4. Willd. 4. Lam. 9. Curt. Flor. Lond, tab. 24. Jacq. Flor. Auft. tab. 65. Eng. bot. tab. 1521. (C. fylvettre ; Bauh, pin. 152. Myrrhis; Hall. helv. 750. Riv. -tab. 98. M. annua femine ftriato levi; Morif. Umb. 4.4. Tourn. Intt. gt5.) ‘ Stem rugged, joints (welling. oct biennial, {pindle-fhaped, often divided, Stem about three feet lugh, erect, branched, leafy, round, flhhtly furrowed, marked with purple fpots. Leaves lightly hairy, twice pionated, pinnatifid and lobed, pale underncath. Unmbels drooping before the opening of the flowers; rays rough. Flowers white 5 CELE white; petals irregular, deeply cloven. Fruit lightly fri- ated, quite fmooth. A native of hedges in England and other parts of Europe, flowering in June and July. The whole plant has a fweetifh aromatic talte, and is eaten by cattle. Dr. Smith. Its trivial name is derived from its fup- pofed narcotic or inebriating quality. Linnzns, and nume- rous authors after him, have fpelt it temulum; but as there is no fwch Latin word, Dr. Smith has very properly changed it into temulentum. 5. Cc: capen/e, Wiild. 5. Thunb. prod. 51. ‘* Stem even, equal; feeds furrowed ; leaflets trifid, [mooth.’? A native of the Cape of Good Hope. 6.C. fiabrum, Mart. 9. Willd. 6. Thunb. jap. 119. (Jamma Ninfin; Kempf. amon. p- 882.) ** Stem equal; leaflets gafhed, acute, rough with hairs ; pedun cles fcabrous.’’ Root fibrous. Stem a foot high, fomewhat zigzag, ereét, an- gular, {triated, {mooth near the hottom, hairy above $ branch- es alternate, fpreading, fomewhat fattigiate. Leaves twice- pinnated. Unibels terminal. Sveds ovate-oblong.— It differs from the following in having {maller and more divided lea- flets, theaths not dilated, and {maller umbels. 7. C. Aizfu- tum, Linn. Sp. Pl. 5. Mart. 5. Willd. 7. Jacq. Flor. Autt. tab. 148. (C. palultre; @. Lam. 3 Myrrhis 3 Hall. hely, n. mst. Riv. pent. 50. Cicutaria palultris latifolia 5 3auh. pin. "r6r. Cerefolinm; Morif. hift. 3. tab. 10. fg. 6.) Stem equal ; leaflets gafhed, acute 5 fruit two-awned.” Root pe- rennial. Svem round, very rough, with rigid hairs. Leaves thrice pinnated or pinnatifid. Umbel convex, nodding before it flowers. Flowers white, not radiate; many of them bar- ren. Fruit fomewhat cylindrical, flightly {triated; awns ftraight, bluntith, more rigid than in C. aromaticum. A native of Switzerland, Germany, and Carniola; cultivated by Mr. Miller in 1768. 8. C. aromaticum, Linn. Sp. Pl. 6. Mart. 6. Willd. 8. Lam. 2. Jacq. Auft. tab. 150. (Myrrhis orientalis angelica folio; Tourn, Cor. 22, M. fol.” podegrie; Riv. pent. tab. 53. Angelica; Bauh. pin. 156. n. 4. Cerefolium; Bocce. Mul. 2. tab. 19.) ‘¢ Stem equal ; leaflets heart-fhaped, ferrated ; fruit two-awned.”? Root pe- rennial, aromatic. Stem abont two feet high, branched, reddith, befet with dittant hairs. Leaves twice pinnated ; petioles hairy. Unmbels terminal. Flowers white, fmall, pot radiate, many of them barren ; leaflets of the partial involu- cre from feven to nine, lanceolate, reflexed. A native of Lufatia, Silefia, Auftria, and the Levant; cultivated by Mr. Miller in 1758. 9. C. aureum, Linn. Sp. Pl. 4. Mart. 4. Lam. 5. Willd. 10. Jacq. Autt. tab. 54. (Cerefolium ; Hall. helv. n. 749. Myrrhis minor; Bauh. p. 160.) ‘ Stem equal ; leaflets gafhed; feeds furrowed, coloured, awnlefs.”’ Root perennial, thick, branched. Stems two or three feet high, angular, {triated, {potted, hairy near the bottom, not hollow. Leaves pwice pianated, pale, fmooth above, hairy underneath ; leaflets gafhed, acute, upper ones confluent. Flowers white, externally reddifh. rut {pindle-fhaped. Sveds yellow, with four obtule remote furrows. A native of Germany and Switzerland. 10. C. coloratum, Linn. Mant. 57. Mart. 7. Lam. 6, Willd. g. Jacq. hort. tab. cx. (Myrr- his ; Morif. 3. tab, 10. fig. 6. Pluk. tab. 100. fig. 5.) ‘ Stem equal; leaves thrice pinnated ; partial involucres coloured.” Root perennial. Stem a foot andvhalf high, cylindrical, tii ated, hairy towards the bottom, Leaves thinly befer with hairs; petiole dilated, membranous. J*Vocwers yellow, in loofe umbels ; partial umbels fmall; leaflets of the- partial jnvolucre fix or feven, oval-acuminate, ycllowifh as in the bupleurums, the length of the -pedicels. Fruit as in the receding fpecies, but more finely ftriated. A native of Tillycia. 11. C. arborefcens, Lion. Sp. Pl. 7. Mart. 10. Lam. 7. Willd. 11. (Cicuta arbor virginiana; Rai Supp. 257. Pluk. mant.49.) “ Shrubby.” Stem woody. Leaves CH & refembling thofe of C. fylveftris, large, triply pinnate ; pinnules expanding, f{mooth, gafhed and toothed; umbels {mall. /owers white, all fertile. A native of Virginia, Obf. 1n this, as in all other very natural families, av- thors differ very much from each other in the formation of genera. La Marck unites the cherophylium and fcandix of Linnzus, and afferts that they make a well-defined genus, which ought by no means to be broken ; and which has for its effential character; fruit flender, elongated like the beak of a bird, either even or ftriated, {mooth or hairy. Ventenat, on the other hand, has diftrbuted the {pecies into three genera. 1. Cherophylium, including chzrophyllum fylvetlre; with feandix cerefolium, nodofa and anthrifeus of Linnen-, with the following generic charater. Ca/. entire. Cor. Petals heart-fhaped or emarginate, unequal. J'ruié eylin- drical, awl-fhaped, fmooth, either fmooth or ronzh with hairs. 2. Myrrhis, a name revived from the old botanitts, including feandix odorata, with cherophyllum hirfutum, au- reum, bulbofum, temulum, aromaticum, and coloratim: under the following character; fruit oblong, attenuated at the fummit into a fhort point. either even or furrowed, {mooth or hairy. 3. Scandix, including feandix peéten, aultralis and grandiflora, with the following character ; fruit terminated by a long point, finely ftriated, either fmooth or rough with hairs. Gertner had before made the fame divifion, and had founded his generic charaétere on the comparative length of the nucleus and the -whole feed, According to him the nucleus of feandix is {carcely a quarter of the length of the feed, chzrophylium three quarters, and myrrhis the whole length. Under the firit he figured the fruit of feandix peéten; under the fecond, . of {candix cerefolium ; and under the third, of fcandix odo- rata, cherophyllum aureum, C. temulum, and fifon cana- denfe. See Scanpix. CHERUS, in Jchthyology, a name given by Strabo and other old writers to the Caprifeus or goat-f/h of later wri- ters. See BaLisTEs monoceros. CHET, in Ancient Geography, a people placed by Prolemy in Scythia, on the other fide of the Imaus. CHTANTHERA, in Botany, Bofe. Nouv. Di&.. Flor. Peruv. pl. 23. Clafs and order, /yngenefia polyzamia Juperflua. Gen. Ch. Ca/. common, many-leaved; outer leaflets lanceolate, ciliated ; intermediate ones linear, ciliated at the fummit; inner ones linear, fearious, {phaccllated, termi- nated by a briftle. Receptacle naked. Seeds oval; down capillary. There are two {pecies, natives of Peru. CHJETIA, in Zoology. This is the name under which Dr. Hill defcribes that kind of inteftinal vermes, which the — Englith call Hair-worm, - Vide Hill, Hilt, Anim. p. 14. It is a {pecies of Gordius, the feta of Miller, and aguaticus of Linneus. See Gorpius aguaticus, CHATOCRATER, in Botany, (from xaitn, the mane of a horfe, and x;eirp, a cup.) Bole. Nouv. Did. Flor. Peruv. pl. 35. Clafsand order, decandria monogynia. Gen. Ch. Cal. perianth bell-thaped, with’ five oval feg- ments. Cor. none; a wide tube furrounding the germ, crowned by ten briltles. Stam. filaments tea, alternately fhorter, inferted into the edge of the tube. Peric. captule three-celled. A tree, native of Peru. CHAETODON, in Jchthyclogy, a genus of Thoracic fifhes. The head is fmali; mouth-fmail; lps retra@ile; teeth numerous, clofe fet, equal, fetaceous, fiexile, and moveable; eyes round, fmall, vertical, and furnifhed with ij a nictitant membrane ; gill membrane, with from three'to fix — rays.. Dody broad, compreffed, fealy, and generally fabet- ated; Pif. germ fue ~ perior, trigonous; ftyle fhort; ftigmas three, capitate. —— Td CHATODON. ated; dorfal and anal fin thick, fiefhy, fealy, and com- monly {pinous. The fithes of this numerous genus are, with very few ex- ceptions, extremely beautiful, their colours remarkably vivid, and their variegations confifting generally of ftripes, lines, bends, or fpots; their body covered with {trong feales, which are fiuely denticulated at-the margin 3 and the dorfal and anal fin remarkably broad. ' CHe#ronon aureus, La Banduulitre dorée, of French writers, and Golden Chetodon of the Englifh, is one of the _ mot brilliant fpecies of this genus. The colour is golden yellow, with a fpine near the check bore. Bloch. Gmel. This beautiful fith was figured by Bloch from one of Plumier’s drawings, as an inhabitant of the Antilles. The body is oval, and except the pectoral and ventral fin, the whole is covered with feales. The colour of the body is fine golden yellow; the fins are yellow at the bafe, and green at the extremity ; the pectoral and caudal fins are both rounded, the reft falcated. he peétoral fin contains twelve rays; ventral fix; anal nineteen, caudal fifteen, and dorfal thirty-fix. Length of tiis fifh about twelve or four- teen inches. Cuzropon imferator. Yellow, with numerous longi- tudinal ftreaks, and about fourteen dorfal {pines. C. /mpe- rator, longitudinaliter flriatus, aculeis dorfalibus 14. Bloch. Lempereur du Fapan, & la couronne, ib. Ruyfch, &c. The head of this fifh is large, the iris golden, and partly furrounded by a blue arch; mouth fmall, with the lips large, and the jaws equal; gill membrane of two parts marked with a blue ftreak ; lateral line near the back, and bending down at the end of the dorfal fin. ‘This is a molt fplendid ffh, about the fame length, or rather larger than C. aureus, ard has the body alfo of an oval form. It isa native of Japan, where, according to Ruyfch and Renard, it is in high efteem as an article of food, and is faid to be richer and fuperior in flavour to the falmon, called, by the lat writers, der Kaifer von Fapan. Cueztopvon fafciatus. Body fafciated; abdomen armed with feven fpines. Bloch. La Bandoulizre rayée, ib. Che- todon Dux, Gmel. Shan fengadji molukko, Valent. 2ou- wing batard @ Haroke, et Chietfevifch, Renard. Fajciated Chatodon. Firlt defcribed by Valentyn, who informs us the Dutch in India call it Moluk/che Hertog. The body is whitifh with ~a filvery hue, rather dufky on the back ; and is barred acrofs with nine broad bands of deep blue, each of which is mar- gined on both fides with a narrow ftreak of brown ; the dorfal fin is edged with a blue ftripe, and the anal fin marked pofteriorly with four nearly equi-diftant lines of the fame colour. The iris is white; mouth narrow; jaws equal; gill-cover of one piece; lateral line near the back, and bending at the end of the dorfal fin: petoral fin fhort, pellucid and rounded. The dorfal tin contains about thirty- feven rays, the firft fourteen of which are fpinous. This inhabits the Indian feas. Cuzropon guttatus. Body {potted ; ventral {pines two. Bloch. Gmel. &c. "The body is long, narrow, covered with minute fcales, above cinereous, beneath white, and fpotted with tawny. The eyes are large and round, with dufky yellow iris; mouth large; jaws equal; gill-cover of one thin long piece; fins deftitute of fcales, with the rays branched; peoral fin yellow-brown: dorfal and anal cinereous ; tail yellow, with cinereous fpots. The dorfal fin contains thirty-feven rays; petoral fifteen; ventral feven ; anal twenty-three ; and. the tail fixteen. This {pe- cies inhabits Japan, and was firft defcribed by Bloch.. Cueztovon parz. Dorfal {pines ten, anal five. Bloch. Gmel. Paru, Marcg. La Bandoulicre Noire, Bloch. This fith inhabits South America, where it fubfifts on {maller fifhes, infeéts, and other aquatic animals; it is found throughout Brafil, and in Jamaica. The body is black, but at the fides grey, and the edge of each feale is large and edged with yellow. The eyes are {mall, with golden irides ; lower jaw longeft; gill cover of two pieces terminating downwards in a fpine, and covering the mem- brane ; vent in the middle of the body ; peéoral and tail- fins fhort, rounded ; the reft long, and falcated ; before the pectoral fin a yellow fpot. Defcribed by Maregrave as being from nine to ten inches tong, but according to the manuferipts and drawings of Prince Maurice preferved in the royal library at Berlin, the length is more than fixteen inches. Cuetopon pavo. Dorfal {pincs fourteen: body ob- long. Bloch. Gmel. &c. The head large, and with the breaft yellow-brown, {potted with blee and marked near the gills with blue lines; iris green- ifh-white ; mouth {mall ; gill cover of one piece, the mem- brane loofe ; lateral line parallel with the back, and inter- rupted at the end of the dorfal fin: vent in the middle of the body; rays of the fin branched. This fpecies is de- {cribed by Bloch as a native of the Ealt Indies, probably. from a drawing, as he obferves he is unable to determine its fize; he adds that it is of the number of carnivorous fifhes, and that the difplay of beautiful colours which pey- vade it induced him to name it paon de I Inde, Indian Pea- cock Chztodon. Cuz ovon ve/pertilico. Dorfal and anal fin broad ; band on the tail black. Gmel. &c. This {pecies inhabits India. The body is cinereous, be- neath paler, very thin, and covered with minute feales.. The head is deftitute of fcales; iris filvery and yellowith ; mouth fmall; lips thick ; gill-covers of two pieces ; lateral line arched ; fins cinereous, with branched rays; f{caly part of the dorfal and anal fins yellowifh. This fpecies is in particular diftinguifhed by the extreme length and breadth of the dorfal and anal fin, both which are of a fomewhat triangular fhape, and nearly equal the body in point of fize ; the depth from the oppofite tips of the dorfal and anal fins is about fix inches and a half, but that of the body from the front of the head to the extremity of the tail four inches. Suppofed to be the fea-bat of Willughby. The French call it, /a Bandoulizre 2 larges nageoires. CuzTopoN unimaculatus. On each fide, near the back, an oval black {pot ; dorfal {pines about thirteen. Chetodon unimaculatus, Gmel. Bloch, &c. A native of India; the body is of a roundifh ovate form ; the colour greyifh-white, with tranfverfe brown lines ; back cinereous; feales large ; over the eye isa black band; jaws equal; lateral line pa- rallel with the back, and nearly approaching it; fins yel- lowifh; tail brown at the bafe. The dorfal fin contains about forty-eight rays; peétoral four, ventral fix, anal thirty-fix, and caudal fixteen. La Bandoulizre @ tache. Bloch. ' Cu#TODON marginatus. Fins margined and pointed; dorfal {pines about twelve. Gmel. Bloch, &c. La Ban. douliére bordée, ibid. Inhabits the gravelly fhores of the Caribbee iflands near the mouths. of the rivers. The body is yellow; head and lower parts whitifh, with eight pale brown bands: feales large. The eyes are oblong, with filvery irides; vent neareft the tail; fins without fcales, and with the rays branched, yellow on the anterior, and cinereous on the 6 pofterior CHA TODON:. pofterior part; tail forked and entirely ‘yellow. Fleth good. Cizrovon macrolepidotuss Tail entire; dorfal {pines eleven, the fourth filiform, and very long, Gmel. Bandou- here & larges écailles, Bloch, &e. Jcan-Pampus and Teréloc, Valent, ‘&c. ’ This fpecies inhabits the Eaft Indies, where it grows to a confiderable fize. Renard affures us it ig found in the ifle of Hila, not far from Amboyna, of the weight of twenty or twenty-five :pounds. According to‘ Valentyn the fleth is fat, and of a very good flavour, refembling that of the fole. The body is filvery, with two brown bands, and coated with larger {cales towards the tail. The head is fmail, with the jaws of unequal length ; eyes round, with blac! pupil, and bluith irides ; before each eye a brown {pot, and another over each ; the gill-cover confilts of a fingle plate; the lateral line is arched; vent fituated near the middle of the body ; tail truncated. The dorfal fin contains eleven fpiny, and about thirty-four foft rays; peétoral fixteen; ventral fe- ven; anal twenty-feven ; tail fixteen. ‘ Cuxropon teira. Body with three black bands; dor- fal and anal fins very long, Bloch, Gmel. &c. corpore rhombeo fufcefcente, fafcia tran{verfa duplici ob- {curiori ; pinnis ventralibus, ami ct cand faleatis corpore longioribus, Forfk. Breedvinnige klipvifeh, Mul. Schwenck. Lkan-Kambing, Valent. Canbing, Renard. Zeebstje, Ruyfch. Bandouliére & nageoires noires, Bloch, &c. This fpecies inhabits the Arabian and Indian feas. The Arabians call this fifh when {mall Teira, or Teyra, whence its fpecific name is derived, and when large Daakar. Forfkael tells us it grows to the length of three feet, and is an edible fith. Its principal food confifts of corals and tef- taceous animals. The body is white, broad, long, and floping at the head; fcales {mall and denticulated ; irides white, tinged with reddifh; the gill-covers confift of a fingle piece , lateral line much bent, and compofed of white dots: veat fituated near the ventral fins which are black ; the other fins white. The dorfal fin contains five fpiny and thirty-four foft rays; pectoral eleven; ventral one fpiny, and fix foft rays; anal three fpiny and twenty-lix foft rays, and the tail feventeen rays. Curopon cornutus. ‘Tail bifid; dorfal {pines three, the Jaft extremely long. C. Cornutus, cauda bifida {pinis pinnz dorfalis 7, radio dorfali tertio longiffimo, Linn. Ge- flamder Trompetter, Ikan Paroeli, Alferes Djawa. Valent. Ican Schwangi, Ruy{ch. Bezaantje Klipvifch, Speervifch, Moorfche Afgodt, Renard, &c. Heron de Mer, Bloch. According to Valentyn this is an edible fith of excellent quality. The fhape of the body is fomewhat orbicular, thin, coated with fine feales, white, and marked with three tran{verfe blackifh bands, one pafling through the eye, the fecond nearly parallel, and touching the bale of the peédto- ral fin, and the third broader and fituated near the tail. The tail alfo, which is fomewhat lunated, is black, with a black tranfverfe bar of white. The {out is rather pro- duced, and above each eye is a fmall horn-like pointed pro- cefs. Bloch is perftaded that Linnzus was either millaken in regard to the number of fpiny rays in the dorfal fin of this fifh, or chat an error has crept into the Sy{t. Nat. in print- ing, ashe could not, in either of the three {pecimens he exa- mined, obferve more than three fuch f{piny rays initead of feven as Linneus deferibes. C. Cornutus is a native of the Indian feas. Cuztovon rofratus. Tail entire; dorfal {pines nine; fin with a black oceilated fpot; fnout cylindrical, Gm. &c. Dandoultere a bec, Bloch. 4 Chetodon, - The body is of a roundifh ovate form, with the fnout fo greatly lengthened into a tubular form as to afford an ex- cellent criterion of the fpecies; the irides are yellow ; jaws equal ; lateral line near the back and arched. The body is whitifh, with a dufky tinge on the back, and marked acrofs with five tranfverfe, and nearly equi-diftant brown bands, the edges of which are milky-white. ‘The dorfal and anal fin are very broad at the hinder part, and the former is marked with a large black {pot, encircled with white; the pete are f{caly, aud without fpines; the tail witha lack band edged with white. This tifh lives in all the feas of India. According to M. Hommel, infpe€tor of the hofpital at Batavia, it refides principally in the deeper parts of the fea, or the mouths of rivers, the laft of which it may be fuppofed to vifit like many other fifhes during the fpawn- ing {eafon. The manner in which this fpecies takes its prey, though not entirely peculiar to this fifh, is rather ex- traordinary. It lives principally on the fmaller kinds of ins fe&ts that fly near the furface of the water,and when it ob- ferves any one of thefe hovering or gliding near it, darts from its tubular fnout a drop of water with an aim fo fteady and certain, as to bring the infeét down with it into ¢s jaws. If the fly, or other infect which it fingles out for its object, beat felt on fome aquatic plant, the fith cautioufly approaches within the dilkance of four, five, or fix feet before it ejects the water, which, even at this diftance, is almoft certain of bringing the infeét down to the furface of the water. « When kept in a ftate of confinement in a large veflel, it is faid to afford confiderable entertainment by its dexterity in taking the infects placed at a convenient diftance within its reach. M. Hommel informs us, that they are preferved in the gardens and houfes of the great men in India, in very large valves, for the amufement of their ladies. The fieth is eatable, and the fifh is ufually taken with the hook and line. Cuztopon orbis. Body orbicular, bluif ; fecond, third, and fourth dorfal fin elongated and briltle-formed. C. orbis, orbicularis, pinnz analis radiis 19, Bloch. Scheibe of thé Germans, Z’Orbe of the French writers. Orb chetodon. A native of India. The head large and floping ; irides golden; gill-cover long, narrow, covering the membrane 5 lateral line compofed of many flraight, interrupted lines run- ning together into an obtufe angle towards the back; vent in the middle of the body ; upper part of the body bluifh- green; belly white; ventral fins long, narrow, and falcated. The dorfal fin contains about 37 rays; pectoral 14; ventral 7; anal 26; and caudal 14. Cuarovon nigricans. Vail bifid, with a {pine on each fide. Chatodon nigricans, Gmel. Tail fomewhat bifid, with a {pine on each fide; dorfal {pines nine. Andre in Phil. Tranf. 1784. Acarauna, Ruyfeh. Philofophe & Caantje of Verkenkkop, Renard. Lkan batoe boano, ib. Perfien, Bloch, &c. Inhabits the Indian Oceanand Ked Sea. The length is two feet; body blackith, at the fides brown, and beneath white. The eyes are large; teeth in the upper jaw 16; in the lower 10; gill-cover long and narrow; lateral line neareit the back and continued parallel with it; pectoral and caudal fin cine- reous, ventral black, dorfal and anal:white at the bafe, the re{t brownifh. Marcgrave found this fpecies in Brafil, Haf- felquilt in the Red Sea, and Valentyn in the Eaft Indies. It grows to the length of eighteen inches and rarely to two feet. 4} Cuz Topon argus. Body fpotted with brown; anal {pines four. Chetodon, Ipinis dorfalibus 11 corpore punétis nigris plurimis, cauda integra. Brunniche. Gmel. Stroutvi/ch, Ruyfch. Jean taci, Renard. Cacatocha babintang, Valent. L’ drgus, Bloch, &c. , The | | | | | ] | i CH ZT O BON. The Argus chetodon inhabits the frefh waters of India, living principally in fwampy places, where it finds an abun- dance of infeSts, on which it feeds. Valentyn {peaks of it as _a fith of excellent flavour. The body is nearly fquare, of a filvery grey colour, and violet on the upper parts; fins yel- low; the whole body and alfo part of the firis are marked with numerous round fpots, of a dark brown colour. The irides are golden; jaws equal; gill-cover large; membrane loofe; lateral line arched; vent nearly in the middle of the body ; tail even at the end. Cuxtopon vagabundus. Mouth cylindrical; dorfal {pines 13; body ftriated. C. vagabundus, Gmel. &c. Linn. Muf. Ad. Frid. can fagadji, [can poetri, & Fapanfche prins, Valent. Douwing prins, Douwing royal, &F Douwing herio- gin, Renard. Princef, Ruytch. Le vagabond, Bloch. Wan- dering chetodon. This fpecies is mentioned asa native ofall the Indian feas, and is efteemed an excelledt fifh for the table. .The body is yellow, lmeated with brown; above the eyes runs a black band, which Bloch confiders as one of the leading particu- Jars of its {pecifical diftin@ion. There is alfo another black band at the end of the body, near the bafe of the tail, which runs both into the dorfal and anal fins; anda third black band acrofs the middle of the tail. The head is covered with {mall fcales, but thofe on the body are large. The gill- covers are of two pieces, the membrane loofe; vent nearer the tail; fins yellow, with branched rays, the dorfal, anal, and caudal fins edged with black. Cueropon ciliaris. Gill-covers fpinous; fcales ciliated. Chetodon, cauda integra, fquamis pinne dorfalis 14, opercu- lis fpinofis, fquamis ciliatis. Linn. Sparus faxaiilis, Otb. Platigloffus, &c. Klein. Acarauna altera major, Ray. The body is white, with fix black bands. The eyes are large; aperture of the gills very large, the membrane loofe; _ ateral Jine interrupted at the dorfal fin; fins large and black ; tail forked. Length eight inches. Inhabits the coral reefs onthe fhores of Brafil, India, and Arabia. - Cuetopon friatus. Tail entire; dorfal {pines twelve; body ftriated; f{nout prominent. Gmel. Linn. &c, Lhan Batoe melia, Heeflykhe klipvifch, Valent. The body is yellow, fafciated with brown, one band paff- ing in a femicircular direction tranfverfely through the eyes, a Bend nearly parallel from the back to the belly, acrofs the pectoral fin, a third intermediate between that and the tail, a fourth at the bafe of the tail, and the fifth acrofs the tail ; extremity of the caudal fin, and pofterior end of the anal and dorfal fins brown. Found in Japan, and other parts of India. The French call this L’onagre, or Le zébre. Creztovon arcuanus. Tail bifid; dorfal fpines twelve; body barred with brown. C. arcuanus, cauda bifurca, fafciis 3 fufcis. Linn, Muf, Ad. Frid. Bonte duifje, Valent. Bour- gonjefe, Renard. The body is filvery, cinereous on the back, with deep _ brown bands, one on the head, another on the breaft, anda third pafling from the dorfal to the anal fin. The head is large, the mouth narrow, jaws equal, gill-cover of one piece and mucronated in the middle ; ventral fins long, and with - the anal black; tail and dorfal fin cinereous. ' CHzTopon capifiratus. Tail entire; dorfal {pines twelve; a purple {pot furrounded with white near the tail. Chetodon capifiratus, &c. Linn. Tetragonoptrus levis, &c. Klein. _ he body is covered with rather large f{cales; colour * white, with brown lines. The eyes are very large ; band } through the eyes black, and edged with white; gill-cover nea and confifting of two pieces; fins yellowifh; the rays branched; dorfal and anal fin brown at the edge; fpines ~ Vor. Vii. fea-green; near the tail a black band. Length three inches, Inhabits Jamaica. : ; Cuztopon rotundus. Dorfal fpines twenty-three; body with. fiye pale bands. Linn. Inhabits South America and India... The body is cinereous and rounded. Cu #TODoN Janceolatus. Tail entire; body with three hands, one acrofs the eye, another acrofs the breaft, and a third extending from the anterior dorfal fin to the tail. Gmel. Guaperva, Edwards. A native of India. Form of the body lanceolate. The bands are black, edged with grey. Cu#topon chirurgus. Dorfal {pines fourteen, caudal one. Bloch. Le chirurgen S Wundarzt, ib. This fpecies inhabits the feas furrounding the Caribbee iflands, and is defcribed by Bloch from one of Plumier’s drawings and manufcripts. The colour of the bedy is yellow, with five narrow violet bands, and beneath blnifh. The head is large, and of a violet colour, with a black fpot on the mouth and checks. Its upper jaw is longer than the lower; vent nearer the mouth than the tail; fins without feales; pectoral, ventral, and anal fin violet, the lafl barred with yel- low ; dorfal fin, varied with yellow and violet ; tail yellow at the bafe, and violet towards the edge. In Plumier’s drawing, above-mentioned, the dorfal fin contained 14 fpiny and 26 foft and branched rays; petoral fin 16 rays; ventral 1 fpine and 6 foft rays, 3 {pines and 20 foft rays, and the tail 16. Cuzrovon rhomboides. Dorfal {pines five; anal three. Bloch. La bandoulitre rhomborde, ib. A beautiful fpecies, defcribed, like the preceding, on the authority of a drawing by father Plumier, and which is fup- pofed to attain to a confiderable fize. It is a native of the American feas. The body is of a rhombic form, deep green on the upper parts; the fides greenith, below which, near the belly, are three green lines, and three intermediate lines of white; belly yellow. ‘The head is filvery, truncated an- teriorly, with the eyes large, and mouth full larger in pro- portion; teeth fmall; gill-covers confit of two femilunar pieces, with the membrane loofe; lateral line flightly curved, vent in the middle of the body; dorfal fin green; ~pe@oral and ventral yeilow at the bafe, and edged with violet; mar- gin of the anal and candal fin green. Cuetopvon Plumieri. Dorlal fins two; head without feales. Bloch. This alfo is an elegant fpecies, defcribed by Bloch from the defigns of father Plumier, and named in compliment to that collector. The fith inhabits the ftony fhores of the American feas, and is of the number of edible fifhes held in moft efteem for the table. The body is of an oblong form, coated with {mall fcales. The colour brownifh above, cine- reous at the fides, beneath white, and marked with fix greenifh-black bands. The head is brown above, at the fides white; lateral line arched ; fins much falcated, green, at the bafe yellow, and without fcales ; all the fpines of the firft dorfal fin yellowifh. In’ Plumier’s figure are delineated 5 {pines in the firft dorfal fin, and 35 foft rays in the fecond ; pectoral 14 ; ventral 1 {pine and 5 foft rays; anal 2 {pines and 25 foft rays; and tail 12 rays. Cuztovon Curacao. Dorfal fpines 13 3 anal 2. Bloch. La bandouliére de Curaffau, ib. Angel-fifo of Curagao. A native of South America. The head is large, the jaws of equal length, and the lips thick ; the gill-covers are broad, violet, and covered with large fcales. "The body is thick, brownifh, with the fides filvery, and the fcales edged with violet. The lateral line is compofed of oblong white feales, and is broken, or interrupted at the dorfal fin ; vent in the middle of the body; fing yellow, with branched rays ; tail forked. 3C CuztTopon CHATOD ON. Cuztrovon Mauritti. Dorfal {pines eleven; anal three, Bloch. La bandouliére du prince Maurice, ib. The Brafilian name of this fith, according to the above author, is Jaguacaguare. He defcribes it from one of Plu mier’s drawings, and informs us, on the authority of prince Maurice, that it inhabits Bralil, grows to the length of two feet, and that the fiefh is white, and of a good flavour.” The body is long, and covered with {mall fcales; blue on the back, and the fides paler blue, and belly white. From the back defcend fix narrow black tranfverfe bands, which ter- minate about the middle of the body. The irides are yellow- ifh-filvery ; the mouth and aperture of the gills large; the back rather arched, with the lateral line contiguous; vent neareft the tail; rays of the fins ramofe; ventral fin yellow; pectoral dufky ; and the reft pale blue. This is named in compliment to the memory of the celebrated prince John Maurice of Naffau-Sigen, under whofe condu& the Dutch, in 1637 and 1638, became poffeffed of the richelt part of Brafil, and who afterwards, while governor of that country, amufed his leifure hours in taking drawings and defcriptions of its zoological produétions. Cuxtopon Bengalenfis. Body fafciated ; dorfal fpines thirteen; anal two. Bloch. La baudoulicre bengalenfis, ib. This fifh inhabits Bengal. The body is large, whitihh, with a bluifh back, and marked acrofs with five bay-coloured bands. The irides are yellowifh-white ; aperture of the gills large ; lateral line flightly arched near the back, and tnter- rupted at the extremity; vent neareft the tail; fins brown at the bafe and edged with blue. Cueztovon odofafciatus. Body with eight brown bands ; dorfal {pines eleven ; anal three. Bloch, Gmel. &e. The head is fmall, and rather advanced, with the lower jaw projected beyond the upper. Its body is nearly round, of a whitith colour, except on the back, which is violet, and the whole marked tranfverfely from the back to the beily with nearly equidiftant brown narrow bands; the dorfal and anal fins are both edged with brown, the reft of the fins grey. This fpecies is a native of the Eatt Indies. Cu#ropon annularis. Brownith, with obliquely curved longitudinal ftreaks, and a blue ring on the lateral line be- hind the gills. Chetodon annularis, Bloch, Gmel. &c. Lhan batoe, Fang aboe, and Lkan pampus Cambodia. A native of India. ‘The body is ovate, and brownifh, with about five blue lines. The iridesare filvery ; gill-covers of two pieces; the anterior one toothed and f{pinous ; lateral line parallel with the back ; vent in the middle of the body ; dorfal fin pointed ; anal rounded, both dark brown, banded with blue, the reft of the fins white. The dorfal fin contains fourteen {pinous rays, and forty-one foft ; pectoral fixteen ; ventral one fpine and fix foft rays; anal three {pines and twenty-eight rays, and caudal fixteen rays. Cue#ropon collare. Head with two white and three black bands; dorfal {pines twelve; anal feven. Bloch. Le sollier, ib. This kind isa native of Japan. The body is of a round ovate form ; colour bluifh on the upper parts, and yellowifh beneath. ‘The f{cales are very large. The head is floping, of a brown colour, marked with two white, perpendicular ftripes, and three black ones; the mouth is white ; eyes large, with the iris blue; lateral line bending in an obtufe angle at the dorfal fin, and interrupted at the end ; petoral fins yellow ; ventral cinereous; the reft yellowifh edged with brown ; the dorfal fin is marked with a yellow band, and the tail acrofs the middle by a brown one. Figured by Seba, whe deieribes it to be about fix inches long. Curtopon mefoleucus. Head fafciated with a fingle band; gill-cover one-fpined ; dorfal fpines twelve; anal three. Chetodon mefoleucus, Bloch. Le mulat, ib. Chetodon mefomelas, Gmel. Shape of this fifh roundifh-ovate ; the anterior part bluifh- white, the hind part black; and the whole body covered with very {mali feales 3 gill-covers confift of two pieces, and are armed with one large and feveral fmall fpines; the opening of the gills large; the lateral line runs near the back ; vent fituated in the middle of the body ; all the fins are white, except the derfal and anal fins, which are black. Inhabits Japan. Cuatovon faber. Body fafciated; the third dorfal fpme very long. Bioch, kc. Le forgeron, Brouffonet. This {pecies was firft defcribed by Brouffonet, under the name of furgeron. It inhabits the Indian and American feas; and from a drawing of father Plumicr’s, referred to by Bloch, is faid to grow to the length of eleven inches. The body is filvery, ornamented with fix bands of deep blue. The iris of the eve is yellow; the lateral line is arched to the form of the back, running parallel and contiguous; the vent is inthe middle of the body. ‘The ventral and pectoral fins are black, and the reft deep blue. This ts an edible fifh, and in much requeft for the table in South America. Cuaropon Suratenfis. Dorfal and anal fin armed with many {piny rays; body banded with fufcous ; a black femie lunar mark at the bafe of the peGtoral fin. Chetodon Sura~ tenfis, La bandouliére de Surate. Bloch. Form of this fish ovate; colour filvery-grey, darkeft on the back and fins; head and body marked with feven brown bands; dorfal and anal fin rather broader behind, and with the tail yellow, with a broad violet border. Received from one of the Danifh miffionaries in Surat by Chemnitz at Co< penhagen. Cuzetrovon canefcens. Tail bifid ; dorfal {pines two, third ray very long; mouth bidentated. Gmel. &c. Defcribed, and figured in the work of Seba as Chatodon canefcens. The colour of the body is greyifh, and covered with very {mall feales. Inhabits the American and Indian feas. Cuzrovon alepidotus. Tail bifid; dorfal {pines three ¢ no ventral fins. Gmel. Linn. &c. Communicated to Linnzus by Dr. Garden. This inha= bits the feas of Carolina. The body is of a rhombic form, without {cales ; upper parts bluifh; jaws with a fimple row of teeth ; lateral line parallel to the back, and dotted ; dor=_ fal and anal fins falcated. F Cuatopon acuminatus. Tail entire ; dorfal {pines three $ third ray very long. Gmel. Linn. Inhabits South America and India. ‘The body is marked with three brown bands ; dorfal fin fetiform. Linn. Muf, Ad. Fr. Cuatopon pinnatus. Tail entire; dorfal fpines four ; dorfal and anal fins very long. Gmel. Greyi/b Chetodon, with frontal band and t'p of the tail white. Linn. This is a na- tive of South America and India, and is remarkable for the extraordinary fize of the fins. Cuextovon Chinenfis. Anal fin eighteen-fpined. Bloch. This inhabits China. The body is oblong, marked with fufcous bands, and a round fpot on the gill-cover. Cuztopon argenteus. Tail bifid; eight fpiny rays in the dorfal fin, and two ventral fpines inftead of fins. Lian, Amen. Acad. Found in the Indian feas. Obf. The ventral {pines are hort, and the firit dorfal fin fo {mall as to be fcarcely vilible. ; @uztopon Boddaerti. Body with brown and blue bands {pines of the ventral fins two. Schr. der berl, Naturf. Gefn, Gmel. &c. Native place unafcertained. CuzTopow a CM AT OD ON, Cuxtopon pundatus. Spines in the dorfal fin eight ; pec- toral fin falcated. Gmel. A Species of a whitifh or filvery colour, dotted with fufcous; eyes large, red; lateral line curved; three firit rays of the anal fin diftant. Cuzropon arcuatus. Tail entire; dorfal {pines eight ; body with four white arched bands. Gmel. Length four inches. This fpecies inhabits Brafil. Cuetopon leucurus. Tail entire ; dorfal fpines nine, the firft recumbent ; body black; tail white. Gmel. This is of a {mall fize, and inhabits America. Obf. The ventral _ fins are pointed. Caztovon Jineatus. Tail bifid; dorfal {pines nine, and one on each fide of the tail. Gmel. Figured by Seba, and is an inhabitant of the South American and Indian feas. Cue tonon frioflegus. Tail fomewhat bifid ; dorfal {pines nine ; branchioftesous membrane three-rayed. Linn. Muf. Ad. Fr. Chetodon, corpore cingulato, pinne dorfalis fpinis 9, caude utrinque r, dentibus apice ferratis. Brouffonet. Cu2tovon bicolor. Upper half of the body brown ; lower and tail white. Chetodon bicolor, Bloch. Chetodon bicoloratus, Muf. Schwenk. Acarauna maculata, Secligm. Than koelar, Valent. Lkorkouning, Color foufounam, &c. Renard. This inbabits South America and India. Its form is ob- long: the head is thick ; eyes large, with filvery iris ; gill- cover large, {pinous ferrated, and of one piece ; fins rigid, with branched rays; dorfal and anal fins entirely covered with fcales: ventral fins {mall ; peétoral pellucid; dorfal {pines fifteen, anal three. Cueropon glaucus. Lateral line ftraight ; dorfal fpines five. Block. G/aucus des anciens, Gautier, &c. Defcribed from the drawings and MS. of Plumier. It is a native of the American feas, and grows to the length of a foot anda half. The body is of an oblong form, and co- vered with moderately fized fcales, above blue, and beneath filvery, with fix fhort narrow brown {ftreaks ; fleth good, Plumier. Obf, The eyes are fmall with yellow iris ; mouth large; lips thick, with many bones; aperture of the gills narrower, the gill-membrane loofe ; fins with branched rays; ventral very {mall, and terminating in a long narrow point, and with the pectoral fin whitifh, the reft blackifh ; anal fin without f{pines. Cuxrovon Chilienfis. Golden, with five coloured bands; tail even ; dorfal {pines eleven. Chetodon Chilienfis, aureus fafciis 5 difcoloribus, cauda integra, {pinis dorfalibus 11. Molin. Hift. Nat. Chili. Length twelve inches; the f{nout is lengthened ; the body oval, coated with minute feales, and marked with five diftinét bands ; the firft black, two next cinereous, and the two laft black and cinereous. Nottrils two, and placed near the eyes; aperture of the gills arched, the cover of ‘three pieces; lateral line arched and fearcely vifible; vent near the middle cf the body ; pectoral fins fmall, and, like the ventral, pointed ; dorfal fin large and yellow; tail fil- very, edged with yellow, anda black oval {pot near the Cuztovon longirofris. Snout cylindrical; tail un- armed ; dorfal {pines eleven. Brouffonet. Inhabits the Pacific Occan. ‘The body is comprefled, and citron-coloured ; beneath flriated and coated with une- qual obliquely imbricated feales; the head is floping and brownifh ; beneath filvery fiefh-colour; pupil brownifh ; iris pale glaucous; mouth large and oblong ; jaws nearly equal, with a few {mall unequal teeth ; tongue and palate -fmooth ; lateral. line ftraight ; vent nearly in the middle of the body ; dorfal and anal fins citron-coloured, with a black, line on the pofterior part, and another edged with whitifh, the laft with a black fpot near the tip ; ventral fins citron, edged exteriorly with brownifh ; tail and peétoral fin pale blue, the latter yellowifh at the bafe. Cuztovon orbicularis. Body fomewhat roundih ; cinereous brown; no dorfal {pines. Forfk. Fn. Arab. Inhabits the ftony fhores of Arabia. Length about twelve inches ; body refembling a flat fifh, fpotted with black ; beneath whitifh; behind yellowish; feales round and entire. Cu ropon auriga. Whitith, with about fixteen oblique ~ brown bands ; fifth ray of the dorfal fin long and filiform, Forfk. Fn. Arab. Inhabits the fhores of Arabia. Length five inches ; fhape nearly rhomboidal, and coated with rhombic fcales; the head is flat above, fealy, of a reddifh-white colour, and marked with four tran{verfe tawny bands; iris of the eye black; mouth comprefled and conic; lips rounded and equal; dorlal fin black at the pofterior edge; anal varied with black and yellowifh white. Cua&rovon mefoleucus. Anterior part of the body white; polterior brown, > with twelve black bands. Cheto< don parte anteriore albus, pofleriore fufcus, fafciis nigwis, Forfk. Fn. Arab. Found by Forfkal on the fhores of Arabia. The length is three inches; the body ovate, with large rhombic ci+ liated feales; head conic and narrow, with a black band through the eye; lateral line curved ; peétoral fins glau- cous; ventral white; dorfal and anal brown; tail black, with a broad hyaline ftripe at the tip. Cuatopon asfur. Black, with a tranfverfe yellow lunar-cuneated band, Forfk. Fn. Arab. Chetodon Asfury Gmel. Obferved by Forfkal on the fhores of Arabia. The body is oval, and covered with rhombic fcales, difpofed in a quincunx order, and finely toothed; the teeth are numMerousy filiform, and flexile ; anterior gill-cover furnifhed with a ftrong {pine, nearly half an inch in length. The general colour is black, with a tranfverfe and fomewhat lunar yel- low band in the middle of the body, having the horns point- ing backward ; the lateral line is curved and neareft the back ; dorfal and anal fins horizontal and falcated ; tail rounded, tawny, and edged with black. Forflal defcribes another fifh, which Gmelin and others confider as a variety 8 of the laft mentioned fpecies. ‘ Chatodon cerulefcens lituris et fafciis obliquis, lincolis violaceis.”” Bluith Chetodon, with oblique bands, blotches, and fine violet lines. This is a native of the Arabian fhores, where it is chiefly found among corals ; the fleth is bitter. Cuz ropon maculofus. Cinereous, with tranfverfe blue {pots ; anterior gill-covers armed with a fingle fpine. Forfls, Fn. Arab. Tuhabits the Arabian fhores. The body is an ovate oblong, covered with ferrated fcales; behind the middle of the head a large tranfverfe golden {pot ; the front between the eyes is elevated, flat, and fcaly ; gill-cover {caly on the fore part, and ferrated behind ; lateral line near and parallel with the back ; peéioral fins oval; ventral lanceolate ; dorfal falcated behind ; anal triangular ; tail fin entire, rather rounded, cis nereous, and dotted with yellow. Cru mtopon fordidus. Oval; afh-coloured brown, with four obfolete tranfverfe bands, Forfk. Fn. Arab. This fpectes, which is found among the coral beds on the coalt of Arabia, is about a {pan in length ; the body is co- vered with broad fcales, which are membranaceous at the edge ; the gill-cover is bidentated at the potterior edge ; lateral line near the back ; fins afh-coloured brown ; yee sy 3,Ca Gh ETO D Ow fin oval, ventral pointed; anal and dorfal fin rounded be- hind ; tail fhort, yellowifh, divided into two lobes, and marked with a black {pot. _CHxtTopon unicornis. Front horned; tail with two elevated ridzes on each fide. Forfk. Fn. Arab. Very abundant on the Arabian coalt, where it is feen {wimming in fhoals of two or three hundred each, and feed- ing on fea weeds. It grows to the length of three feet or more; the body is of an oblong oval form, rough, and of a fhining grey colour; the front is floping, with an horizontal ftraight horn before the eyes; the teeth are rigid and dif- pofed in ove row, the middle ones larger ; lips obtufe; Ja- teral line parallel with, and nearer the back; aperture of the gills fhort ;_ peétoral fins pointed, oval ; tail truncated. JZo- noceros minor, Willughby. Le Nafon Licornet, Cepede. Leffer Unicorn fifh, Grew. Cuztovon fohar. Tail with a bony'‘carena, fituated in a red cavity on each fide. Forfk. Fn. Arab. ; Inhabits the deep waters of the Arabian fhores; the body is of an oval form, about three {pans long, of a brown co- Jour, with longitudinal violet lines; beneath whitifh; the head is {caly ; the teeth contiguous, crenated, and difpofed in one row; lips equal; gill-cover entire; lateral line obfo- lete; fins coriaceous, violet ; pectoral fin witha yellow fpot; tail truncated in the middle. This 1s nearly allied to Chato- don lineatus. Cuzrovon azigrofufcus. Black fufcous; tail two lobed, with a recumbent {pine each fide. Forfk. Fn. Arab. This fpecies was obferved by Forfkal in the Arabian feas, where they live in deep waters. A variety of this {pecies, is deferibed under the title of gahm, as being of a black colour, with the bafe of the tail violet. The length of this fir is five inches; firft {pine of the dorfal and anal fin co- vered bysthe {kin ; pofterior edges of the tail whitifh, two- lobed, and the lobes falcated ; lateral fpine fomewhat fubu- late and moveable. Cuztovon Jbifafciatus. Tail bifid, yellow, with two black bands on the head. Forfk. Fn. Arab. Body of an oblong oval form, and filvery ; the crown is wrinkled ; iris filvery ; jaws full of hemifpherical callofities; upper lip longeft; anterior gill-cover ferrated behind; pof- terior witha bony point or procefs on the back part; ven- tral fins black ; dorfal fin and tail yellow; peCtoral ones half yeliow, the other white; lateral line curved and nearer the back. Gmel. Inhabits the Arabian coatts. Cuztopon pidus. Whitifh, with oblique violet lines; ocular band and tail black. Forfk. Fn. Arab. Nearly of a reGtangular form; the body covered with broad, ferrated, obliquely imbricated fcales, and marked with about eighteen violet lines, difpofed in an oblique direction ; onthe crown of the head are five tranfverfe tawny lines ; the {nout is prominent ; lips equal; lateral line curved ; dorfal fin black, and rounded behind ; tail truncated, marked with a golden crefcent in the middle, and edged with brown. Cuzropon trifa/ciatus. Head with three black bands; body with fixteen longitudinal dufky ftreaks. Tranf. Linn. Soc. Difcovered by Mr. Mungo Park on the coaft of Sumatra, and defcribed m the third volume of the T'ranfaétions of the Linnzan Society. The length is thrée inches ; colour . pale brown, or brownifh, and covered with rather large ciliated feales; on the dorfal fin is a black band edged with yellow ; another at the bafe of the anal fin, and a third through the middie of the tail; the iris brown; mouth very fmall; gill-cover of two pieces; lateral line near the back, and interrupted or broken at the end of the dorfal; vent neareft the tail; fins yellow; tail fomewhat rounded. Cuetropon caniculatus. grooved. Linn. Tranf. : The body is greenish-yellow above; beneath whitifh with paler fpots; fcales {mall, oboval; the iris filvery-yellow 5 gill,cover of two pieces; lateral line parallel with the back ; vent nearer the head ; fins greenifh and without fpots; tail bifid. Gbferved at the fame place as the preceding fpe- cies. Cuztopon ocellatus. A biack band acrofs the eyes 5 dorfal fin with twelve {pines, and an ocellated {pot ; anal {pines three. Chztodon ocellatus, Bloch. , Found in India. The body is yellow above; beneath white, and covered with large fcales; the jaws are equal and prominent; lips thick ; gill-cover confifting of one fhort golden lamina; lateral line ftraight, interrupted at the dorfal {pot ; fins cinereous, with branched rays. Cuztopon feifer. A very long fetiform ray, and black annular fpot in the dorfal fin. Chetodon fetifer; Le Seton, Bloch. _ ; The body of this fifh is of a roundifh ovate form, with the head rather taper and produced; the colour is purplifh- red on the back, and a tinge of red and intermixture of yel- low pervade the reft of the body, which is tranfverfely faf= ciated with about nine oblique crimfon ftripes ; through the — eye pafles a broad black tranfverfe band, margined on botk fides with white ; the fins are yellow, with a brown margi- nal tripe on the anal and dorfal fin, and three ftripes of the fame colour acrofs the tail. A native of the Indian feas. Cuztovon falcula. Back with two black fickles formed fpots, edged with white. Chetodon falcula, La Fau- cille, Bloch, &c. This inhabitsthe coaft of Coromandel. _Inits general pro- perties this refembles the laft; it has a fimilar ocular band of black, but the coloursare paler, more inclining to yellow ; the tranfverfe bands violaceous, paler and lefs angulated, and the dorfal fin has neither the black fpot encircled by a white ring, nor the remarkable fetiform ray; like the laft fpe- cies. ‘ Cuzropon tricolor. - Anterior part of the body yel= low ; potterior black; tail and border of the dorfal and anal fins yellow, edged with red. Duhamel was the firft author who publithed a figure of this fuperb fith. He fpeaks of it as a native of Gaudaloupe: Bloch defcribes it as a Brafilian {pecies, on the authority of Prince Maurice. It is of a more elongated figure than the generality of Chetodons, and feems to agree better in thig refpect with the Labras genus. The head and fore part of the body are of a fine golden yellow, the pofterior part deep black, and the two colours feparate abrvptly in an obliquely incurvated direétion, leaving the lower half of the pectoral. fin, and the belly down tothe vent, fine yellow. The bed of black paffes without interruption into the anal fin, and pofterior end of the dorfal fin, in both of which it forms-a fubtriangular dik within the yellow border of thefe fins; The tail is much furcated. Cuztopon Kleini?. Head marked with an ocular band ; dorfal fin feventeen-fpined. Firft deferibed by Klein, and named after that author by Bloch. ‘This fihh is of an orbicular form. The opening of the mouth very fmall; the noftrils fimple; iris white ; gill- cover confilting of two plates; lateral line bent, and fituated near the back ; the back is yellowifh, inclining to olive- brown; the belly filvery; tins yellowifh. Figured by Bioch, from a large fpecimen in the colleGion of Linke, at Leipzig: All the fpines of the fins CA Ee Leipzig: its general fize in the Eaft Indies, the feas of which it inhabits, is not exactly known. , Cuatovon bimaculatus. Wicad marked with an ocu- lar band; an annular fpot and half fpot on the dorfal fin. Chatodon dimaculatus, La Bandoulicre a deux taches, Bloch. This fith is of a roundifh form, the back very gibbous, and the abdomen flattith the head is floping, lengthened, and tapering; the back is brown; fides whitifh, tinged with grey ;-pe@oral and ventral fins are red ; the rett yellow at the bafe, and greyifh at the extremities ; band acrofs the eyes edged with white; and the black {pot on the dorfal fia is encircled with a white ring ; the half {pot bounded on one fide witha femicircular white line. Inhabits the Indian feas. Cuzrovon Diaculeatus. Two-fpined below the eyes. Chetodon biaculeatus, La Bandoulicere a deux aguillons, Bloch. The body of this fih is of an elongated form ; the head is yellow ; the back blue; and the belly white. Acrofs the head, behind the eyes, is a tranfverfe brown ftreak ; another paffes acrofs the middle of the body, and a third be- tween the extremity of the dorfal and anal fin, near the tail. The pofterior one of the two {pines below the eyes is much larger than the other ; all the fins are grey. This is a na- tive of the Eaft Indies. Cuzropon fargoides. Golden yellow; head and fix tranfverfe bands violet. La Chetodon Sargoide, Cepede. Defcribed by La Cepede from the drawings and manu- feripts of Plumier. The dorfal fin contains thirteen {piny rays; pectoral fin one: there is a depreflion before the eyes; the opening of the mouth is fmall, and the upper lip thick ; gill-covers rounded. This isa native of the American feas. Cuztopon Lamarkii. Golden yellow, with three lon- gitudinal dufky ftripes. Chetodon La Mark, Cepede. _ The defeription of this {pecies is taken by Cepede from a {pecimen in the mufeum of the Prince of Orange, the native country of which is unknown. The lower jaw is longer than the upper; the f{cales rounded, ftriated, and denticu- lated ; fifteen fpiny rays, and fixteen foft ones in the dorfal fin; three {piny, and twenty foft ones in the anal fin ; gill- covers armed with a very long fpine. Cuztonon conflridus. Yellowifh grey, with numerous * black bands, and body conitriéted in the middle. Shaw, N. Holland. Zool. : The length of this fpecies is about eight inches; the Shape of the body inclizing to an oblong iquare, and re- markably contracting in diameter about the middle, fo as to appear conflriSted in that part ; fcales of moderate fize; colour yellowifh-grey, tinged on the back and part of tie fins with blue ; acrofs the body eight black bands, that in the middle narroweft ; on the back two very diftinG fins, the rays of the firft being all fpiny ; tail inclining, though very flightly, to a lunated form. Native of the Indian feas, and obferved about the coalt of New Holland. - Cue ropon armatus, Silvery, with feven tranfverfe black eee lengthened head and two dorfal fins. Shaw Gen. ool. The length of the fpecimen defcribed in White’s Journ. New South Wales, was about four inches; the colour fil- yery-white, darker, and with a bluifh tinge on the’back; head of a fomewhat lengthened form ; acrofs the body feven black bands; onthe back two diflin& dorfal fins, of which the firft confifls of very ftrong {piny rays, the third ex- ceeding the reft in length ; tail very lightly inclining to a lunated form at the extremity. Obferved about the coaft of New Holland. CHA CHAETUORY, in Ancient Geography, a people placed by Pralemy in the Higher Germany, among the Curiones. CHAFALIA, in Geography, the firlt large body of water which leaves the Miffifipp1, and falls, by a regular and feparate channel, into the gulf of Mexico. It leaves the Miffifippi in the wefternmolt part cf the remarkable bend jult below the boundary, and has every appearance of having been formerly a continuation of the Red River, when the Miffifippi wafhed the high land from Clark{ville to the Bayou ‘l'unica, or Willing’s creek, the traces of which are yet vifible by the lake, through which a large current flill pafles, when the river is high. The diftance ona ftraight line from Clark{ville to the Bayou Tunica is not more than eight miles; but by the prefent courfe of the river, it is fup- pofed to be not lefs than 50 miles. Ifthe Mifhippi thould break its way by a fhorter courfe, which is not improbable, the Chafalia will again become a part of the Red River. When the Miffifippi is high, the draught into the Chafalia is very ftrong, and has frequently carried rafts, and likewife fome few flats or Kentucky boats down it, which are gene- rally loft. ‘This branch, notwithitanding its fize, 1s not navigable to the gulf of Mexico, on account of an immenfe floating bridge, or raft, acrofs it, of many leagues in length, and in fome places fo firm and compaét that cattle and horfes are driven over it. This aftonifhing bridge, or raft, is con- ftantly augmented by the trees or rubbifh, which the Cha- falia draws out of the Miffitippi. CHAFE, or Cuarine of a rope, in Sea-Language, is faid of a rope that is galled or fretted, or when the rope ryns againft any thing. The cable is chafed in the hawfe, fignifies that it is fretted or begun to be worn out there. Cuare-Wax, or Cuauree-Wax, an officer in chancery, whofe bufinefs it is to fit the wax for the fealing of writs, patents, and other inftruments iflued thence. CHAFER, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the pro- vince of Farfiftan ; 50 miles S. of Schiras. CHAFF, in Agriculture, the hufky fubftance of corn, which is {eparated: by threfhing and winnowing. It alfo fometimes fignifies the rind of corn: thus, barley that has a thick rind is said to be thick-chaffed ; and it likewife im- plies ftraw, &c. cut {mall for the purpofe of being given to horfes and other cattle, mixed with corn. This fubftance, whether obtained by the drefling of grain or made from flraw and other matters by cutting, is highly ufeful in the feeding of horfes and many other animals, as faving much other more valuable food. Befides its advantage in the common feeding of animals, it is of vaft utility in the fattening of different forts of animals, where much luxuriant green food is given, as a dry meat 3 as without fome fort of material of this nature they never go on well» . It has been remarked by Mr. Young, that the practice of cutting both hay and ftraw for all forts of ftock is one that has been found very important by many praCtical and intelligent cultivators of great experience ; and though he admits that general obfervations are not equally fatisfactory with that of comparative experience, there can probably be little doubt of the advantage of this mode of applying it. Befides, there are but few perfons who have opportunity, time, and power, to make comparifons between the food and labour of different teams fed in the common way with hay, and with cut chaff, half or one-third ftraw. The opinions of the beft informed and moft practical perfons are, however, decidedly in fupport of the latter method. It is, therefore, conceived by the above intelligent writer, that the practice of giving hay cut with a mixture of flraw, in- ftead of feeding in the common way with hay, is at all events to be advifed to as great an extent as can be efieCied, ao: Cota as the faving is unqueftionable ; and he thinks that it fhould not only be practifed for the teams, but likewife for all the other forts of ftock that confume hay. He adds, that Mr. Page of Cobham, in feeding his ftock, gives no hay or ftraw but what is cut into chaff before it is ufed. The fame author thinks that if racksare permitted in a fable, it is not an eafy matter to prevent horfe-keepers from cramming them full of hay, andefpecially at night. The bett contrivance he has heard of to fupply the place of racks was that of Mr. Vancouver, who made, he fays, a fort of hopper the whole length of the manger, which delivered chaff from a loft above it gradualiy, as the horfes moved the lower lip of the hopper with their nofes; in this manner fupplying themfelves. But a very intelligent nobleman, he obferves, on trying it, found that it would not deliver regularly. This might arife, he thinks, from the dimenfions not having been fufficiently attended to; for if the hopper be not of a due breadth, the chaff might arch above the moveable board, and not come down: the aperture in the manger through which it pafles mult neceffarily, he imagines, be of a certain fize, neither too wide nor too narrow. It certainly feems, in his opinion, to be a practical idea, and very capable, after fome trials and regulations, of being fully applicable to com- mon practice. It well deferves attention, efpecially as the expence of an experiment for one {tall could not be confider- able. He has often determined to try it himfelf, but has always been prevented by fome journey or excurfion taking him from home, at the moment when he could otherwife have given the requifite attention. He conceives that it would demand a manger from four to fix inches wider than common ones, to render it perfect for this purpofe. In the ufe of this fubftance for fheep, confiderable atten- tion is neceflary to the troughs in which it is given, to fee that they be fo fecured by boards that it is not blown out of them. This is effected, according to Mr. Young, in Jord Clarendon’s fheep-yard in Hertfordfhire, by a femicir- cular boarding of thin materials, which covers the heads of the animals while they are feeding in the troughs. It has been fuggefted by the fame writer, in the third volume of the Annals of Agriculture, that when chaff is made to undergo the procefs of fermentation in the houfes where it is depofited, by flightly watering it, it is ren- dered ‘‘ much more nutritious than when ufed in the common way.” Cuarr,.in Botany, a name given to the feales or dry membranous fub{tances, interpofed between the florets of fome aggregate and compound plants, as in Dipfacus, Hypcheris, &c. In that cafe the receptacle is faid to be chaffy. Cuarr-Cuiter, in Rural Economy, an implement con- ftruéted for the purpofe of cutting hay, ftraw, and other fubftances into chaff. In{truments of this fort confifted formerly fimply of a box anda cutting blade; but they are at prefent much improved, being made of different forms and conftruétions, fo as to perform the work with greater eco- nomy and difpatch. Mr. Cook has invented one, which, by means of a man and boy, will cut one hundred quarters a week ; and when fixed toa large wheel, and turned by an animal, fuch as a poney or afs, will cut half the above quantity per day. Another contrived by Mr. Nailer is capable of cutting three quarters an hour, by the affiitance of two men, and cofts about ten guineas. An inftrument for this purpofe, made by Mr. James Pihe, is likewife both cheap and of the moft fimple conftruction. It is fixed on a wooden frame, which is fupported with four legs ; and on this frame is a box for containing the ftraw, four feet fix snches long, and about ten inches broad: at one end are 2 CHA fixed acrofs the box two rollers, inlaid with iron, in a dia. gonal line, about an cighth of an inch above the furface ; on the ends of thefe rollers are fixed two ftrong brafs wheels, which take one into the other. On one of thefe wheels is a contraét wheel, whofe teeth take in a worm on a jarge ar- bour; onthe end of the arbour is fixed a wooden wheel, two feet five inchcs diameter, and three inches thick. On the inner part of this wheel is fixed a knife, and-at every re- volution of the wheel the knife paffes before the end of the box, and cuts the chaff, which is brought forward between the rollers, which are about two inches and a half afunder. The ftraw is brought on by the worm taking one tooth of the wheel every round of the knife: the ftraw being fo hard preffed between the rollers, the knife cuts off the chaff with fo great eafe, that twenty-two bufhels can be ent within the hour, and makes no more noife than is caufed by the knife pafling through the chaff. It confifts of the box into which the {traw is put, and an upper roller, with diagonal project. ing ribs of iron; the whole moving by the revolution of the brafs wheel, on the axis of which it is fixed. Another brafs wheel has upon it a face wheel, whofe teeth take into the endlefs {crew on the arbour, while the teeth on the edge of this wheel enter between thofe on the edge of the other whecl. On the axis of the latter brafs wheel is a roller with iron nibs, fimilar to the above, but hid within the box. The arbour has one of the ends of which 't is compofed made fquare, and pafling through a mortife in the center of the wooden wheel, which is faltened by a ftrong {crew and nut; the other end of this arbour moves round in a hole within the wooden block ; and the knife is made fait by {crews to the wooden wheel, and kept at the diltance of nearly three quarters of an inch from it, by means of a {trip of wocd of that thicknefs, of the form of the blade, amd reaching to within an inch of the edge. The handle is mor- tifed into the outfide of the wooden wheel. An improved machine of this fort has been invented by Mr. Robert Salmon, of Woburn, Bedfordfhire, and des {cribed in the TranfaGtions of the Society for the Encou- ragement of Arts, &c. With it the chaff is cut by twe knives, fixed on the infide of the fellies to two wheels, which are ftrongly conneéted together; the edge of the knives being at an angle of about forty-five degrees from the plane of the wheel’s motion. hefe knives are fo fixed as to be forced forward by fprings on the wheel, which {prings are formed to adjuft, and a& more or lefs, as occafion may require, fo as to give the knives as much preffure againtt the box as may be requifite to cut the flraw. The knives are prevented from coming too forward, and occafioning unnes ceffary fri€tion, by wedges being put in under the itaples ; which wedges, as the knives wear, muft be drawn out fo as to admit the knives to come more forward. “With the be- fore-mentioned provifions, it will be found very eafy at any time to put on new knives, as the f{prings, &c. will always adjuft them to their work. On one fide of the wheel is fixed a round block of wood, in which there are four holes and a moveable fcrew ; to this block is fcrewed one end of the feeding-arm, running nearly ~ horizontally to the crofs bar at the end of the box ; to which cro{s bar there is a pin, moveable to five different holes, by means of which, and the four holes in the block before de« {cribed, twenty changes in the length of the chaff may be obtained. The ftraw is brought forward by the rollers in the box, the form of which has been jult defcribed, which rollers are turned from the outfide by the triggers or ratchet- wheels on each fide of the box, which move more or lefs, ace cording to the ftroke given to the crofs-bar by the feeding~ arm and wheel. By this mode of feeding, the ftraw is fi fettiy CHA fe€tly at reft, and does not prefs forward at the time of the knife cutting ; and, by means of the pins being taken out of the crofs-bar, the feeding is inftantly thrown off, al- though the wheel and knives may continue their motion. Under the box is fufpended the prefling weight, which may be made more or lefs powerful by fhifting the weight on the bearer to which it hangs, and alfo may be thrown on cither fide, more or lefs, as occafion may require ; which will be found ufeful, in order to force the ftraw towards the knife, and to counterbalance the ratchet-wheel of the upper roller. Near the fulcrum of this bearer is fixed a chain, the upper end of which is fufpended from a roller; at each extremity of which isa fmall bar of iron, joined to the end of the up- per f{piked roller, by which means the flraw is always equally prefled in pafling the two-fpiked rollers. The winch by which the machine is turned is of the common kind, and the frame of the machine is to be made very firm and ftrong. In order to apply this implement to the beft advantage, the inventor propofes a fecond box, to be placed at the end of the firft; which box may be of any length, and fuf- pended by a line and counter-weight, whereby the end of it is brought down level whillt fillmg with ftraw, and then drawn up, fo as to give the box a declivity, to make the ftraw more eafily come forward. It is f{uppofed that much advantage may be derived in this initrument from its cutting various lengths, refting dunng the cut, the knives being adjufted to their work by regulat- ing {prings, the feeding being readily thrown off, and the preflure moveabie to either fide. It is alfo well calculated to be applied to any power which may be occafionally fixed to the oppofite fide to that on which it is turned by hand ; and, by the additional box, when ufed by hand, the work- man will be enabled to cut for fome continuance, without fiopping to feed. Where threfhing machines are in ufe, thefe implements may frequently be attached to them with great advantage. There are many other inftruments of this fort conitru€ed in different ways; but thofe which are the leaft complex, and can be afforded at the cheapeft rate, are the moft adapted to the purpofe of the farmer. See Currinc-Box. _ The above machine, as confiderably altered and im- proved by Mr. Rawntree, is seen in Plate VII. on Agricul- ture, in which fig. 1. is a fide, and fig. 2. an end view of it. The advantages of this implement are, rft, Its great fim- plicity ; 2d, Its cutting the chaff of various lengths; 3d, The itraw being at reft while the knives are making the cut ; 4th, The friétion being lefs, more work of courle may be done with equal labour. : A, is the handle. B, B, the fly-wheels on which the knives are fixed. C, the ratchet-wheels, and rollers for drawing the ftraw forwards. D, the rods to work the ratchet-wheels, connected with the lever and crank. I, the box for containing the ftraw. F, the lever and weight for prefling the ftraw. G, the knives. H, the crank for regulating the cut. I, the frame. At fig. 3. 1s reprefented Mr. M‘Dougali’s patent chaff- cutter, which is a very ufeful initrument of this kind. In this machine the inventor has been particularly caveful fo to conttruét it, that, in cafe it fhould be accidentally broken, it might be eafily repaired by any common mechanic. The fubitance to be cut into cuaff may be prefled as hard as the workman ehoofes, by fimply placing the weight near to the CHA end of the lever, But the chief excellence of the inftrument confilts in the inventor having judicioufly applied a fpiral groove in the room of the endlefs ferew, commonly ufed by other agricultural inftrument-makers, by means of which he has in a great degree got rid of friction; and the lever may rife ee any height, without putting the machine out of work. It has been remarked by Mr. Young, that the number of machines which have been invented of late years for this purpofe, moft of which perform their work with fufficient accuracy, leaves no farmer in the kingdom under the neceffity of employing the common chaff-box, which is worked by thofe only who have acquired the art of making ufe of it, and who commonly make much greater wages per day than the ordinary pay. He obferves that there is a very good machine of this fort made at Thetford, which only coils eight guineas. It has been obferved by a late practical writer, that as the principal objets aimed at in the conitruc- tion of thefe machines are,thofe of expedition and the leffen- ing of manual labour, it is evident that many of thofe of the improved kind mutt anfwer fuch purpofes much more ef- feétually than fuch as were formerly in ufe, efpecially where they are attached to any great power, fuch as that of horfes, water, &c. asin the cafe of threfhing machines, or ether mills, to which they are in general well fuited, as has been noticed above. Mr. Page of Cobham has, according to Mr. Young, at the trifling expence of only five pounds, added a mill-wheel to his chaff-cutter, by which means a boy and a little poney cut twenty bufhels of chaff per hour. Cuarr-Houfe, a place couttrucied for the purpofe of con- taining chaff. It fhould be fituated as near to the barn, threfhing machine, and ftable, as poflible, in order that it may receive it with the leaft poffible labour and trouble. And in order to prevent danger, where the chaff is fuffered to undergo the procefs of termentation, it fhould be con- ftru€ted of brick work. The dimenfions muit be fuitable to the extent of the farm, or the quantity of live ftock that are kept and fed with tt. CHAFFER, or Cocxcuarrer, in Entomology, the com- mon Englifh name of the beetle, called by Linnzus, Sca- RAB£US melolontha, and by Vabricius MevoLtontHa vulga- ris. See ScARABEUS. CHAFFERCONNERS, in Commerce, printed linens manuta¢tured in the Great Mogul’s dominions. They are imported by the way of Surat; and are of the number of thofe linens prohibited in France. CHAFFERS, in our Statutes, feem to fignify wares or merchandize. 3 Edw. 1V.c. 4. The original French of the ftatute is chaffares. CHAFFERY, or Cuarery, in the /ron-Works, the name of one of the two principal forges. The other is called the finery. When the iron has been wrought at the finery, into what is called an ancony or {quare ma{fs, hammered into a bar in its middle, but with its two ends rough, the bufinefs to bedone at the chaffery is the reducing of the whole to the fame fhape, by hammering down thefe rough ends to the fhape of the middle part. CHAFFINCH, in Ornithology. See Frincitta Ca- kis. CHAGAING,, in Geography, a city of the Birman em- pire feated on the north fide of the Irrawaddy, and oppofite to the ancient capital Ainga-hung, or Awa, in N. lat. 21° 56’. E. long. 96°. This city, which was once the feat of imperial refidence, is fituated partly at the foot and partly on the fide of a rugged hill that is broken into feparate emi- nenccs, and on the fummit of each flands a fpiral pits Cie CHA Thefe temples, rifing irregularly above one another, form a beautiful affemblage of objeés, the effect of which is in- creafed by their being carefully white-wafhed and kept in repair. Chagaing is the principal emporium to which cot- ton is brought from all parts of the country, and where, af- ter being cleaned, it is embarked for the China market. ‘The operation of clearing it from the buds ts performed by females, by means of double cylinders turned by a lathe, which a woman works with her foot, while fhe applies the cotton with her hands. This city is become a_ place of re- ligious refort, from the number of praws or temples erected in its neighbourhood ; as well as on account of its being the principal manufactory of images or flatues of the divi- nity, Gaudma, which are feulptured of fne marble obtained in a quarry at Maengaing about 12 miles diftant. Birmans are forbidden to purchafe the marble of which thefe images are made, but they are allowed and even encouraged to buy figures of the deity a@tually manufa@tured, and to carry them to the remoteft corners of theempire. Exportation of thefe marble divimties out of the kingdom is ftriétly forbidden. CHAGNON, a town of France in the department of the Rhone and Loire, 6 leagues S. of Lyons. CHAGNY, a town of France, in the department of the SAone and Loire, and chief place of a canton im the dif- trict of Chalons-fur-Laone; 10 miles N.N.W. of it. The place contains 2214, and the canton 10,204 inhabitants ; the territory includes 1374 kiliometres, and 13 com- munes. CHAGRE, a river of North America, in Terra Firma, which opens into the North Sea, in g° 18’ 40” N. lat. and W. long. 81°; 30 miles W.S.W. of Porto Bello; and has its fource in the mountains near Cruces. It was formerly called Lagartos from the number of alligators in it, and was difcovered by Lopez de Qlano. Diego de Alvites dif- covered that part of it where Cruces is fituated; but the firft Spaniard who failed down it, fo as to reconnoitre it to its mouth, was Captain Hernando de la Serna, in the year 1527. Its entrance is defended by a fort, feated on a fteep rock on the eaft fide near the fea-fhore. This fort is called San Lorenzo de Chagres, and has a commandant anda lieutenant; and the garrifon is draughted from Panama. The fort was taken by admiral Vernon in 1740. About eight toifes from the fort is a town of the fame name. The houfes are principally of reeds, and the inhabitants Negroes, Mu- lattoes, and Meitizos. They are a brave and a¢tive people, and occationally take up arms to the number of triple the ufual garrifon of thefort. Oppofite, on a low and level ground, ftands the royal cuftom-houfe, where an account is taken of all goods conveyed up the Chagre. Here the breadth of the river is about 120 toifes, but it becomes gradually nar- rower as you approach its fource. At Cruces, the place where it begins to be navigable, it is only 20 toifes broad ; and the neareft diftance between this town and the mouth 1s 21 miles, and the bearing N.W. 7° 24' welterly; but the diftance meafured along the feveral windings of the river is no lefs than 43 miles. It breeds a great number of Cay- manes or alligators, creatures often feen on its banks, which are impaflable, both on account of the clofenefs of the trees, and the bufhes, which cover the ground, as it were with thorns. Some of thefe trees, efpecially the cedar, are ufed in making the canoes or banjas, employed on the river. Yhe paflage of the river is obftru€ed by the trunks of the trees that fall into it; and alfo by the f{wift currents over the fhallows. The barks employed on this river are the chatas and bongos, called in Peru, bonques. The firft are compofed of feveral pieces of timber, like barks, and of a great breadth, that they may draw but little water: CHA “ they carry fix or feven hundred quintals. The bongos are formed out of one piece of wood, fome of them being 11 Paris feet broad, and conveniently carrying four or five hun- dred quintals. Both forts have a cabin at the ftern for the convenience of paffengers, and a kind of awning reaching to the head, with a partition in the middle continued through the whole length of thevveffel; and over the whole, when the veffel is loaded, are laid hides, that the goods may not be damaged by the rains, which are frequently violent. Each of thefe requires, befides a pilot, at leaft 18 or 20 ro- buft negroes, for without fuch a number, they would not be able, in going up, to make any’ way again{t the current. All the forefts and woods near this river are full of wild beafts, and efpecially different kinds:of monkies, the ficth of which is highly valued by the negroes. They are alfo eaten by the Creoles and the Europeans. CHAGREEN, or CuacGrin, in Commerce. Sce Sua- GREEN. CHAHAIGNE, in Geography, a town of France in the department of the Sarthe, and diftri@ of St. Calais; 5 miles N.IE. of Chatean du Loir. CHA-HO, a town of China in the province of Pe-tche- li; 7 miles S. of Chun-te. CHA-HO-TCHAN, a town of Chinefe Tartary; 30 miles S.W. of Ning-yuen. CHATA, a river of Siberia, which runs into the Oby; 20 miles N.E. of Obdorfkoi. 3 CHAIBAR, or Karsar,a ftrong town of Arabia, taken from the Jews by Mahomet, in the 7th vear of the Hegeira, A.D. 628: 152 miles N.E. of Medina. CHAILARD, Le, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Ardéche, and chief place of a canton, in the dittri&t of Tournon; 4% learues N.W. of Privas. The place contains 1722, and the canton 9693 inhabitants: the territory includes 167% kiliometres, and 13 communes. CHAILLAG, a town of France, in the department of the Indre, and diftriét of Chatcauroux; 4 leagues S.S.W. of Argenton. 3 CHAILLAND, a town of France, in the department of the Mayenne, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of Laval; 10 miles N. of it. The place contains 2059, and the canton 15,166 inhabitants: the territory compres hends 2374 kiliometres and g communes. CHAILLE“Les-Marais, a town of France in the department of the Vendée, and chief place of a can- ton in the diltri€t of Fontenay-le Comté; 3 leagues W.S.W. of it. The place contains 1749, and the canton 7547 inhabitants: the territory comprehends 235 kiliomes tres and 7 communes. CHAILLE’-Sovus-Les-Ormeavux, a town of France, in the department of the Sarthe ; ro miles E. of Sablé. CHAILLEVETTE, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Lower Charente; 5 miles S. of Ma- rennes. : CHAILLONE,, a town of France in the department of the Orne, and diltriét of Alengon, containing about 11900 inhabitants ; one league N. of Sees. CHAIN, in French chaine, an inftrument compofed, or confitting of links, and commonly made of iron, though it may be made of other metals. There are different chains for different purpofes; as draft chains, bending chains, cant- ing chains, mill-chains, meafuring chains, neck chains, &c. &e. 2 A fport-chain, or chaine de port, is a ftrong iron chain, reaching acrofs the entrance of the port to prevent veflels from failing or getting into it. Of thefe there are fome- times feveral ac the entrance of cne and the fame port ; and when HAIN. when it is wide they are fupported on piles from diftance to diltance. A foraging chain, or chaine du fourrage, is the placing, by means of a chain of foldiers, or a military communication and arrangement of troops, thofe who are charged with forag- ing ina ftate, of fecurity againft any attack or incurfion of the enemy; thofe forming the chain being commanded to keep a conftant and careful look out on all fides. The Romans, when they went to war, carried with them a great number of chains, deflined for thofe that might be- come their prifoners. ‘They had them made of different me- ‘ tals; a great many of iron, others of filver, and fome even of gold. And they were diltributed or made ufe of according to the rank and quality of the prifoners. Before the battle at the ‘Tbrafymene lake, between Hannibal and Fiaminius, the latter, who, though altogether unfit for the manage- ment of military affairs, was vain, arrogant, and pref{umptu- ous; was fingularly formed by nature for the gaining of po- pularity ; was a plaufible prater or deciaimer, and fo perfua- five a public fpeaker, that he filled the people with fuch confidence of victory and fuccefs, that the multitude of thofe, who followed his army for the fake of booty, as Po- lybius informs us, excecded even the number of his troops, and carried with them chains, fetters, and other implements of the fame kind in great quantities and abundance. The arms of the kingdom of Navarre are, chains, or, in a field, gules. Vhe occafion hereof is referred to the kings of Spain leagued again{t the Moors; who having gained a ce- lebrated victory againit them in 1212, in the diftribution of the fpoils, the magnificent tent of Miralmumin feil to the king of Navarre; as being the firlt that broke and forced the chains thereof. Cuan, a gold, is one of the ornaments or badges of the dignity of a lord mayor of London; and remains to the perfon, after his being divelted of that magiltrature, as a mark that he has paffed the chair. Something like this, Chorier obferves, obtained among the ancient Gauls: the principal ornament of their people in power and authority was a gold chain, which they wore on all occafions; and even in battle, to diftinguifh them from the common foldiers. Hilt. de Dauph. lib. tii. p. 130. Cuatn alfo denotes a kind of fring, or twilted wire ; ferving to hang watches, tweezer-cafes, and other valuable toys upon. ‘he invention of this piece of curious work was owing to the Englifh: whence, in foreign countries, it is denominated the Englifh chain. It was fome time before foreigners undertook to imitate them, and at latt with no extraordinary fuccefs: thofe of Paris have come neareft. Thefe chains were at firft ufually either of fiver or gold, fome of gilt copper; the thread or wire of each kind muit be very iine. For the fabric, or making of thefe Cains; a part of the wire is folded into little links of an oval form; the longett diameter about three lines; the fhortelt, one. ‘Thefe, after they have been exaétly foldered, are again folded into two; and then bound together, or interwoven, by means of feve- ral other little threads of the fame thicknefs ; fome whereof, _ which pafs from one end to the other, refemble the warp of a ftuff ; and the others which pafs tran{verlely, the woof. There are at leaft 4000 little links in a chain of four pendants; which are, by this means, bound fo equally, and withal fo firmly together, that the cye is deceived, and takes the whole to confilt of one entire piece. Plate Mechanics, fig. 1, reprefents the chain ufed for com- _ mon purpofes with oval links; the ends of which are welded _ or foldered together. Fig. 2, is the chain ufed for flight purpofes, as fealcs, &c. Vor. VIL. the links are formed of wire, and the ends are fometimes foldered to the middle. Fig. 3, is a chain nearly the fame as the laft, except that the ends of the links are hooked into ore another inftead of being foldered. Fig. 4, fhews a chain invented by Mr. Hancok, for which he received a premium of 50 guineas from the Society of Arts, and is deferibed in their Tranfadtions. The two ends of the wire of which this link is com- pofed are hooked to the middle of it. This chain is ufed in Baker’s patent mangle, and anfwers the purpofe very well. Fig. 5, is a double wire chain; the ends of which are foldered together. This is very ancicut, being deferibed in a book of Agricola “* De Re Metailica,”’ printed in 1624, p32: Fig. 6, fhews a very fimple chain formed of bunches of {inal] wire. Fig. 7, is a flat chain; it has a wire link, the ends of which are bent into an eye, ab, to receive the parts. e, d, of another link ; this chain may be ufed to great advantage in turning wheels inftead of a ftrap or rope, as cogs may be fixed on the edge of the wheel, which go into the fpaces, A,A,A, of the chain, and prevent its flipping. This is alfo deferibed in Agricola de Re Metallica, pages 133 and 162. Fig. 8, is another for the fame purpofe; it has two kinds of links; one, a, is of wire bent into a fquare, the other, 4, is made of copper or iron plate bent and rivetted. Fig. 9, is the chain ufed in watches and fpring clocks, alfo in fteam engines: it is compofed of two thin pieces of fteel plates, aa, between which is the other, 2, of twice the thicknefs; they are heldtogether by a pin, which makes the joints. Cuain is alfo a kind of meafure in France, applied to fewcl-wood, fheaves of corn, in eltimating the tythes, hay, and horfes. Thefe meafures are diyiced varioufly, according to the ules for which they are intended. Cuain, in Geography, an ifland of the Pacific Ocean, difcovered by captain Cook in.1769, about 4 leagues long and two wide. S, lat. 17° 23’. W. long. 145° 54’. Cuain, or Curs, in the AfZanege. See Bits. Cuatn, in Surveying, is a meature, confifting of a certain number of li:.ks of iron wire, ufually a hundred; ferving to take the dimenfions of fields, &c. This is what Merfenne takes to be the arvipendium of the ancients. The chain is of various dimenfions, as the length or num- ber of links varies: that commonly ufed in mealuring land, called Gunter’s chain, is in length four poles or perches ; or 22 yards; or 66 feet, confilting of a hundred equal links; each link being #35 of a yard, or 69, of a foot, or 7.92 inches long; that is nearly, eight inches or of a foot. Whence it is eafy to reduce any number of thofe hnks to feet, or any number of feet to links. This chain is entirely adapted to Englifh meafures ; and its chief convenience is in finding readily the numbert con- tained in a given field. Where the proportions of {quare feet and acres differ, the chain, to have the fame advantages as Gunter’s chain, muft alfo be varied. Thus, in Scotland, the chain ought to be of 74 feet, or 24 Scots ells, if no regard be had to the difference between the Scots and Eng- lith foot; but if reyard be had to this difference, the Scots chain onght to confit of 742 Englith feet, or 74 feet four inches, and # of aninch. ‘This chain being divided into a hnadred links, each of thefe will be 84%%8 inches. Sce Foor and Acre. That ord narily ufed for large diftances is in length a hundred feet; each link one foot. 3D Fer C6H AEN: For {mall parcels, as gardens, &c. is fometimes ufed a {mall chain of one pole, or fixteen feet anda half in length; each link one inch 28. In meafuring towns, a chain of 50 feet in length, confilting of 50 links, is the moft commodious, with an off-fet-ftaff of 1o feet in length. Some in lieu of chains ufe ropes; but thefe are liable to feveral irregularities; both from the different degrees of moifture, and of the force which ftretches them. Schwen- terus, in his Pra€tical Geometry, tells us, he has obferved arope 16 feet long, reduced to 15 inan hour’s time, by the mere falling of a hoar froft. 'T’o obviate thefe inconveniences, Wolfus direéts, that the little ftrands whereof the rope con- fifts be twifted contrary ways, and the rope dipped in boiling hot oil; and when dry, drawn through melted wax. A rope, thus prepared, will not get or lofe any thing in length, even though kept under water all day. Sir George Shuckburg obferves (Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixvii. p.518.), that the common Gunter’s chain of the fhops is always fubject to fpring and flretch confiderably. That which he ufed in his meafurement for afcertaining the height of mountains was made of hardened fteel, on purpofe to avoid this defe€&t. It, however, {till preferved fome degree of elafticity ; for when pulled with a force of about 10 pounds, it feemed = 0.12 inch longer than. when laid gently on the floor without being -ftretched at all. He corrected its length by allowing for its expanfion by heat at 134° .05 inch. Ufe of the Cuain in Surveying —The manner of ap- plying the chain in meafuring lengths, is very obvious. Having provided a chain, with to {mall arrows (fee Arrow), two perfons take hold of the chain, one at each end of it, and all the ro arrows are taken by one of them, who is to go foremoft, and is called the leader; the other, for diftin@ion’s fake, being called the follower. A picket, or ftation-ftaff, being fet up in the diretion of theline to be meafured, if there appear no natural marks in that direétion ; the follower ftands at the beginning of the line, holding the ring at the end of the chain in his hand, while the leader drags forward the chain by the other end of it, till it is ftretched ftraight, and laid or held level, and the leader dire@ted, by the follow- er’s waving his hand, to the right or left, till the follower fee him exactly in a line with the mark or object of direétion to which the meafure is to be extended ; then both of them ftretching the chain ftraight, and ftooping fo as to hold it level, the leader having the head of one of his arrows in the fame hand by which he holds the end of the chain, let bim then ftick one of them down with it while he holds the chain ftretched. This being done, he leaves the arrow in the ground, as a mark for the follower to come to, and ad- vances another chain forward, being dire¢ted in his pofition by the follower flanding at the arrow, as before; as alfo by himfelf now, and at every fucceeding chain’s length, by moving himfelf from fide to fide, till he brings the follower and the hinder mark into-a line. Having then ftretched the chain, and ftuck down an arrow, as before, the follower takes up his arrow, and they advance again in the fame manner another chain-length. And thus they proceed till all the 10 arrows are employed, and are in the hands of the follower ; and the leader, without an arrow, 1s arrived at the end of the 1ith chain-length. The follower then fends or brings the 10 arrows to the leader, who puts one of them down at the end of his chain, and advances with the chain, as before. And thus the arrows are changed from the one to the other at every ro chains’ length, till the whole line is finifhed ; when the number of changes of the arrows fhews the number of tens, to which the follower adds the arrows he holds in his hand, and the number of links of another chain over to the mark or end of the line. So that if there have been three changes of the arrows, and the follower holds fix arrows, and the end of the line cut off 45 links more, the whole length of the line is fet down in links, thus, 3645. In entering down the dimenfions taken by the chain, the chains and links are feparated by a dot; the for- mer being integers, and the latter decimals: thus a line 63 chains 55 links long, is written 63.55. Ifthe links be fhort of 10, a cypher is prefixed; thus 10 chains, 8 links, are written 10.08. It is ufual, however, to fet down the length of lines, meafured with a chain, in links as integers, every chain or length being 100 links; and not in chains and de- cimals. To find the area of a field, Se, the dimenfions whereof are given in Cuains and links, Anacre of land is equal to 10 {quare chains, i. e. 10 Chains in length and one chain in breadth ; or, 220 x 22, or 4840 fquare yards; or, 40 x 4 = 160 {quare poles; or, To00 x 190 = 10¢000 {quare links. Alfo, an acre is divided into four parts, called roods, and a rood into 40 parts caled perches, which are {quare poles, or the fquare of a pole of 54 yards in length, or the {quare of th of a ohain, or of 25 links, which is 625 {quare links. So that the divifions of land meafure will be thus: 625 f{quare links = 1 pole or perch, 40 perches = I rood, 4 roods I acre. Confequently, 1ft, Multiply the links by one another, ac- cording to the rules for the area, and thus the content will be found in fquare links; and from the produét cut off five figures towards the right, which is nothing more than divid- ing by 100000 the number of fquare links in an acre: thofe remaining on the left willbe acres. 2dly, Multiply the five figures cut off, which are decimals, by four, the number of roods in an acre ; and cutting off five again from the produ@ on the right, thofe remaining on the left will be roods. Laltly, Multiply the five thus cut off by 40, the fourth part of the fquare perches in an acre ; and cutting off five, as be- fore, on the right, thofe remaining on the left are {quare perches. E.G. Suppofe the length of a reétangular piece of ground to be 792 links, and its breadth 385 ; to fiud the area in acres, roods, and perches : ai 7.87200 Anf. 3 acres, o rood, 7 perches. To take an angle, D A E (Plate 1. Surveying, fig. 3.) by the Cuatn. Meafure a fmall diftance from the vertex A along each leg, v. g. tod and c; then meafure the diltance dc: to lay this down, draw AE at pleafure, and front your feale fet off the diftance meafured on it. See ScaLe. i Then, taking in your compaffes the length meafured on — the ether fide, on the vertex A, as a center, deferibe an are de; and on the point ¢, as a center, wit the mea- fured diltance of cd, defcribe another are a4, Through : the ¢ HA’ LN. the point where this interfetts the former arc, draw a line AD. So is the angle plotted; and its quantity, if required, may be meafured on a line of chords. See Cuorp. To furvey a triangular field, ABC, (fig. 4.) Having fet up marks at the corners, if no natural marks occur ; meafure with the chain from A to P, where a perpendicu- lar would fall from the angle C, and fet up a mark at P, noting down the diftance AP. Then complete the dif- tance AB by meafuring from Pto B. Having fet down this meafure, return to P, and meafure the perpendicular PC. And thus, having the bale and perpendicular, the area is eafily found. Or, having the place P of the per- peudicular, the triangle is eafily conftru&ted. Or, meafure all the three fides with the chain, and note them down ; hence the content is eafily found, and the figure conftruGed. Or again, two fides AB, AC, may be meafured, as weil as the included angle A; or, one fide AB, and the ac- jacent angles, A and B, may be meafured; and then the figures may be eafily planned. Then by meafuring the per- pendicular CP on the plan, and multiplying it by half A B, we fhall have the content. For an example of the application of this problem, let AP be 794, A B 1321, and PC 826: Then, 1321 826 5926 2642 10563 2)10.91146 5*45573 4 1.82292 40 32.91680 Anf. 5 acres, 1 rood, 33 perches nearly. To meafure a four-/ided field, ABCD (fg. 5.) Meafure along a diagonal, as AC, and either of the two perpendi- culars DE, BF, as in the laft problem ; or elfe the fides AB, BC, CD, DA. From either of which the figure may be planned, and its contents computed. Otherwife, meafure on the longeft fide the diftances A P, AQ, AB, and the perpendiculars PC, QD. (fg. 6.) | Or, meafure the diagonal in fz. 53 and the angles CAB, CAD, ACB, ACD. Or, meafure the four fides, and any one of the angles, as BA D. Fixe Melet AP be 2145 «A E3625, AC 592) DE 230, and BF 306. Then, 516 fum of perpendiculars 592 AC 1032 4044 2580 3295472 4 .21885 £ AO 8.75520 Anf. 3 acres, o rood, 83 perches. 4 Or, in fir. 6. Let AP be 110, AQ 745, A Birto, PC 352, and QD 595. Then, PC 352. PC 352 QD 595 AP i110 QDi595 QB 365 2APC 38720 fum 947 2975 PQ. 635 357° 1785 4735 wat 2147175 = 2O DB 5682 601345 = 2PCDQ_ 38720 = 2APC 2PCDQ 60134 — ait 2)8.57240 = double the whole. 4.2862 4 1.1448 40 5-7929 Anf. 4 acres, I rood, 5% perches. To furvey any field by the cuain only. Having fet up marks at the corners, where neceflary, of the propofed field ABCDEFG, (fg. 7-) Form a judgment, by walking over the ground, how it may beft be divided into triangles and trapeziums; and meafure them feparately as in the two laft problems. In this way it will be proper to divide it into as few feparate triangles, and as many trape- ziums as may be, by drawing diagonals from corner to corner; and fo as that all the perpendiculars may fall within the figure. Thus, the figure is divided into the two trapeziums A BCG, GD E F, and the triangle GC D. Then, beginning with the firft at A, meafure the diagonal AC, and the two perpendiculars Gm, Bn; then the bafe GC, and.the perpendicular Dg; laftly, the diagonal D F, and the two perpendiculars Ep, Go. All which mealures write againft the correfponding parts of a rough figure drawn to refemble the figure to be furveyed, or fet them down in any other form at pleafure. Aum 135 130 mG An 410 180 2B AC 55° | Cig, 152 230 gD CG 440 __ Fo 206 120 0G FP). 288, 80 pE. F.D 1,520 Or thus; meafure all the fides AB, BC, CD, DE, EF, FG, and GA; and the diagonals AC, CG, GD, DE: Otherwife; many pieces of land may be very well furveyed, by meafuring any bafe line, either within or without them, together with the perpendicular let fall upon it from every corner of them. For they are then divided into feveral triangles and trapezoids, all whofe parallel fides are perpen- dicular to the bafe line ; and the fum of thefe triangles and trapeziums will be equal to the figure propofed, if the bafe- line fall within it; if not, the fum of the parts which are without being taken from the {um of the whole which are both within and without, will leave the area of the figure propofed. In pieces that are not very large, it will be fufficiently exaét to find the points, in the bafe-line, where the feveral perpendiculars will fall, by means of the cro/t, 2.) 2 (fee C HA (fee Cross), and from thence meafuring to the corners for the lengths of the perpendiculars. And it will be mot couvenient to draw the line fo as that all the perpendiculars may fall within the figure. hus, in fig. 8, beginning at A, and meafuring along the line AG, the difllances and perpendiculars, on ‘the right and left, which will be as fol- lows; viz. Adb 315 | 350 5B Ac 440 70'S Rds Reba 4 MWY a200 2) Ae 610 50 eh ASF A990 472 fF AG 1620 — “== SeeSurvevinc. By the CHAtn to find the diflance between two objeds inac- coffible in refped of each other, From fome place, as C (fg. 1.), whence the common diftance to each object, A and Bb, js acceflible in a right line; meafure the diftance CA, which fuppofe fifty chains; and continue the line to 1) viz. fifty more: meafure alfo BC, which fuppofe thirty chains; and produce the line to E, viz. thirty more. Thus will be formed the triangie C D E, equal and fimt- lar to the triangle ABC; confequently the diftance DE, being meafured, will give the inacceffible diftance required. By the Cuatn to find the diflance of an inasccffible oljed, v.g. the breadth of a river. On one fide place a pole, tour or five feet high, perpendicularly, having a flit at top, with a ftraight piece of wire, or the like, two or three inches long, put through the fame. This is to be fl:pped up or down, till, looking along it, you find it point full on the other fide of the river; then turning the pole with the wire in the fame diregtion, obferve the point on the dry land to which it points when looked along as before: meafure the diltance from the pole to this laft point ; it is the fame with that of the firft required. Cuatn-bar, in Canals, is a line of metal-cramps, fometimes let into the top-courfe or coping of locks and walls to tye them together. Cuain-doat, a large boat fitted with a davit over its ftem, and two windlaffes, one forward and the other aft, in the infide. It is ufed for getting up mooring-chains, anchors, &e. Cuain- Plates, in Ship-building, thick iron plates bolted to the fhip’s fides, and to which the chains and dead-eyes that fupport the mafts by the fhrouds are conneCted. Cuain-Pump. See Pump. Cuain-Shot. See Suor. Cuain, Top. See Tor-chain. Cuain-Wales, or CHANNELS, in Ship-building, are thick planks proje&ing horizontally from the fides of a fhip, to which they are bolted, and alfo confined thereto by chains, or chain-plates, and hence the name. The lower ends of the chain-plates are bolted into the fhip’s fides, and the upper pafs through notches in the chaiu-wales, and contain the dead-eyes, immediately above. ‘To thefe dead eyes, thofe at the lower ends of the fhrouds are conneed by laniards, each toeach ; and the chain-wales are of a breadth fufficient to keep the fhrouds clear of the gunwale. Two chain-wales belong to cach maft, one upon each fide of the fhip, and they are fo placed that the fore dvad-eye in each, and the maft to which they belong, are nearly in the fame ftraight line ; and of length fufficient to contain as many dead-eyes, at proper intervals, as there are fhrouds: by this difpofition, the maft is iupported laterally, and from abaft, by the fhrouds and back-flays ; and the other ttays fupport it forward. CHAINGY, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Loiret, 5 miles. W. of Orleans. C HA CHAINS, Catena, in Ecclefiaflical Hiflory, denote: collec. tions of fuch theological opinions and icriptural interpreta- tions, as had been received by the ancicnt doctors of the church. See Catena. Cuains, hanging in, a kind of punifhment infliGted on murderers. By itat. 25 Geo. II.c. 37. the judge fhall dire& fuch to be executed oa the next day but one, unicfs Sunday intervene ; and their bodies to be delivered to the furgeons to be diffeéted and anatomized ; and he may dire& them after- wards to be hung in chains. During the interval between fentence and execution, the prifoner fhall be kept alone, and fu‘tained only with bread and water. The judge, how- ever, hath power to refpite- the execution, and relax: the other reitraints of the aG@. Blackft. Com. vol. iv. p. 202. Cuains, in Ship building, are thofe irons by which the- fhrouds of the maits are made faft to the chain-wales. CHAIR, Cathedra, was anciently ufed for the pulpit, or: fuggeltum, whence the prieft {poke to the people. It is (ill applied to the place whence protefiors and re-- gents in univerfities deliver their lectures, and teach the: Iciences to their pupils: thus, we fay, the profeflor’s chair,. the doctor’s chair, &c. Cxair, Curule, was an ivory feat placed ona car, wherein. were feated the prime magiltrates of Rome, and thofe to whom the honour ef a triumph had been granted. Cuair, Sedan, a covered vehicle for carrymg a fingle- perfon fupported by two poles, and borne by two men,. hence denominated chairmen. ‘They were firft introduced: in London in 1634, when Sir Sanders Duncomb obtained * the fole privilege to ufe, let, and hire a number of the faid covered chairs for 14 years. The firft fedan chair, fays Hume (Hitt. vol. vi. p. 168, 8vo.) feen in England, was in. the reign of James I., and was ufed by the duke of Bucking- ham ; to the great indignation of the people, who exclaimed, that he was employing his fellow-creatures' to do the fervice of beaits. In 1694 they were firft taxed by aét of parlia- ment (5 and 6 W. and M. c. 22.): and by 9 Anne, c. 23. § 8. 200 hackney-chairs were licenfed, at 10s. per annum ; and no perfon was obliged to pay for a hackney-chair more than the rate allowed by the aét fora hackney-coach driven two-third parts of the faid diftance. By the faid aét every: chair fhall have a diftin mark on each fide, and altering fuch: mark incursa forfeiture of 51. half to theinformer and half to. the king. Nor fhall any perfon carry for hire in a hackney. chair, without licence, on pain of 40s. In the following year, by 10 Ann. c. 1g. chairs were: increafed to 300; and by 12 Geo. I. c. 12 to 4c0, om: account of the great increafe of buildings to the wettward. By 7 Geo. III. c. 44. §. 13. a chairman may take for any diftance not exceeding one mile, 12d. ; forany diftance above- one mile and not excecding one mile and four furlongs, 1s. 6d.3 tor every further diftance not exceeding four furlongs, 6d. ; and by the hour 18d. for the firft hour, and 6d. for every half hourafter. Byg Ann.c. 23. a chairman, guilty — of mifbehaviour, by demanding more than his fare, or giving abufive language, or otherwife behaving rudely, fhall, on conviction on oath forfeit not exceeding 20s. to the poor, or be committed for 7 days to Bridewell or fome other houfe of correétion ; and by 7 Geo. III. c. 44. the commiffioners may revoke his licence, or infli€@ on him a-penalty not ex- ceeding 31. to the poor; and on non-payment, he fhall be. committed to hard labour in fome houfe of corre@tion for 30 days. See Hacxney-coacues. Cuair is alfo applied by the Romanifts to certain fealts, held anciently in commemoration of the tranflation of the fee, or feat ofthe vicarage of Chrift, by St. Peter. I The CHA The perforated chair, wherein the new-eleéted pope is placed, F, Mabillon obferves, is to be feen at Rome: but the origin thereof he does not attribute, asts commonly done, to the adventure of pope Joan; but fays there is a myttery in it; and it is intended, forfooth, to explain to the pope thofe words of Scripture, that God draws the poor from out of the dufl and mire. . CHAIRMAN, the prefident, or fpeaker of an aflembly, company, &c. We fay, the chairman of a committee, &c. CHAISE, a fort of light open chariot, or calafh. See Coacues. ; Aurelius Vitor relates, that Trajan firft introduced the ufe of poft-chaifes: but the invention is generally afcribed to Auguitus; and was probably only improved by Trajan, and fucceeding emperors. Goth. in Cod. Theodef. tom, ii, p-506, &c. Cuarse, Francis De La, in Biography, a diftinguifhed ecclefiaftic of France, in the reign of Lewis XIV. was born in the chateau of Aix in 1624, and entercd the fociety of Jefuits at their college of Roanne, where he had been edu- cated. He was employed for feveral years in teaching the belles-lettres, philofophy, and theology in different colleges of his order, and at length became provincial of the province of Lyons. Fromhenec he was drawn to court, in 1675, by Lewis XIV. to fill the important poit of his confeflor, for which he poffcfled many neceffary qualifications. As his figure was commanding, his manners polite, and his dif- pofition to luxury and fplendour fuch as fuited the tatle of Lewis, he acquired a powerful and permanent influence. To him was committed the diftribution of benefices; and he maintained an abfolute independence of mad. de Mainre- non. The jealoufy and diflike with which fhe regarded him were expreffed in her letters ; but her unfavourable reprefent- ations of his temper and charafter were counteracted by thofe of the duke of St. Simon, who deferibes him as mild and moderate, humane and modeft, pofleffed of honour and probity, and though much attached to his family, perfe&tly difinterefted. Tnis panegyrift adds, that he valued himfelf on his birth, and loved to favour nobility ; and this circum- flance ferved to induce a partiality on the part of this noble- man in his favour. Attached to his own order, he promoted jts triumph over Janfenifm ; neverthelefs, his treatment of the Janfenifts may be reckoned very moderate compared with that of his fuceeffor Le Teflier. In his 8cth year, fen- fible of the decline of his faculties, he wifhed to retire, and with thefe wifhes the Jefuits concurred; but the king would not allow it. Even when he was broken down by intirmities, and had lo&t his memory, the king, as M. de St. Simon em- phatically expreffes it, had-the carca/s of his confeffor brought to him for the purpofe of tranfaéting the ufual bufinefs. He retained this office till his death, at the age of 85, in 1709. He was one of the firlt members of the Academy of Infcriptions, to whichrank he was entitled by his knowledge of medals and of ancient hiftory. Nouv. Did. Hit. Gen. Biog. Cuatse, La, or Lacneze, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the North coalts, andchief place of acantonin the diftridtof Loudeac; 5 miles S.E. of Loudeac. The place contains 458, and the canton 11,828 inhabitants ; the territory includes 2123 kiliometres and 7 communes. Cuatse-Diev, La, a town of Franee, tn the department of the Upper Loire, and chief place of a canton in the diftrict of Brioude, 13 miles from Brioude, and 18 N.N.W. of Le Puy. The place contains 1322, and the canton go42 in- habitants; the territory comprehends 230 kiliometres and 14 communes. Cuaise-Le-Vicomre, La, a town of France, in the de- CHA partment of the Vendée, and difrict of Montaigu; 5 miles E. of La-Roche-fur-Yon. CHAJUK, a town of Afia, in the country of Chara’m, on the frontiers of the Greater Bucharia. CHAKEN-KAN, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the province of Caramania ; 20 miles N.N.E. of Tarfus. CHAKENI-KOUZEY, a town of Alia, in the king- dom of Candahar ; 120 miles E.N E. of Candahar. CHALA, a {mall fea-port of South America, in the Pa- cific Ocean, near the river Arequipa. Cuaua,-in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in Affyria ;, placed by Tlidore de Charux in the Chalonitis. CHALAAMA, ariver of Afia, in Syria. CHALABRE, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Aude, and chief place of a canton, in the ditri@ of Limoux; 10 miles S.W. of Limoux. The place conta'ns 1820, and the canton 8513 inhabitants: the territery includes 205 kiliometres and 16 communes. CHALACH, in Ancient Geography, the capital of Cha- lacene, near the fprings of the river Lycus. Strabo places the Chalacene in the vicinity of Adiabene. CHALADRA, Cuaranpra, or Garapra, a town and marth ot Macedonia. CHALEON, a port of Greece, in the Locride, 7 miles from Delphi, according to Pliny, who alcribes it to the Locriani-Ozoli. CHALAIN, or La Porueris, in Geography, atown of France, in the department of the Mayne and Loire, and diltrict of Segré; 7 leagues N.W. of Angers. CHALAIS, a town of France, in the department of the Charente, and chief place of a canton, in the diltrid of Barbez'eux ; 5 miles W. of Aubeterre. The place con- tains 383, and the canton 7728 inhabitants: the territory comprchends 130 kiliometres and 16 communes. CHALAMONT, a town of France, in the department of the Ain, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of Trevoux ; 4 leagues N.N.E. of Montluel. CHALAK, a town of Perfia, in the province of Ge- drofia. CHALAN, a town of Ferfia, in the province of Farfiftan; 40 miles N.W. of Schiras. CHALANCON, a town of France, in the department of the Ardeche ; 3 leagues N. of Privas. CHALAPA, in Botany, and the Materia Medica, is a name given to jalap. . CHALAPU, in Geography, a mountain of the Cordilleras, in South America; which has, in its neighbourhood, the town of Hambato, and its fkirts diverfified with feats and farms; but its declivity is very fteep. On this mountain the French mathematicians ereéted one of their fignals, in meafuring the length of an are of the meridian. CHALARONNE, a river of France, which runs into the Sadne, near Toiffey. CHALASTIC Medicines; are fuch as have the faculty of relaxing the parts; when, on account of their extraor- inary tenfion, or fwelling, they occafion pain. The word comes from xaAxa, I relax. Of this kind are butter, and many oils, &c. CHALASTICUM Sat, in the Materia Medica, a name given by fome writers to the fal gem. CHALASTRA, in Ancient Geography, atown of Mace-~ donia, placed by Pliny, in the Thermean gulf. Herodotus and Strabo call it Chalefra. CHALAU, or Kavav, in Geography, a town of Lufa- tia; 46 miles S.W. of Frankfort on the Oder. CHALAUTRE, a town of France, in the department of the Seine and Marne; 24 leagues E. of Provins. CHALAZA, CHA CHALAZA, among Naturalifls, a white knotty kind of fring at each end of an egg, formed of the plexus +f the fibres of the membranes, whereby the yolk and white are conneéted together. Its ufe, according to Harvey, is to be as it were the poles of this microco{m, and the couneétion of all the membranes twilted and knit together; whereby the liquors are not only conferved, each in its place, but alfo in its due polition to the reft. Mr. Derham adds, that they alfo ferve to keep one and the fame part of the yolk uppermolt, let the egg be turned which way it will; which is done by the following me- chanifm: the chalaze are fpecifically heavier than the whites wherein they {wim ; and being braced to the membrane of the yolk, a little out of the axis, they caufe one fide of the yolk to be heavier than the other. The yolk being thus by the chalaze made buoyant, and kept iwimming in the midift of the two whites, is, by its own heavy fide, kept with the fame fide always uppermoft: which uppermott fide he imagines to be that whereon the cicatricula lies. Cuavaza, in Botany, a name given by Gertner to a par- ticular part of the internal membrane which belongs to molt feeds. It has the form cither of a {mall deep-colonred fpot, or of a fmall, fpongy, callous tubercle, proceeding from the extremities of the internal umbilical veffcls, or from the dry remains of the chorion, and appearing on the outer furface of the membrane. It is found in many, but not in ail feeds; and is fituated either near the external umbilicus, or directly oppolite to it. The firft fituation is not very common, but exhibits a variety of forms. The chalaza is a black fphace- lated {pot in eleufine, a thick fungous excrefcence in zecyn- thys, and a {mall fpongy feale in the feeds of hibifcus, la- vatera, and other malvaceous plants. When it is fituated, as it molt frequently is, oppofite to the umbilicus, its form is always round, witha moderate convexity ; as in citrus, myro- balanus, bixa, protea, ftaphylia, alchemilla, and very many others ; in all which the deep colour of the chalaza, and its clofe conneétion with the internal membrane, are clearly difcernible. See Gertner de Fruétibus, vol. i. Introd. iT. 5) CHALAZIAS, or Cuarazites, in Natural Hiflory, the name of a {mall ttone, defcribed by Pliny and other an- cient writers, and faid to have been of the fize and colour of a common hail-ftone, and of the hardnefs of the diamond. It was probably no other than the fmall pebble-cryftals of the Indies, which are at this time frequent on the fhores of rivers there, from the bignefs of a large pin’s head to that of a pea: and as they lie in great clutters together, without any other ftones among them, they make a fort of coarfe fand, which much refembles a clutter of hail-ftones. CHALCA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa, ac- cording to Strabo. CHALCANTHUM, in Natural Hiflory. This term, together with chalcitis, mify, mejanteria, and fory, was ap- plied by the ancients, without much {cientific difcrimination, to figmify iron and copper pyrites ina flate of greater or lefs decompohtion, and therefore approaching more or lefs to native vitriol, See Iron. /ulphat of. CuHarcantruum, in Medicine, the fame with vitriol. Some have allo ufed chalcanibum corruptly for colcothar, or vitriol rubefied. Crarcantuum chlorum, in the Alateria Medica, a name given by fome of the old Greek writers to the me/anteria, a yellowith vitriolic mineral, which turned black on being wet- ted with common water. CHALCAS, in Botany, Linn. Sce Murray. CHALCE, in Ancient Geography, an ancicat town of CH A Africa, in Libya, according to Steph. Byz.—Alfo, a'towr placed by this geographer in Pheenicia.—Alfo, a town fituate in the territory of Lariffaa—Alfo, an ifland of the Mediterranean, on the coaft of Afia Minor, near Rhodes, according to Pliny; called alfo Chalcia. CHALCEA, a town of Afia, in Caria. ; CHALCEDON, or Carcepon, in Ancient Geography, a famous city of Bithynia, feated on the Bofphorus, and built, as it is faid, by the inhabitants of Megara, fome years before Byzantium. It was anciently known by the names of Proceraftis and Colbufa. It was taken by the Athenians 409 years B.C.; and 74 years before the fame era, it was befieged by Mithridates, king of Pontus, but fuccoured by the conful L. Lucullus. ‘The emperor Juf- tinian repaired it, and gave it his own name. It afterwards became very powerful. Pliny, Strabo, and ‘Tacitus call it “the City of the Blind ;” alluding to the anfwers which the Pythian Apollo gave to the founders of Byzantium, who, confulting the oracle in relation to a place.where to build a city, were dire€ted to choofe that {pot which lay oppofite to ‘the habitation of the blind ;’’ that is, as it was then underftood, to Chalcedon: the Chalcedonians de= ferving that epithet for having built their city on a barren and fandy foil, without perceiving that advantageous and pleafant {pot on the oppofite fhore, which the Byzantines afterwards chofe. ‘The emperor Julian ercéted a tribunal in this city, for trying and punifhing the evil minifters of his predeceffor Conftantius. In the fuburb of this city, fur- named the * Oak,”’? Rufinus, the infamous minifter of the emperor Theodofius, built a magnificent villa; to which he added a ftately church, confecrated to the apoftles St. Peter and St. Paul, and continually fanétified by the prayers and penance of a regular fociety of monks. A numerous and almoft general fynod of the bifhops of the Eaftern empire was fummoned to celebrate, at the fame time, the dedication of the church and the baptifm of the founder ; and this double ceremony was performed with extraordinary pomp. Chalcedon became famous in Chriftian times for the council held there in 451 againft Eutyches, which is reckoned the fourth general or cecumenical council. At this council Enutyches, who had been already banifhed, and deprived by the emperor of his facerdotal dignity, was condemned, though abfent ; and the following doétrine was inculcated upon Chriftians as the obje@ of faith, viz. ‘“ that in Chrift two diftin@ natures were united in one perfon, and that without any change, mixture, or confufion.” ‘The emperor Valens caufed the walls of this city to be levelled with the ground, for fiding with Procopius, and the materials to be conveyed to Conttantinople, where they were employed in conftruG@- ing the famous Valentinian aquediG. This.city was taken after a long fiege, A.D. 616, by Chofroes II. king of Perfia.. Chalcedon is at prefent a poor place, known to the Greeks by its ancient name, and to the Turks by that of Cadiaci, and Kadi-keni, or the Judges-town. CHALCEDONIUS, the name of a medicine defcribed by Galen; and directed by him to be infufed into the ears, in inveterate diforders of that pert. CHALCEDONY, in the Gifs Trade, chalcedony. : ’ Cuarcepony, in Natural Hiflory. Of this mineral there are the two following fubfpecies : 1. Common Chalcedony. Its colour is bluifh-grey, paffing into milk-white and {malt-blue; alfo greenifh-grey, pafling into apple and olive-green ; or yellowifh-grey, pafling into wax and ochre-yellow, yeilowifh and blackifh-brown, and brownifh-black. Two or more of thele colours are often found in the fame fpecimen, of which one generally forms the See Grass- CHA the ground, while the others are diftributed over its furface in dots, clouds, or flripes. When white and yellowilh- brown ftripes alternate with each other, the ftone is called an onyx, and is highly efteemed by the lapidaries. ‘The grey varictics, with thick prifmatic diltinét concretions, when tranfverfely cut, prefent iridefcent colours when held to the light, and have hence been named rainbow chalcedony. The tranflucent milk-white variety is called cacholong. ‘Che green and fmalt-blue varieties are the rareft: the dark coloured ones, when cut thin and held to a ftrong light, ap- pear blood-red. : It is found maffive, or forming veins, er in round balls of various fizes called geodes ; alfo kidney-fhaped, bot- ryoidal, ftalaétitic, mamillated, and imprefled by various organized bodies, fuch as turbinitis, &c. Certain cry tlal- line forms, efpecially thofe of quartz, have alfo been attri- buted to chalcedony ; but thefe appear to be nothing more than cryftals of quartz coated over with chalcedony. It poficiles little or no luftre ; its fraéture is perfectly even, paffing into fine-{plintery and flat-conchoidal; it breaks into indeterminate fharp-edged fragments ; it frequently ex- hibits concentric, lamellar, or angular diftin&t concretions ; it is commonly femi-tranfparent, but the darker-coloured varieties are only tranflucent ; it is femewhat harder than flint, and much lefs brittle. Sp. gr. 2.58 to 2.65. It is infufible per /2, before the blow-pipe, but becomes milk- white and opaque. According to Bergman, the chalce- dony from Ferroe confiits of 84. Silex. 16 Alumine and a litile iron. 109 It occurs in veins and geodes in amygdaloid ; alfo in veins, accompanied by quartz, pyrites, &c. in porphyry. It was anciently procured from Chalcedon, in Leffer Afia (whence its name) ; but at prefent it is found princi- pally in Saxony, Hungary, Iceland, Scotland, and the adjacent iflands, Cornwall, and various parts of Afiatic Ruffia. ¢ 2. Cornelian. The ulual colour of this mineral is blocd- red, whence it paffes into flcfh-red, reddifh-white, milk- white, orange and honey-yellow. Two or more colours often occur in the fame fpecimen, difpofed in zones, ftripes, and arborizations. It occurs in veins and rounded pieces, has a conchoidal fraéiure, and a flight degree of luftre: in ether refpects it agrees with the common chalcedony. The variety with alternate red and white ftripes is called /ar- donyx. Comeliag is found in-various parts of Europe; but the moit beautiful and valuable pieces are brought from Arabia, and Surat, and Cambay in India. Cornelian, from its beauty and hardnefs, has always been much fought after by Japidaries. Some of the finelt antique cameos are made ef it. The, coloured chalcedonies pafs into aGate, which fee. CHALCEMBOLON, in Antiquity, a thip, the roftrum of which was of brafs. The word is compounded of xaaAxos, brafi, and euCoror, rofirum. CHALCEPOS, in Botany, Dalech. Spherocevhalus. CHALCETORES, in dncient Geography, a name given by Strabo toa place of Afia Minor, in Caria. CHALCETORIUM, a tewn of the ifland of Crete. Steph.. Byz. See Ecuinors : CHA CHALCIDENE, an inland province of Syria, bounded by Antiochene or Scleucis, on the welt; Cyrrheflica, on the north; Chalybonitis, on the eaft; and by Apamene and Celefyria, on the fouth. It took its name from its me- tropolis Chalcis. This was reckoned one of the molt fruit- ful provinces of Syria, and was feized by Ptolemy, the fon of Menneus, during the troubles of Syria, and by him made a feparate kingdom. Ptolemy himf{clf is ftyled by Jofephus and Hegefippus only prince of Chalcis ;' but his fon Lyfanias is honoured both by Jofephus and Dio with the title of king. CHALCIDENSES, a people of Afia Minor, placed by Strabo in Ionia—Alfo, a people fituate, according to Dicdorus Siculus, about the river Phafis.—Alfo, a people of Thrace, in the country where were fituated tke towns of Tinda and Milcorus. They are mentioned by Ariftotle and Thucydides. CHALCIDIC, Cuaccipicum, or CuHALCcEDONIUM, in the Ancient Architedure, a large magnificent hall belong- ing to a tribunal or court of juttice. Feftus fays, it took its name from the city Chalcis; but he does not give the reafon. Philander will have it to be the court, or tribunal, where affairs of money and coinage were regulated ; fo called from xaaxos, brafs, and dsxn, juf- tice. Others fay, the money was {truck in it; and derive the word from xaaxnS, and o%@, houfe. In Vitruvius, it is ufed for the auditory of a BasiLica : in other. of the ancient writers, for a hall, or apartment, where the heathens imagined their gods to eat. CHALCIDICA Lacerta, in Zoology, a reptile de- {cribed as a fort of ferpent, and fo called from iis refem- blance in colour to the chalcedony.- Its bite is fucceeded, they tell us, by a pellucid tumour, which has a fhining blacknefs at the margin; ard drank in wine, it cures its own bite, according to Paulus Aigineta. This animal is no other than the Lacerta Chalcides of Linneus, which fee. CHALCIDICE, or Cuarciris, in Ancient Geography, a country of Macedonia, according to Ptolemy, which com- prehended the mountains S.E. of Apollonia, and the two peninfule which lay between the Toronaic, Singitic, and Strymonic gulfs. In this country was the famous mount Aruos, which fee. Ptolemy reckoned in this country only five cities; but Suidas fays, that Philip took here 32 towns. Among thefe we may mention Augea, Singus, Chalcis, and AScanthus, now Erifto. CHALCIDICUM, in Antiquity, fometimes denoted a dining-room. See Cuarciptie. CHALCIDICUS Mons, in. Ancient Geography, a mountain of Sicily, according to Pulybius and Steph, Byz. CHALCIDIUS, in Biography, a Platonic’ philofopher, concerning whofe time and. charater writers have enter- tained different opinions. Some have fuppofed that he was deacon or arch-deacon in the church of Carthage ; others think that he was an heathen. According to Hody he was a Gentile, well acquainted with Chriftian writings. Beaufobre-calls him a Chriftian philofopher, and fays, that he joined Chriftianity with Piatonifm. Cave is doubtful whether he was a Gentile or a Chriftian, Fabricius repre- fents him as a Chriltian writer of the fourth century ; but Motheim hefitates. Dr. Lardner fuggelts fome difficulties ; fuch as his feeming to approve of the divinations of Gen- tilifm, and allowing them to be of ufe for difcovering fu, turities. He quotes Mofesas a wife man, but feems to ex- prefs a doubt whether he poffeffed divine infpiration, as well a3 human knowledge. Upon the whole, his manner of writing CH A pofes with Cave, that he flourithed about the year 330. Chaleidins tranflated into Latin the former part of the Timeus of Plato, and added a prolix commentary, in which he fhews much learning and good {kill in the fentiments of the ancient philofephers. This work is infcribed to Ofixs, or Hofius, fuppofed to be the bifhop of Corduba in Spain, and a principal member of the council of Nice in 325. He refers to the hiftory of St. Matthew (chap. 1. 1.); and whether he was a Chriftian or a heathen, this paflage ts a valuable teftimony to St. Matthew’s gofpel, and to the hif- tory which he cites. If the commenta-y be confidered as the:work of a Gentile philofopher, the feveral quotations of the Old Tcftament and of the New that occur in it afford proof that the Scriptures were then well known in the world. ‘Lardner thinks with Cave, that the ftyle of the paragraph which he has cited is that of a Gentile, not of a Chriftian writer. Lardner’s Works, vol. viii. c. 42. Cave, H. 1 _ vol. i. p- 199. CHALCIS,Earipo,in Ancient Geography,a town ofGreece, and reckoned the capital of Euhcea, was built in the weltern part on a {mall peninfula, which feemed to join the ifland. "The name of Chalcis, which was common to the ifland of Eubea, and its capital, Stephanus derives from the daugh- ter of Afopus, king of Beotia; called Combe, and fur- named Chalcis, from her having firlt invented brazen ar- mour; whence Pliny deduces it from a Greek word xxAxos, fignifying brafs or copper, which he {uppoles to have been firtt ufed here. The Chalcidians, in their better days, were renowned for their {kill in navigation; but they were very generally reproached, on account of the diffilutenefs of their manners; and their avarice was a topic of ridicule among the ancient Armenians. They fent colonies into Thrace, Macedonia, Sicily, the ifland of Corcyra, Lem- nos, Italy, &c. See Evsca. Chalcis was one of the three cities which Philip, fon of Demetrius, called ‘ the fetters of Greece.’”? Strabo fays, that it was joined to the continent of Boeotia: and Pliny thought that Eubea was united with the continent by this place, which is not im- probable. The fmall ftrait which feparates the ifland from the continent is called Euripus, and by the modern Grecks Euripo, whence by corruption is derived Egripo, the name given to the ifland. Cuaccis, a town of Macedonia in Chalcidice. It was fituated between Olynthns, the Singitic gulf, and Apollo- nia. Thucydides and Steph. Byz. refer it to Thrace, becavfe the boundaries of this country were fometimes changed. Cuatcis, a mountain of Greece, in ARtolia, according to Strabo, who fays, that it extended along the eaitern bank of the Evenus, from the mouth of this rivér to the northern extremity of /Etolia. Cuaucis, a town of Greece, in AEtolia, feated on the fore-mentioned mountain.—Alfo, a town of Greece, in Beeotia, according to Hefychius.—Alfo, a river of Greece, in the Peloponnefus, which, according to Strabo, ran to the confines of Triphylia and the Pifadite territory, near Sarnicum.—Alfo, ariver of Afia Minor, in Bithynia, which watered the city of Chalcedon, and difcharged itfelf into the Thracian Bofphorus.—Alfo, a maritime burgh, with a port, in Afia Minor, upon the fouthern coait of Ionia, N. of the ifle of Samos, and near Teos.—Alfo, one of the iflands called Echinades, which were Grecian iflands on the CHA coaft of /Rtolia—Alfo, a town of Afia, in Syria; feated on the northern bank of a lake, whence fprung the river Chalcis, and which gave its name Chalcidene to the country The Notitia of Hicrocles diftinguifhes it as an epifeopzl city of Syria Prima, and the Itinerary of Antonine places it W. of Berea.—AHo, a town of Arabia Fel'x, which Pliny fays was founded by the Greeks, but deltroyed by the war.—Alfo, a town of Scythia, mentioned by Steph. Byz. Cuaccis, in Entomology, 2 genus of Hymenopterous in- fects eftablifhed by Fabricius, and included by Gmelin in the Linnean arrangement between the Tipsta and Curysis. The genus Chalcis confifts, with the exception of one, or, at mott, two fpecies, of infects difcovered fince the time of Linnens, and which cannot, with propricty, be reduced to any of the Linnzan genera. It approaches both the Sphex and Vefpa tribe; it is to the Vefpa Linnzus refers Chalcis minuta of Fabr., and if the infe&t deferibed in his Fauna Suecica, n. 1657, be the Chalcis Sifpes, as conmonly believed the latter lands in his genus Sphex. ‘The Fabrician chae raéter of the genus Chalcis is Palpi quatuor xquales: An- tenne breves, cylindrica, fere fufiformes: articule primo fuocraffiori. Fabr. Ent. Syft. The following generic cha- racler after the Linnean method is propofed for Chalcis, in the eleventh volume of the Natural Hiltory of Britifh In- fe&ts. Mouth with a horny, comprefled, and fometimes elongated jaw; feelers four, equal; antenne cylindrical fufiform, firft joint rather thickelt ; thorax gibbous, length- ened behind, and obtufe; abdomen fmall, rounded, and fubpetiolate; pofterior thighs thickifh. Donov. v. 11. p. 57. t. 379+ SPECIES. Cuaccis fifpes. Black; petiole of the abdomen, and poflerior thighs yellow. Fabr. mant. Sphex jibes, Fabr. Sp. Inf. Sphex nigrifex, Subz. Vefpa, &c. Geoff. A native of Europe. : Obsf. The pofterior thighs are clavated, and toothed, of a yellow colour, and marked with a large {pot of black; thofe of the female fimple. E Cuaxcis clavipes. Black; thighs of the hind-legs thi ard rufous. oaeihs Brit. Inf. Tube. Hybner, atic 7 Size of the lalt ; colour black and glofly, except the pof- terior thighs. According to Hybner this infe& inhabits Saxony; it has been taken rarely in England. Latreille, ~ who defcribes it under the.name of Chajcis clavipede, men« tions it asa fcarce infe&t in France. Cuaccis minuta. Black: polterior thighs thick, and yellow at the tip. Fabr. Vefpa minuta, atra geniculis pe- nie luteis, femoribus pofticis ovatis fubtus muricatis, inn. This {pecies is mall, and has the pofterior thighs ferra- ted, and {hanks incurvated, yellow, and tipped with black. Fabricius defcribes this as a German infe@. Liatreille in- forms us it is not uncommon in France, in the vicinity of Paris, and it may be confidered, we belicve, as a native of this country. CuHaAtcis pundaia. Yellow, dotted with black : pofterior thighs clavated and toothed ; abdomen conic. Fabr. Ent. Syit. -Sphex pundata, Sp. Inf. This kind inhabits the South American iflands. The thorax is yellow, with black fpots and dots; abdomen fome- what petiolate, yellow, tipped with black ; potterior thighs with a black dot at the bafe and tip; wings white, and without {pots. Cuatcis apiformis. Cinereous; abdomen black ; pofte- rior CHA rior legs thick, teftaceous, with a tooth at the bafe of the foot. Fabr. “a Native country unknown. Deferibed from the colleGiion of Lund. The antenne are black, with ferruginous bafe ; head villous and cinereous; lip rounded, yellow, with a black ftreak ; thorax cinereous; abdomen black; wings white. Cuatrcis podagrica. Black ; pofterior thighs thick, fer- rated, and ferruginous, with a white {pot at the tip. F’abr. Inhabits Uranquebar. Small ; antenna fhort and thick ; head and thorax black, with acallous dot before the wings; abdomen fhort, rather compreffed, black and without fpots; legs white; thighs black; pofterior pair, with a large White {pot above; the fhanks incurved, white, and in the middle black. ‘ Cuaccis..denea. Black; abdomen conic, black, and gloffy ; potlerior thighs thick, and without fpets. Tabr. Chalcis Aenea, Rofh. Thisis a native of Italy. The fize is fmall, and the co- four entirely black, except the white wings; polterior thighs very thick. ' Cuarcis puflia. Glofy black; pofterior thighs thick, with a white dot at the tip. Fabr. Refembles the lait, but is only half the fize. Inhabits Saxony. Hybner Natur. Cuacets annulata. Biack ; pofterior thighs thick and dentated, with a white dot at the tip; fhanks white, ftinged with black. Fabr. Tuhabits South America, and appears, from the account of Dr. Plug, to be of the parafitic kind like the Ichneu- mon, being found in the pupa of moths. It may be added, that as we are unacquainted with the Chalcis tribe in gene- ral, except in the winged ftate, the whole of them may be of the parafitic kind, depofiting their ove, and being nou- rifhed in the larva flate in the bodies of other infeéts. The fize of Chalcis annulatus is the fame as the preceding ; the head and antenne are black; thorax fomewhat villous, black, with a frowy white dot before the wings ; abdomen conic, fmooth, and without {pots ; wings white; thighs of the pofterior legs thick; fhank incurved. Cuarcis flavipes. Black; potterior thighs thick, fer- rated, with a yellow fpot at the tip; legs yellow. Fabr. Defcribed from the cabinet of Dr. Pflug as a native of the South American iflands. Refembles the lait in. fize and appearance. The head is black; thorax dotted, with a yellow callous dot before the wings; abdomen conic, black, and glofly ; wings hyaline; legs yellow; thighs black at the bafe. Cuaccis maculata. Yellow, {potted with black; feg- ments of the abdomen ferruginous at the bafe; pofterior thighs clavated and immaculate. Fabr. Rohr. Iuhabits Cayenne. ‘The body is fmall; antennz fhort, black, the firit joint teftaceous ; head yellow, with a cen- tral black line, and four vertical black dots; thorax yellow, anterior fpot, dorfal line, and dot on each fide black ; legs yellow; thighs black at the bafe; pofterior thighs fer- rated. Cuatcrs, in Ichthyology, a name by which fome have called the pilchard; called by others celerinus, and pua membras. See Crurea pilcardus. Cuatcts was allo the name given by Ariftotle, Adlian, Appian, and other Greck authors, to the common herring. See Ciurea harengus. CHALCITARIUM, in the Materia Medica of the An- aients, a name given by the Greeks of the middle ages to _ the colcothar, or calcanthum. Some have applied it to the cHAccitis alone, but others make it exprefs the witriols in general. It is derived from the Arabiau word colcothar. Vor. VIL. 2 CHA CHALCITIS. See Cuarcantuum. Cuaccitis, in Ancient Geography. See CHarcipice. CuHaccitis, an ifland of the Propontis, at the en- trance of the Thracian Bofphorus, and over again Byzan- tium. It is faid to have had mines of copper.—Alfo, a country of Afia in Mefopotamia.—Alfo, a country of India, beyond the Ganges, according to Ptolemy, in which they had mines of copper.—Alfo, a country of Afia Mirfor in Ionia. Paufanias fays that it was in the vicinity of Erythres. CHALCO, in Geography, a town of North America, in the province of Mexico, near a lake to which it gives name ; 18 miles S.E. of Mexico. CHALCOCONDYLES, Laonicus,an Athenian, who flourifhed in the 15th century, about 14.70, and wrote in Greek, a ‘¢ Hilléry of the Turks,” from 1298 to 1462; which was tranflated into Latin by Conrad Claufer of Zu- rich: a Louvre-edition of it was given in Gr. and Lat. in 1650, fol.; apd a French tranflation by Vigenere and Meze- ray, with comments, was publifhed in 1662. Nouv. Did. Hitt. Fabr. Gree. t. vi. p. 474. CHALCODONIUS Mons, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of Greece, in that part of Theffaly, called Pelafgia, above Phera. CHALCODONTIDA:, a name given by Homer (Thad B.) to the Eubceans, and derived from Chalcodon, who fucceeded his father Abas, the firlt king who reigned in Eubea. This Chalcodon made war upon the Thebans, reduced their city, and compelied them to pay an annual tri- bute; but he was afterwards overcome and killed by Am- phitrion, the father of the Theban Hercules ; after which the Thebans regained their liberty. CHALCOGRAPHY, the art of engraving on copper and brafs. See Encravinc. CHALCOLIBANON, a word mentioned in the Apo- calypfe of St. John, and very much mifunderftood by the interpreters, who generally render it brafs ; but the word will bear no fuch fignification. When the name of a metal is prefixed to fome other word it only denotes the thing men- tioned after the metal to be of the colour of that metal. This word is formed of xxAx0s,.dra/s, and olibanum, frankin~ cenfe. We have many parallel compounds, and all underftcod in the fame way, the name of the metal only exprefling the thing to be of its colour: thus chry/omela are apples of the colour of gold, &c. This, therefore, can only fignify frankincenfe of the colour of brafs, that is, yel- low. CHALCONDYLES, Demetrius, in Biography, a learned modern Greek, was a native of Athens, and -having arrived in Italy, about the year 1447, refided for fome time at Rome, and afterwards fettled at Perugia, as teacher of the Greek language. About the year 1471 he was invited to Florence by Lorenzo de Medici, as fucceffor in the Greek profeflorthip to Argyropulus. Angelo Poliziano, who at this time taught Greek and Latin at Florence, fncceeded by his rivalry and intrigues in removing Chalcondyles from his ftation as profeffor ; though he was {till refpected by Lo- renzo for his learning, and alfo for the worth and fimplicity of his charaéter. In 1492, the year of Lorenzo’s death, he Jeft Florence, and in confequence of the invitation of Lewis Sforza, fettled at Milan; where he was famous asa teacher, and attended by a great number of {cholars for many years. His erudition has been highly commended, and he has been ranked among the principai of the Greeks, who intro- duced the ftudy of their language inte Italy. He died at Mhlan in 1511, at the advanced age of 57 years. His only publication was a Greek grammar, firft printed without date ot year or place, but afterwards reprinted at Paris in 1525, gE and CHA and at Bafilin 1556. He alfo affilled in editing fome Greek authors. Moreri. Fabr. Bib. Gree. CHALCOPHTHONGUS, in Natural Hiflory, a word ufed by Pliny, and other writers, as the name of a peculiar fpecies of marble, which was very hard, and of a deep black colour, and when {truck upon, founded like brafs. CHALCORYCHIAN mountains of Ptolemy, are mountains of Africa, in that part of Mauritania Cefarienfis, which belonged to the Tingitanians or Weftern Moors, be- tween Mons Durdus and the river Malva or Moullooiah. They were inhabited by the ancient Herpiditani, and now by a tribe of Kabyles, called Beni-zeneflel, who, fecure in their number and fituation, have not hitherto fubmitted to the Tingitanians. CHALCOS, in Coinage, a coin of brafs, eight of which weye contained in the filver obolus, and fuppofed to have been the firft kind of Greek coin. At fir it was regarded as of fo little moment that it afforded occafien for a proverb ; fo that to fay a thing was not worth a chalcos, was the fame with faying that it was worth nothing. As the Greeks be- came poor, however, even this diminutive coin was fubdi- vided into 2, 4, or even 8 Acwlx or [mali coins. Pollux, and Suidas after him, tell us, that there were feven lepta to one chalcos; but this kind of divifon, from the unfuitablenefs of feven for proportional {ubdivifion, is not likely to have oc- curred. But both thefe writers are too late as authorities : Pliny fays:that there were 10 chalci to the obolus, Diodorus that there were fix, and Ifidorus that there were four; and as thefe writers differ about the larger denomination, it may well be imagined that the fmaller equally varied in different ftates. Mott of the Greek copper coins which are now ex- tant confilt of chalci; the lepta being fmall, and more liable to be loft. All the brafs coins of Athens publifhed by Dr. Coombe are reducible to four fizes, which may be the lepton, dilepton, tetralepton, or demichalcos, and chalcos. The firft is not above the fize of one of king James I.’s farthing tokens: the laft about that of our common farthing. See Moyey. CHALCOSMARAGDUS. Almoft every green mineral of a fpathofe texture was called by the ancient Naturalifts fmaragdus. The chalccfmaragdus or copper emerald was found in the eopper mines of Cyprus, and therefore was pro- bably fome fpar tinged green by carbonat of copper. CHALCUITOS, Los, in Geography, a town of North America, in the country of Mexico, and province of Za- eatecas, CHALCUS, in Jchthyc ogy, a name given by the ancient Greeks to the fith we call Lory, Fuhn Dorée, or Dorée. It feems to have obtained both thele names from its colour ; the one from the word chalcos, brafs; and the other from do- ree, gilded. See Zeus faber. Cuatcus, among the Ancient Greek Phyficians, a weene of about two grains, the fame as ereolus or ereo- um. CHALDEA, in Ancient Geography, an appellation at fir and generaliy ufed as fynonymous with Babylonia ; which fee. But in procefs. of time, it was reftriGed to the country, that was fituated to the S.W. of Babylonia towards the Perfian gulf, and towards the S. of the Euphrates. In Chaldea, properly fo called, Ptolemy places the cities Spunda, Batracharta, Shalatha, Altha, and Teridon, all on the Tigris; in the inland country he enumerates Chu- duca, Chumana, Bethana, Orchoe, Biramba, and feveral others, equally unknown. CHALDEANS, a name never given by Xenophon in his Retreat of the Ten Thoufand, nor in his Cyropaidia, to the people of Babylonia; but it properly belonged to a CHA’ family or tribe of people who from their infancy devoted themfelves to the ftudy of nature, to the obfervation of the fiars, and to the worfhip of the gods, much after the fame manner with the Magi of Perfia and the Brachmans of ln- dia. The Chaldeans or Chaldees, properly fo called, were the priefts and learned men of Babylonia, whofe whole fci- ence feems to have been fubfervient to the purpofes of fu- perttition. ‘Thefe Chaldeans were, perhaps, more diftin- guifhed from the people than the clergy are from the laity with us; and were as much revered in their country, as the Egyptian priefts were in theirs; and they are faid to have pli the fame privileges.. See Cuatpzan Philofo- PAY: Xenophon (ubi fupra) gives aifo the fame name of Chal- dzans to the people who inhabited that branch of mount Caucafus, where the Tigris, the Euphrates, the Araxes, and the Cyrus had their fource. Thefe people are denomi- nated Chalybes in the geography of Herodotus, and he places the Chaldeans in Babylon. Strabo fays (iib. x. and xi.) that the people anciently called Chalybes were, in his time, named Chaldxans; and the emperor Conftantine Porphyro- genitus, who calls the provinces by the name of the people who inhabited them, gives that of Chaldia to the country, of which Trebizond was the capital, and which extended very far to the fouth and to the ealt of this city, compre- hending a great part of the two Armenias. He adds that this name was derived from the Perfians. Strabo defcribes the Chaldzans as a people almoft favage, who dwelt in the mountains of Co!chide. The Chaldeans, fays the learned Bryant, (Obferv. and Ing. p. 253.) were the moft ancient inhabitants of the country called by their name; nor are there any other principals, to whom we may refer their original. They feem to have been the mott early conflituted, and fettled, of any people upon earth; and from their fituation, and from every other circum{tance, it appears, that Chus was the head of their family, and Nimrod their firft king, They feem, he fays, to have been the only people, that did not migrate at the general difperfion; and tiie centre of their province was at Ur, not far from the conflux of the Tigris and Euphrates. [rom hence they extended themfelves under the names of Cufeeans and Arabians, as far as Egypt weit, ard eaftward to the Ganges; occupying to the fouth all the Afiatic fea-coaft, and the whole of the large continent of Arabia; and from thence they pafled the Erythrean gulf, and penetrated into Ethiopia. They were continually incroaching upon thofe that were neareft to them; and even trefpaffed upon their own brotherhood. In procefs of time they got full poffeffion of Egypt, and the whole coat of Africa upon the Mediterranean even to the Atlantic Ocean, as far as Fez and Taffilet; and are to be found within the tropics almoft as low as the Gold coatt. Upon the Gambia is the king of Barfally, of Arabian ex- traction, as are all the Phooley natives; who retain their origizal language, and are of the religion of Mahomet. CHALDEAN Pauirosopny claims attention on ac- count ofits very high antiquity. The moft ancient people, next to the Hebrews, among the Eaflern nations, wlio appear to have been acquainted with philofophy, in its more gene- ral fenfe, were the Chaldeans; for though the Egyptians have pretended that the Chaldeans were an Egyptian co- lony, and that they derived their learning from-Egypt, there is reafon to believe, that the kingdom of Babylon, of which Chaldea was a part, flourifhed before the Egyp- tian monarchy ; and that the Egyptians were rather indebted to the Chaldzans than the Chaldwans to. the Egyptians. Neverthelcfs, the accounts that have been tranfmitted to us, fib by a GCHALDZAN PHILOSOPHY, by the Chaldeans themfelves, of the antiquity of their learn- ing, are blended with fable and involved in confiderable un- certainty. At the time when Callifthenes was requeited by Ariftotle to gain information concerning the origin of {cience in Chaldea, he was informed that the anceftors of the Chaldzans had continued their altronomical obfervations through a period of 470,000 years; but upon examining the grounds of this report, he found that the Chaldzan obferva- tions reached no farther backward than 1903 years, or that of courfe (adding this number to 331 B.C., the year in which Babylon was taken by Alexander) they had com- menced in the year 2234 B.C. Belides, Ptolemy mentions no Chaldwan obfervations prior to the era of Nabonaflar, which commenced 747 years B.C. Ariftotle, however, on the credit of the molt ancient records, fpeaks of the Chal- dean Magi as prior to the Egyptian prielts, who, it is well known, cultivated learning before the time of Mofes. There are other circumitances, independently of the antiquity of the Chaldzan philofophy, which render our knowledge of it imperfeét and uncertain. We derive our acquaintance with it from other nations, and principally from the Greeks, whofe vanity led them to defpife and mifreprefent the pretended learning of barbarous nations. The Chaldzans allo adopted a fymbolical mode of inftruction, and tran{mitted their doc- trines to polterity under a veil of obfcurity, which it is not eafy to remove. To all which we may add that, about the commencement of the Chriftian wera, a race of philofophere fprung up, who, with a view of gaining credit to their own wild and extravagant do@rines, paffed them upon the world as the ancicnt wif{dom of the Chaldeans and Perfians, in {pu- tious books, which they afcribed to Zoroafter, or fome other eaftern philofopher. Thus, the fGions of thefe impoftors were confounded with the genuine dogmas of the ancient ealtern nations, Notwith{tanding thefe caufes of uncertainty, which perplex the refearches of modern inquirers into the diftinguifhing do€trines and charaG@er of the Chaldzan phi- lofophy ; it appears probable, that the philofophers of Chal- da were the pricfts of the Babylonian nation, who inflrut- ed the people in the principles of religion, interpreted its laws, and conduGted its ceremonies. Their chara€ter was fimilar to that of the Perfian Magi, and they are often con- founded with them by the Greek hiflorians. Like the priefts in moft other nations, they employed religion in fub- ferviency to the ruling powers, and made ufe of impotture to ferve the purpofes of civil policy. Accordingly Diodo- rous Siculus relates, (lib. 11. p. 3£. compared with Dan. ii. 1, &c. Ecclef. xliv. 3.), that they pretended to predi& future events by divination, to explain prodigies, and inter- pret dreams, and to avert evils, or confer benefits, by means of augury and incantations. For many ages, they retained a principal place among diviners. In the reign of Marcus Antoninus, when the emperor and his army, who were perifh- ing with thirft, were fuddenly relieved by a fhower, the pro- digy was afcribed to the power and {kill of the Chaldzan foothfayers. Thus accredited for their miraculous powers, they maintained their confequence in the courts of princes. The principal inftrument, which they employed in fupport of their fuperitition, was altrology. The Chaldzans were probably the firlt people who made regular obfervations upon the heavenly bodies (Cic. de Divin. 1. i. Strabo }. xv.), and herce the appellation of Chaldean became afterwards fynonymous with that of Aftronomer. Neverthelefs all their obfervations were applied to the fole purpofe of eftablifhing the credit of judicial aftrology ; and they employed their pretended fill in this art, in calculating nativities, foretelling the weather, prediéting good and bad fortune, and other practices ufual with impottors of this clafs. (Sext. Emp. ady. Math. |. v. §. 2. Aul. Gell. 1. xiv. S. 1. Strabo, Lc.) While they taught the vulgar that all human affairs are influenced by the ftars, and profefled to be acquainted with the nature and laws of their influence, and confequently to poffefs a power of prying into futurity, they encouraged much idle fuperttition, and many fraudulent practices. Hence other profeffors of thefe mifchievous arts were after- wards called Chaldzans, and the arts themfelves were called Babylonianarts. Among the Romans thefe impoftors were fo troublefome, that, during the time of the republic, it became neceffary to iffue an edict, requiring the Chaldeans, or ma- thematicians (by which latter appellation they were common- ly known) to depart from Rome and Italy within 10 days; and, afterwards, under the emperors, thefe foothfayers were put under the moft fevere interdi@tion. (Valer. Max. L. icc. 3. Diod. Sic. 1. xvii. p. 622. Sueton. in Tiber.) We may further add, that the Chaldzan philofophy con- fifted, not in a free and diligent examination of the nature of things, but mercly in the tranfmiffion of certain fettled opinions from father to fon. To this purpofe Diodorus Siculus, (1. ii. p. Sr.) deviating widely from the chara&éer of a true philofopher, commends the Chaldzans for having taken up their opinions upon the authority of their anceltors, and fays ‘* that, in this refpeét, they aéted much more wifely than the Greeks, who, addiéting themfelves to difpu- tation, were ever ready to embrace new opinions ; and thus obliged their difciples to wander through their whole lives in perpetual uncertainty.’? Accordingly, the myfteries of Chaldzan philofophy were revealed only to a feleét few, and ftudioufly concealed from the multitude ; and thus a veil of fanGtity was caft over their doétrine, fo that it might more eafily be employed inthe fupport of civil and religious tyranny. Another circumftance which contributed to produce the fame effet, was the care taken by the Chaldzan priefts to prevent the fpreading of religious and philofophical know- ledge among the people; and with this view they confined the diffemination of it toa certain tribe and diftri@. They alfo iffued their dogmas under the difguife of fymbols; thus referving to themfelves the prerogative of varying the popu- lar fyftem according to the exigencies of the times, or the pleafure of the ruling powers, without danger of detection. The implicit credit which the Chaldzan priefts obtained among the people by thefe artifices is particularly noticed by Juvenal: (Sat. vi. 552.) * Chaldzis fed major erit fiducia, &c. “© More credit, yet, isto Chaldzans given ; What they foretell is deem’d the voice of heaven: Their anfwers as from Hammon’s altar come ; Since now the Delphian oracles are dumb. And mankind ignorant of future fate, Believe what fond altrologers relate.” Drypen. From the above account of the Chaldzang, it muft ap- pear, that they had but a very flight title to the appellation of wife men; and that, inftead of ranking with philofophers, they belonged to the clafs of impoltors. The knowledge they poffefled was applied by them to the purpofes of fuper- ftition; and little regard is due to the encomium pafled upon this race of fages by fome ancient writers, particularly Philo (De Nomin. Mutat. oper. p. 1046.); and flilllefs tothe general admiration, which, at a very early period, they obtained in the ealt. Among the Chaldzans, however, there was fome variety of opinions. We learn, from the authority of Stra- bo (1. xvi. p. 509) and Pliny (Hilt. Nat. |. vi. c. 26.) which isconfirmed by the teitimony of the Jewifh prophets, that there were in Affyria and Chaldza, different {chools or fects, which probably differed from each other chicfly in the mode Belin of C HA of pradtifing the arts of divination and aftrology; and whofe knowledge of nature extended little further than to the difcovery of the fuppofed magical ufes of certain natural bodies, particularly minerals and herbs. (Plin. Hilt. Nat. L. xxxvii. c. 10.) Moreover, the tenets or inltitutions of each fee, whatever they might be, were tranfmitted implicitly from father to fon; and tlie followers of one fe& very rarely revolt- ed to another. Among the ancients it is univerfally acknowledged, that Zoroafter was the founder of the Chualdaan philofophy. But much confufion and contradiétion have occurred in the accounts that are given of this celebrated perfon. See Zo- ROASTER. It is probable, that befides Zoroafter, who was a Perfo-Median, and who flourifhed in the time of Da- rius Hyftafpes, there was another of the fame name who lived in a much more remote period among the Babylonians, probably towards the beginning of the Babylonian empire ; wwho taught them aftronomy, and who was the father of Chaldzan aftrology and magic. (Piin. H.N.1. vin c. 16.5 xi. 42.3 xxx.1. Jufin. Lic. 2. Recognitiones Clementis, liv. c.27.) The Chaldean magic was, indeed, a very dif- ferent thing from a knowledyze of the real properties of bodies; and, though fome acquaintance with the motions of the heavenly bodies was neceffary for aftrological calcu- lations, it cannot be inferred, either from their magical or aftrological arts, that the Chaldzans were eminent malters in any branch of natural fcience. All the writings, which have been afcribed to she Chaldean Zoroalter, are unquef- tionably {purious. Among the Chaldean philofuphers we may mention Be- lus, who promoted the itudy of altronomy among the Af fyrians, probably with a defign of applying their faith in altrological predictions to political purpofes, to whofe memory Semiramis is faid to have erected a lofty tower ufed afterwards by the Chaldzans as an altronomical obfervatory, and elevated after his death to the rank of divinities. (Sce Berus). Seealfo Berosus. : The Chaldzan philofophy, notwith{tanding the obfcurity that haz rendered it dificult of refearch, has been highly extolled, not only by the Orientalifts and Greeks, but by Jewifh and Chriftian writers: but upon recurring to autho- rities that are unquettionable, there feems to be little or no- thing in this branch of the Barbaric philofophy which de- ferves notice. The following brief detail will include the mott interefting particulars: From the teftimony of Diodo- rus,andalfo from other ancient authorities, collected by Eufe- bius (Prep. Evang. |. iv.c. 5.) it appears, that the Chal- deans believed in God, the lord and parent of all, by whofe Providence the world is governed. From this principle {prung their religious rites, the immediate objet of which was a fuppofed race of {piritual beings or demons, whofe exiftence could not have been imagined, without firlt con- ceiving the idea ofa Supreme Being, the fource of all intel- _ligence. The beliefof a Supreme Deity, the fountain of all the divinities which were fuppofed to prefide over the feveral parts of the material world, was the true origin of all religious worhip, however idolatrous, not excepting even that which confifted in paying divine honours to the me- mory of dead men. Befides the Supreme Being, the Chal- dzans fuppofed f{piritual beings to exilt, of feveral orders ; gods, demong, heroes: thefe they probably diftributed into fubordinate clafles, agreeably to their practice of theurgy or magic. The Chaldeans, in common with the ealtern na- tions in general, admitted the exiftence of certain evil {pirits, clothed in a vehicle of groffer matter ; and in fubduing or counteracting thefe, they placed a great part of the efficacy of their religious incantations. (Plut, de Defeétu Orac.) CHA Thefe dofrines were the myfteries of the Chaldzan reli- gion, imparted only to the initiated, Their popular religion coniilted in the worfhip of the fun, moon, planets, and ftars, as divinities, after the general pra@tice of the ealt. (Job, xxxi. 27.3 Diod. Sic. ubi fiipra; Herod. 1.1. c..181.; Sel- den de Diis Syriis. Pref.c. 3.) From the religious tyltem of the Chaldzans were derived two arts, for which they have long been celebrated, viz. magic and altrology. Their ma- gic, which fhould not be confounded with witchcraft, ora fuppofed intercourfe with evil fpirits, confifted in the per- formance of certain religious ceremonies or incantations, which were fuppofed, by the interpofition of good demons, to produce i:pernatural efle&ts, Thesr allrology was found» ed upon the chimerical principle, that the ftars have an i- fluence, either beneficial or malignant, upon the affairs of men, which may be difcovered, and made the certain ground of prediétion, in particnlar cafes; and the whole art con- filted in applying altronomical obfervations to this fanciful purpofe, and thus impofing upon the credulity of the vulgar. (See Sext. Emp. adv. Math. |. v. p. 339. Diod. Sic. 1. ii, p- 83. Manilius, 1.11. v. 456. Jamblich. de Myfter. §. 8. c.4. Fabr. Bib. Gree. v. ti. p. 494. Voflius de Theolog. Gent. 1. ii.c. 47.) Upon this fubjcét, Horace (lib. i. od. xi. 1.) makes the following fenfible refleGtion : « Tu ne quefieris ({cire nefas) quem mihi, quem tibi Finem Dii dederint, Leuconvé, neu Babylonios Tentaris numeros. At melius, quidquid erit, pati.’? Af not—’tis impious to inquire—what date The limit of your life is fix’a by fate ; Nor vainly Babylonian numbers try ; But wifely wait your lot, to live or die.” a The Chaideans, whilft they were occupied in thefe and other arts of divination, contributed very little to the promo- tion of true fcience. We have fcarcely any remains of their aftronomical obfervations and opinions. The lofs, with re- {pect to the latter, is not much to be regretted, as far as we may judge by the following {pecimens. According to Plutarch and Vitruvius, who quote Berofus, it was their opinion, that an eclipfe of the moon happened, when that part ot its body which is deftitute of fire is turned towards the earth. (Plut. de Placit. Phil. 1.ii. c. 29. Comp. Euleb. Prep. 1.15. c. 51. Vitruv. J.ix.c.4.) From the fame authonty Seneca (Qualt. Nat. 1. ii. c. 29.) gives it as a notion of the Chaldzans, that when all the planets fhall meet in Cancer, the world will be confumed by fire; and that when they fhall mect in Capricorn, it will be deltroyed by an inundation. They thought the form of the earth to be that of a boat. (Diod. Sic. loc. cit.) The fum of the Chaldaic cofmogony, as it i3 given by Berofus, in his ‘* Babylonica,’”? preferved by Syncellus (Chronic. p. 28.), divelted of allegory, is, that in the begin- ning all things confifted of darknefs and water; that Belus, ora divine power, dividing this humid mafs, formed the world, and that the human mind is an emanation from the divine nature. Perizon. in Orig. Bab. Voll. de Scient. Math. c.xxx. § 5. Hottinger. Hift. Or. p. 365. Herbelot. Bib. Or. Voc. Zor. Anc. Un. Hitt. vol ii Prid. Conn. b. iv. Shuckford. b. viii Burnet Archzol. Phil. 1. i. c. 4, Brucker’s Hilt. Phil. by Enfield, vol.i. b.i. c. 3. CHALDAISMS, in Biblical Hiflory, denote certain ex- preffions and modes of expreffion, derived from the Chaldeé language, that occur in the {criptures of the Old Teftament. Befides thofe parts of the Old Teftament which are written in Chaldee, viz. the book of Daniel, from the 4th verfe of the 2d chapter to the end of the 7th chapter; the book of Ezra, from the Sth verfe of the 4th chapter to the aad ° aa Caren of the 7th chapter; and the rsth verfe of the roth chapter of the book of Jeremiah; there occur in the Hebrew text fome fingle words that are merely Chaldaic. Such is the Chaldee word 93, /on, which is ufed inftead of the Hebrew ‘); asin Prov. xxx. 2. Pfal. ii. 12. Sucharealfo R#A4%, golden, for the Hebrew MUMIA, from Bp, geld, in Maiah, xiv. 4.3; and yy, in Pi. cxxxix. 17. tranflated by the vul- gate thy friends, in the Hebrew fenfe of the term, but in Chaldee 199 fignities thoughts, and therefore meft perfons render it Ay thoughis. Independently of thefe whole words, . there are fome Hebrew terms, which neverthelefs are formed after the Chaldee manner, and on that account differ from the Hebrew. Thus, the plura! mafculine nouns in Hebrew terminate in [5%; but in Chaldee, and alfo in Syriac, in 995 as mSs5 (Job, xii. 11.) for T5993 words, 199 (Job, xxiv. 22.) for fp. Life, &c. &c.: nouns alfo which mn Hebrew end in fF, clofe with in the Chaldee and Syriac; thus, NAN (Exod. xxviii. 32. and xxxix. 23.) for FIMN, NIH (Ruth, i. 29.) for Faqy, Vs (PL. exxvii. 7.) for mye, &e &c.; the Chaldee 4 occurs (Ezck. xxxiii. go.) for the Hebrew 3, &c. Chaldaic affixes are alfo joined to Hebrew nouns, as yb (Pi. cxvi. 12.) for 995799, where the affix 9P}9 is ufed for y: the cha- racteriltic of the conjugations Hiphil and Hithpael, which in the Hebrew is fq, 1s in the Chaldee and Syriac &: hence mSeaw (If. Ixiit. 2.) for mOsm, &e.: and the cha- raéteriltic of the future in Hebrew deftroys the characteritlic of the conjugation Hiphil, which is not the cafe in Chaldee and in Syriac; thus we read ySedoeyy (If. ii. GJ) for s5o5, &c.: the middle radical of the verbs yy in Chaldee and Syriac is often changed into &; thus DNp?I (Hof. x. 14.) for pi. &c.: among the Hebrews the preterite participle, or ‘* Paoul,” ha: 4 for the penultimate; but among the Chaldeans and Syrians, it has $, and is therefore ealied “ Pehil;” hence 3499 (Numb. i. 16.) for INIAP : the Chald-e and Syriac join 4 to the 79 of the gerund, thus WIDD (Amos, vi. 14.) for RID: the Chaldeans and Syrians infert the letter 3 in fmali words borrowed from the Hebrews, e.g. of FIX, éhou, they make 53 and read ‘3p (Job, xviii. 2.) foe "YP, &c. See Matclef’s Gram. Heb. vol. i. cap. xxii. CHALDEE, or Cuacpatc language, that fpoken by the Chaldzans or people of Chaldza; which was anciently ufed throughout all Affyria, Babylonia, Mefopotamia, Syria, and Paleftine, and is {hil the language of the churches of the Ne- ftorian and Mironite Chriftiaus in thofe ealtern parts, in the fame manner as the Latin is the language of the popifh churches in the weft. The Chaldee is a dialeét of the He- brew, and fo nearly allied to it, that the forms, names, pro- nunciation, and divifions of the letters are the fame ; and, therefore, this language is eafily acquired by thofe who are ac- quainted with the Hebrew. See Henrew. Cuarpee Paraphra/e, in the Rabbinical ttyle is called Tar- urn. 3 There are three Chaldee paraphrafes in Walton’s Polyg- lot; viz. that of Onkelos, that of Jonathan fon of Uzziel, and that of Jerufailem. See Parapurase. CHALDESAYGUES, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Cantal; 4 leagues S. of St. Flour. CHALDONE, in Ancient Geography, a promontory of Arabia Felix, near the place where was the ancient mouth of the Euphrates, according to Pliny. CHALDRON, Cuacper, or Cnaupron of coals, a dry Englifh meafure, confilfting: of thirty-fix bufhels heaped ce coaing to the fealed bufhel kept at Guildhall, Lon- a The chaldron fhould weigh about 25 cwt. or 3136 OF He pounds, On fhip-board, twenty-one chaldrons of coals are allowed to the fcore. By a&t of parliament a Newcattle chaldron is to weigh 523 cwt. or 3 waggons of 17} cwt. or 6 carts of 53 cwt. each, making 524 cwt. to the chaldron. The ftatute London chaldron is to confit of 36 buthels heaped up; each bubhel to contain a Winchefter bufhel and one quart, and to be 194% inches diameter externally. And as it has been found by repeated, trials, that 15 London pool chal2rons are equal to 8 Newcaflle chaldrons, if we yeckon 524 cwt. to the latter, we fhall have 28 cwt. to the former, or 3136 pounds tothe London chaidron. Dr. Hut- ton found this ellimate nearly confirmed by experiment. For weighing one peck of coals, he found that it amounted to 213 Ibs.and 4 x 212 gives 87 lbs. for the weight of the bufhel; and 36 x 87 gives 3132 for the weight of the chaldron; to which if the weight of the odd quart be added, or 3 lb. nearly, we fhall have 31395 lbs. for the weight of the chaldron, or only one pound lefs than that which is given by ftatute. But the chalder, or chaldron, ultimately delivered to the confumer, is ftill lefs than the chaldron in the pool, and hence it appears that the word chaldron conveys very different ideas, and that this confufion in the ufe of the term mult open a door to deception and fraud. The monthly fupply of coals for the metropolis is eflimated at 300 cargoes, of 220 chaldrons each, or 66,000 chaldrons: and it has been alleged as no improbable fuppofition, that (with fome exceptions) 50,000 chaldrons, on an average, remain expoled to depredations in open craft on the river all the year round, See Macnab’s Letter to John Whitemore, Efg. on the Coal- Trade. CHALEF, in the Botanical writings of the ancient Arabs, the name of a tree often occurring, and feldom ex- plained. he beft account we have of the chalef or chalaf, 1s in the writings of Profper Alpinus on the Egyptian plants, who tells us, that it isa kind of willow, growing in Egypt and in Mefopotamia. It is probably a fpecies of eleacnus. CHALENCEY, ‘in Geograph » a town of France, in the department of the Upper Marne, and diftri& of Lan- gres; 13 miles 5.S.W. of Langres. CHALEOS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Greece, fituated in the gulf of Corinth, in the country of the Locrian Ozoles, according to Ptolemy. CHALES, Cravupius Francis Mitxuiet pe, in Bioe graphy, was born of an ancient and illuitrious family at Chambery, in Savoy, in the year 1621, and belonged to the fociety of Jefuits. In early life he applied to the itudy of the belles lettres, and acquired a confiderable knowledge of the Latin and Greek languages; but his favourite fludies, and thofe in which he eminently excelled, were mathe matics, mechanics, and aflronomy. -He was appointed by Lewis XIV. royal profeffor of hydrography at Marfeilles, and he gained great reputation as a teacher of mathematics at Trinity College in Lyons. It was probably on account of his diftinguifhed reputation that the fuperior of his order appointed him teacher of theology in the fame college, for which office he was lefs qualified than for any other. Charles Emanuel IT., duke of Savoy, remarked on this appointment, that it was unwifely made, and that the attention of fuch a perfon as Chales fhould never have been divert-d' from the courfe of {tudy and employment to which he was attached. Accordingly, he was called off from this fituation to Paris, where he was engaged for feveral years in teaching the ma- thematics. Ele died at Turin in 1678, and the following eloge was infcribed on his monument: ‘ Hic jacet Claudius Francifcus Milliet de Chales, genete, fapientia, virtute notus omnibus ; ignotus fibi.”? His works are ** Curfusfeu Mune dus Mathematicus,” firft printed in 1674, at Lyons, in 3 vols, C A” vols. fol. and afterwards in 4 vols. in 1680, by Amati Var- cin, who.augmented and improved this edition by feveral va- luable treatifes found among his MSS. To this edition is prefixed an hiftorical account of the progrefs of mathema- tical fcience from the age of Thales the Milefian to the author’s own time. De Chales’s * Treatife of Navigation,’’ and “ Refearches on the Center of Gravity,’? are much efteemed. See the funeral oration of father Hyacinth Fer- rerius prefixed to Varcin’s edition. CHALESTRA. See CHAvastra. CHALETTE, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Aube, and diftriét of Arcis; 12 miles S.E. of Arcis. CHALEURS, a deep and broad bay on the W. fide of the gulf of St. Lawrence. From this bay to that of Verte, on the S. in the S.E. corner of the gulf is the N.E. fea- line of the Britith province of New Brunswick 3; which fee. CHALI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Germany, placed by Ptolemy on the ealtern coaft of the Cimbric Cherfonefus. Cuact, a town of Afia, in Phoenicia, placed, in the book of Jofhua, in the tribe of Ather. CHALIA, a town of Greece, in Beotia, near Hyria. CHALIAT, a town of Afia, in the Corduéne, fituate on the bank of the lake Arfiffa, at the extremity of the N. and W. parts. CHALICE, the cup or veffel ufed to adminifter the wine in, in the eucharilt; and by the Romaniits, in the mals. CHALIDRIS, Cuaripais Nicra, in Ornithology, the name given by Aldrovandus and others to fringa littorea ; which fee. CHALIGE, Canal of, in Geography. See Cairo. CHALIGNY, a town of France in the department of the Meurte ; 5 miles S.W. of Nancy. CHALIM, a town of Portugal, in the province of Tras- los-Montes; 20 miles S. of Braganga. CHALIM-POU, a town of Chinefe Tartary. N. lat. 41° 12’. E. long. 121° 54’. CHALIN, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the Karfkoi fea ING lat. 730°C Elon. ie mA! CHALINAQUES, a town of France, in the department ef the Cantal; 12 miles N. of St. Flour. CHALINDREY, a town of Trance, in the department of the Upper Marne, and diftrit of Langres; 5 miles S.E. of Langres. CHALINOS, in Antiquity, the bit, or that part of a bridle which is put into the mouth of a horfe. But it was, among the ancient phyficians, alfo ufed to exprefs that part of the cheeks, which, on each fide, is contiguous to the an- gles of the mouth. CHALISCUTELI Hits, in Geography, hills of Hin- dooftan, which lie between the weftera defert and the Set- lege. “CHALISIA, in Ancient Geography, a maritime town of Africa, in Libya. ; CHALIZA, in the Fezwi/b Cuffoms, the ceremony where- by a woman who is left a widow, pulls off her brother-in- law’s fhoes, who fhould efpoufe her, and by this means is al- lowed to be at liberty to marry whom fhe pleafes. The word fignifies extradio vel exuvie. CHALK. The colour of this mineral is yellowifh white, more rarely fnow-white, or greyifh white: when contami- nated with iron it has more or lefs of an ochery tinge. It occurs generally in mafs, fometimes difleminated, or invefting other minerals. It is without luftre, is opaque, has a fine Ciics earthy fra&ture, and breaks into blunt-edged angular frage ments. It {tains the fingers, gives a white ftreak, and, when pure, is very foft, and almoft friable. It has a meagre feel, and adheres to the tongue. Sp. gr. 2.3, It effervefces vio- lently with acids. When mixed with iron it is both harder and heavier. Ina ftate of purity, chalk appears to be compofed only of water, lime, and carbonic acid ; but Mr. Kirwan obtained from the analylis of a {pecimen, 53 Lime 42 Carbonic acid 3 Water 2 Alumine 100 Chalk, confidered geologically, is among the moft recent in formation of the feveral varieties of carbonat of lime. It occurs in thick beds nearly horizontal, alternating with thin layers of flint nodules, and with the fame irregularly difperfed through its fubflance. It contains inabundance the relics of marine organized bodies, fuch as echinites, gloflopetre, pee- tinites, &c. 5 and alfo, not unfrequently, the hard parts of amphibious and land animals, {uch as the heads and vertebrz of crocodiles, and teeth of elephants. Beds of chalk are of frequent occurrence in the eaft and fouth parts of England, alfo in the north eaft of France. Chalk is alfo met with in fome of the Danifh iflands in th Baltic, and iv Poland. ¢ The ufes of chalk are very great. The more compact varieties are employed as building-{ftone, and are burnt to quicklime: it is alfo largely ufed in polifhing metals and glafs, in conilruéting moulds to caft metals in; by carpen- ters and others as a material to work with, and by ftarch- makers and chemilts to dry precipitates on. CHALK, in Agriculture, is a calcareous fubftance, which, when pure, is of a white colour, moderate confiltence, and dufty furface; ftains the fingers; adheres flightly to the tongue; does not harden when heated, but, on the con- trary, in a ftrong heat burns to lime, and lofes about four- tenths of its weight. It effervefces with acids, and diffolves almoft entirely in them. It may alfo be added, that this folution is not difturbed by cauttic volatile alkali, as this is a circumftance that diltinguifhes it from magnefia. It has the property of promoting putrefaCtion. In its native ftate it is ufeful as a manure, upon the fame principle as lime- {tone ; but it is more eafily pulverized, and lighter, or more porous in its nature. Nearly the whole of this material is calcareous earth, whereas none of the marles contain more than a fourth part of that fubltance. It is in high efteem in the more fouthern counties of England, where it abounds very much. Its beft effe€&ts are produced upon deep foils which contain no calcareous earth. It is obferved to have but very little effe€t upon lands where the fubflratum is chalk; and if the foil be thin, it does mifchief in fuch cafes, When ufed upon light thin foils, it is moltly made into compofts with earth and dung, or fome other fimilar material. When thefe are well mixed together, and duly proportioned, they produce valuable crops; and their influence is faid to continue many years, in fuch in- {tances. The common method of ufing this fort of compoft is either by laying it upon fallows for wheat, and mixing it intimately with the foil by ploughing and harrowing, or upon grals as a top-dreffing : in both cafes it has been fou to anfwer well; and in the latter it is found capable of de- {troying mofs, rushes, and all coarfe aquatic plants that grow ee CHA XK. inheavy, four, or wet lands; while, in the former, it opens and pulverizes the foil, and never fails to produce good crops of that grain, or other kinds. In making ufe of it, it has been recommended that it fhould be broken as {mall as poffible. It fhould be dug from the pit near the end of autumn, and be laid on the land im- mediately ; as at that feafon the air is generally moiit, the moifture will of courfe be abforbed by the chalk. This will occafion it to fwell, and break down into pieces; and if froft fhould come on, it will much accelerate the bufinefs : . but when it is dug in fummer, it lofes its moilture, and ac- quires a hardnefs, which in a great meafure prevents it from being of any ufe. It fhould in no cafe be ploughed in till its parts are properly broken down and feparated, and then it fhould be completely harrowed in and mixed well with the foil, or mould of the land. If the foil be thin and light, a certain proportion of dung will, it is faid, be ufeful; but if it be heavy, the dung is afferted to leffen the operation of the chalk. It is gene- rally thought that lands which have been completely chalked will not bear a repetition of it for fome time. A compott of it, however, may be ufed to great advantage. In the fouthern counties a field has been, it is obferved, chalked, and dreffed wich chalk and dung mixed, in portions alternately ; and the former has been found to produce very bad crops, but the latter very good ones. It is afferted, that laid on beyond acertain quantity, it will not only ceafe to operate as a manure, but even prove hurtful to the land. It ought, therefore, to be ufed with caution, and due pains be taken not only to afcertain the ftrength of the chalk, but the quality of the foil on which it is to be laid, before the application is made. But there can be no doubt that ‘chalk is a lafling manure, when applied on f{uitable foils ; which are thofe of a cold, four nature, fuch as {lif untractable clays. Pliny has re- marked that it was the cuflom of the ancient Britons to chalk their lands, by which they received a great and latling improvement in the fertility of them. In regard to the different kinds of chalk which fhould be diftinguifhed by the farmer, the hard, dry, and firm fort 1s much the fittelt for burning into lime ; but that of the fat an un€tuous kind by far the beft to be ufed in the crude ate. It has been ftated that in fome parts of Effex they lay from five to eight waggon loads of chalk on an acre, either upon a clover lay while feeding, or on a fummer fallow ; and that the effet of a very thin dreffing of it is feen immedi- ately to an inch, like that of rotten dung, and latts twenty years, fifteen in good heart. he foil is a loam; they have alfo a little clay, and no fand: on gravels the effeét is but flight. They bring the chalk from Malden, whither it is brought by fea from Kent, and a waggon load cofts moftly ten fhillings at the quay. It is rather hard; the fharpett frofts leave many lumps unbroken; thefe they break with pick-axes. he effervefcence with vinegar is pretty con- fiderable, but in water it fearcely falls at all. It is alfo a general opinion in that county, that land which has been once chalked will not take it again; they acknowledge, however, that when mixed with earth and dung it is then excellent. They obferve, that laying a flight drefling of chalk and earth, or dung, on a field never chalked, will take fo much effe&, that the fame field will not anfwer to chalk completely. They obferve alfo, that the chalk pre- fently gives the land ared colour. And they are of opinion, ‘that chalk is a great enemy to good grafs ; and affirm, that fa field which, before chalking, will run of itfelf to a fine head of white*clover, no longer does it after chalking. ¥ . There is no faying any thing againit experience: we fhould not, however, draw gencral conclufions from partial expert- ments. Much of the effet of manures depends upon the foil on which they are laid. About Enfield, as obferved in a paper in the Annals of Agriculture, the fame chalk docs wonders, which at North Mims hag very little effect: the one is a rich loam, the other a poor gravel. And* near Sandwich, in Kent, chalk has been found in a very high degree to improve a fandy foil, giving it tenacity, and to- tally exterminating that pernicious weed the corn marigold, which is provincially called yellow bottle, buddle, or golds, and fo abundant in fandy foils. They lay on forty loads of forty bufhels each to an acre. Upon pafture land they think it does nothing. In Hertfordfhire it is thought that chalk makes the land p!ough much better, and renders all manures much more cffeétual. Ifa field be divided into parts, one chalked, a fecond chalked and manured with dung or foot, afhes, &c. and a third dunged or afhed without chalk ; al- though cha'k alone has no effeét, yet the other manure on the chalked part. will have a much greater eff-€ than on the part where no chalk is laid. Fatts of this fort are highly interefting, but want to be more corre@ly made. It has been remarked by the author of che Synopfis of Hufbandry, who has had much experience in a diftriét where it abounds, that this manure, though it falls infinitely fhort of mar] in its fertilizing quality, is neverthelefs pof- feffed of virtues which defervedly entitle it to the efteem of the farmer. By a proper application of this fubltance, the moft tenacious clays are, he fays, rendered friable and mel- low ; and thus. their native ftubbornnefs and adhefion being overcome, the feveral particles of the foil are enabled to im- bibe the full benefit of the different changes of the atmo- {phere ; and hence they are brought to work kindly under the feveral operations of the plough, harrow, &c. and to produce ample crops of grafs or corn, which, before the application of this manure, they were incapable of bringing to perfection. So great are the benefits accruing from this manure, when laid on a {tiff clayey foil, that the Effex farmers find their account in freighting barges from the chalk cliffs in Kent, and afterwards carrying it with their teams feveral miles up the country; all which, though at- tended with a heavy expence, is found to anfwer the pur- pofe extremely well, as it would, he think, be impoffible to reduce thefe ftubborn clays to a proper tilth without the previous application of this manure. Nor is it on clays only where chalk may be laid to advantage: gravels, efpecially thofe which lie near the fprings, and all wet foils, may, he fuppofes, be dreffed with this manure, which will never fail to meliorate and {weeten the ground, and enable it to re- tain longer the virtues of the dung that may be applied, which, on thefe hungry foils, is liable to difappear in a fhort time: nay, fo partial are fome farmers to the yfe of this manure, that he has known it carried on foils where the chalk lay within a few inches of the furface. It has been {tated, that the aétion of chalk on the foil is either chemical or mechanical. It a&s chemically as an abforbent, contributing to preferve dry thofe lands which are poachy and wet ; and by its attra¢tion for acids it may haften the putrefaétion of vegetables. It ats mechanically, by entering into the compofition, and totally altering the nature of clay, converting it by proper pulverization into a fpecies of marl. By infinuating itfelf between the particles of clay, it deftroys their adhefion ; thus preventing it from becoming too hard in fummer, and too wet in the winter feafon. [t is obferved by Mr. Bannifter that there are two methods of obtaining chalk. The firft is by uncaliowing a piece of ground, CHALK. ground, and making it convenient for a pit, where the carts may be drawn into it, and filled : this is on a prefumption that the chalk lies near the furface, and that the pit 1s with- in a {mall diftance of the field on which the manure is to be laid. The other method is to fink pitsin the field where the chalk is intended to be laid as a manure, and which, in his opinian, is far preferable to that of drawing it in carts as before mentioned. In this cafe, a number of pits are to be funk according to the extent of the field. ‘Thefe pits are to be made in the form and circumference of a well, with an apparatus at the top, and a bucket to draw up the chalk. The people who undertake this bufinefs, having been brought up to it from their infancy, perform it, he fays, with great facility, and without any timidity, thongh attended with much danger. A perfon is employed at the top to draw up the contents of the pit, fhoot the chalk into the cart, and wheel the fame on the land. When the labourer has arrived at the chalk, which takes up a longer orlefs interval of time according to the depth at which it lies, and has dug fome little time therein in the perpendicular form wherein he began the pit, he proceeds to form apertures in differcat horizon- ta) direftions ; fo that where the chalk is good, and the pit ftands firm, large traéts of ground are undermined for this purpole. The price for digging chalk is, he fays,.1s. per foot till the chalk be found, atter which for the chalk rs. per load, which is twelve bafkets ; and a penny per load for wheeling the chalk on the land, the farmer providing a horfe and cart for that purpofe. The quantity ufually laid on an acre is from eighty to a hundred loads, From this defcription of chalk-drawing, he fays, ¢ it is evident that much care and circumf{pection are required to prevent any deceit being impofed on the farmer by the workmen, to which their eagernefs of acquiring large wages will be a powerful inducement.”’ He adds, that ** the beft chalk is that which is white and hard; and the deeper it lies beneath the furface, the more efficacious is the drefling fuppofed to be, as partaking lefs of the nature of the foil whereon it is to be applied as a manure; indeed ona clayey foil it is feldom to be met with, but at a confiderable diftance beneath the furface of the field. The mot eligible feafon, he fays, for the performance of this work is in the early part of the winter, es the chalk which is laid out at that feafon will, by aid of the fucceed- ing frofts, be, in a great meafure, meliorated and reduced to crumbs at the time of fallowing in April; whereas, fhould the bufinefs be deferred till the fpring, no inconfiderable por- tion of the chalk will remaia in lumps till the next winter. From this negle&t, a twelvemonth will be loft in point of time, as this manure will lie on the ground without an{wer- ing any good purpofe till the lumps fhall have been flacked by moitture and frofts ; and that chaik is always moft highly efteemed which yields fooneft to the effect of the weather in falling into crumbs. This manure may be laid on the ground in the fummer, without any other inconvenience than what has been before mentioned ; contrary to the opinion of fome people, who think that fuch chalk, having remained on the furface during the fummer months without ruming, will, on that account, be lefs fufceptible of the frofts in the fucceeding winter: but this idea iserroneous; and as it may often fuit the economy of the farmer to lay this chalk out inthe fummer, either from a neighbouring draw-pit, having at that time little other employment for two men and horfes, or if he may be inclined to fink a pit is the field at that time ; in either of thete contingencies, the bufinefs may, he thinks, be fafely ventured upon in that feafon; and it would be far better to fuffur the ground, which is thus fummer chalked, to lie unploughed till the fucceeding fpring, than Strahan and Prefton. to crop. it with wheat at the autumn after the manure is ap- plied; for, having enjoyed the benefit of the iralts im the fol- lowing winter, the ground will come in properly for a wheat feafon in the next year: and this may be generally effected, he fays, where a perfon is inclined to lay on his chalk in the fummer. For inftance, fuppofe a lay ground be intended for a fallow the next year, this may be chalked in the fum- mer time, with very little inconvenience or injury to the farmer, as the grafs which would have been praduced from it between midfummer and the following fpring could have turned to little account.” It is conceived by the fame writer, “that when land is Grefied with chalk, the furface ought to be pretty thickly covered over, otherwife it will fail to anfwer the end of pul- verization, in which confifis the chief virtue of this manure : and though the expence of chalking may appear conliders able to thofe who are vuacquainted with its effecis, the good confequences accruing to the future creps wil} be found in the end ampiy to compenfate the primary charges, and from whatever caufe this improvement arifes, whether an imme- diate fertility be conveyed to the foil by the chaik, or whe- ther this drefling acts on the foil by deflroying its adbefion, and thus difpoles it ro work more kindly, and to part with its vegetative particles, which were before fo clofely united as not to be drawn forth by any other means: in whichever of thefe ways the chalk acts upon the land it matters, he thinks, very little to the farmer, fo that the intention be ac- complifhed, namely, the acquifition of a more abundant crop. For his own part, he is inclined to think that the chief virtue of the chalk refides in its power of correcting the adhefion of ftiff foils, and in its meliorating quality, and that it is much infcri r to dung, in point of accelerating the growth of the crop; fo that where a field has been well refed with this manure, which is faid to be of fo lalting a nature as to fhew its geod cfieGis at the diftance of twenty years, it is by no means to be underitood, that this field is not to be dunged, or to have any further addition of manure during this interval: on the contrary, fuch ground ought never to lofe its turn of the dung-cart ; and, indeed, on farms of a clayey foul, thofe fields only can be dunged to ad- vantage which have been previoufly chalked ; for experience hath demonitrated, that, without the application of this manure, dung will be of but fmall avail on thefe tiff foils.” It is remarked further by the fame practical writer, “ that on gravelly foils, where the fprings lie within a fmall dif- tance of the furface, ir often happens that the water flows in before the chalk is found, and thus all further endeavours at that {pot are rendered abortive, and another pit muft be funk in a different part of tle Geld. Obftacles to this work fometimes, he fays, fall out from the light contexture of the foil, which does not unfrequently give way to the deflrution of the chaik-drawer. To the farmer, it may be of fome confequence to confider the nature of his land, ere he em- barks in this fcheme of hufbandry ; as, if from circumfancea above-mentioned, he may have reafon to think that his pit will not ftand firm, it would be a matter of prudence to delift — from any further thoughts of finking a perpendicular pit, and change the mode of operation, by bringing his chalk from an uncallowed pit: but where it can be obtained at a moderate expence, and with a tolerable certainty of fuccefs, the precediug method is, he thinks, certainly the molt eli- gible.” See Carcareous Larth, and Manure. In the chalking of land, the methed purfued in Here-— fordfhire, where the perfons employed in it follow it asa trade, is the following, according to Mr. Walker: “a fpot is fixed upon, nearly central to about fix acres of land, to | | GH A gk. to be chalked. Here a pit, about four feet in diameter, is funk to the chalk, if found within twenty feet from the furface ; if not, the chalkers confider that they are on an earth pillar, fill up the pit, and fink in freth places, till their labour is at- tended with better fuccefs. The pit from the furface to the chalk is kept from falling in by a fort of bafket-work, made with hazel or willow rods and brufhwood, cut green and manufactured with the fmall boughs and leaves remaining thereon, to make the bafket-work the clofer. The earth and chalk are raifed from the pit by a jack-row/ on a frame, _ generally of very fimple and rude conftruétion. To one end of the row] is fixed a cart wheel, which anfwers the double purpofe of a fly and a ftop. Aninch rope of fufficient length is wound round the rowl, to one end of which is fixed a weight, which nearly counterbalances the empty baiket fattened to the other end. This apology for an axis in pe- ritrochio, two wheelbarrows, a {pade, a fhovel, and a pick-axe are all the neceflary implements in the trade of a company ‘of chalkers, generally three in number. The pit-man digs the chalk and fills the Lafket, and his companions alternately wind it up and wheel its contents upon the land; when the bafket is wound up to the top of the pit, to llop its defcent till emptied, the point of a wooden peg, of fufficient length and ftrength, is thruit by the perpendicular fpoke in the wheel into a hole made in the adjoining upright ftandard of _ the frame to receive it. The pit is funk from 20 to 30 feet deep, and then chambered at the bottom; that is, the pit-man digs or ruts out the chalk horizontally, in three feparate direétions ; the horizontal apertures being of fuf- ficient height and width to admit of the pit-man’s working in them with eafe and fafety. One pit will chalk fix acres, laying Go loads on an acre. If more be laid on, and to the full extent of chalking, viz. 100 loads, then a proportion- able lefs extent of land than fix acres is chalked from one pit. Eighteen barrow-fulls make a load, and the ufual price for chalking is 7d. per load, all expences included ; there- fore the expence of chalking at Go loads per acre is 11. 12s. 6d.; and at 100 ditto, 2], 18s. 4d. As the chalk is con- fidered to be better the deeper it lies, and the top chalk, par- ticularly if it be within three or four feet from the furface, very indifferent, and only fit for lime, or to be laid on roads, gateways, &c. the chalkers muft be direéted to lay by the chalk for the firft three or four feet in depth, to be applied to the above purpofes ; or, if not wanted, to be again thrown into the pit when filled up; and alfo to pick out the flints from the chalk before it is carried on the land, for, if they are not narrowly watched, they will chalk with both.” Itis added, that ‘* Mr. John Hill of Coddicott farms up- wards of 1200 acres in the adjoining parifhes of Coddicott and Kimpton, a confiderable part of which is his own eftate. He has chalked many acres of land, and approves much of the pra&tice. He chalked a field of {trong clay land in the autumn of 1793, laid on fixty loads to an acre, and the chalk where the pits were funk lay about ten fect from the furface. Mr. Walker viewed the field the 7th of Auguit 1794; it had borne a crop of peas fince it was chalked, and was then under the plough, preparatory for a crop of wheat. The chalk was good, and the land appeared to work well, though the chalk was not then thoroughly incorporated with the foil. Mr. Hill never lays more than 60 loads of chalk on an acre; this he finds will not only make the land work much better, with lefs ftrength of cattle, but alfo, with a light coat of dung, or {pring dreffings occafionally laid on to oa the vegetation, produce abundant crops for ten years; ¢ then chalks again with equal fuccefs.”” » This fort of work fhould proceed with difpatch during afer months in a// cafes, and in the autumnal ones in many fituations where there is no danger of poaching the # Vou. VII. ground. Mr. Young fuggefts, that much advantage may be derived, in performing this fort of bufinefs, from the ufe of {mall three-whecled carts, as the third wheel affords a fupport for the cart and load while filling, without the fill horfe, and of courfe one horfe may be fvfficient for two carts, one being difcharged upon the land while the other is loading. See Manure. Cuark, black. See Suate. Cuark, brown. See 'Tripott. Cuack, French. See Sreatitre. Cuark, fungous.. See Acaric mineral. Cuark, red. See Ores of Inon. Cuark, fiver. See Acaxic mineraland ARGENTARIA creta. Cuark, Spani/b. Crack, yellow. See Trirort. Cuark-drawings. See Drawina and Encravine. Cuarx-flone, in Medicine, a white chalky fubftance which is fecreted in the inflamed joints and ligaments in inveterate gout. It is one of the peculiarities of gouty inflammation to terminate by the production of this {ubftance (where it does not end in refolution), and not in fuppuration, or the production of pus, ike the common fpecies of inflamma- tion. The chalk-ftone (as its name imports) was formerly con- fidered as compofed of fome calcareous matter, and in parti- cular of phofphat of lime; but-accurate chemical analytis has now proved that it does not contain lime in any form, bet is a neutral infoluble falt, confifting of the lithic or uric acid faturated with foda. Dr. Wollatton has proved this point by the following experiments. If a {mall quantity of dilute fulphuric acid be added to gouty chalk-ftone, part of the alkali is feparated’ from its combination, and cryttals of fulphat of foda are produced. Muriatic acid ina fimilar way produces common falt.. A greater quantity of either acid totally feparates the alkali, and leaves an infoluble matter, which is found to be lithic acid by the following charaéters; viz. when diftilled per /e it yields a little ammonia, fome pruffic acid, and an acid {ublimate fimilar to the fublimed . lithic acid ; when diffolved in dilute nitric acid, it tinges the fkin of a rofe colour, and leaves, on evaporation, a rofe- coloured refidunm ; when thrown into cauftic pot-afh it dif- folves therein, but is feparable thence by an acid. ‘The chalk-ftone, when calcined, gives the ufual produéts of ani- mal matter, and leaves a white falt, which is carbonat of foda. Cauftic pot-afh diffolves the chalk-ftone entirely. Boiling water diflolves a {mall portion’of the ftone, and the folution is lithiat of foda. When a little muriatic acid is added to this folution, as it cools it depofits lithic acid in mi- nute red cryftals. The analyfis of this concretion by Fourcroy, agrees very clofely with that of Dr. Wollatton. M. F. remarks, that a hundred parts of water diflolve nine-tenths of the chalk- {tone by boiling, forming a faponaceous liquor, of a faint animal {mell, from which fulphuric acid precipitates brilliant needled cryttals of lithic or uric acid. , ee To the folubility of thefe arthritic concretions in the alka- lies, chemifts have attributed the great relief often experienced by gouty perfons from a courfe of alkaline remedies long con- tinued ; and it certainly remains an interefting queftion to determine whether this difeafe is attended with any defect or excefs in the natural quantity of uric a¢id in the urinary fecretions. (Tora fuller account of the properties of the lithic or Uric acid, fee this article.) See Phil. Tranf. for 1797, pt-2. Foureroy Syitemé des Connoiff. Chim, &e. CHALKI, in Geography, an ifland of the Grecian Archi- pelago, vilited by Spallanzani, where he made known to the 3Ff Turks See STRATITE. C Tez Torks a mine of copper, the exiftence of which they had never fulpected. CHALKING, in the /rts. See Daawina. Cuarxinc, in our Old Laws, feems to be fome duty Jaid on merchandize; what it was particularly we do not find: but in the rolls of parliament it is faid the merchants of the ftaple require*to be eafed of divers new impolitions, as chalking, ironage, wharfage, &e. CHALKY Lanp, in Agriculture, denotes fuch forts of Jand as are much impregnated with the chalky material, and which from their white appearance are fometimes deno- minated white lands. It has been remarked, by the author of the Synoplis of Hufbandry, that ‘ chalky lands or foils differ from each other very effentially in point of fertility: for as there are * fome of them which, by good hulbandry, may be brought to produce large crops, and do with great reafon take the lead m point of. fertility of every other light foil; fo there are others which, from the fuperficial depth of mould over the ehalk, are of the molt barren fpecies, and fearcely worth the expence of tillage. A chalky foil (fays he) with a due covering of mould, fo as to admit the plough to enter a reafonable depth, is perhaps the moft kindly one to work upon, except a loam, and capable of the greateit improvement from the feveral operations of hufbandry ; having neither the tena- cioufnefs of the clay, the burning quality of the gravel, nor the extreme porous texture of the fand: as it poffeffes a much greater fhare of humidity than the two latter foils, free from the inconvenience of {prings, fo will it be lefs injured by a dry fummer, whilft a moift and dripping feafon will be mott favourable to the crops growing on it, when thofe on a clayey foil are in that cafe too frequently deftroyed or ren- dered of little worth.” And Lord Dundonald, in his Trea- tife on the conneétion of Agriculture with Chemiltry, re- marks, that a pure unmixed chalky foil, like a pure or lean clayey one, is unfertile ; and that the fertility of this fort of land, like all others, depends on its containing a cue adinix- ture of other earths, with the requifite quantity of vegecable or animal matter. A chalky loam, or mixture of chalk with clay, is frequently a very fertile foil, and well adapted to the culture of beans and wheat. Such, fays the writer we have firit quoted, “are the ad- vantages attending thefe foils, where the chalk is not mixed in an undue proportion with the mould: but it rarely hap- pens that a farmer is pofleffed of any great quantity of land of this defcription: for, in countries where chalky land abounds, there is on every farm a larger proportion of poor land than of that which he has deferibed ; and the manage- ment of thefe thin chalks will demand the highelt exertion of induftry and {kill in the hufbandman ; for although the crops railed on thefe foils are lefs fubject to be injured by the feorching heat of the fua than thofe on gravels, yet where there is but a {mall proportion of movld, fo that the chalk forms the greate(t part of the cultivated foil, with a bed of the fame hard fubltance for its under ttratum, intermixed with large flints and chalk ftones fearce lefs folid ; on fuch grounds, the crops (he fays} fuffer greatly in a dry fummer, and for this reafon, an early Lent feafon is always to be preferred on thefe foils, in order that the furface of the ground may be eovered before the dry weather fets in.”’? And he adds that “‘thefe chalky foils poffcfs another very material advantage over gravels, namely, the power of refilting longer the heat of the fummer ; and therefore the crops on this fuil often re- cover after a kindly rain, when thofe on the gravels, unable to withitand the preceding drought, are burnt up; indeed, on a chalky foil, the crops, when injured by the parching heat of the weather, cannot fo properly be faid ta burn, as to die away. To the evil propenfitics, ncident to chalks of every CHA kind, may (he fays) he fubjoined their difpofition to blaft, a misfortune not eafily to be guarded againtt ; and in this re- fpe& they differ materially from gravels, where the corn ge- nerally yields well, if not injured by the dry weather during its growth. To this may be added (he fays) another defeét attached to chalky foils, which is their hilly fituation, fince in a traét of land of 209 acres, it is odds but many of the ficlds are mountainous and uneven.”’ The ingenious noble- man juft mentioned further remarks, that chalky lands pro- duce a fhort fweet herbage, and for the moit part are more proper for a fheep pafture than for tillage. ‘There are no foils that receive more benefit from artificial watering, as they are apt at certain feafons to be parched by drought. Chalky foils that produce fhort {weet herbage, fhould not (he thinks) in general be broken up, or converted into arable lands; a practice which will be attended with injury to the foil, and lofs to the farmer, unlefs they are cropped with moderation, well-manured, and afterwards properly laid down with paf- ture-grafs. And Mr. Bannifter further well obferves that “ there is one fpecies of grafs which may be raifed to great advantage ona chalk, and this is faintfoin, cinquefoil, or holy grafs, The {mall «xpence required in the culture of this grafs, its natu- ral relation to a chalky foil, the conftant demand for the hay at market, and the {mall charges required in making it, (fays he) all combine to enforce its cultivation on the molt barren chalks; which, by any other ccurfe of hufbandry, could not have been brought to pay the expence of tillage : by thefe means the farmer will (he thinks) have it in his power to beftow a greater attention on the more fertile part of his land, will require a lefs number of horfes and fervants, and will generally infure to him{clf plentiful crops of grain from that part of the farm which is kept in conttant tillage ; whilit the moit barren {pots will produce a yearly increafe from the faintfoin at a trifling expence in the culture.’ Chalks are (he thinks) of al! other lan?s leait fubje& to be molefted with couch-grafs; and hence a perfon who hath not been accultomed to this kind of land is often deceived on acurfory view of the furface, which being totally free from couch-grafs, and not greatly infefted with weeds of any de- nomination, he is led to conceive that the ground is in good heart, and difpofed for the reception of any kind of grain : whereas the contrary is often the fact; for a foil of this defeription, efpecially the more barren fpecies, which, with a very fhght proportion of earth, is made up of a crumbly kind of chalk, and when wet wears the appears ance of moriar, will not naturally produce couch; and pers haps on this fort of ground it would be no eafy tafk to make this grafs thrive in it though the experiment were attempted; and even on the beft and moft kindly chalks, couch-grafs is an enemy not to be dreaded. The weeds which feem indi- genous to this fort of land are poppy, bare-bind, crow-foot, charlock, cadlock, or kilk, cammock, and thiftles. Where the laft-mentioned weed prevails it is a manifeft indication that the ground is not of itfelf unkindly to the growth of corn; and that when the crops turn defedtive, this proceeds lefs from any defect in the land, than an improvident manages ment in the cultivation of it.’’ In what regards the tillage on this fort of land, * though chalk may, he fays, be numbered among the lighter kinds of foil, a much greater Rrength of horfes, he fays, is required in the tilling of them, than either on gravels or fands ; not only on account of their hilly fituation, the fuperior depth of mould, and of the large flints which are generally to be met with beneath the furface, but from the impenetrable quality of the under ftratum, which deadens the draft of the plough, and caufes it to work much heavier; to which may be added, the refiltance from the rocts of the cammock, which. CHA which is fo powerful as frequently to obftru& the courfe of the plough. For thefe rcafons, a fix-horfe team, on a chalky foil, is of great utility, nor, indeed, can the bufinefs be advantageoufly profecuted with four horfes to a plough. Another reafon why a more powerful {trength of cattle is requifite on this than on any other light foil, is its difpofi- tion to hang to the gears; fo that in. wet weather the lough is increafed to nearly double its own weight, by the additional load of mould adhering to it. Thefe are circum- ftances which do not immediately {trike the attention of a farmer, whofe knowledge in hufbandry has been acquired “by working on a kindly loam. On the firlt view of a chalky foil, he concludes that little ttreng+) of cattle is re- quired ; for, having been accuftomed to land where the ftaple is much deeper, he rationally infers, that more work may be done, in a given diltance of time, with a lefs num- ber of horfes on a chalk than on a loam ; of this truth, he is, in his own mind, fo thoroughly convinced, that nothing lefs than ocular demonflrativa can drive him from his opi- nion.”’ Having enforced the neceffity of maintaining a fufficient ftrength of cattle for the tillage of this fort of land, he ad- vifes the ploughing it to a good depth, where the flaple of the land will admit of the praCice ; ‘ for on the very light chalky grounds which abound in many places, and of which fome parts of every chalky farm confilt, this caution is un- neceflary ;”? fuch land being ploughed with little ftrength, the plough mutt neceffarily be fet to go fhallow. But on his other grounds, where there is a thick covering of mould, the farmer, he thinks, will always find his account in ploughing it to its utmoft depth, fo that the ploughman may feel the point of the fhare grate on the chalk beneath, without bringing up any part of it to mix with the mould. On this foil the blackfmith is, he obferves, a perpetual re- tainer to the farm. The vicinity of the chalk, together with the number of large flints ufually met with on this kind of ground, operating very forcibly in his favour, the eye of the farmer is, therefore, on no occafion more neceflary, he thinks, than m a ftri@ and daily examination of the plough- irons, fince he may be materially injured either by a too fre- quent application to the {mith, or too great a neglect of him. The point of the fhare for ploughing chalks to ad- vantage, efpecially when infefted with thiftles or cammocks, ought to be hammered to the breadth of four inches, which will tear the roots up at a confiderable depth. As thefe grounds are feldom injured by wet, there is {carcely any part of the year but the plough may be kept at work, fave only when the land is locked up by froft, or the ;furface covered with fnow. he breaking up of clover lays in the fummer, in order to fow with wheat in the autumn, is often attended with great inconveniences on chalky foils, as the drought of the feafon frequently caufes the ground to be extremely hard, fo as to reuder the operation of the plough a matter of great difficulty, and, in fome inttances, the foil is totally impervious at this feafon, and muit remain to be foftened by the autumnal rains. But, in this cafe, the far- mer has generally other work to attend, and, therefore, need not fuffer hismen and horfesto lie unemployed. Butalthough, for thefe reafons, there is generally more perfeverance re- quired in breaking up a clover lay at Midfummer to fow at Michaelmas with wheat, than ufually falls to the fhare of acommon ploughman ; yet the matter ought not to be dif- couraged, fince he will mott affuredly reap the good effects of corn fown on a {tale furrow, where the land is chalky, and, indeed, on any other land of a light texture.’ Where folding is praétifed, it is added, that “a very judicious method at the breaking up of a clover lay, is to plough one day’s work, which will employ a fold of 300 CHA fheep eight nights; and when that is finifhed, to plough another day’s work, and fold on the fame, which courfe is to be purfued till towards autumn: by this mode the farmer referves great part of the feed on the lay, which, though not very confiderable, is, neverthelefs, of {ome confequence, where a large flock is maintained ; and, in truth, without a flock of theep, little profit can be expected to accrue from the cultivation of thefe foils: befides Which, he avoids the ill effeQs of ploughing up the whole field at autumn, and fowing it immediately with wheat ; as he fuppofes, in this cafe, the greatett part of the field will have been folded oa before feed-time, and the remainder may be finifhed after the corn is fowa, or trodden with fheep, both of them in{tances of excellent hufbandry. But though-there be no folding flock kept on the farm, this method of ploughing up the clover-lays at Midfummer ought to be purfued for the reafon above mentioned : and at this time the farmer is generally at leifure to profecute this work, having completed his faint- foin harveft and turnip feafon, and not meeting with any hindrance from the ftirring of fummer fallows, a piece of pubapcky which is rarely practifed on thefe forts of and,” And “the like method of ploughing fhould, (he fays,) be purfued, in order to obtain a crop of turnips, on a chalky foil, as is recommended on a gravel ; and though the land be of a very light texture, and not much infefted with weeds, the feveral operations of the plough, harrow, and roll, ought by no means to be difpenfed with, for the reafon which is offered in treating of the tillage required on a gravelly foil. On a chalky foil, properly managed for turnips, and where a good crop of this root has been fed off, there need be no fear of a plentiful return of barley or oats, provided fuch corn be fown at an early period, which is particularly to be attended to at the {pring feafon, as the crop of Lent corm on thefe foils will generally fail, if the fecd-time be pro- tracted fo late as is ufual on loams.?? And “ on this kind of land, as on gravels, (fays he) the farmer pofleffes the ad- vantage of varying his manure as often as he choofes ; having, belides yard dung, which may be {lyled a general drefling for every foil, the whole tribe of manures, except chalk, to felect from. For wheat, there is no application fo effica- cious as the fold, which, when properly conduéted, rarely fails of increafing the crop. For turnip ground, dung, mould, rabbitdung, woollen rags, &c. may belaid onto advantage ; and to further the growth of clover, faintfoin, and meadow grafs, coal afhes, foot, and malt duit, are very proper applications : of thefe the two lait, if fown over the green wheat in the {pring, or harrowed in with the barley at the time of fowing that grain, are excellent fubftitutes for the more lafting kind of manures, where thefe cannot be procured in a fuf- ficent abundance.’”” It has been remarked by lord Dundonald, that clay is the fitteit fubitance to be applied with a view to alter the ar- rangement of the parts of a chalky foil. Peat is a good application to lands of this nature, which are frequently termed hungry foils, and very deficient in vegetable matter. And as a fufficiency of dung is not to be procured to ma- nure fully every part of a farm, peat may be applied in one or other of the flates of preparation mentioned under that head. See Pear. Unfortunately for the improvement ox chalky foils, fays he, neither clay nor peat 1s to be found but at the extremities or outikirts of the extenfive traéts of chalky countries ; but wherever they are to be had, the ap- plicationof them fhould not be neglected. Calcareousorchalky lands, which have long been under the plough, contain a large proportion of phofphate or oxalate of lime. Thefe in- foluble faline matters may, he fays, be rendered ferviceable to vegetation by alkalies, vitriolic acid, vitirjolic ca falts, 3F2 3 2 CHA falts, (efpecially if fuperacidulated), and by pyritous and aluminous fub{tances. Even green vitriol, which has hither- to been confidered as-unfriendly to vegetation, will, when applied in a proper manner to lands like this, conliderably improve and promote the growth of palture-grafs. More experiments are, however, wanting fully to afcertain the utility of thefe chemical fubftances on grounds of this as well’as other kinds. The principal difadvantage, [ays he, attending chalky lands, is, that of their being too dry and parched at certain feafons ; but poffibly this defect, when they are under patture, may be counter-balanced by the more early grafs they produce in the fpring, as well as the luxuriant herbage that fucceeds the autumnal rains. It has been remarked, that the belt produce of the grain kind, in chalky lands, is barley and wheat; but oats will likewife do well on them. Their natural produce in weeds is poppies, May-weed, Sc. Yor grafs-feed, faint-foin, tres foil, and, ifrich, clover. ‘Che beft manure for thefe lands is rags, dung, folding of fheep, &c. as has been feen above. In thefe lands, if rain happen to fall on them juft after fow- ing, before the corn gets up, it will frequently caufe the earth to bind fo hard, that it cannot get through it; but may be much helped by a light harrowing, or other means of a fimilar nature. In breaking uplands of this nature from grafs, too great a depth of furrow fhould, in mott cafes, be avoided. Under the clafs of ‘chalky lands, a very large proportion of the grounds of this country may, it is obferved, be com- prehended. The Hertfordfhire farmers manage thefe lands for grain in the fame manner as they do their clay-lands; but in Oxfordfhire they commonly manure them with half-rotten dung, which, they fay, prevents the binding of it; and fome mix it with fand which caufes it to work fhort, efpe- cially if in any degree dry. ‘hey commonly fowthem with wheat, miflin, and barley; and, after wheat, peafe, or vetches : in doing of which they are obliged particularly to’ take care to have fine weather, béecaufe of the lands binding fo greatly. See Sort. Cuarxy Soil, that fort of land which is principally conftituted of chalky materials. Soils of this nature abound very much in different parts of the kingdom. See Soir. CHALLANS, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Vendce, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri&t of Les Sables-d’Olonne; 7 leagues N. of it. The place contains 3000, and the canton 16,362 inhabit- ants; the territory includes 2924 kiliometres and g com- munes. CHALLANT, a town of Piedmont, in the duchy of Aofta ; 11 miles E.S.E. of Aofta. CHALLENGE, a cartel, or invitation to a duel, or other combat. ‘he word challenge was anciently tranflated calumnia, Ut may very properly be called a provocation or fummons to fight, when an affront in derogation of honour has been offered. Challenges to fight either by word or letter, or bearing fuch challenges, are punifhable by fine and imprifonment, according to the circumftances of the offence ; and barely endeavouring to provoke another to fenda challenge, or to fight, as by difperfing letters full of reflections, and infinuat- ing a defire to fight, &c. is a high offence. (t Hawk. P.C. 135. 138.) : and if challenges arife from gaming,’ the of- fender fhall forfeit all his goods to the crown, and be im- prifoned two years. g Ann. cap. 14. It is now the cuftomary and frequent practice of the court of King’s Benchto grant informations againit perfons fending CHA challenges to juftices of the peace, and in other heinous cafes. CHALLENGE, in Law, isan exception taken either againft perfons or things : in the former mitance, againtt jurors, any one or more of them; and in the latter, as in the cafe of fe- lony, by the prifoner againfl things, as a declaration, &e. Terms de la ley. 109. The former is the molt frequent fignification of the term. Challenge to the jurors, is either made to the array, or to the poll to the array, as when the whole number 1s. ex- cepted againit, as partially impanelled, or arrayed in the panel, or little {quare pane of parchment, on which the jurors’ names are written. If the fheriff be of affinity to either of the parties ; or if any one or more of the jurors are returned at the nomination, or under the direétion of either party, or for any other partiality, the array fhall be quafhed. ‘Yo the polls, or iz capita, as when particulars are excepted againit, as not indifferent. Thefe may be challenged, 1. Propter honoris refpeum, as when a lord of parliament is impanelled. 2. Propter defeclum, as in the cafe of an alien born, which is defeét of birth ; or of a flave or bondman, which is defect of liberty; or in cafe of infuffi- cient eftate. This latter exception has undergone feveral alterations by different flatutes: but by 4 and 5 W. and M. cap. 24. the qualification is rol. per annum, in England, and 61. in Wales, either of freehold or copyhold lands: and by 3 Geo. II. cap. 25. the holder of a leafe on life or lives, or for the term of five hundred years abfolute, of the clear yearly value of 20]. per annum, over and above the rent re- ferved, is qualified to ferve on juries. 3. Propter affelumy or on fufpicion of partiality : and this kind of challenge ig principal ov to the favour ; in the former cafe the caufe of fufpicion is obvious, as, that a juror is of kin to either patty within the ninth degree (Finch, L. gor.) ; that he has been arbitrator on either fide; that he has an interelt in the canfe ; that an aGtion is depending between him and the party ; that he has taken money for his verdict; that he has formerly been a juror in the fame court; that he is the party’s matter, fervant, counfellor, fteward, or ate torney, or of the fame fociety or corporation with him :—= and in the latter cafe, when only fome probable circum ftances of fufpicion are pleaded, which are to be determimed by triors. 4. Propter deli@um, or on account of fome crime, which difqualifies the juror, by affeéting his credity as conviction of treafon, felony, perjury, or confpiracy: judgment of the pillory ; branding or whipping, outlawry or excommunication ; attaint of falfe verdict, or forgery, &e. Challenge to the jurors, is alfo divided into challenge principal, and challenge pur caufe: i. €. upon caufe or reafon alleged. Challenge principal, otherwife called challenge peremp= tory, is what the law allows without caufe alleged ; or far= ther examination: thus, a prifoner at the bar, arraigned on felony, may peremptorily challenge twenty, one after anothery alleging no caufe but his own diflike ; and they will be fet afide, and new ones chofen in their room. 22 Hen. VIIL cap. 14. and 1 and 2 Ph. and Mar. cap. 10. This privilege of peremptory challenges, diftinguifhing the tendernefs and humanity of the Englifh laws, though granted to the pri- foner, is denied to the king by ftat. 33 Edw. I. ft. 4. which ena&ts, that the king fhall challenge no jurors without af- fizning a caufe certain, to be tried and approved by the court. However it is held that the king need not affign his — caufe of challenge, till all the panel is gone through, and unlefs there cannot be a full jury, without the perfons fo challenged. And then, and not fooner, the king’s counfel muft fhew the caufe: otherwife the juror fhall be fworn. ; 2 Hawk, — GC. HH A 2 Hawk. P.C. 413. 2 Hal. P.C. 271. In cafe of high- treafon, no challenge peremptory was formerly allowed ; but by ftat. 7 W. ILL. liberty is given peremptorily to challenge thirty-five. Yet there feems to bea difference between challenge prin- cipal and challenge peremptory ; the latter being only in mat- ters criminal, and without any caufe alleged ; the former moftly in civil cafes, and with affigning fome fuch caufe, as being fourd true, the law allows: v. g. if either party al- lege, that one of thejjurors is the fon, brother, coufin, or te- . nant, of the other, the exception is good. Alfo in the plea of the death of a man, or in any action real or perfonal, where the debt or damages amount to forty fhillings, it is a good challenge to a juror, that he cannot difpend forty fhil- lings per annum of frechold. Challenge is alfo.a term given or applied to an objection made to a member of a court martial on the feore of either real or prefumed partiality. The prifoner, however, muit in this cafe aflign his reafon for or canfe of challenge, of the re- levancy, propriety, and validity of which the members are themfelves the judges. Peremptory challenges, then, though practifed and admitted in civil cafes, are not acknowledged by military law, or allowed at courts martial. he privi- lege of challenging is enjoyed equally by the prifoner and the profecutor. Challenge upon reafon or caufe, is when the party does allege fome fuch exception as is fufficient upon acknowledg- ment of the truth of it; v. g. if the fon of the juror have married the daughter of the other party, of the like. Challenges to the polls, or exceptions to particular jurors, feem to anfwer the ‘ recufatio judicis,”’ in the civil and ca- non laws; by the conftitution of which a judge might be refufed upon any fufpicion of partiality. By the laws of England, alfo, in the times of Braéton and Fleta, a judge might be refufed for good caufe; but now the law is other- wife, and it is held that judges and juftices cannot be chal- lenged. (Co. Litt. 294.) For the law will not fuppofe a poflibility of bias or favour in a judge, who is already fworn to adminifter impartial juftice, and whofe authority greatly depends upon that prefumption and idea, And fhould the fact at any time prove flagrantly {uch as the delicacy of the law will not prefume before-hand, there is no doubt but that fuch mifbehaviour would draw down a heavy cenfere from thofe to whom the judge is accountable for his conduét. Black!t. Com. vol. iit. p. 361. CuHaccenGe, in Hunting. When hounds, at firft finding the fcent of their game, prefently open and cry, the hunt{- men fay, “they challenge.” CHALLIN, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Mayne and Loire; 5 leagues W. of An- ers. CHALLONOIS, the name of a fmall country of France before the revolution, in the environs of Chalons-tur- Saone. CHALO, a river of Afia, which rifes near Laffa or Bara- tola, in Tartary, paffes through the province of Yunnan in China, the country of Laos and. Tpnquin, and difcharges itfelf into the gulf of Cochin-China, in the Eaftern fea, op- pofite the ifland of Hainan. _CHALONER, Sir Tuomas, in Biography, a learned writer and foreign minifter in the reign of queen Elizabeth, x born in London about the year 1515. and educated at mbridge, where he diflinguifhed himfelf by his talent for Latin poetry. Having been fent by Henry VIII. inthe train of the ambaffador to Charles V. emperor of Germany, he accompanied that prince in his unfortunate expedition againft Algiers, where he was fhipwrecked and narrowly ef- caped drowning, by keeping hold of a cable with his teeth, 7 C. HF A many of which he loft on the occafion. On his return, he became’a favourite of the regent, duke of Somerfet; and in confequence of his diftinguifhed valour at the battle of Muffelburgh, he received the honour of knighthood. When his patron was difgraced, and during the reign of queen Mary, he lived in retirement; but on the acceflion of Eliza- beth, he was appointed, by the intereft of Cecil, ambaffador to Ferdinand, emperor of Germany; and having acquired great reputation in this office, he was fent in-1g61 ina fimi- lar capacity to Philip, king of Spain. In this’ miffion he encountered feveral difficulties, which, notwith{tanding the relief derived from literary occupations, oceafioned a fit of ficknefs that obliged him to requett his recal; and this he is faid to have obtained by addreffinz the fufceptible heart of Elizabeth with. an elegy written in the ftyle of Ovid. Upon his return towards the clofe of the year 1564, he publithed the firlt part of his. principal work On the right ordering of the Enghfh commonwealth.”? But his conftitution was fo much impaired, that he died in O&ober, 1565, at his houfe in Clerkenwell Clofe; and as he was equally great in arms, f{cience, and arts, he was mach lamented, and his funeral was honoured by an interefting and affectionate attendance to St. Paul’s cathedral; Sir William Cecil officiating as chief mourners He was no lefs diftinguifhed for his talents and integrity asa flatefman, than for his literary endowments. Of his writings the principal are, that already mentioned, which, in its complete form, was printed at London in 1579, 4to. under the title of «De Republica Anglorum initau- randa, hb. x. ;’? and a collection of his poetical pieces en- titled «De Llluftrium quorumdam Encomiis Mifcellanea cum Epigrammatis ac Epitaphiis nonnullis.”” Bios. Brit. Cuatoner, Sir Tuomas, a philofopher and technical chemift, was the fon of the preceding by his wife Ethel- reda, born in 1559, and educated under the care of lord treafurer Burleigh, firlt ac St. Paul’s {chool, and afterwards at Magdalen college. in the univerfity of Oxford. At college, though he took no degree, he ettablifhed his charaéter for abilities and learning. About the year 1580 he vifited feve- ral parts of Europe, and particularly Italy, where he pro- longed his ftay, and profecuted many curious inquiries in natural philofophy and chemiltry, together with a variety of experiments. On his return home fome time before the year 1554, he was much noticed at court for his polite behaviour and accomplifhments ; and about this time married the daughter of fir William Fleetwood, recorder of London, by whom he had feveral children. In 1597 he was knichted 5 and fome years afterwards difcovered the firft alum mines which were ever known to be in this kingdom, on his eitate near Gifborough in Yorkfhire. As during his foreign tra- -vels he had paid particular attention to the alum works at Puteoli or Puzzoli, he found means to introduce that profit- able manufacture into England, much to the advantage of his country. The difeovery of a mine in England was made about the year 1600, and for rendering it practically ufeful, workmen were brought from foreign parts; and at this period it was adjudged to be a mine-royal, and was taken pofleflion of by the crown. It was then granted to fir Paul Pindar, at arent of no lefs than 14,740 pounds fterling ; neverthelefs the undertaking proved extremely lucrative. By the long parliament it was voted to be a monopoly, and the alum works were reftored to their original proprietors. In the latter end of queen Elizabeth’s reign, fir Thomas Chaloner vifited Scotland, and was favourably received by king James ; fo that in 1603, he was entrufted with the education of prince Henry. He was likewife confidentially employed by queen Anne. By a fecond wife he had children, to whom he is faid to have left a confiderable eftate in Buckingham- fhire. He died on the 17th of November, 1615, and was bu- ried Cats Sagat ried at Chifwick in Middlefex. His eldeft fon, William Cha- loner, was created a baronet by king James in 16203; but the title became extin& in 1681. Biog. Brit. CHALONITIS, in Ancient Geography, a country of Afia, the moft foutherly province of Affyria. It extended along the left bank of the Tigris, S.W. of mount Tagros, which feparated it from Media. It is faid to have derived its name from the town of Chala; and the inhabitants were called Chalonite. This province, from its fituation, was at all times the feat of war between potent empires and wations; and it is now become a defert, excepting fome few {mall fpots that may be Cultivated about the inconfiderable towns which ftand witkin its borders. CHALONNE, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Mayne and Loire, and chief place of a canton in the diltri&t of Angers, fituated near coal-mines ; 4 leagues S.W. of Angers. The place contains 4922, and the canton 10,888 inhabitants; the territory includes 1 15 kiliometres and 15 communes. CuAtonne, an ifland in the Loire, a little below the town of the fame name, about 3 miles in length, witha village. CHALONS-/ur-Marne, or CuHaarons, a city of France, and capital of the department of the Marne ; before the revolution, the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of Rheims, and chief place of the generality of Champagne; fituated be- tween two fine meadows on the river Marne, containing 13 parifhes, and partly fubfilting by its manufatures of fhal- loovs and coarfe woollen cloth. The place contains 11,120, and the canton 15,563, inhabitants; the territory compre- hends 260 kiliometres and 16 communes. Chalons, or Duro-Catalaunum, afterwards Catalauni, formerly made a part of the territory of Rheims, from which it is diltant only 27 miles. It is famous for a battle between the Romans and Attila, king of the Huns, in which the former, after an ob- ftinate and fanguinary conteft, in which the number of the flain amounted, as fome fay, to 162,000, or, according to other accounts, to 300,000 perfons, proved victorious, and Attila was obliged to retreat. At Chalons there is an academy of f{ciences, arts, and belles-lettres. It is 40 miles S.W. of Verdun, and 95 E. of Paris. N. lat. 48° 57’. E. long. 4°22’. Cuatons-/ur-Saone, a city of France, in the department of the Saone and Loire, and principal place of a diftri@, feated on the river Saone, and, before the revolution, the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of Lyons. It is furrounded by walls, and defended by a citadel. It isthe ftaple of iron for Lyons and St. Etienne, and of wines for exportation, which, as well as corn and wood, form its principal commerce. The city contains the Old Town, the New Town, and the fuburbs of St. Lawrence. In the firft is the court of juftice, a modern ftructure, the cathedral, and the hotel-de-ville. The great Roman way from Lyons to Boulogne pafled by Chalons ; and it exhibits various traces of Roman magnificence, parti- cularly the ruins of an amphitheatre. N. lat. 46° 47’. E. long. 4° 57’. CHALOSSE, a {mall country of France before the re- volution, in the environs of St. Sever. CHALTAPITES, or Cuacaretes, in Ancient Geogra- Ay, a divifion of Sufiana, according to Ptolemy. CHALTARON, in Geography, a town of Afia, in the country of Thibet; 10 miles W.N.W. of Coucha. CHALVANCA, or Cuumsivitcas, a town of South America, and principal place of the jurifdi@ion of Chumbi- Vilcas, in Peru. CHALUS, a town of France, in the department of the Upper Vienne, and chief place of a canton in the difri& of 3 CHA St. Yrivix 5 15 miles S.S.W. of Limoges. The place con- tains 1204, and the canton 6264 inhabitants ; the territory includes 2274 kiliometres and 7 communes. Att this place Richard ]. of England received a mortal wound, whilit he was reconnoitring it, previoufly to an aflault for the purpofe of recovering a treafure withheld from him by the vifcount of Limoges. Cuacvs, in Ancient Geography, Kaeic, a river of Afia, in Syria. Xenophon reports, that this river was full of large fifhes, which the Syrians regarded as gods, and carefully pre- ferved. It had its fprings in the mouutains W. of the town of Zeugma, ran S.W. to Chalybon, and from thence S. tll it difcharged itfelf into a lake, on the banks of which was built the town of Chalcis. Xenophon places it at the diftance of 25 leagues from the defile which lay between Syria and Cilicia. CHALYBEATES, in. Medicine. A chalybeate medi- cine is one in which iron or fteel (chalyds) is a principal in- gredient. See Iron (in Medicine). Chalybeate waters form a very large and important clafs of mineral waters, which will be more fully deferibed under the article Waters, mineral. It will be fufficient here to obferve, that there are two principal clafles of chalybeate waters; r{t, thofe in which the iron is held diffolved by the carbonic acid, and, 2d, thofe in which the fulphuric acid is the folvent. The former clafs is by much the moft frequent. Of thefe, fome waters contain little other foreign, and no other medicinal ingredient than the carbonat of iron, of which kind ts the Tunbridge water ; but others contain feve- ral neutral purging falts, of which the Cheltenham {pring is an example. In all, the iron is totally precipitated in the form of a yellow light ochre, by boiling for a few minutes. The chalybeate waters holding the fulphat of iron generally can be traced to fome pyritical fource, and very often alfo contain fulphat of alumine. They are more aitringent to the tatte than the former, and the oxyd of iron is only par- tially feparable by boiling, which therefore forms a ready teft to diltinguifh the two {pecies. The chalybeate waters are found to be highly valuable medicines, though the aétual quantity of iron taken in the ufual dofes is much {maller than in any other form in which this metal is given. CHALYBIANS, in Ancient Geography, a people of Scythia, who are faid to have derived their name from Chalybs, the fon of Mars. Others fay, that they were fo — called from their iron manufactures. Strabo is of opinion, } that they were the fame with the Alyzonians, mentioned by Homer, and that the poet either wrote Chalybes, or that the inhabitants were originally called Alybians. If fo, Homer leads us to imagine, that they were as famous for their filver, as they were, at that time, for their iron mines. They occupied that part which lay between the Taocticans and Scythinians. Diodorus Siculus calls them Chaicideans ; and they were the moft valiant people the 10,000 Greeks in Xenophon’s retreat had to encounter with. ‘They were fierce and warlike ; equally able to engage on the plains as on the mountains ; they followed the Greeks all the way through their country, and terribly annoyed them on their march, This powerful nation extended itlelf to other parts, and oc- cupied part of Pontus, which lay between Armenia Minor, the Macrons, the Mofynecians and Tibarenians. Their country was mountainous and barren; but furnithed abun= dance of iron, which the inhabitants manufaQured, an which, befides fupplying their own wants, afforded a con- fiderable article of commerce. In the time of Xenophon, this country was much reduced, and the Chalybians were fubjeé to the Mofyneecians. But in more ancient times it extended CMA. - extended beyond the boundaries above-mentioned, between Amiffus and Sinope, and comprehended a confiderable terri- tory on this fide of the Halys. The Chaltybes were the laft people fubjugated by Creefus, See Herodotus, J. i. c. 28. CuatyBians, an ancient people placed by Pliny in Africa, in the Troglodite territory. CHALYDBON, a confiderable town of Afia, in Syria, fituated in the midft of a large plain, on the bank of the river Chalus, N. of Chalcis. See ALEpro. CHALYBONITIS, a country of Afia, in Syria, which extended from Ceelefyria to the Euphrates, and which was fo called from Chalybon, the only city contained in it worthy of notice. Some fuppofing Chalep to be an abbreviation of Chalybon conclude Aleppo, Chalep, and Chalybon to be the fame city ; but Chalybon is placed by Ptolemy at the 35th cegree of latitude and 71ft of longitude, and confequently far fouth of the prefent Aleppo. CHALYBS, now Cabe, a river of Spain, the banks of which were occupied by a people called Chalybes, according to Juitin. ‘The waters of this river were reputed to give an excellent temper to fteel. CHAM, or Kuan, thetitle givento the fovereign princes of Tartary. The word, inthe Perfian, fignifies mighty lord; in the Sclavonic, emperor. Sperlingius, in his Differtation on the Danifh term of majeity, doaing, king, thinks the Tartarian cham may be well derived from it; adding, that in the north they fay kan, konnen, konge, konning, &c. The term cham is alfo applied, among the Perfians, to the great lords of the court, and the governors of provinces. M. de Peyffonnel, in his Stri€ures on Baron de Tott’s Memoirs (fee vol. ii. p. 187.) obferves, that no fuch word as cham exifts; the true orthography being Khan. It is not, he fays, a title exclufively affumed by the fovereign of the Tartars, fince the Turkith emperors take it likewife. Of this the Ottoman money is a fufficient proof,. the legend of which is ‘* Soultan ibn el Soultan Abdulhamid, Ahan. dame mulkhow,’’ i. e. Sultan, fon of Sultan Abdulhamid, Khan, whofe reign be everlafting. The title of Khan is certainly equivalent in fignification to that of Shah, which means king ;,and yet. the moft abfolute Perfian. monarchs, who have never affumed any other title than that of Shah, have permitted the gavernors of provinces in their empire to take that of Khan. Even in our time the governors of the provinces of Guendja, Guilan, Mazanderan, &c. who have no more authority in Perfia than the Pachas in Tur- key, take the title of Khan. Cuam, in Geography, one of the. provinces of. Cochin- china. Cuam, a town or parochial village of Swifferland, in the Canton of Zug, onthe S. fide of the Lake of Zug. Cuam, or Chamb, a town of Germany, in the circle of Bavaria, feated on the Regen, at its conflux. with a. mver called Ampl or Kampl ;- 84 miles N. of Saltzburg. Cuam de Couca, a town of Portugal, in the province of Eftramadura ;. 6 leagues N. of ‘Vhomar. CHAMA, in Conchology, a genus of thells. The Chama are of the bivalve order, and are diftinguifhed by having the fhells rather rude or coarfe; the hinge with a callous gibbo- fity, obliquely inferted in an obligue hollow : anterior flope of the fhell clofed. Vulva claufa abfque nymphis. Linn. The animal inhabitant of thefe thells is of the ‘Tethys genus, having the body furnifhed with two {mall apertures on the left fide of the neck: the body rather oblong, flefhy, without peduneles ; and the mouth witha terminal cylindri- eal probofcis under an expanded membrane or lip. CHA SPECIES. Cuama cor. Shell roundifh and fmooth; beaks re- curved; anterior flope with a gaping fillure.—Te/la fubrotunda levi ; natibus recurvatis, rima hiante, Linn. This fhell when full grown is about the fize of a large orange. It inhabits moft of the feas in the S. of Europe, and is rarely difcovered as far northwards as the Britith ifles, one or two inftances only of its having been found in our feas are on record. Donoy. Brit. Shells. The French call it Ceur de beuf, in allufion to its general figure, which bears fome refemblance to that of a bullock’s heart. The Englith colletors diltinguifhed it by the name of heart Cockle. When in high perfeétion, this fhell is of a delicate cream-co- loured white, tinged and. varied with pale reddifh, and tefta~ ceous ; and is covered with an epidermis of a dufky brown colour. Crama gigas. Shell plaited, with arched f{eales; pofte- rior flope gaping. — Tela plicata fornicato-/quamofa ; ano hiante. Linn. Chama fquamata, Rumpf., Jmbricata, Argeny. ‘here is much propriety in the fpecific name gigas affigned by Linneus and other naturalifts to this fhell, tor it is very much larger than the reft of the Chamz, andisindeed of a fize very far {uperior to any other of the teltaceous produétions hitherto difcovered. Shells of this fpecies weighing from one hundred to one hundred and thirty or forty pounds the pair are not very unufual; fuch occur in moft public mufeums of Natural Hiftory in Europe. One individual of the Chama gigas is recorded by Conchological writers that weighed five hundred and thirty two pounds, including both the fhells and the animal; and the latter was fo large as to furnifh one hundred and twenty men with food for a meal, and {trong enough by the fudden collapfing or fnapping its valves clofe, to cut afunder a cable rope, and lop men’s hands off. This enormous fpecies inhabits the Indian feas. Thofe of the largett fize we are acquainted with, are from the feas contiguous to.the ifland of Borneo, from whence they are occafionally brought as objets of curiofity. into Europe, and kept as ornaments in gardens. During the early part of the Jaft century they were !u much requeft for the decorations of fountains, grottoes, and refervoirs of water, efpeciaily in Italy, the more modern Italians emulating in {ome manner the claflic. tafteof the ancients. This gigantic fhell was perfeétly familiar to the poets,. and fculptors of an- tiguity ; Venus is fabled to have rifen in one of them from: the bottom of the fea, an allegory in itfelf extremely bean- tiful, and which has afforded matter for feveral of the moft exquilite compofitions of ancient, as well as modern artifts ; the former is obvious in a variety of remains of ancient feulpture, and of the latter we need only inftance one, Barry’s inimitable piture of ‘Venus rifling from the fea,” the impreffive and fublime effe¢t of which is recent in the mind of every admirer of the modern arts. On gems and cameos of antiquity, Venus under various characters, Amphitrite, Doris, and other goddeffes and nymphs in the train of Oceanus, frequently appear upborne upon the waves, or driving through the foaming billows in a chariot formed of the chama fhell. Cuama antiquata, Shell fomewhat heart-fhaped, grooved longitudinally and ftriated tranfverfely. Linn. &c. A native of the American, Atlantic, and Indian feas, This fhell is inequilateral, and is marked with brown or ferruginous fpots; the ribs are from nineteen to twenty-two, in number ; the margin of the fhell toothed; beaksinflefted: back ; anterior margin with a deep clofed fiflure. Cuama Aippopus. Shell plaited, muricated ; Felteghs ope CHHQA Nope retufe, clofed, and toothed.—Chama Aippopus, Linn. Chama afpera obiufa, Rumpf. Folium brafjice, Argenyv. "This 1s a broad, and towards the beaks gibbous fhell, of a white or whitifh colour varied with fpots of red, or fometimes purple, and very rarely yellow, and at the hinge are yellow callofities. The fize is various, but feldom exceeds fix inches from the beak to the margin, and nine inches in breadth ; commonly one fourth lefs in fize- Tnhabits the Indian Ocean. Cuama frapexia. Shell trapeziform, gibbous, with ‘longitudinal crenulated grooves. Miill. Zool. Dan. A native of the Norway feas. This is of a gibbous form, about the fize of a pea, of a white colour mixed with brown towards the margins, which laft are crenated ; the ftriz nearly twenty in number rugged with unequal obtufe knots; beaks rather recurved; polterior flope ovate, heart-fhaped, the anterior flope oblong, flat, and crenated on the outfide. Schroet. Gmel. &c. Cuama femiorbiculata. Shell fomewhat orbicular, com- preffed, coarfe, with itrie crofling each other. Linn, &c. This fhell is longitudinally ftriated and imbricated with f{cales; potterior flope with a whitith lobe ; hind margin crenated. Country unknown. Cuama calyculata, Shell oblong, with imbricated grooves ; anterior part retufe. Gmel. &c. Fefon, Adanfon. Found in the Atlantic, American and Indian feas. The colour is white, or when young, inclining to brownith ; hinge with two teeth; exterior margin ferrated, interior {mooth. Cuama gryphoides. Shell orbicular, muricated; one valve rather flattened, the other with a fomewhat fpiral pro- duced beak. Linn. &c. Concha rugata, Rondel. Fataron, Adanfon. Inhabits the Mediterranean, American, and Indian feas, where it occurs affixed to rocks. Authors enumerate fix or more varieties of this fhell, the colours of which are variable, as yellow varied with reddith or white ; red varied with yellow and white, or white varied with red and yellow. The feales alfo in fome fpecimens are more foliaccous, and fometimes are arched and muricated. Cuama cordata. Shell heart-fhaped, and tranfverfely ftriated ; one fide elongated and compreffed. Linn. In- habits the Red and Indian feas. Colour ferruginous, or chefnut. Obf. Chama reniformis of Knorr is confidered as a variety of this fhell. Cuama fatiata. Shell fubrotund, with toothed grooves intermixed with dots; pofterior flope retufe. Gmel. Native place unknown. Shell white, reddifh on the outfide ; grooves elevated, longitudinally toothed, and alternately fhorter ; margin crenulated ; pofterior flope heart-fhaped. Cuama oblonga. Shell oblong, the anterior part angular, with acute teeth in front. Linn. Inhabits the fhores of Guinea, where it is fearce ; it re- fembles mytilus modiolus ; the fhellis fomewhat diaphanous, white, with very fine {trie crofling each other; the colour within citron ; margin very entire ; hinge with turee middle teeth and an oblong acute lateral one locking into a hollow between two teeth on the oppofite valve. Figured by Chemnitz, T. 7. 50. Cuama Lazarus. Shell imbricated, with jagged lamelle ; beak a little fpiral obliquely. Linn.—P/acenta foltacea, Argenville. Adheres to rocks. This fhell is yellow, or white, with red beaks, and glabrous within; the upper valve is rather lefs and flatter than the lower, and in the hinge of the latter is an obtufe, thick, broad callofity crenated on each fide, with an oblique contiguous hollow. A native of India. -oblique tubular beaks longer than the valve. Gmel. CHA Cama bicornis. Shellwith conic valves, and horn-fhaped This bears a great affinity to Chama gryphoides; colour in general yellow, and red or white on each fide, with imbricated lamella. © Inhabits the Indian and American Oceans, and alfo the Mediterranean fea. Cuama arcinella. Shell grooved, muricated, with excas. vated dots ; hinge with a feffile callofity. Gmel. Breadth two inches and nearly the fame in length ; colour white with fometimes rofy fpines, within yellowifh ; margin crenated ; polterior excavation large, heart-fhaped, warty, wrinkled, with an appendage commonly on one fide A native of the American Ocean, but is rare. Cuama moltkiana. Shell obtufely triangular, equilateral, plaited ; anterior flope elevated, with oblique plaits and ftriz. Chemnitz, &c. This {pecies, which is about the fize of a hazel nut, refers- bles Chama Cor. It is milk-white and opake ; the beaks rather diltant ; hinge witha rounded narrow tooth under the beaks, and an-adjoining hollow for the infertion of the tooth in the oppofite valve; anterior to this is another long deep hollow between two teeth, and a little further back another round dilated tooth. Country unknown. CuHaAma concamerata. Shell with tranf{verfe wrinkles croff- ing the broad longitudinal ftriz ; in the middle of each valve within an additional chamber. Walch. Gmel. &e. This is a fhell of fmali fize, whitith, and very rare. In- habits the American Ocean. ‘ Cuama foliacea. Shell white, with foliaceous ferrated tranfverfe ftrie, the interftices crenated ; beak recurved, Gmel. Inhabits the Mediterranean, and American: feas ; it is faid to be found in a foffil ftate in Campania in France, but the latter is probably diftin@& though nearly allied to Chama foliacea. Cuama arata. Shell rounded, white brown; ribs triangular, perpendicular, margin unequal. Bonann. Found on the fhores of Syra- cufe. Gmelin fuppofes it may be of the Cordium inftead of Chama genus. Cuama’ fufca. Shell wrinkled, oblong, narrow and brown ; lower valve with a projecting, rounded, and fome- what incurvated beak. Gualt. Country unknown. . Cuama citrea. Shell roundifh, ventricofe, inequivalve, and muricated with fcattered unequal fcaly fpines. Regenf. Conch. This is of a citron colour, and inhabits America. Cuama thaca. Shell roundifh, longitudinally ftriated 5 poflerior flope retufe. Gmel. &c. Deferibed in Molina’s Natural Hiftory of Chili as a native of the Chilefe fhores, where it buries itfelf in the fands. The fhell is white violet and yellow on the outfide, within elegant purple; diameter about four inches. The animal rich and agreeable food. . CHAMA rugofa. deeply fulcated ; the wrinkles flightly imbricated ; margin doubly folded. Linn. Mant. This is about the fize of a man’s finger, gibbous, and thick, with thirty grooves; the outer margin with concave prominent projections from the wrinkles, the inner margin obtufe plaited; hinge with two or three oblique grooves declining towards the anterior fide. known, Cxuama gryphica. undulated with and wrinkled 5 Shell oblique, with a lateral oblique a Shell fomewhat orbicular, and very — Native country un- | depreffion or hollow: callofity of the hinge dentated.. Linn, ~ Mant. Refembles Anomia gryphi. This fpecies inhabits Barbary $ the fhell is pondtrous and thick, about the fize of a tilt; beaks obliquely curved backwards ; anterior flope longitu- dinally ae CHA Minally grooved and oblique towards the beaks; pofterior flope longitudinally concave. ; Cuama coralliophaga. Shell cylindrical, white, diaphanous, with decuffating itriz, the tran{verfe {lriz arched and imbri- gated. Chemn‘tz. Country unknown. CHAMADE, in Military Language, a conference or parley. Batre la chamade, is to beat a parley, or to make a fignal by “beat of drum, for a conference when any thing is ‘to be propofed. ‘Vhis fignal is fometimes made by found of trumpet, as well as by beat of drum. When the befieged are hard prefled or reduced to extremity, they beat the cha- made; and when either the befiezed or beliegers with for a truce or fhort ceffation of arms, for the purpofe of with- drawing their wounded, or burying their dead, or of any reclamation whatfoever, they beat the chamade: the be- fieged on the part of the rampart neareft to the attack, and the befiegers at the moft advanced part of their approaches. 2 CHAMABALANUS, in Botany, Rumph. Sce > Aracuis. CHAMABUXUS, Bauh. pin. See Porycava cha- mabunus. " 4 CHAMZECERASUS, Paub. pin. See Lonicera. & CHAMECISSUS, Fuchs. Bauh. hilt. See Gre- COMA. i CHAMZECISTUS ferpylifolia, floribus carneis, Bauh. pin. See Azavea procumbens. Cuamecistus luteus, Pet. —— urtice folio, Sloan, See ToRNeRAa pumilea. - Cramacistus caule hirfuto, Sloan, See 'Turnera aiftiodes . Cuamacistus hirfufutus, Bauh. pin. 8,Cluf, See Ruopopenvron Chameciflus. Cuamecistus roris folis foliis, Pet. See ANDROMEDA drofercides. b Cuamecistus frificus, Bauh. pin. See Saxirraca \ birculus. ‘ CHAaM2cIsSTUS americana, Herm. See Tavinum ¢érian- gulare. ‘ Cuamecistus erice folio humilior, Bauh. pin. -—— 6, > Cluf. See Cisrus fumana. CuHamecistus foliis myrti, Bauh.pin. 3, Cluf. See Cistus canus. Cuamecistus repens, Bauh. pin. | folius. — CuAmecistus incanus, Barr. \s Cuamecistus Juteus thymi folio, Barr. - thymifolius. , _ CHamecistus foliis thymi incanis, Bauh. pin. * Cluf. See Cisrus pilofus. _ Cwamexcistus montanus, Rai. Syn. u folius. CHAMZECLEMA, Hal. CHAMAZECRISTA, Comen. Cuamecaista, Breyn. See Cassia flexuo/a. b t CHAMZ.CHRYSOCOME, Barr.” See Sr#HELINA dubia. " CHAMZE-CYPARISSUS. See Santouina. CHAMADAPHNE, Mitch. See Mircuerva. - CHamepapune, Catefb. See Karma. Cuameparune, Buxb. See Anpromepa calyculata. Cuameparune vera Diofcoridis. See Ruscus aculeatus. ~ CHAMADRIFOLIA, Pluck. See ForskoeE tia éena- “ie tiffima. See Cistus ferpylli- See Cistus glutinofus. See Cistus 4) See Cisrus poli- See GLECHOMA. See Cassia chamecrifla. ' CHAMZEDRYS alpina minima, Bauh. pin. See Vero- “omic aphylla. Cuameprys alpina faxatilis, Bauh. pin. See Pape- ~ gota bonarota. = Vot. VII. ‘. 4 Ce Cuameneys Jpina, Bauh. pin. See Veronica Teur crium, trofrata, Chamedrys aufiriaca, latifolia, biloba. Cuameprys 3, Clofii. See Drvas odlopetala. Cuameprys major & minor repens, Bouh. pin. Teverits Chamedrys. Cuameprys /pino/z, Bauh. pin. nojum. Cuameprys, n. 289, Hall. Tourn. See Teucrium Botrys. Cuameaprys annua, Morif. See Tevcrium uiffolianum. CHAMapRYS maritima, Tourn. See ‘Teucrium marum. _Cuamazprys multiflora, Tourn. See Trucrium multi- forum. Crameprys canadenfis, Tourn. denfe. Cuamezpreys fruticofa inful. Stoech. crium ma/fflien/e. Cuamaprys vulgari falfe afinis, Bauh. hilt. Bartsts alpina. Cuameprys unicaulis /picata, Bauh. pin. THUS frixago. CHAMJEFILIX, Morif. See Asprenium marinum. CHAMZ-GENISTA, Bauh. Cluf. Dalech. Cam. See GenisTa. CHAMAIASME, Amm. afine. CHAMZEIRIS, Bauh. Cluf. See See Teucrium /pi- laciniatis foliis, Lob. See Trucrium canas Tourr. See Tev-~- Sce See Ruian- See Srevvera chamei- See Iris difora & umnila. CHAMZELARIX, Breyn. See Asparatuus che- nopoda. CHAM/ELEA, Cam. tricoccos, Bauh. pin. Gert. See Curorum ¢rioccow. Cuamarea foliis anguflis, && folio fubrotundo, Burm. See Puyxica flipularis. . CHamecea foliis linearis, Burm. malea. Cuamacea /foliis oblongis, Burm. noides F polygonoides. CHAM#LEAGNUS, Dod. See Myrica gale. CHAMELEON, in Afronomy. See Cameveon. CHAMZLEON exiguus, in Botany, J. Bauh. See Car- DuUS acaulis. CHAM eon falmanticenfis, Cluf. nefcens. Cuamaceon albus, Cluf. See Caruina acaulis. CHAMALEON albus Diofcoridis, Colum. See Arracty- Lis gummifera, Cram eon niger, Dalech. Dod. Bauh. pin. CarTHAMUS corymbofus. CHAMELEON non aculeatus, Lob. See CENTAUREA Co- nifera. CHAM#LEON, or CaMmELEON, in Zoology, a {mall and curious animal of the lizard tribe, celebrated from the re- moter days of claflical antiquity, for the faculty it was ima- gined to poffefs of changing its colours at pleafure, and af- fimilating to that of any fituation, or objeé near it. In the Linnzan fyftem of animals it ftands in that particular tribe of the Lacerta (fee article Lacerta), which have the feet furnifhed with five toes, fome only of which are conneGed, and the tail fhort, rounded, and incurved ; the Chameleontes of Gmelin. The French naturalifts, as Brongniard and Lacepede, feparate the chamzleontes from the lacert, and conflitute a new genus of this natural tribe of animals, un- der the name of cameleo, caméléon, in which they include fix diftinét varieties or fpecies, as will appear in the fequel. The only kind of Chameleon with which the ancients feem to have been acquainted, is the common fort found in India, 3G Africa, See Tracia cha See Crutia alater- See CarTHAMus ca- See CHAMELEON. Africa, and the hotter parts of Furope; as for inftance, Portugal and Spain. ‘Tis is {pecifically diftinguifhed by the cinereous colour of the body, and the head being flat. OF this fpecies there are two, or more, {uppofed varieties, or, as the French writers believe them, diltinét, thongh very analogous fpecies. One of thefe varieties has the body white, which is the Cameleo candidus of Laurenti; andanother, Cameleo capite pregrandi, has the head of a remarkably large fize: this latt is defcribed by Dr. Parfons in the Philofophi- cal Tranfactions for 1763. Befides thefe, the Cameleo mexicanus of Laurentiis confidered only asa variety. Lin- fheus was induced to admit all-the ditlerent races of the chameleon tribe as varieties of this individual fpecies ; in the Gmelinian edition of the Syltema Nature, the two kinds, Africana and Pumila, are very properly removed from the former, and detcribed as diftinét. The gencral length of the common chameleon is about ten or twelve inches, meafuring from the tip of the nofe to the beginning of the tail; and the tail is nearly of a fimilar length. Its figure and proportions are uncouthly fingular. The head is large, flat above, and of a fubtriangular form : the pofterior part of its body feems crippled, and the legs ill-fhapen and long. Its motions are flow, except when in the act of climbing trees in fearch of its prey, which confifts of infects, when it afcends and defcends with fome facility, by means of its legs, which are well adapted for climbing, while at the fame time it never fails to fecure its hold more firmly by coiling its tail round the fmaller branches. When it walks on the ground, it moves with a ludicrous air of gravity and circum{pection, in a regular and even pace, which it will not haften, even at the approach of danger. The fecundity of this animal is fuppofed to be very great, being, from the flownefs of its motions and mode of life, in- ceffantly expofed to the attacks of voracious birds, ferpents, and various other animals, without any means of defence, and being yet found in vait numbers in the countries they naturally inhabit. The term of this animal’s hfe is un- known ; it thrives beft in hot countries. Even in Lower Egypt, and on the coaft of Barbary, when the weather is not very hot, the chameleon feems to lofe its ordinary fhare of activity, and oftentimes, in the winter feafon, they are found in thofe parts concealed under heaps of {tones, where they lie overpowered by the cold in a perfeétly motionlefs ftate, without being afleep. The Africans and Indians re- gard the chamaleon as a moft ufeful animal ; they fee them enter their habitation with pleafure, and endeavour as much as poffible to domefticate them, the chameleon deftroying mofquitos, ants, anda hoft of other winged infeéts, with which they are tormented. The chamaleon by the power it poffeffes, like moft of the amphibia, of inflating its lungs, and retaining the air for a eonfiderable time, can alter the appearance of its body at pleafure ; fometimes appearing of a plump or flethy afpeét, while at other times, upon expelling the air from the lungs, and keeping them in a collapfed ttate, the whole animal af- fumes the mott lank and miferable afpe&t imaginable. At fuch times the fkeleton feems fcarcely more than covered with a thin fkin, the back-bone and ribs becoming diftin@ly vifible on each fide uw der the contrated fkin. This inflation affects not only the body, but alfo the legs and tail, the ten- dons of which may be clearly traced in its extenuated flate through the tkin. When thus puffed out, the animal can remain 10 for the fpace of an hour or two, or even fo long as fix hours, the parts being {peedily inflated, but the com- preflion being cffeed gradually, and thus by an almott in- fenlible tinking of the parts, the dilated animal aflumes the meagre condition betore related. ‘The fkin in every part of the animal is of a granulated ftructure, the granules differing in fize on various parts, from that of a {mall pin’s head to the diameter of the tenth of an inch, or more, efpecially about the proje@ing parts of the head and jaws, and on each fide of the belly. Down the back is a feries of obtufe den- ticulations, forming a fubacute ridge from the head to the bafe of the tail, and decreafing in fize towards the latter. The feet confilt of five toes each, the anterior pair have the two outward toes united together by a common {kin, and the three inner cnes connected in a fimilar manner; the re- verfe of which 1s obferved in the fect of the pofterior legs, thofe having the three outer toes, and the two inner ones, connected. The mouth is wide, and the bones of the jaws denticu- lated, fo as to reprefent {mall teeth. lian mentions thefe ceffeous denticulations, and fuppofing they could be of no fervice to the creature in eating, fince it fubfifts on flies, which it fwallows whole, inters they muft be intended by nature for its defence, and gravely affirms, that by means of thefe the chameleon holds a ftick ‘croflways in its mouth to prevent its being {wallowed by ferpents! The tongue is of a very extraordinary form, being compofed of a white fo- lid flefh, about ten lines long and three broad, round, a little flattened towards the end, hollow, and open, fomewhat like the end of an elephant’s probofcis. This tongue is faftened to the os hyoides by means of a fort of trunk, fhaped like an inteftine, fix inches lony, and a line broad, having a membrane without, and a nervous fubftance within, which is folid and compaét, though foft, and not eafily divi- fible into fibres. This trunk ferves to caft out the tongue, which is faftened to it, by extending it, and to draw it back by contraéting it, which motion it is enabled to perform by a kind of cartilaginous flylus, to which its invelling mem- brane is attached, and over which it is plaited like a filk ftocking on the leg: this ftylus is an inch long, and takes its origin from the middle of the bafe of the os hyoides, asia the tongues of feveral birds, and a rumber of blood veffels are diltributed over it. This tongue is finely adapted for the purpofe of feizing its prey, which confilts of infe&s, forming a miffile body with a dilated and fomewhat tubular tip, by means of which the animal feizes them with the” greatetl eafe, darting it out in the fame manner as the wry- neck, or the woodpecker, and retraGting it inftantaneoufly with the prey fecured at the tip. The ftru€ure, form, and motion of this creature’s eyes are very peculiar: they are remarkably large, being nearly half an inch in ciameter, of a” {pherical form, and projeGting in the living animal full half of their diameter: thefe are covered with only a fingle ve lid or fkin, pierced in the middle with a {mall hole, throug! which the bright.and vivid pupil appears, furrounded by a golden ycllow iris. The eyelid is granulated lke the reff of the animal, and the fore part of the eye is attached to it in {uch a manner that the eyelid follows all the motions of the eye. The motions of the eye are not lefs fingular than its ftru@ure, fince it can turn them fo as to fee whatever paffes either far backward, on either fide, or direétly behind it, without at all moving the head. Sometimes one of thefe eyes will move while the other is at reft, or turn forwards while the other is directed backwards; or upwards, while — the other is turned downwards. By extending the fkin of the orifice crofs-ways, the chameleon can clofe its eyes, the | holes then becoming a longitudinal fiffure. The brain is extremely {mall: the heart is alfo fmall, truncated at the tip, and furnifhed with large auricles, efpecially the left. The lungs are very large when inflated, and divided into feveral facular fubdivifions. + The Promethean-like faculty of the ehamzleon, to co bi € HAM P°mso N, ite colour, has excited ecuriofity in all ages. ‘That it de- pended in a very confiderable degree on the will of the ani- mal to exert this power was too apparent to be denied ; but in what manner this ¢ffcét was produzed and operated on the frame of the chamzlcon was referved for the inveftiations of later natu aliits to determine with competentaccuracy. Sene- amaintainedit wasefle Ged by fuifiion; Solinus, by refleCtion ; and others, as the Cartefians, by the diffcrei:t dilpofition of the parts that compote the flon, which give a different modifica- tion to the rays of light. Korcher afcribes the change of -colour tn the chameleon to the power of imagination in the animal, becaufe it lofes 1: when dead. Dr. Goddard attri- butes it to the grains in the fkiny which, in the feveral pof- tures. he thinks, may fhow feveral colours, and when the creature is in fall vigour, may have, as he terms it, rationem Speculi, or etfe& of mirrors, and refleét the colours of the bo- dies adjacent. That the colonrs are not by any means de- termined by furrounding obj-ie, has been the aim of late obfervers to demonftrate; that they change with frequence and rapidity 1s admitted, but it is not true that they are in- fluenced by the colour of any obje@ in contact with it. The changes of colour which this animal exhibits vary ac- cording to the fttate of its health, the temperature of the weather, to age or fex, and a varicty of other fubordinate circum!tances, all which tend to operate a change in the va- riable alp2¢t of this fingular ereature. Thefe tranfitions confit chiefly in the alteration of the fhades from the na- tural green, or bluifh-grey of the fkin into pale yellowtth with irregular fpots and variegations of dull red; or dufky inclining to black'th. The epidermis of this animal is tran{pa- rent, the fkin beneath yellow, and the blood of a lively vioict blue. The tranfitory combination of thofe colours therefore becomes apparent externally when the blood of the heart is impelled to the furface of the fkin and the extremities, changing to violet, yellow, blue, and green, in a variety of hues as the blood circulates near the fuperficies. When the animal is fick it turns to a greyifh dirty yellow, or brownifh, like a decayed leaf, this being the true colour of the {kin when the blood is withdrawn ; but expofe him to the rays of the fun, the genial heat revives and invigorates his whole fyftem, and fetting the blood, before torpid, in motion to- wards the fkin, the violet and bluifh prevail again, and by their intermixture with the yellownefs of the fin the green will alfo re-appear. Return him again into the cold, the blood is withdrawn from the furface of the fkin inwardly, and thefe colours, which depend on the immediate prefeuce of the blood, will natural y fade away. Thus it happens alfo, that the colours of the chamaleon are paleft in the night time, or in the dark, as Opfonvilie and Golberry have fhewn. The fame effeét, and depending on the fame caufes as in the chamzleon, is alfo obfervable in the lizard called Lacerta bullaris by Gmelin and Linnzus, with this difference only, that the tranfitions of colour are not fo decidedly evinced as in the chamzleon ; but this latter animal which, expofed to the fun-fhine is of a clear green, changes to a dufky blackith green, or yellowifh, and in the cold to grey blending into brown; this animal, like the chamzleon, poffeffing the fa- eulty of impelling its blood to the furface of the fkin, or withdrawing it, and by that means of varying its tints at pleafure. The fame circnmftances are to be remarked in a Hill lefs degree wn feveral other animals of the lizard tribe. Chameleons have been fometimes brought alive into this country. Inthe year 1780 a {pecimen of this animal was kept ina living flate for fome time in the company of apothecaries’ ph fic garden at Chelfea, which, though in a comparatively Hy ftate, exhibited thofe tranfitions of colour from blu- ith-afh to green, or yellowith {potted with brown before mentioned. Several chamzleons have been: preferved aliv= at different times in Paris. One of thefe afforded the French Academicians a favourable opportunity of inveftigat- ing the manners and ftruture of this curious animal. ‘T'he refults of their inquiries are interefting, and ferve to throw confiderable light upon the hiftory of the chameleon. The following paffages in particular feem to merit particular t= tention. The colour of all the eminences (fay thofe writ- ers) of our chameleon, when it was at reft in the fhade, and had continued a long time undifturbed, was a blaith grey, except under the feet, where it was white inclining to yellow, and the intervals of the granules of the fin were of a pale and yellowifh red. This grey, which coloured all the parts expofed to the light, changed when in the fun; and all the places of its body which were illuminated, inftead of their bluifh colour, became of a brownifh grey. The reft of the fkin, which was not illuminated by the fun, changed its grey into feveral brifl and fhining colours, forming {pots about half a finger’s breadth, reaching from the creft of the fpine to the middle of the back; others appeared on the ribs, fore legs, and tail. All thefe {pots were of an ifabella co- lour, through the mixture of a pale yellow, with which the granules were tinged, and of a bright red, which is the co- lour of the bottom of the fkin, vifible between the granules: the reft of the fkin not enlightened by the fun, and which was of a paler grey than ordinary, refembled a cloth made of mixed wool; fome of the granules being greenifh, others of a minime-grey, and others of the ufual bluifh grey, the ground remaining as before. When the fun did not thine the firft grey appeared again by little and little, and {pread itfelf all over the body, except under the fect, which cor- tinued of the fame colour, but a little browner; and when in this ftate fome of the company handled it, there immedi- ately appeared on its fhoulders and fore legs feveral very blackifh {pots about the fize of a finger nail, and which did not take place when it was handled by thofe who ufually took care of it. Sometimes it was marked with brown fpots, which inclined towards green. We afterwards wrapt it up ina linen cloth, where having been two or three mt- nutes, we took it out whitifh; but not fo white as that of which Aldrovandus fpeaks, which was not to be diftinguifhed from the linen on which it lay. Ours which had only changed its ordinary grey into a very pale one, after having kept this colour fome time, loft it infenibly. This expe- riment made us queftion the truth of the chameleon’s taking all colours but white, as Theophraltus and Plutarch report ; for ours feemed to have fuch a difpofition to retain this colour, that it grew pale every night; and wher dead it had more white than any other colour; nor did we find that it changed colour ail over the body, as Ariftotle re- ports; for when it takes other colours than grey, and dif- guifes itfelf to appear in mafquerade, as /Eian pleafantly fays, it covers only certain parts of the body with them. Lattly, to conclude the experiments relative to the colours which the chameleon can take, it was laid on fubltances of various colours, and wrapped up therein ; but did not take them as it had done the white, and it took that only the firft time the experiment was made, though it was repeated feveral times on different days. In making thefe experi- ments, we obferved, that there were a great many places of its {kin which grew brown, but very little at atime; to be certain of which, we marked, with {mall fpecks of ink, thofe granules which to us appeared the whitett in its pale ftate ; and we always found that when it grew browneft, and the fkin fpotted, thofe grains which we had marked were always lefs brown than the rett.”’ The popular error, of the chameleon living on air alone, 3G2 is ) C HA is-thouyht to have arifen from the long abfinence which this animal can occafionally {upport ; inftances having, it is faid, occurred of its pafling feveral months without any ap- parent nourifhment. ‘This, theugh afferted by refpectable writers, is contradicted by the obfervations of the ingenious Sonnini, who, during his travels in Egypt, had an opportu- tunity of afcertaining this circumftance, and aétually did bettov: fome pains, as appears from his writings, to determine this point to his fatisfa&tion. ‘It is now well known (fays Sonnini) that the changing of the colours in the chame- leons is not to be aferibed to the objects prefented to them; that their different affections increafe or diminifh the inten- fity of the tints with which the very delicate flin. which covers them, is, as it were, marbled; that they are not fa- tisfied with nourifhment fo unfubftantial as ai; that they require more folid aliment, ard {wallow flies and other in- feéts; and that, finally, the marvellous ftories which have been told refpe€ting this fpecies of lizard, are merely a tiffue of fiGtions which have difgraced the fcience of nature down to this day. I have preferved fome chameleons, not that I was tempted to repeat the experiment of Cornelius le Bruyn, who, after having gravely affured us, that the cha- mezleons which he kept in his apartment at Smyrna, lived on air, adds that they died one after another in a very fhort {pace of time, but I wifhed to fatisfy myfelf to what a point they would fubfifl without food. I had“employed every precaution to prevent entirely their having any without ceafing to be expofed to the open air. They lived thus for 20 days; but what kind of life? From being plump as they were when I caught them, they foon became extreme- ly.thin. With their good plight they gradually loft their agility and their colours ; the fkin became livid and wrinkled; it adhered clofe to the bone, fo that they had the appear- ance of being dried before they ceafed to exif.” We fhall now enumerate thofe {pecies of the Linnean lacerte, which approach fo near the common ehameleon as to have been confounded with its varieties. AFRICAN CHAMELEON. Lacerta africana. Gmel. Le caméléon d’ Afrique, of the French writers, is {pecifieally di- ftinguifhed by being of a blaekifh colour, and having the crown of the head carinated. Chameleo ex Africa colore ui- gricante, at pecine albo fupra dorfum decoratus, Seba. This, according to Scba, is from the coaft of Barbary, and is the largeft chameleon known: along the back to the end of the tail, runs a pure white {tripe bounded by a black- ifh border or band; the reft of the animal is varied with pale einereous undulations. In manners this refembles the lait, and all the prominent parts are white. Lirtte Cuamareon. Lacerta pumila. Gmel. With the body bluifh on the fides, and marked with two yellow- ith lines. Le Caméléon nain of Bofe and others. Chameleo Promontorii Bone Spei, caruleo alboque colore marmoris inflar va- riegatus of Seba. This kind inhabits the Cape of Good Hope, and has the head fomewhat flatter than the former, though ftill elevated towards the middle part, and has the margin on each fide denticulated. The body is of a bluith colour, marbled or variegated with white. Betides the common chameleon, Le Camé/éon commun, and the two lait-mentioned fpecies, the French admit three others as f{pecies of their genus caméléon; Le Caméléon du Sénégal, Le Caméléon du Cap de Bonne-efperance,and Le Caméléon Fourchu. The firlt, or Senegal chameleon, is {maller than the common chameleon; the helmet or head-piece is ellip- foidal, and flat above; and the denticulations on the back and carina are lefs prominent. ‘That from the Cape, the ecord {peeics, has the head-piece almof flat above, with a CHA line of large tubercles behind each eye; and the denticulas tions of the back and ridge of the collar are more difperfed and are not continued fo far under the belly and the tail. Le caméléon fourchu is certainly a very diftin& fpecies from the reft. This has the muzzle advanced or projecting and terminated in two lengthened compreffed proceffes, The top of the head is flat, and is denticulated in its out- line. In fize and general afpect it refembles the common chameleon. This was brought from Java, and was figured by Brongniard in the French Bulletin des Sciences, and is re= peated in Latreiile’s recent Hift. Nat. des Reptiles. In the year 1669, Claude Perrault publifhed a work en- . titled <* Defcription Anatomique d’un Caméléon.”? ‘“ Prae fide, Differtatio de Viétu aéreo, feu mirabili potius inedia Chameleontis,” &c. by Hopfero appeared in 1681; and in 1707 ‘€ Differtatio de Chamzleonte,’? by Kaalund. Be- fides thefe, and the works before mentioned, there are none of material intereft on the chameleon. The paper by Dr. Parfons in the 55th volume of the Philofophical Tranfaétions. entitled «An Accountof a particular Species of Chameleon,” appeared again in French as the ‘* Relation d’une Efpece par- ticuliere de Chameleon,” ( Fourn. de Phy/ique) but contain- ed nothing new. ‘ Nachricht von ciner befondern gattung des Chamaleons,”’ and “ Befchreibung eines Chameleons,”* are tracts upon the fame fubjeét. Cuamezzeon, Mineral, in Chemifiry, a fubftance pro« duced by fubjecting one part of black oxyd of manganele to ignition in a crucible with ¢hree parts of pure nitrat of pot-afh, until the mafs ceafes fufing, and affumes a dry earthy appearance. If a portion of this powder be put in a glafs containing clear pump-water, the fluid becomes firlt green, then violet, afterwards reddifh, and at laft again to- tally difcoloured: the metallic oxyd falling then to the bottom with a black colour. But if it be preferved ina bottle quite filled with boiled, diltilled water, and well ftopped, the green colour lafts longer, changes gradually to blue, and a yellow ochreous oxyd of iron precipitates. To explain thefe changes of colours, it may be obferved, that the nitre is decompofed by the calcining heat, and alkalized by the lofs of its acid ; that the black manganefian oxyd is brought by ignition to the {tate of a mere imperfeé oxyd, and that, therefore, its alkaline folution may appear blue. But as the black oxyd of manganefe contains fome admixed oxyd of iron, the blue colour of the folu- tion is changed into a green by the yellow tint of the oxyded iron. The oxyd of iron fublides by repofe, and then the blue colour re-appears. ‘The manganefian oxyd abforbs again, by degrees, more oxygen from the atmo- {pheric air; it affumes, therefore, a brown red tinge, be- comes at la{t biack, and precipitates at this period. Gren’s Principles of Modern Chemiftry, vol. ii. p. 410. CHAM/ELEONTES, one of the families inte which late writers {eparate the lizard or lacerta tribe. The Chama- leontes are Lacerta chameleon, Africana SF pumila. See Lacerta. CHAMELINUM, in Botany, Barr. See Linum ca- tharticum. CHAMZEMELUM canarienfe, Morif. in Botany. See CurysanTHEemuM /frutefcens. CuHamMameE tum alpinum, Bauh. Pin. — pallidum & See An- montanum, Barr. See C. alpinum. CuammMeEtum alpinum abrotani folio, Vail. THEMIS montana. CHAM2MELUM inodorum, Morif. Rai. rum. CHAMEMELUM inodorum, Bauh. Pin. arvenfis. See ANTHEMIS CHAMZEMELUM See C. inodo- ars CHA ¢ €CsAmeEmeEtuM maritimum, Rai. rilima. CHAMZMELUM maritimum, J. Bauh. See ANTHEMIS ma- ritima. CHAMZEMELUM marilimum incanum, Beth. See A. tomen- tofa. CHAM£EMELUM vulgare, Baub. Pin. See Matricaria ehamomilla. P Cuameme tum incenum, Tourn. See M. argentea. CuHamM&MELUM aureum peregrinum, J. Bauh. See Co- . | TULA aurea. ‘CuamzmeEtum athiopicum, Breyr. See C. turbinata. Cuamametum leucanthemum, Pluk. See C. capenfts. Cuamame cum /edcanthemum hi/panicum, Bauh. Pin. See ANTHEMIs altiffima. CuamZ@meLumM /foliis pinnatis, Tourn. erientalis. Cuamame tum /uteum, Bauh. Pin. See A. aureus. CHAMZMELUM annuum ramofum, Morif. See AnTHE- MIS cota and mixta Cuamaemeuum chium, Tourn. See Antruemts chia. Cuamame um nobile, Bauh. Pin. --— odoratum, Dod. 102, Hall. See A. nobilis. -CuHamazme tem fatidum, Bauh. Pin. See A. cotula. : Cuamzmetum fatidum marinum, Vaill. tina. Cuamametum Jpeciofo fore, Shaw. thrum. CHAMAMELUM fanaceti mincris folio, Vaill. din@oria. CHAMEMELUM pumilum, Burm. See ArctToris an- themoides. CHAME-MESPILUS, Cluf. Bauh. Pin. See Mes- PILUS cotonea/fter. CHAM:-MOLY, Colum. See Atrium chamamoly. CHAM/E-MORUS, Cluf. See Rusus chamemerus. CHAMANERION, Bauh. Pin Schreb. Scheuch. Scop. See Erirosium,. _CHAM-ORCHIS, Bauh. Pin. See Opurys alpina. CHAMAPERICLEMUM, Cluf. Ger. Park. Rai. See Cornus /uecica. ' CHAM/EPEUCE, Alp. euce. CHAMZEPITYS incana, Bauh. Pin. éretica. Cuamepitys caerulea, Bauh. Pin. LUM au/iriacum. | _Cuamezpitys lutea vulgaris, Bauh. Pin. See Teucrium See MarriCARta maa See Anacycius 104, Hal. See A. valen- See A. pyre- See A. See Sr#uHELina chame- See Cressa See DracocePHa- chamepithys. Cuamepirtys /puria, Bauh. Pin, SeeTEucrium pfeudo- shamepithys. Cuamezpitys mofchata, Bauh. Pin. See Teucrium iva. Cuameritys ethiopica, Pluk. See Erica plukenetii. CHAMRHODODENDRON exoticum, Breyn. See Azavea indica. _CHAM/ERHODODENDROS pontica me/pilt folio, Tourn. See Azavea pontica. CHAMARHODODENDROS /upina, Bocc. procumbens. ~Cuam#ruopovennros fpontica folio laurocerafi, Tourn. See RHopoDENDRON ponticum. Cuamaruopopenpros folio glabro, Amm. DODENDRON dauricum. CHAMZERIPHA peregrina, in Zoology, the name given by Clufius to the gorgonia palma of Pallas. See AZALEA See Ruo- CHA CHAM/ERIPHES, in Botany, Dod. Gert. See Cua- MzRoOpPS humilis. CHAMAROPS, (from xyes, and ew), implying a low fhrub), Linn. Gen. 1289. Schreb. 1688. Jufl. 39. Vent. vol. ii, 125. (Chamzriphes, Gert.) Clafs and order, polygamia diacia. Nat. ord. Palme, Linn. Jufl. Vent. Gen. Ch. Hermaphrodite. Cal. fpathe univerfal, com- prefled, bifid; fpadix branching ; perianth proper, fmall, three-cleft, Linn. (fix-leaved, Gert.) Cor. petals three, or one, longer than the calyx, egg-fhaped, coriaceous, ereét, acute, inflexed at the tip. Svam. filaments fix, (from {x to nive, Gert.), awl fheped, comprefled, fearcely cohering at the bale, didymous, aahering tothe interior fide of the fila- ments. Pif. germs three, roundifh; ftyles three, dithiné, permanent; itigmas acute. Perie. di upes three, globular, one- celled. Sveds folitary, globular, Maleon a diitin@ plan’. Ca- lyx and corolla as in the hermaphrodite. Stamens fix, not diftinétly perforated, ftanding on a gibbous recepta le. Sp. 2. C. humilis, dwarf fan-palm, or palmetto, Linn Sp. Pl. Savigny in Encyc.Mart. Lam, LIluft. Pl. goo. fig. 1. (Paima minor, Bauh. Pin. 506. Chamenp es, Dod. Pempt. 820. Pont. Anth. 147. tab. 8. ©. major, Gart. tab. 9. fiz. 4.) “ Fronds palmated, plaited, {tipes thorny.” In its wild {tate generally without a trank; but in Valeutia wild plants are found with trunks from twenty to thirty feet high, their ufual height in the Paris gardens. In its trunklefs ftate, as the lower leaves of the plant decay, their veftiges remain, and form a fhort ftump above ground, fimi- lar to that of polypodium filix mas, our common male fern, fram which the f{padix is produced. Trunk, when prefent, eylindrical, five or fix inches in diameter, upright, quite fimple ; naked at its bafe, but marked with circular fears ; befet upwards with triangular feales, which are the bafes of the petioles of fallen leaves. Leaves from thirty to forty, on the crown of the root, or the top of the trunk, from nine to eighteen inches long, near a foot broad, digitated, or deeply palmated ; outer ones horizontal, or reflexed, inner ones I:{s expanding as they approach the centers; divifions or leaflets from twelve to fifteen, narrow, and {word-fhaped, keeled, acute, finely ferrated, longitudinally nerved, {mooth, or flightly pubefcent, quite entire, of a rather glaucous green colour ; at firft clofed together like a fan when fhut, and faftened to each other by ftrong fibres, which run along their borders; afterwards, fpread open, the broken fibres hanging from the fides and ends 3 {tipes or petioles thick, {mooth, flat, with two fharp edges ; armed with ftromg, thort, acute, oblique, lateral fpines. Spathes from fix to eight inches long, much compreffed, ciliated, opening at one of their edges, Spadix panicled, thick, flat. Flowers {mall, yellow. Fruit, drupes nearly globular, obfcurely trigonous at their bafe, dark brown; with pale, callous, elevated dots ; rind thin, fomewhat co- riaceous ; flefh thickifh, fibrous, feparate from the feed ; when old, cork-like, hard, inodorous. Seed {mooth, elliptic- fpheroidal, with a fmall lateral papilla below the middle, which covers the embryo. A native of Italy, Sicily, and Spain, covering the ground in the fame manner as fern docs in the more northern part of Europe. ‘The leaves are tied up into befoms for fweeping. They are alfo ufed for making bafkets and thatching buildings. The pith near the root is {weetifh and tender, and is fometimies eaten in deferts. 6. C. glabra Miller. * Leaves fan-fhaped, very large ; ilipes frrooth.’? A native of the Weft Indies, where it never rifeg with a ftem ; the ftipes are rounder than thofe of the Euro- pean fan-palm, and have no {pines on their fides. It feems tobe a diltin® fpecice. y. C. minor, Gert. Drupes cy- $ lindrical GH 2 da lindrical-ovate, fisthy, {mooth; rind very thin; fieth foft, eafily yielding to the preflure of the finger even when old, fibrous within, adhering on all fides to the feed. Seed fhorter and rounder than that of C. major, furnifhed with two papillz ; one fuperior, entirely folid; the other inferior, fmaller, covering the embryo. 2. C. excel//a, creeping- rooted fan-palm, or ground-ratan, Murray Syit. 984. Mill. Thunb. Jap. 130. (Rhapis flabelliformis, Mart. Hort. Kew. vol. i. 473. MSS. of Linn. jun. Salifb. Prod. 264. L’Herit. Stirp. Nov. tab. 100.) ‘+ Fronds palmated, plaited; plaits and edges ferrated or prickly, with {mall teeth; ftipes unarmed.”? A lofty tree. Leaves {mooth, pale underneath; leaflets cohcring atthe.bafe, linear, cloven at the end, ferrated, with rugged veins ; petioles three-corner- ed, entire, the length of the leaves. Flowers in a decom- pound fpreading panicle, feffile on the outmoft pedicels. A native of China and Japan. Introduced about 1774 by Mr. James Gordon. Befoms are made of the thin netted bark of the trunk. 3. C. arundinacea, timple-leaved fan- . palm. (Rhapis arundinacea, Mart. Mil. Hort. Kew. vol. iti, p. 474.) ‘¢ Fronds two-parted ; lobes acute, plaited; plaits fomewhat rugged.’ A native of Carolina. Introduced in 1765. 4. C. cochinchinenfis, Mart. Lour. Cochin. 657. ‘ Fronds palmated, plaited ; ftipes thorny ; fpathes partial ; corollas monopsetalous.”” Trunk eight feet high, an inch in diameter, ftraight, equal. Stipes long, flender, with fhort, ttraight, fcattered fpines. Fronds tur- binate ; fegments fmall, oblong, blunt, many-plaited. Spadix fhort, upright. Spathe univerfal none ; partial lanceolate, fhorter than the fpadix ; calyx three-leaved ; leaflets fhort, upright, acute, curved ; corolla monopetalous, cup-fhaped, three-cornered ; border very fmall, trifd, inflexed; fila- ments very fhort, placed on the border of the corolla; an- thers roundifh; minute. Drupes egg-fhaped, {mall, juicelefs, not eatable. A native of the woods of Cochin-China. The fronds are ufed for covering houfes and making umbrellas. Obf/. Although a new genus has been formed for the fecond and third fpecies, aud adopted by very high autho- rities; yet, as nothing is known of their fructification, be- fides a one-leafed trifid perianth, a one-petalled trifid co- rolla, and fix filaments, there feems no fufficient reafon for feparating them from chamerops.” Crame#rops, in Gardening, comprifes a plant of the perennial exotic kind ; of which the {pecies cultivated is the dwarf fan palm or palmetto, (C. humilis), which never rifes with an upright ftem, but the foot-ftalks of the leaves pro- ceed immediately from the head of the root, and are armed on each fide with ftrong fpines; are flat on their upper furface, and convex on their under fide: the centers of the leaves are faftened to the foot-italk, and {pread open like a fan, having many foldings, and at the top are deeply di- vided like the fingers of a hand: when they firlt come out they are clofed together, like a fan, when {hut, and are faftened together by ftrong fibres, which run along the borders of the leaves; and when the leaves fpread open thefe fibres or ftrings hang from the fides and ends: the borders of the leaves are finely fawed, and have white nar- row edgings: they are from nine to eighteen inches long, and near a foot broad in their wideft part: from between the leaves comes out the {padix or club, which fuftains the flowers. This is covered with a thin fpathe or hood, which falls off when the bunches open and divide. It grows naturally in Italy, &c. Method of Culture. Thefe plants may be raifed by feeds, and fide flips from the head of the roots. In the firft method, the feeds procured from abroad fhould be fown in pots of light fandy earth, and plunged in a hot-bed of tan- CG. a ner’s bark, eccafional watetings being given. In the autumn or fpring following, the plants will be in a proper ftate to be pricked out in feparate pots. In this culture much depends on having good feeds, as when thefe are not well prepared they often fail. In the fecond mode, the flips of the crown of the roots or fide offsets, muft be feparated with the root fibres, and planted out in pots filled with fandy earth, and plunged in a hot-bed. But the plants are ftronger from feeds than when raifed in this way. Moitly in ten or twelve months the plants will be fit to be removed into other pots, which fheuld be done in fuch a manner as not to injure their roots, as when that is the cafe they are lable to be deftroyed or become feeble in their growth. Thefe plants moftly require the protection of a flove while in their young gfowth ; but when become hardy by gradual expofvre to the air, they are capable of fucceeding in a full expefure in fummer, and in a green-houfe in win- ter; but muft always be kept in pots of light fandy earth, and be frequently watered in fummer, but more moderately when the weather is cold than in the fummer feafon. In ftove-colle€tions they have a good effect by their curious appearance. CHAM/ERUBUS, in Botany, Bauh. Pin. See Rusus Jfaxatilis and Chamemorus. CHAMASYCE, Bavh. Pin. Clof. chama/yce. Cuam-esyce, Sloan. See Eupuorsia maculata. CHA-MA-HI, in Geography, a town of Afia, in the ifland of Formofa, N. lat. 22° 10’. E. long. 120° rq’. CHAMAILLER is to fight againft an enemy armed cap-a-peé. CHAMAILLERE, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Puy-de-Dome, and diftri@ of Clermont ; 1 mile S.W. of Clermont. CHAMANA, in Ancient Geography, a country of Afia, in Cappadocia, according to Ptolemy. CHAMANIM, in the Fewifh Antiquities, is the He- ~ brew name for that which the Grecks ca!l pyreta, or pyra- teria ; and St. Jerom in Leviticus (ch. xxvi. 30.) has tranf= lated fimulachra, in Ifaiah (ch. xxvul. 9.) delubra. Thefe chamanim were, according to rabbi Solomon, idols expofed to the fun upon the tops of houfes. Abenezra fays, they were portable chapels or temples, made in the form of chariots in honour of the fun. What the Greeks call pyreza, were temples confecrated to the fun and fire, wherein a perpetual fire was kept up. They were built upon eminences, and were large enclo- fures, without covering, where the fun was worfhipped. Herodotus (lib. i, p-87.) and Strabo (lib. xv.) fpeak of them; and the guedres, or worfhippers of fire, in Perfia and the Indies, have fill thefe pyreta, Strabo fays, that in his time there were many of thefe temples to be feen in Cappadocia, confecrated to the goddefs Anaita, and the god Homanns. Aijiaita is, in all probability, the moon, and Homanus the fun. The word chamanim is derived from chaman, which figni- fies to warm. Calmet. CHAMARANDE, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Seine and Oife, and diftri& of Elttampes; 5 miles N.N.E. of it. CHAMARIM, a word mentioned in feveral places of the Hebrew Bible, and> generally tranflated the pricfls of the idols, or pric/ts cloathed in black, becaule chamar fignifics black or blacknef:. Camar, in Arabic, fignifies the [moon; Ifis is the fame deity. Grotius thinks the Roman pricfts called scamilli, came Sce Eveuorsia CHA exme from the Hebrew chamarim. They, among the hea- thens, who facrificed to the infernal gods, were drefled in black. «© Vidi egomet nigra fuccinétam vadere palla Canidiam pedibus nudis, pafloque capillo.”” Hor. hb. i. fat. 8. v. 23. CHAMAVI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Lower Germany, placed by Ptolemy to the fouth of the Bruderiti. M. d’Anville places them N.E. of the Teuerii. They occupied the parts adjacent to the Rhine. Y CHAMAZE, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Mayenne, and diftrit of Chateau-Gou- thier; 4 miles S.W. of it. CHAMBE, a town of Armenia; 120 miles S.E. of Erivan. CHAMBER, in Archite@ure, amember of a lodging, or piece of an apartment, ordinarily intended for fleeping in ; and called by the Latins cudiculum. The word comes from the Latin camera ; and that, ac- cording to Nicod, from the Greek xapex, vault or curve ; the term chamber being originally confined to places arched over. A complete apartment is to confift of a hall, antechamber, chamber, and cabinet. As to the proportions of chambers, their length fhould be to the breadth as 14 to 1, or fome fmall matter lefs, but ought never to exceed that proportion; and, as for the height, it fhould be three-fourths of the breadth. The height of the chambers of the fecond ftory, fhould be a twelfth part lefs than the height of thofe below: thus, if the height of the fir flory be fixteen feet, that of the fecond will be fourteen feet eight inches. As to the height of the third ftory, iv fhould be only three-fourths of the fecond. In building bed-chambers, regard fhould be had as well to the fituation of the bed, as to that of the chimney. For which reafon, the chimney ought to be placed juft in the middle, but diftant from it about two feet, or two and an half, in order to make room for the bed, which prevents this inequality from being difcerned. See Dsp- Chamber. , : CuamBer Mujfic, compofitions for a fmall concert-room, a {mall band, and a {mall audience ; oppofed to mutic for the church, the theatre, or a public concert-room. See Mufica di Camera. CHAMBER, privy.—Gentlemen of the Privy-CHaMBER are fervants of the king, who are to wait and attend on him and the queen at court, and in their diverfions, pro- greffes, &ce. : Six of thefe are appointed by the lord-chamberlain, to- gether with a peer, and the maller of the ceremonies, to at- tend all ambaffadors from crowned heads in their public en- stries. Their number is fifty. Their inftitution is owing to king Henry VII. Asa fingular mark of favour, they are empowered to execute the king’s verbal command, and without producing any written order; théir perfon and character being deemed fufficient authority. Mr. Pegge (in his ‘* Curialia,” gto. 1782) has a differta- tion on the original nature, duty, &c. of the king’s moft honourable privy chamber. From this we learn, that the molt ancient mention of +‘ gentlemen” of the privy- chamber, is faid to be in the “ Liber Niger domis Regis Angliz,” in the time of Edward IV. They are called “ efquires of houfehold,” in number 40.3; “ 20 of them to be continually at court, in riding and going, at all times, 2 CHA and te help to ferve his table, &c.?? A falary was ap- pointed of 73d. daily, while in waiting, and clothing winter and fummer, or elfe 40s. The falary, afterwards enlarged, was taken off, early in the reign of James I., from which time the office appears to have been merely a poft of honour. It is conjectured their title was changed from “ efquires of the houfchold”’ to that of « gentlemen of the privy-chamber”’ in the reign of Henry VIL, or early in that of Henry VIII. “ From being anciently near, and almoft,”’ fays Mr. Pegge, “ companionable officers to the royal perfon, they are now become the moft remote, and feldom vifible in their proper fphere, and [carcely diltinguifhable as fuch, above ¢hrice in a reign.” As no falary or emolument whatfoever actends the poft at prefent, it may be afked, why it is fo much fought after? The anfwer, as Mr. Pegge, obferves. is very eafy, and almoft in omnium ore. “ It ig an exemption from ferving the office of fheriff, and alfo from an arrelt, without leave firft abtained, together with other like immunities be- longing to the royal fervants.”’ CHAMBER, in policy, is uled for the place where certain af- femblies are held; alfo for the affemblies themfelves. OF thefe there are various kinds ; fome eftablifhed for the adminiftration of juftice ; others for matters of commerce, &c. Of the firlt kind among us was the Star-CuamBrr. See Court of Star-Chamber. Cuamser, /mperial, isa court or jurifaiction held an- ciently at Spires, bu’ tince transferred to Wetzlar; in which are determined the differences arilfing among the princes and cities of the empire. It was at firlt ambulatory : in 1473, it was fixed to Augf- burg, then removed to Frankfort on the Maine, and thence to Worms, in 1495, where a diet was held by Maximilian I. to which period fome have referred the inititution of the Imperial Chamber, poflefling fupreme jurifdiétion to judge without appeal im every queftion brought before it, and elta- blithed with trefe powers, in order to terminate the right of private war: atterwards it was removed to Nuremberg and Ratifbon ; again to Worms and Nuremberg ; and from this Jatt to Eflingen , thence, in 1527, to Spires; where Charles: V. rendered it fedentary, in 1530: and here it continued above ace»tury and ahalf. Itis now fixed at Wetzlar. Atits firit inftitution by Maximilian, it confifted of a pre- fident, who was always a nobleman of the firlt order, one of 16 afleflors, or judges. The prefident was appointed by the emperor, and the judges partly by him, and partly by the itates, according to forms which it is here unneceflary to de- fcribe. A fum was impofed, with their own confent, on the ftates of the empire, for paying the falaries of the judges and officers in this cowrt. In confequence of the re- formation, the number of affeflors was increafed. By the treaties of Weltphalia, particularly that of Ofnabrug, in 1648, it was decreed, that the Imperial Chamber fhould be compofed of a Catholic judge, and four prefidents, named by the emperor, two of each religion, and 50 counfellors, 26 of whom are Catholics, andthe reft Protcitants. But this chamber bas been fince reduced toa much {maller number of officers, being compofed of the Eic&tor of ‘riers, who is judge as bifhop of Spire, of one Catholic and one Proteftant prefident, and eight Catholic and feven Proteftant counfel- lors. This court takes cognizance of all queltions concern- ing civil right between the {tates of the empire, and paffes judgment in the laft refort, and without appeal. To it be- longs likewite the privilege of judging in criminal caufes, which may be coniidered as connettcd with the prefervation of the public peace. Although the fentences of this, and alfo of the Aulic council, are final, there are, neverthelefs, fome cafes in which the parties may appeal to the emperor, and Cea k. and demand a revifion of the procefs, particularly in thofe caufes which regard to duchies, principalities, counties, and other immediate fiefs of the empire. In both thefe tribunals the emperor prefides as fovereign judge, and when he is pre- fent, pronounces fentence ; and in his abfence, he, who re- prefents his perfon as judge, has aright to wear an impe- rial {ceptre as a badge of his dignity. Proceffes in the 1m- perial Chamber are almoft endlefs, on account of the infinite number of ceremonies and formalities with which they are ’ embarrafled. This court is frequently afraid to pronounce fentence, for fear of expofing its awards to fome difgrace : the princes fometimes not permitting fuch to be executed as difpleafe them. Cuameer of accounts, a fovereign court in France before the revolution, where accounts. were rendered of all the king’s revenues ; inventories and avowals thereof regiftered ; oaths of fidelity taken, and other things relating to the finances tranfaéted. The French had alfo Cuamsers, ecclefiafical, which judged, by appeal, of dif- ferences arifing on the railing of tithes: of thefe ecclefiaftieal chambers there were nine; viz. at Paris, Bourdeaux, Rouen, Lyons, Tours, Tholoufe, Bourges, Pau, and Aix : they ufually confilted of che archbifhop of the place, as pre- fident ; other archbifhops and bifhops, a deputy of each of the diccefes, and three counfellors of parliament. The chamber chofe as many counfellors out of the clergy as it thought proper; as alfo a promoter. CHamBeEr, apoflolical, at Rome, is that wherein affairs re- lating tothe revenues and domains of the church and the pope are tranfacted. Cuamser of audiences, or grand CuamBER, a jurifdition that fubfifted in each parliament of France. At the firft inftitution of their parliaments, there were two chambers, and two kinds of counfellors ; the one the grand chamber for audiences, the counfellors whereof were called jugeurs, who only judged ; the other the chamber of inqueffs, the coun- fellors whereof were called rapporteurs, who only reported proceffes by writing. CuamBer, direction, is a court inftituted in Old Spain, for the regulation of divers affairs relating to their commerce to the Spaniih Weft Indies. Cuamser of the edid, or My-parti, was a court efta- blifhed by virtue of the edié&s of pacification, in favour of thofe of the reformed religion: wherein the number of judges of either religion was the fame; and to which re- courfe was had in all affairs wherein any of the proteftants were.concerned. This chamber is now fuppreffed. CuamBer of London. See CHAMBERLAIN. CuamBer of affurance, in France, denoted a fociety of merchants and others, eftablifhed by a decree of the council of {tate in 1068, for conduéting the bufinefs of infuring : but in Holland, it fignifies a court of juitice, where caules relating to infurances are tried. Cuamser of book/llers, in Paris, denoted a fociety con- filling of a fyndic and afiiftants, eleGted by four delegates from the printers, and twelve from the bookfellers, whofe bafinefs it was to fuperintend and regulate the trade of printing and felling books, prints, &c. In the vifitation of books, performed by at leaft three perfons of the fociety, ajl libels againft the honour of God, and the welfare of the ftate, end all books printed in violation of their regulations and privileges, were {uppreffed. CHAmsBeErs of commerce, are affemblies of merchants and dealers, where they treat about matters relating to com= merce, Of thefe there were feveral, eltablifhed in moft of the chief cities of France, by virtue of an arret of the 3oth of Auguit, 1701. | Indeed there were fome before this CHA general eftablifhment, particularly one at Marfeilles, and another at Dunkirk. Cuamsers of the hing, regie camere, in our ald records, are ufed for the havens or ports of the kingdom. ; Cuamser, in French, chambre, of a battery, in Fortification, is a dry place funk under ground, and fecured agatnit rain or moifture, for holding and preferving powder, loaded fhells, and fufees. Cramer of a mine, is, ftrily fpeaking,; the place where the powder is lodged for fpringing it with. There one end of the fauciffon, by means of which the powder in the mine is fired, terminates. There are mines, that have only one chamber; and there are others that have feveral. The chamber of a mine has a platform (ceiling or top) of flrong planks, fupported on four upright timbers or pofts, behind which planks are alfo fixed, for fhutting up the fides and preventing the earth from tumbling down. A mine is fome- times excavated into the form of a parallelepipedon, but generally into one refembling that of a cube; and it is not, perhaps, improper to obferve, that there fhould not be any vacant or open {paces left in it, or any vent communicating with it, for thefe would occafion a great diminution of the eficét of the powder employcd for fpringing the mine. CHAMBER of a port, is that part of the bafon of a fea- port, which is the moit retired, and of the leaft depth, and to which difarmed or difmantled veflels are carricd in order to be repaired. CuamBER of @ cannon, in Military Language. Cannon. CuaAmBer Of @ mortar, is the place which contains the charge of powder. ‘The chambers of mortars are of various and very different forms as well as dimenfions, for an ac« count of which fee the article Cannon. CHAMBERS, iron, in a Fire /bip, are ten inches long, and 3-5 in diameter. ‘They are breeched againft a piece of wood fixed acrofs the ports, and let into another a little higher. When loaded, they are almoft filled with corned powder, and have a wooden tompion well driven into thei muzzles. They are primed with a quick match thruft through their vents into the powder, with a part of it hang: ing out. When the fhip is fired, they blow open the ports and the port-lids either fall downward, or are carried away, and thus give vent to the fire out of the fides of the thip. Cuamser of a lock, in Inland Navigation, is the {pa within the gates, through which a boat rifes or fin from one level to another of acanal or river. See Plate Canals, V. fig. 36 and 37. CuamBers of the eye, in Anatomy, are thofe {paces i front of the eyeball, which contain the aqueous humonr. The anterior chamber is the interval between the potteri furface of the cornea, and the iris. ; The pofferior chamber is the interval between the uvea a the front of the cryttalline lens. For a further defcripti of thefe, fee Eve, anatomy of. : . CHAMBERDEKINS, in our Old Statutes, a deno' nation for certain Irifh beggars, which by ftatute 1 Hen- cap. 7 and 8. were to leave England within a certain ti They were called in the flatute chamberdeakynz, and faid be clerks mendicants. Blount fays they are called cham deacons in the parliament-roll. : CHAMBERET, in Geography, a town of France, the department of the Correze, 15 miles N. of Tulle. — CHAMBERLAIN, an officer who has the managem or direction of a chamber, r The word chamberlain, according to Ragueau, origin figniticd a gentleman who was to fleep in the king’s chamber, at his bed’s feet, in the abfence of the q Sce | CHA ‘There are almoft as many kinds of chamberlains 28 chambers : the principal are as follow : CuamBertain of England, Lord Great, an officer of great antiquity and honour; being ranked the fixth great officer of the crown: a confiderable part of his funtion is at the coronation of a king; when he dreffes him, carries the coif, fword, and gloves, to be ufed on that occafion ; the gold {word and fcabbard to be offered by the king ; and the rebe royal and crown; he alfo undreffes him, and waits on him at dinner; having for his fee the king’s bed, and all the furniture of his chamber, the night-apparel, and the filver bafon wherein the king wafhes, with the towels. To him likewife belongs the provilion of every thing in the houfe of lords, in the time of parliament; to which end he has an apartment near the lords houfe. He has the government of the palace of Weltminfter, and iffues out warrants for preparing, fitting out, and furnifhing Weflminiter-hall, apaintt coronations, trials of peers, &c. He difpofes of the {word of flate, to be carried by whom he pleafes; and when he goes to parliament, is on the right hand of the {word, the lord marfhal being on the left. On all folemnn occations, the keys of Wettmintter-hail, of the Court of Wards, and Court of Requefts, are ¢elivered to him. To him belong livery and lodging in the king’s court ; and he has certain fees from every bifhop at his doing ho- mage to the king, and from every peer at his creation. Under his command are, the gentleman-ufher of the black rod, the yeoman-uther, and door-keepers. The office of lord great chamberlain of England is here- ditary ; and where a perfon dies feifed in fee of this office, leaving two filters, the oflice belongs to both filters, and they may execute it by deputy; but fuch deputy mutt be approved of by the king, and mutt not be of a degree inferior to a knight. 4 Bro. P.C. 146, 8vo. This honour was long held by the earls of Oxford; viz. from the time of Henry I. by an eftate-tail, or inheritance ; but in later coronations by the marquis Lindfey, afterward duke of Ancatter, by an ettate or inheritance from a daugh- ter and heir general: and fettled in that family. Cuambercain of the houfehold, Lord, av officer who has the overfight and direGtion of all officers belonging to the King’s chamber, except the preciné& of the Bep-chamber, which is abfolutely under the groom of the ftole. He has the overtight and direction of the officers of the wardrobe, of the removing wardrobes, beds, tents, revels, mufic, comedians, hunting, meflengers, trumpeters, drum- mers, handicrafts, and other tradefmen retained in the king’s fervice: a3 alfo of all ferjeants at arms, phyticians, apothe- caries, furgeons, barbers, the king’s chaplains, &c. and ad- minilters the oath to all officers above ftairs. Under him is a vice-chamberlain ; and both are always privy-couufellors. There is alfo a Lord Chamberlain of her majetty’s houfe- hold. There were formerly CuHamBervains of the Ling’s courts, 9 Edw. vi.c. 1.3; and there are chamberlains of the Exche- quer, who keep a controlment of the pells, of receipts and exitus: they alfo have in their cuftody the leagues and trea- ties with foreign princes, many ancient records, and the two famous books of antiquity, ca'led Domefday Book, and the Black-Book of the Exchequer; and alfo the ftandards of money, and weights and meafures are kept by them. There are alfo Under-chamberlains of the Exchequer, who make fearches for all records in the treafury ; and are con- cerned in making out the tallies, &c. The office of cham- berlain of the Exchequer is mentioned in the flat. 34 and 35 Hen. VIII. c. 14. Befides thefe, we read of a chumberlain Vo. VII. CHA of North Wales, Stowe, p. 641. ‘There is alfo a chamberlain of Chefler, to whom it belongs to receive thé rents and reve- nues of that city; and when there is no prince of Wales, and earl of Chefter, he hath the receiving and returning of all writs coming thither out of any of the king’s courts. See Counry-palatine. CuamBercain of London. This officer keeps the city- money, which is laid up in the chamber of London, an apartment in Guildhall: he alfo prefides over the affairs of ma{ters and apprentices ; and makes free of the city, &c. His office lafts but for a year, being chofen annually on Midfummer-day : but the cultom ufually obtains to re-choofe the fame perfon; unlefs he has been chargeable with any mifdemeanor in his office. CHAMBERLAIN, vice. See Vice-Chamberlain. CHAMEERLAYNE, Epwarp, in Biography, the defcendant of a good family at Odington, in Gloucefter- fhire, was born in 1616, and educated in St. Edmund’s Hall, Oxford, where he was graduated M.A. in 1645. During the civil wars, he travelled through mott of the countries of Europe ; and after the reftoration was made one of the fellows of the Royal Society, then founded. In 1669 he was fecretary to the earl of Carlifle, and fent to Stockholm with the order of the garter to the king of Sweden: in the following year he was graduated LL.D. at Cambridge; and in 1679 he was appointed to inftruét George prince of Denmark in the Englifh language. He died at Chelfea in 1703. Dr. Chamberlayne was the au- thor of feveral pieces, political and hiftorical, relating to the circumftances and events of his time; but he has been prin- cipally known by his “ Angliz Notitia, or the Prefent State of England, with divers reflections upon the ancient ftate thereof ;” Lond. 1668, Svo.3 of which a fecond part was publifhed in 1671, 8vo. This was a popular work, and often reprinted during the author’s life. It was enlarged by bis fon, and has been occalionally reprinted, fo as to have arrived feveral years ago, at the 36th edition. A harm- lefs inftance of the author’s vanity wes recorded on his mos nument, viz. “ That he caufed fome of his own books wrap= ped in cere-cloth to be buried with him, as they might pof- tibly be of ufe to a remote age.’? The fon atake former, John Chamberlayne, was educated at Trinity-cotlege, Ox- ford, and became an induttrious tranflator of works from fo- reign languages, of which he is faid to have underftood fix- teen. His principal tranflations were “ Oftervald’s Argus ments of the Books and Chapters of the Old and New Tef- tament ;”” ¢* Fontenelle’s Lives of the French Philofophers;” Nieuwentyt’s Religious Philofopher ;” Brandt’s Hittory af the Reformation ;”’ “* The Lord’s Prayer in 100 Lan- guages ;’’ “ Differtations, hiftorical, critical, theological, and moral, on the moft memorable events of the Old and New Teftament.”” Lo the Royal Society, of which he was a member, he communicated thofe pieces, which are inferted in the Philofophical TranfaGions. After an ufeful and well- fpent life he died in 1724. CHAMBERLEN, Hveu, a celebrated accoucheur, was a native of London, and born about the middle of the 17th century. His father, Paul Chamberlen, and two of his brothers, were alfo praétitioners in midwifery. ‘They in- vented among them an inftrument, the obftetric forceps, with which they were enabled to deliver women with fafety, in cafes where, before this difcoverv the life of the child was ufually lott. Of thi ™-, Hugh Chamberlen gives the following accoutn _ father, brothers, and myfelf, (though none elfe in Europe that I know) have, by God’s bleffing, and our induftry, at- tained to, and long practifed a way to deliver women, 3H when GH A when the head, on account of fome difficulty, or difpro- portion, cannot pafs, without any prejudice to them or their infants; though all others (being obliged, for want of fuch an expedient, to ufe the common way) do and muft endanger, if not deltroy, one or both with hooks, By this manual operation, a labour may be difpatched, on the leaft difficulty, with fewer pains, and fooner, to the great advantage, and without danger, both of woman and child.” “Pref. to Chamberlen’s Tranfl. of Mauriceau. But though he attributes the merit of the difcovery to his father and brothers conjointly with himfelf, yet as the father did not appear to have been acquainted with the in- ttrument in the year 1665, when he publithed his « Midwives? Guide,” a very ind fferent performance 5 and the brothers have left no memorials of themfelves; their names are little noticed. After cftablithing the reputation of the inltrument here, Dr. Hugh went, in the year 1672, to Paris, expect- ing to gain equal eclat there, and intending, it is fuppofed, to fell the invention; but undertaking to deliver a woman whofe pelvis was too narrow to admit the head of the child to pafs, without mutilating it, and the woman dying, as Mauricean, who had feen her before, had prediéted, he found himfelf fo degraded, that he thought it advifable to quit Paris, and go to Holland. Mauriceau was not a little pleafed at his difcomfiture, of which he gives an account in the2dvol.of his * Obf. fur la Grofleffe,”? Obf. 26. Addreffing himfelf to Dr. Chamberlen, he tells him, “ he muft not think the Parifian women were to be delivered with the fame eafe as the Englith.? “ Lui faifant entendre qu’il s’etoit bien trompé, en croyant trouver autant de facilite a _ accoucher les femmes a Paris, comme ilavoit pu trouver a Londres.”? In Holland he is fuppofed to have been more fuccefsful, and to have imparted the fecret to Ruyth and Roonhuvfen, then in high reputation at Amflerdam, and to have received for his invention a confiderable reward. He now returned to London, where’he foon acquired a confiderable fortune. “ Not fo much, Mauriceau fays, from the ufe of his forceps, as from the information he had obtained by reading, and tranilating his * Obfervations fur la Groffeffe.’” We have no doubt but Chamberlen obtained much infor- mation from Mauriceau’s book, which was the bett treatife then extant on the fubjeét of midwifery ; but his forceps had its fhare in raifing him to the high rank he attained mn his profeffion, and which he continued to enjoy to the end of his days. In 1683, he publifhed his tranflation of Mauri- ceau’s obfervations, which was received with great avidity, and has fince been frequently reprinted. We have not been able to learn at what time Dr. Chamberlendied. His forceps, fimplified, and improved by Smellie, and further varied and altered by other teachers, continues to be efteemed as one of the moft valuable inftruments ufed in the practice of midwi- fery, and defervedly gives the inventor a diftinguifhed rank among the improvers of the art. Halley Bib. Chir. Sur Effais fur Part des accouchmens. CHAMBERRY, or Cuampkry, in Geography, formerly the chief city of Savoy, now the capital of the department of Mont Blane, and principal place of a diftrict, is fituated in a pieafant valley on the river Leife. It hasa caltle feated on an eminence, and is furrounded with mountains, but not forti- fied. Under molt of the houfes are piazzas, where people may walk without being incommoded in the worit weather. Its fuburbs are large and handfome, and in the center of the town is the ducal palace. It contains two parochial churches, and 10,300 inhabitants: the north canton con- tains 14,965, and the fouth 14,989; the former contains y474 kiliometres and 12 communes, and. the latter 195 kiliometres and 17 communes. This town was taken by CH A the French in 1792. The height of the fir floor at St. Jean Baptifte is 352 feet below the lake of Geneva, or 878 feet above the Mediterranean. It is 27 miles N.E. of Grenoble, and 85 N.W. of Turin. N. lat. 45° 35’. E, long. 5° 50’. CHAMBERS, Epruraim, in Biography, a perfon whofe name deferves to be particularly recorded ina work of thiskind, as he was the firlt, who, in this country, formed the plan, and undertook the execution of a {cientific diGlionary, that might be faid to comprehend the whole circle of the artsand fciences ; and in this refpeét it differed from Harris’s Lexicon Techni- cum which preceded it, and which furnifhed many of the mathematical articles. The few particulars that are known concerning him are colleGted and arranged by Dr. Kippis, in the laft edition of the-Biographia Britannica. The place of his nativity was Kendal, in the county of Weftmoreland ; but the time of his birth and the duration of his life, cannot, from any documents that remain, be precifely afcertained. His parents were Quakers; but when he came into the world, he does not feem to have manifefted any attachment totheir profeflion. In his education he probably enjoyed no advantages befides thofe that were neceflary to qualify him for trade. Ata proper age he was bound apprentice to Mr. Senex, the globe-maker; and during his refidence with this fkilful mechanic he acquired that tafte for litera- ture and. fcience, which marked the progrefs and direGted the occupation of his future years. At this early period he formed the defign of his grand work, the * Cyclopzdia ;’” and it is faid, that fome of the firft articles of it were written behind the counter of Mr. Senex. Apprifed that the exe- cution of the plan which he had conceived was incompatible with the avocations of trade, he quitted bufinefs ; and having made fuch arrangements as were neceflary to procure for hita a fubfiftence in the profecution of it, he took chambers at Gray’s-inn, where he chiefly refided during the remainder of his life. The firft edition of the Cyclopadia, which muft have been the refult of many years’ intenfe application, ap- peared in 1728, in two volumes, folio. It was publifhed by fubicription, at the price of four guineas, and the lift of fub- {cribers was very refpectable. The dedication to the king is dated OG. 15th, 1727. The reputation which Mr, Chambers acquired by the execution of this undertaking, procured him the honour of being eleéted into the Royal So- ciety, Nov. 6, 1729. In lefs than 10 years, a fecond edition became neceflary, which was accordingly printed, with corrections and addi- tions, in 1738. Inttead of a new edition, the proprietors had propofed to give a new work. Mr. Chambers had actually prepared a confiderable part of the copy with that view; and more than 20 fheets were printed off. In pur- fuance of this plan, it was their intention to have publifhed a volume in 1737, and to have proceeded annually in fupply- ing an additional volume, till the whole was completed. But they were diverted from executing their purpofe, by a bill which pafled in the Houfe of Commons, though it was re- je€ted in the Houfe of Lords, and which obliged the pub- lifhers of all improved editions of books, to print the im- provements feparately. Whilft this edition was in agitation, Mr. Bowyer, the learned printer, had formed fome extenfive ideas of improving the di¢tionary ; but the plan, whatever it was,did not appear to have been reduced to practice. About this time Mr. Bowyer had a difpate with Mr. Chambers con- cerning the title of the work, propofing to fubftitute «* En- cyclopedia’”’ for “* Cyclopedia.” Mr. Chambers vindicated the title he had adopted, and perfevered in retaining it. See the article Cyctopzpia. ‘The fecond edition of Mr, Chambers’s dictionary was fo favourably received by the pubs ic, CHA _ lic, that a third was called for in the very next year, 1739 a fourth,in 1741; anda fifth, in 1746. This rapid fale of a work, fo large and expenfive, mult be confidered, not only as a {triking teftimony of the general eftimation in which it was held, but likewife, as a flrong proof of its real utility and merit. Although the Cyclopzdia, denominated by Mr. Bowyer, “the pride of bookfellers, and the honour of the Englifh nation,’’. was the grand bufinefs of Mr. Chambers’s life, and may be regarded as almoft the fole foundation of his fame, his attention was not wholly confined to this undertaking. He was concerned in a periodical publication, entitled ‘ the Literary Magazine,” which was begun in 1735; and he alfo engaged, in conjunétion with Mr. John Martyn, F.R.S. and profeflor of botany at Cambridge, in preparing a tran{- lation and abridgment of the “ Philofophical Hiitory and Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris.’”? This work, which was comprifed in 5 volumcs, Svo., did not ap- pear till the year 1742, fome time after our author’s deceafe. Mr. Martyn, ina fubfequent publication, has feverely cen- fured Mr. Chambers’s part in this abridgment.- The only other work afcribed to Mr. Chambers, is a tranflation of the “ Jefuit’s PerfpeGtive;” from the French, in 4to., which has been feveral times reprinted. The indefatigable induftry which Mr. Chambers employed in. his literary and feientific colletions, may be inferred from the account given by Mr. Airey, his amanuenfis, who aflerts that, between the years 1728 and 1733, he copied nearly 20 folio volumes, fo large as to comprehend materials, which, if they had been printed, would have formed 30 volumes of the [ame fize. Mr. Cham- bers, however, acknowledged, that, if they had been printed, they would neither have been fold nor read. Mr. Cham- bers, by his inceffant application, fo far impaired his health, that he was obliged to retire, occafionally, to a lodging at Canonbury-houfe, near Iflington ; and to make an excurfion tothe fouth of France. At his return to England, he died at Canonbury-houfe, and was buried in Weitminiter Abbey. where the following infcription, written by himfelf, is placed on the north fide of the sloilkers of the abbey : « Multis pervulgatus, Paucis notus ; ‘Qui vitam, inter lucem & umbram, ec eruditus, nec idiota, Literis deditus, tranfegit ; fed ut homa Qui humani nihil a fe alienum putat. Vita fimu') & laboribus functus, Hic reqniefcere voluit, Epuraim Cuamsers, R.S.S. Obiit XV. Maii, M.DCC.XL.” “ Heard of by many, Known to few; Who being neither very celebrated nor yet obfcure, Neither very learned nor yet ignorant, Paffed a life devoted to ftudy ; And paffed it as a man Who was not inattentive To any of the offices of humanity ; Having ended his days and his labours together, Here wifhed to repofe, Eruraim Cuamsers, F.R.S. He died on the XVth of May, M.DCC.XL., ‘The above narrative fupplies us with no fa&s by which we may fix the age of Mr. Chambers. Suppofing him to have been apprenticed at the age of 14, and to have quitted his fervice at 21; and conjecturing that he might be 60 CHA years old when he died, there will remain a chafm of 44 years, from the terqination of his apprenticefhip to the year 1728, of which we haye no account; but we may infer, from the extent of his work, which occupied his attention during this period, that he was fully employed. ‘Phe in- telle€tual.charafter of Mr. Chambers feems to have been fa- gacity and attention. Indefatigable as a man of bufinefs, he had no leifure to’purfue difcoveries with the ardour of a phi- lofopher. The whole occupation of his life fecms to have confifted in colle&ting and communicating knowledge; and. he undoubtedly poffefied dilinguifhed talents for the at- rangement and illuftration of the materials which he col- lected. His temper was chearful, but impetuous ; his mode of lite referved, folitary, economical, and regular. His li- terary labours unqueltionably entitled hin to more than he received ; but the compenfations which authors received from bookfellers, were, at that period, far inferior to what, in certain inftances, they have lately rifen. it may not be improper, for gratifying the curiofity of the readers of this article, to terminate it with a brief account of the ** Cyclopedia,’’ or the effeGs which it has produced int the literary world. —Whilft a fixth edition was preparing, the proprietors thought that the work might admit of a fupple- ment in two additional folio volumes. This bufinefs: was committed to the late George Lewis Scott, efq.; but he was prevented from proceeding far in it, by being appointed {ub-prece ptor to his prefent majelty, when Prince of Wales. The chief management was then committed to Dr. John Hill, fo well known by his voluminous and hafty publica. tions. In his name, together with that of Mr. Scott, the fupplement was publifhed; and though it contained a num- ber of valuable articles, it was far from being uniformly confpicuous for judgment and due feleétion. The proprietors afterwards determined to combine the whole into one work ; and after feveral ineffeétual efforts for accomplifhing their plan, the bufinefs devolved on the editor of this Cyclopedia, ~ who derived from the favour of the public, and the fingularly rapid and extenfive fale of the work, a recomperce, which, independently of every other corfideration, he reckoned amply adequate to his labour. This edition began to be publifhed in weekly numbers, in 1778, and the pub- lication was continued without a fingle interruption, till it was completed in the year 1785. The work was dedicated and prefented to his majefty. The popularity of the ‘* Cyclo- pedia,” gave rife to a variety of fimilar publications; of many of which it may be truly faid, that moft of the articles which compofe them, are extra¢ted verbatim, or at leaft with very few alterations and additions, from this diGtionary ; and that they manifeft very little labour of refeavch, or of com- pilation. One defeét feems to have been common to them all, with hardly any exception; and that is, that they do not furnifh the reader with references to the fources from which their materials are derived, and the authorities upon which they depend. ‘This charge was alleged by the editors of the French Encyclopédie, with fome juftice, but at the fame time with unwarrantable acrimony againft Mr. Cham- bers. The editors of that work (fee Encycropmpia) while they pafs high encomiums on Mr. Chambers’s Cy- clopedia, blend with them cenfures that are unfounded. They fay, e. g. that the ‘“ merited honours it hath received would, perhaps, never have been produced at all, if, before it appeared in Englifh, we had not had in our own tongue thofe works, from which Chambers has drawn without mea- fure, and without feleGtion, the greateit part of the articles of which his di€tionary is compofed. This being the cafe, what muft Frenchmen think of a mere tranflation of that work? It muf excite the indignation of the learned, and Brit 2 give CHA give juft offenceto the public, to whom, under a new and pompous title, nothing is prefented but riches of which they have a long time been in pofleffion?”? They add, however, after appropriate and juttly deferved commenda- tion; ‘* We agree with him, that the plan and the defign of his diétionary are excellent, and that, if it were executed to a certain degree of perfection, it would alone contribute more to the progrefs of true fcience, than one half of the ‘books that are known.’? However, what their vanity has led them to affert, viz. that the greateit part of Chambers’s Cyclopedia is compiled from French authors, is not true. When Mr, Chambers engaged in his great undertaking, he extended his refearches for materials to a variety of publica- tions, foreign and domeftic, and in the mathematical articles he was peculiarly indebted to Woltius: and it cannot be queftioned, that he availed himfelf no lefs of the excellent writers of his native land than thofe of France. As to the imperfections of which they complain, they were, in a great meafure removed, as fcience advanced, by fubfequent im- provements; nor could the work, in its laft ftate, be con- fidered as the produGtion of a fingle perfon. Neverthelefs it cannot be conceived, that any fcientific di€tionary, com- prifed in four volumes, fhould attain to the full ftandard of human wiihes, and human imagination. The proprietors, duly fenfible of this circumftance, and of the rapid progres of literature and {cience in the period that has elapfed fince the publication of Chambers’s Cyclopedia, have undertaken a work ona much larger feale, which, with the encourage- ment already received and further reafonably expected, will, it is hoped, preclude mott of the objeétions urged againil the former dictionary. We fhall here only add, that the com- pilers and editors of the French Encyclopédia, in their relative capacity, have produced a work, which, though en- titled to the higheft praife, is very far from being exempt from the imperfections of every human production. Of this the French themfelves have not been unapprized: for not- withitanding the improvements fucceflively made in the Paris Encyclopédia fince its firft appearance, it has been thought neceflary to adopt a new plan, and to form upon it a work of immenfe bulk, which is gradually proceeding, and is not likely to be foon completed. See Encycrop#- pia and Cyctorazpia. Biog. Brit. CHAMBERSBURG, in Geography, a port-town of America, and the capital of Franklin county, in Pennfy}- vania. It is fituated on the eaftern branch of Conogo- cheague creek, through which might be opened an cafy communication with the Potowmac river; and principally confilts of two large ftreets, interfeéting each other at right @ gles, and leaving a public fquare in the center. It con- tains about 250 houfes, handfomely conftructed of brick or ftone, two Pretbyterian churches, a brick court-houfe, and a ftone gaol. There is a printing-office in the town, and a paper-mill in its vicinity. he fituation is favourable to trade and manufaétures, and it has a lively and thriving ap- pearance. [he adjacent land is rich and fertile, and is highly cultivated. It is 157 miles W. of Philadelphia. N. Jar. 39° 53’. W. long. 77° 30’. CHAMBLEE, or Cuamery, a handfome and well- built fort-on a river of the fame name in Canada, about 12 or 15 Yoiles S.W. from Montreal, and N. of St. John’s fort. This caftle, built by the French, ftands clofe to the rapids on the river, and ata little diflance has a grand ap- pearance ; the adjacent country being very beautiful, and the whole together forming a molt interefting fcene. It is in tolerably good repair, anda garrifon is conftantly kept init. It was taken by the Americans in 1775, and retaken by the Britifh in 1776. CHA Cuamsres, or Sorelle River, a river of Canada, iffuing from lake Champlain, and running to the river St. Lawrence near the ifland of St. Peter; 300 vards wide when loweft, fhoal in dry feafons, and yet of fufficient breadth for rafting timber, &c, at the {pring and fall. CHAMBLIS, or Cuamscy, a town of France, in the department of the Oife, and diltri€t of Senlis; 13 miles W.S. W. of Senlis. CHAMBOIS, a town of France, in the department of the Orne, and diftri& of Argentan; 2 leagues N.E. of Argentan. CHAMBON, a town of France, in the department of the Creufe, chief place of a canton in the diftriét of Bouffac 5- 8 miles E. of Gueret. Fhe place contains 1482, and the cantor 7143 inhabitants; the territory includes 255 kilio- metres and 16 communes. Cuamson, Le, a town of France, in the department of the Loire, and chief place of a canton, in the diltri& of St. Etienne ; 1 league S.W. of St. Etienne. The place con- tains 1245, and the canton 9805 inhabitants ; the territory comprehends 1372 kiliometres, and 12 communes. CHAMBONLIVE, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Correze, and diftriG& of Tulles; 5 miles E. of Uzerche. CHAMBOSE, a town of France, in the department of the Rhone and Loire ; 7 miles W. of Villefranche en Beau- jolois. CHAMBRANLE, in Archite@ure and Fainery, the border, frame, or ornament of ftone, or wood, furrounding the three fides of doors, windows, and chimneys. The chambranle is different in the different orders : when it is plain, and without mouldings, it is called, fimply and. properly, dand, cafe, or frame. The chambranle confilts of three parts; the two fides, called a/cendants ; and the top, called the traverfe, or fuper- cilium. The chambranle of an ordinary door is frequently called door-cafe ; of a window, window-frame. CHAMBRE, La, in Geography, a town of Savoy, or of the department of Mont Blanc, and chief place of a can- ton, in the diftri@ of St. Jean-de-Maurienne, feated on the Ifere ; 23 miles N. E. of Chamberry. The place contains 430, and the canton 4308 inhabitants, who are very fubject to the goitre, or {welling of the neck ; the territory includes 110 kiliometres, and g communes. Cuampre, in Military Language, a defeGive concavity fometimes found in the thicknefs of the metal in pieces of ord- nance. Un canon chambré is a cannon badly cait, and liable to burt when fired. CHAMBRER, ou faire chambrée, is to put or colle& together feveral foldiers or military people in one and the fame chamber, in the fame tent, or in one and the fame bar- rack, for the purpofe of eating, fleeping, and repofing themfelves there. CHAMBROIS, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Eure, and chief place of a canton, in the diftric&t of Berney ; 5 miles W. of Berney. ‘The place con- tains 1000, and the canton 11,262 inhabitants; the terri« tory includes 225 kiliometres, and 26 communes. CHAMBRON, a town of the Netherlands, im the county of Hainaut, on the Dendre; 8 miles S.E. of Ath. CHAM-CHOU-POU, a town of Chinefe Tartary ; 8 miles N.N.E. of Ning-yuen. CHAMCHOZ, atown of Armenia; 145 miles E. of Enrivan. CHAMEAL, in Zoology cy. The Badrian camel is de- {cribed CHA feribed under this name by Buffon. See Cametus Bac- trianus. Cuameau-Leopard, the French name of the camel- leopard, Camevorarpatis Giraffe, which fee ; called alfo by fome late French writers Chameau moucheté. Cuameav-Marin, in Ichthyology, the French name of Ostracion Turritus, Linn. which fee. CHAMEIASME, in Botany, Pluk. See Houstonia caerulea. CHAMEIRAT, in Geography, a town of France, in ‘the department of the Correze, and diftrit of Tulles ; 3 miles“S. W. of Tulles. CHAMELET, a town of France, in the department of the Rhone, and diflniét of Villefranche ; 3 leagues W. of Villefranche. CHAMELOT, in Commerce. See CAMBLET. CHAMFER, or Cuamreret, in Architedure, an orna- ment cenfifting of half a f{cotia; being a kind of {mall ’ furrow, or gutter, on a column; called alfo frix, and ffria. CHAMFERING, or CH#amrraininG, 1s ufed for cut- ting the edge, or end of any thing aflope, or BEVEL. CHAMERAIN, in Military Language, a fort of ar- mour, that ferved as a defence for a horfe in combats. It was made of metal or boiled leather. It covered the fore part of the head, in the form of an adjufted mafk. The chamfrain had on the middle of it an adjufted piece of iron, round, and fufficiently large, terminating in a point, for piercing every thing oppofed to it. The chamfrain of the count de St. Pol, at the fiege of Harfleur in 1449, under Charles VII. was valued at fifty thoufand crowns of the money of that time ; and that of the count de Foix, at the taking of Bayonne, was valued at fifteen thoufand crowns of gold. CHAMIER, Daniet, in Biography, a French pro- teltant divine, was a native of Dauphine, and, after having been long minifter of Montelimart, went, in 1612, to oc- eupy the poft of profeffor of theology at Montauban. He was much employed by his party in political negotiation with the court, and on all occafions manifefted inflexible refolu- tion. He is faid to have drawn up the famous edi& of Nantes, and he prefided in fevvral fynods, having an excel- lent talent for the conduét of public bufinefs. Nor was he lefs diltinguifhed for learning. s\mong his works we may enumerate a treatife, ‘* De Oecumenico Pontifice,’’ com- mended by Scaliger; and his ‘+ Jefuits’ Letters,”’ or epiftles addrefled to him by fathers Cotan and Armand, with his obfervations. But his greateft work was entitled, ‘* Catho- lica Panitratia, or the Wars of the Lord,’”’ in 4 vols. 4to., left incomplete, and containing a detailed view of the con- troverfies between the Papifts and Proteftants, and a refuta- tion of cardinal Bellarmine. It was printed at Geneva, with a preface by Turretin; and an abridgment of it was pub- lifhed by Spanheim in 1643, in one vol. fol. He alfo wrote a ‘*Corpus Theologicum,” printed at Geneva in 1653. He united the fun@ions of the divine and of the foldier, and was killed by a cannon ball at the filege of Mon- tauban, in 1621. Gen. Di&. CHAMIL, in Geography. See Ham. CHAMILLARD, Srernen, in Biography, an emi- ent antiquarian, was born at Bovrges in 4656, entered among the Jefuits at Paris in 1673, and took the vows in 1690. He was for fome years a teacher of the belles lettres and philofophy in the fchools of the fociety, and a diftin- guifhed preacher for 20 years. His erudition in the fcience of medals is certified by two judges of unqueftionable autho- mty, viz. Vaillant and Ezechiel Spanheim. He wrote fe- veral differtations on particular medals preferved in his own CHA and other cabinets, fome of which were inferted in the Mee moires de Trevoux, and fome colleéted in a volume, en- titled “* Differtations fur pluficurs Medailles, Pierres gravées,. & autres Monuments d’Antiquités,” Paris, 4to, 1711. He is faid, however, to have been impofed upon with refpe& ta two medals, a Pacatianus and an Anna Faultina, which, after exercifing his erudition and talent at conje€ture in two elaborate differtations, were proved to be fiGtitious. Father Chamillard publifhed a learned edition of “ Prudentius, in Ufum Delphini,” Paris, 1687, gto. Moreri. CHAMIR, in Geography, a fortified town of Arabia, in the country of Yemen; 50 miles N.E. of Loheia. It is fituated in the middle of the territories of the confederates of Hafchid-u-Bakil, and it has colt the Imam no {mall trouble to retain poffeffion of it. N. lat. 17° 15’. E. long. 43° 5’. CHAMIRA, in Botany, Thunb. See Hexriornita circaoides. CHAMITIS, Gert. from the MSS. of -Solander, in the poffeffion of Sir Jofeph Banks. Clafs and order, pens tandria digynia. Nat. ord. Umbellate, Linn. Umbellifera, uff. ; : Gen. Char. Umbel none, or fimple. Jnvo/. none, or about eight-leaved. Ca/. fuperior, five-toothed, permanent. Cor. petals five, ovate-oblong, obtufe, quite entire.. Stam. filaments five. Pi/?. ftyles two, filiform ; ftigmas thickith ; Peric. none. Fruit inferior, crowned with the calyx, divifible into two. Seeds two, egg-fhaped, with three elevated lines on one fide, flat on the other. Sp. 1. C. integrifolia, Gert. tab. 22. fig. 4; Herb. of Sir Jofeph Banks. ‘ Leaves entire.’’’ Stems very fhort, branched, forming denfe tufts. Leaves crowded, fheathing, linear-lanceolate ; upper ones ovate-acuminate ; fheaths egg fhaped, open, two-awned. Flowers white, folitary, terminate ing the little branches ; peduncles capillary. /rwit {mal]. ° Gertner obferves that this genuine umbelliferous plant is fin- gular, not only on account of its folitary flawers, but alfo of its fruit, which is. frequently divifible into three; as if the author of nature had compenfated the defeé of its umbel. by the unufual number of its feeds. 2. C. trifurcata, Gert. tab. 22. fig. 4.. Banks’s Herb. ‘¢ Leaves three-forked.’? Leaves crowded-about the root, broad-linear, three-forked at the fummit ; fegments divaricated, mucronate; fheaths broad, embracing the bafe of the ftem. Scapus quite fimple, about two inches high, naked, or furnifhed with one feffile tricufpidate teaflet. Jnvol. fhorter than the umbel ; leaflets fix or eight, linear, acuminate, permanent. Umb. fimple, equal ; rays from cight toten. /ruit four times larger than that of the preceding fpecies, narrowed above, fomewhat compreffed. Both fpecies are natives of Terra del Fuego. CHAMITSCHE, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Mogilev, on the borders of Poland; 40 miles S.S.W. of Mogilev. CHAMKA, or Tcuamxa, a town of Affa, in the coun- try of Thibet; 229 miles S. E. of Laffa. CHAMMANENA, or Cammanena, in Ancient Geos graphy, a diftriét: of Cappadocia Minor, which lay towards the weft, and was watered by the river Halys. CHAMNEISKOI, in Geography, a fortrefs of Ruffia, on the confines of China; 168 miles S.W. of. Verfch- Vdinfkoi. CHAMOIS, in Zoology, afpeciesof antelope, Antilope rupi- capra of Pallas, Schrebers, Erxleben, and G melin ; Caprarupi- capra of Linnzus ; Rupicapra of Pliny ; Le Chamois of Buf- fon; Gems of Gefner; Cemas Aeliani et Herodici Bochart; and Chamois Antelope, Pennant. This animal is f{pecifically known by having the horns erect, round, fmooth, with the tips hooked backwards, The CH counfellor a his reward, is not champarty, if there be no preceding bargain relating to fuch gift; but if it had been agreed tween the counfellor and his client before the action rought, that he fhould have part for his reward, then it would be champarty. Bro. Champert. 3. And it is dan- rous to meddle with any fuch gift, fince it carries with it Bion prefumption of champarty. 2 Inft. 564. _ To this head may be referred the provifion of the ftatute 32 Hen. VIII. c. 9. that no one fhall fell or purchafe any pretended right or title to land, unlgfs the vendor hath re~ i. Vou, VII. CHA ceived the profits thereof for one whole ycar before fach grant, or hath been in a¢tual poffefficn of the land, or of the reverfion or remainder; on pain that both purchafer and vendor fhall each forfeit the value of fuch land to the king and the profecuior. Bl. Com. vol. iv. See Matnre- NANCE. CHAMPCON, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Mayenne; 2 leagues N.E. of Ma- yerne. CHAMPDENIERS, a town of France, in the departs ment of the ‘wo Sévres, and chief place of a canton, in the diftriét of Niort; 10 miles N. of Niort. The place con- tuins.1193, and the ‘canton 6G4io inhabitants; and the ter- ‘tory includes 160 kiliometres and 13 communcs. CHAMPDIEU, a town of France, in the department of the Rhene and Loire ; one league N. of Montbrifon. CHAMPEAUX, Wirtiam ne, Lat. Campellenfis, in Biography, a famous {cholaftic philofopher and divine, was born in the 17th century, at Champeaux, a villaze of Bril near Melun, and ftudied under Anfelm of Laon at Paris, in the church of which metropolis he was made archdeacon and fcholaflic. His reputation-in teaching philofophy at- traéted many fcholars, and particularly the celebrated Abe- lard., For an account of the jealoufy excited by the merit of Abelard, fee the article Anerarp. When the conten- tions occafioned by this jealouly terminated, De Champcaux retired, in 1113, to his bithopric of .Chalons-fur-Marne. Soon after his removal to this fee, he was called upon to give his benediGtion as abbot to St. Bernard, with whom he contracted an intimate friendfhip. He was prefent at many councils, and diltinguifhed himfelf by his religion, zeal, and knowledge of the feriptures. Hediedin 1121. He wrote feveral treatifes on logical and theological {ubjedts, and aifo a book of fentences ; but. the only work which has beem printed was a {mall traé& on the *¢ Origin of the Soul,” pub- lifhed in the 5th volume of D. Marten’s Treafure of Anec- dotes. Moreri. Cuampzaux, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Seine aud Marne; 7 miles N.E. of Melun. CHAMPEIX, a town of France, in the department of the Puy-de-Doéme, aad chicf place of a canton, in the diftri& of Iffoire; 24 ieagues N.W. of Iffoire. The place contains 1924, and the canton 10,762 inhabitants: the territory comprchends 155 kiliometres, and 17 communes. CHAMPIER, Sympuortsn, called alfo Camperius, and Campegius, in Biography, was born, as he informs us in one of his numerous productions, at St. Saphorine, a calle in the Lyonnois, in the year 1472. Ot the courfe of his ftudies we have no information, but that he early attached himfelf to books, and that he was verfed in the works of Plato, Ariftotle, and the moft abflrufe of the writers then in vogue, the titles of many of his works fhew. Such as “ Symphonia Platonis cum Ariftotele, Galeni cum Hip- pocrate,’’ &c. ‘ Cribratic, Lima, et Annotamenta in Ga- leni, Avicenne et conciliatoris Opera,” and) many fimi- lar trifles, which ferve to fhew the bad ralle of the writer, and that he fell in with the humour of the times in which he lived. Champier took his degree of doctor in medicme at Pavia in the year 1515, and in 1520, he was made conful at Lyons, an honour he again enjoyed in the year 1533, om returning from Italy, where he had been attending on Anthony duke of Lorrain, That he was in great credit at this time, is fhewn by his having for his corre{pondents the principal phyficians and philofophers of the age, and by his having fufficient intereft to found a college of phyficians at Lyons, which was exilting + the time of the revolution 2 a G@. HiAe p France. He died in 1535. For the titles of his works, and little more than the titles are now known, fee Haller Bib. and Eloy, Di&. Hiftor. His fon Claudes was author of a work * Sur les Singularités des Gaules.”” CHAMPIGNELLE, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Yonne, and diftri& of Joigny 5; 9 miles N. of St. Fargeau. CHAMPIGNON, in Gardening. See Acaricus. CHAMPIGNY sur Veune, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Indre and Loire; 23 leagues S. of Chinon. CHAMPION, properly fignifies a perfon who under- takes a compar, in the place or quarrel of another : though the word is alfo fometimes ufed for him who fights in his own caufe. Hottoman defines champion, certator, pro alio datus in duello a campo didus, qui circus erat decertantibus definitus ¢ hence alfo the word camp-fight. Du-Cange obferves, that champions, in the ftriét and proper fenfe of the word, were perfons who fought in heu of thofe who, being obliged by cuitom to accept the duel, had yet a juft excufe for difpenfing with it, as being too old, or infirm, being eccleftaftics, or the like. He adds, that the champions were ufually retained or hired for fums of money, and were held infamous. There were alfo fome vaflals, who, by the faith and homage {worn to their lord, were obliged to fight for themin cafe of neceffity. Some authors maintain, that any perfon was allowed the benefit of a champion, excepting parricides, aud thofe ac- cufed of very heinous offences. This cultom of deciding differences by combat, was de- rived from the northern parts of Europe; whence it pafled into Germany, and, with the Saxons, into England, and infenfibly through the reft of Europe. See Duet. When two champions were chofen, the one on the part of the accufer, and another on that of the accufed, it was always required there fhould be a decree of the judge to authorize the combat. When the judge had pronounced fentence, the accufed threw a gage, or pledze, ordinarily a glove, or gauntlet ; which being taken up by the accufer, they were both taken into fafe cuftody till the day of battle appointed by the judge. If either of them fled after this, he was declared infamous, and deemed to have committed the crime in queftion. Nor were the accufer and accufed now allowed to make up the matter; at leaft, not without the confent of the judge ; which was never granted, with- out making the lord fatisfaGtion for the right of inheritance to the effects of the vanquifhed. Before the champions took the field, their heads were fhaved, and they made oath, that ‘ they believed the ** perfon who retained them was in the right; and that “they would defend his caufe to the utmoft of their * power.”? Each of them alfo {wore with his hand on the crucifix ‘ oh his faith in baptifm, on his life, on his foul, and on his honour, that he verily believed he had good and jult caufe of quarrel, and that he had not befides either on himfelf, or on his horfe, or in his arms, any herbs, charms, paroles, fupplications, conjurations, pacts, or -incantations, of which he wifhed to avail himfelf.”” The weapons they generally ufed in a combat were a {word and buckler; fome fay, in England, only a club and buckler: when on horfe- back, they were armed at all points. In a civil combat, on a writ of right, the only weapons allowed them were bctons, or flaves, of an ell long, and a four-cornered lea- ther target. Their weapons were bleffed in the field by the prielt, with great ceremony. On the morning ef the day appointed for the combat, 8 CHA the two combatants fet out on horfeback with the vifer taken off, and made their arms, both offenfive and defentive, be carried before them. ‘They proceeded foftly and flowly, having each of them in his hand the image of the faint, to whom he addreffed his devotion, and in whom he placed confidence. Phi.ippe-le-Bel, in authorizing combats, or- dered the lifts to be eighty paces long and forty broad. But in civil combats it was cultomary,to make them only about fixty feet {quare. On one fide of the lift, a court was erected for the judges of the court of common pleas, who attended in their fearlet robes. ‘That court was to fit by fun-rifing ; and proclamation being made, the champions were introduced by two knizhts, and were dreffed in a fuit of armour, with red fandals, bare-legged from the knee downwards, bare-headed, and with bare arms to the elbows. The aétion then began ; at the found of a trumpet they were to g0 to blows; after the number of blows or ren- counters expreffed in the cartel, the judges of the combat threw a rod into the air, to advertife the champions that the combat was ended. If it lated till night, or ended with equal advantage on either fide, the accufed was reputed victor. , The punifhment of the vanquifhed was that which the crime merited, whereof he was accufed: if it were a capi- tal crime, the vanquifhed was difarmed, led out of the field, and immediately executed, together with the party whofe caufe he maintained. If the conquered champion fought in the caufe of a woman, fhe was burnt. In civil combat, the combatants were bound to fight till the ftars appeared in the evening ; and if the champion of the tenant was able to defend himfelf till the ftars ap- peared, the tenant prevailed in his caufe ; or if victory de- clared itfelf for either party, by the death of the other, which feldom happened, or by his proving recreant, and pronouncing the word craven, judgment was finally given in his favour. Black. Com. book iii. p. 339, &e. Combats, from the very commencement of the French monarchy, and for a number of centuries afterwards, were lawful aGts, ordcred by their kings, demanded and folicited by bifhops, or prefcribed by the fame bifhops, who had courts ad hoc within the interior of their cloifters, orna- mented and prepared for each combat at the expence of the champions, whillt the fame prelates excommunicated kings and whole families for marriages contraéicd in even the feventh degree of confanguimity. Pope Eugenius IIL. when confulted refpe€ting thefe combats, anfwered by a bull, that ancient ufage muft be complied with and fub- mitted to. It can therefore hardly be fuppofed, that fuch pontiffs, though the fucceffors of St. Peter, were much guided or direéted by the Holy Spirit. Cuamprion of the king, is an officer, whofe bufinefs is, at the coronation of the king of England, to nde into Welt- minfter-hall, armed cap-a-pié, when the king is at dinner, and throw down his gauntlet by way of challenge; prog nouncing by a herald, “* That if any man fhall deny, or — ‘¢ gainfay the king’s title to the crown, he is there ready * to defend it in fingle combat, &c.’”? Which done, the king drinks to him, fending him a gilt cup with a cover, © full of wine ; which the champion drinks, and has the cup © for his fee. his office, ever fince the coronation of Richard II. has been continued in the family of Dymocke, who held the — manor of Scrivelfby in Lincolnfhire, hereditary from the family of the Marmions, who had it before, by grand ferjeanty ; on condition that the lord thereof fhould be the king’s champion. Accordingly, Sir Edward Dymecke performed > GH A performed this office at the coronation of king Charles II. And a perfon of the name of Dymocke performed it at the coronation of his prefent majelty George III. } Cuampion de Fujlice, a military order called Angeliques Dorés de Saint Georges. This order owed its inftitution to Conftantine the Great, converted to the Catholic faith after a great victory, which he gained over the enemies of the Chriftian religion near AZaxence. Withing to confide the eare of the /abarum, which he had adopted for a banner, in place of the eagle of the former Romans, to intrepid de- fenders, he chofe from amongtt thofe of his officers, who had diftinguifhed themfelves moft in that celebrated battle, fifty gentlemen, who were to conftitute the number of knights or chevaliers, that were by his regulation to be charged with the care of the Jabarum, when he took the field. The mark of the order was a golden crofs with eight points hemmed and enamelled with gules, marked with flower-de-luces, and carrying on one fide of it thefe four letters, I. H.S.V. in hoc figno vinces, and on the reverfe the image of Saint George piercing the dragon, The knights were fubjeGt to the fame rules and reftrictions as thofe of the . order of Malta, except in the article of celibacy. This or- der rendered itfelf fo celebrated by its exploits, and particu- Tarly at the battle of Lepanto in 1572, that it had thirty grand matters of the imperial houfe of Comnenus. A good many kings and fovereign princes requefted to become - knights, among whom were John Sobiefky, king of Poland ; Ferdinand Marie, elector of Bavaria, the Emperor Leopold Firft, and the Emperor Charles the Fifth, who declared himlelf chief of that body, and chofe that his fon fhould carry the banner at the battle of Lepanto, in which the Mahometans loft thirty thoufand men, and had 400 galleys funk. CxHampion, or rather Cuampatn-/ands, are lands not inclofed ; or large fields, downs, or places without woods or hedges. ‘ CHAMPL, in Geography, a river of Germany, in the circle of Bavaria, which runs into the Regen at Cham. CHAMPLAIN, Samuet De, in Biography, the prin- cipal founder of the province of Canada, was a native of Saintonge, and made his firft voyages in the reign of Henry IV., as lieutenant to the Sieur de Monte. He vifited all ‘tthe harbours of Acadia, ran up the river St. Lawrence, ave a beginning to Quebec and Montreal, advanced to the lake {till called by his name, and aflifted the neighbouring favage tribes againft the Iroquois. In another voyage he proceeded further up the river, and defeated the Iroquois in ~ their own country. After his return to France in 1611 for the purpofe of obtaining fuccours, he was fent back with the commiffion of king’s lieutenant in 1613, and with pro- per requifites for fortifying Quebec. Here he remained, and was continued in his office under the affociated company of Canada formed in 1628. But, in 1631, he was expelled with his other conntrymen by the Englifh; but, upon its being reltored at the peace, he returned thither as governor- general in 1634, in which year he died. He maintained the charaGer of an upright, courageous, aétive, and zealous officer in promoting the intereft of his country, and of the fettlement. He wrote, “ Voyages and ‘Travels in New France, called Canada,’ 4to. 1632, in which are many curious obfervations intermixed with inftances of credulity. Nouv. Dis. Hitt. Cuampvain, in Geography, a lake of North America, fo called from the name of the fubje&t of the preceding article, who firft difcovered it in 1608, whereas it was before his time called Corlaer’s lake. This lake is next in fize to lake On- fario, and lies nearly ealt from it, forming part of the line that “CHA divides the ftates of New York and Vermont, Th: length frong N. to S., fays Morfe, is 80 miles; itsbreadth, where it is widelt, 14; but according to Mr. Weld, (Travels through North America, vol. i. p. 299.). it is about 120 miles long, and of various breadths: forthe firlt 30 miles, that is from South River to Crown Point, it is nowhere more than two miles wide ; beyond this, for the diftance of 12 miles, it is five or fix miles acrofs; then again it narrows, and at the termination of a few miles, again expands, ‘That part called the “Broad Lake,” becaufe it is broader than any other, commences about 25 miles N. of Crown Point, and is 18 miles acrofs in the wideft part. Here the lake, which is faid to occupy about 500,000 acres, is inter/perfed with a great number of iflands, the largeft of which, formerly ‘called “ Grand Ifle, now “ South Hero,” fays Weld, *¢ North Hero,” according ta Morfe, is 15 miles long, and at a mean about four in breadth. ‘The foil of this ifland is fertile, and it is faid that 500 people are fettled upon it. The other principal iflands are North Hero, and Merte ifland. They reckon in the whole not lefs than 60. The Broad lake is nearly 50 miles in length, and gradually contracts till it ends in a large river called Chambly, Riche- lieu, or South Sea Chamblee. The foundings of lake Champlain, except at the narrow parts which terminate its extremities, are generally very deep ; in many places 60,a:d 70, and in fome roo fathoms. In proportion to its breadth and depth, the water is more or lefs clear; in the broad part it is as pure and tran{parent as poffible. Onthe weit fide as far as Cumberland Bay, the lake is, for the greatelt part, bounded by fteep mountains, clofe to the edge of the water; at Cumberland Bay the ridge of mountains runs off to the N. W., and the fhore becomes low and fwampy. The eat, or Vermont fhore, is not, in general, much ele- vated: at the diftance, however, of 12 miles from the lake, is a confiderable mountain; the fhores on both fides are very rocky; the iflands are almoft encompafled with rocks, fo that it is dangerous to approach them within one or two miles in particular parts. In failing along the fhore when a breeze is blowing, a hollow murmuring noife is heard from the waters fplathing into the crannies of the rocks. There are many ftreams which fall into the lake; the mouths of thefe on the weftern fide are obftru@ed by falls, fo that none of them are navigable; fome few of thefe on the eaftern or Vermont fide, are navigable by {mall boats to a fhort diftance. The {cenery along various parts of this lake is extremely grand and piturefque, particularly beyond Crown Point; the fhores are there beautifully ornamented with hanging woods and rocks; and the moun- tains on the weltern fide rife up in ranges one behind the other in a very magnificent manner. This lake is well ftored with fith, particularly falmon, falmon-trout, iturgeon, and pickerel ; and the land on its borders, and on the banks of its rivers, is fertile and productive. At Ticonderago, which hes near the fouthern part of the lake, it receives the waters of lake George from the S.S.W., which is faid to be 100 feet higher than this lake. The waters in lake Chainplain generally rife from about the 20th of April to the 20th of June, from four to fix feet, the greateit va- riation being not more than eight feet. It is feldom fhut up with ice, until the middle of January, and the ice generally goes off very rapidly between the 6th and 15th of April. Cuampvain, the moft northerly townfhip of Clinton. county, in the ftate of New York, takes its name from the Jake to which it is adjacent. It was granted to fome Cana- dian and Nova Scotia refugees, who were either in the fervice of the United States during the war, or fled to them 31a for CHA for proteétion. ‘The indigence or ill habits of thefe people occafioned the breaking up of the fettlement ; and it 1s now occupicd by a better clafs of inhabitants. The lands are fertile ; and through it run two rivers, well ftored with fith. It has 575 inhabitants, and three flaves. By the flate cenfus of 1796, 76 of the inhabitants are eleCtors. CHAMPLEMY, atown of France, in the department of Nievre, and diftriét of Clamecy ; four leagues S.S.W. of Clamecy. ; CHAMPLITTE, a town of France, in the department of the Upper Sadne, and chief place of 2 canton in the dif- trict of Gray; 12 miles N. of Gray. The place contains 2654, and the canton 9558 inhabitants: the territory in- cludes 230 kiliometres aud 20 communes. : CHAMPROND, atown of France, in the department of the Eure and Loire, and diltri@ of Nogent-le-Rotrou ; 15 miles W. of Chartres. : CHAMPROUENT, a town of Savoy; nine miles N. of Chambery. CHAMPS, a town of France, in the department of the Cantal, and chief place of a canton, in the difti& of Mauriac; the canton contains 5219 inkabitents ; the terri- tury comprehends 139 kiliometres, and five communes. CHAMPTERCIER, a town of France, in-the depart- ment of the Lower Alps, and diltri& of Digne; three miles W. of it. CHAMPTOCE’, atown of France, in the department of the Mayne and Loire, and chief place of a canton in the diftri& of Angers; four leagues W.5S.W. of Angers. CHAMTOCEAUX, a town of France, inthe depart- ment of the Mayne and Loire, and chief place of a canton in the diftri@ of Beaupreau ; the place contains 1113, and the canton $397 inhabitants ; the territory includes 220 kiho- metres and 8 communcs. CHAMPVANS, a town of France, in the department of the Jura, and chief place of a canton in the difiné of Dole ; one league S.W. of it. CHAMPVANT, a town of France, in the department of the Upper Sadne, and chief place of a canton in the dif- tri@ of Gray 3 one league fouth of it. : CHAMTA, or Tcuamra, a town of Afia, in the eountry of Thibet ; 107 miles E. of Laffa. Paes CHAMTOA, atown of Afia, in the country of Thibet; 5 miles N.N.W. of Cont-choudfong. CHAMUNY, a town, mountain, and valley of Savoy, in the lordthip of Faucigny. See Cuamouny. é CHAMUSCA, atown of Portugal, in the province of Eftramadura; three leagues N.E. of Santaren. CHAMUTL, a river of Naples, which runs into the fea, fix miles S.S.E. of Girace—Alfo, a town of Naples, in the province of Calabria Ultra ; five miles S.S.W. of Girace. CHANA, or Cuane, in Ancient Geography, a navigable river of Afia, which difcharged itfelf into the Cyrus, ac- cording to Strabo. i CHANAG, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- artment of the Lozére, and chief place of a canton in the dillri@ of Marvejols, 24 leagues 5.W. of Mende. The place contams 1909, and the canton 5024 inhabitants: the territory includes 1473 kiliometres and fix communes. CHANAID, a {mall ifland of Scotland, near the S.W. extremity of the ifland of Ila. CHANAS, a town of France, in the department of the ‘Ifere, and chief place of a canton in the diftri&t of Vienne ; four miles S.S.W. of Vienne. ; CHANCAILLO, a fea-port of South America, in the Pacific Ocean, on the coaft of Peru; N.W. of Lima. S. lat. 12° 5’. CHA CHANCAY, a town of South Americain Peru, and prin- cipal place of a jurifdi¢tion belonging to that of Guaura, in the archbifhopric of Lima; fituate about 10 leagues S. of Lima, in S. lat. 11° 33’ 47. The town aan of about 300 houfes and Indian huts : is very populous, and among other inhabitants, can boaft of many Spanith families, and fome of diftinguifhed rank. Befides a parifh church, it has a convent of the order of St. Francis, and an hofpital chiefly f{upported by the benevolence of the inhabitants. ‘The cor- regidor ufually refides at Chancay, and appoints a deputy for Guaura. The adjacent country is naturally very fertile, and every where well watered by canals, cut from the river Paffamayo, which runs about a league and a half to the fouthward of the town. Thefe parts are every where fown with maize, for the purpofe of fattening hogs, in which article is carried on a very confiderable trade ; the ¢ity of Lima being furnifhed from hence. CHAN-CBAN, a town of Afia, in the kingdom of Corea; 12 miles S.W. of Long-Kouang. CHANCE, a term we apply to events, to denote that they happen without any neceflary foreknown or intending caufe: or it is ufed to denote the bare poffibility of an event,’ when nothing 1s known either to prevent or hinder it. Our aim is, to afcribe thofe things to chance, which are not neceffarily produced as the natural effets. of any proper caufe, which we can difcover ; but our ignorance and preci-" pitancy lead us to attribute effeéts to chance, which have ne- ceflary and determinate caufes. When we fay a thing happens by chance, we really mean no more, than that its caufe is unknown to us: not, as fome vainly imagine, that chance itfelf can be the caufe of any thing. Although Ariitotle in his Ethics (1. tii. c. 3.), enu- merating the adtive, efficient caufes of events, mentions chance as one of them; thefe feveral caufes, he fays, are nature, neceffity, and chance; and befides thefe, mind or intelle&, and whatever operates by or through man. However, from the confideration that chance itfelf cannot be the caufe of any thing, Dr. Bentley takes occafion to expofe the folly of that old tenet, ‘ the world was made by chance.’’ The cafe of the painter, mentioned by Plutarch, (weg. Tuxxs) who, unable to exprefs the foam at the mouth of a horfe he had painted, threw his fponge in defpair at the piece, and, by chance, did that which he could not before do by defign, is an eminent inftance of the force of chance: yet, it is obvious, all we here mean by chance is, that the painter was not aware of the effeét; or that he did not throw the fponge with fuch a view ; fo that with refpeé to him it was fortuitous, becaufe he did not defign or forefee fuch an effect: not but that he a€tually did every thing ne- ceflary to produce it ; infomuch that, confidering the direc- tion wherein he threw his fponge, together with its form, {pecific gravity, the colours wherewith it was fmeared, and the diftance of the hand from the piece, it was impoflible, on the prefent fyftem of things, that the effet fhould not follow. Chance, fays Dr. Bentley (fee Boyle’s Le&ture Sermons, vol. i. p. 44:), is but a mere name, and really nothing in itfelf ; a conception of our own minds, and only a conpendi- oys way of {peaking, by which we would exprefs, that fuch effets as are commonly attributed to chance, were really produced by their true and proper caufes, but without their _ defigning to produce them. And in any event called cafual, if you take away the real and phyfical caufes, there remains nothing but a fimple negation of the agent’s intending fuch an event; which negative being no real entity, but a con- ception only of man’s intelleét wholly extrinfical to the ac- tion, can have no title to a fhare in the produ@tion. The 5 adequate Ni DOCTRINE OF CHANCES. adequate meaning of chance, as this ingenious writer ob- ferves, is a bare negation, fignifying no more than this, that any effe€&t among inanimate bedies, aferibed to chance, is really produced by phytical agents, according to the efta- blifhed laws of motion, but without their confcioufuels of concurring to the produétion, and without their intention of fuch an effe&t. So that chance, in its true fenfe, is the fame with nature, and both words are ufed promifcuoufly by fome ancient writers (fee Plato X.de Legibus) to expreis the fame thing. é Chance is frequently perfonified, and ere&ted into a chi- merical being, whom we conceive as ating arbitranly, and producing all the eff<€ts, whofe real caufes do not appear to us: in Which fenfe the word coincides with the Tux», and Fortuna, of the ancients. See Fortune. Chance is confounded with Fate and De/ffiny; and the word is alfo ufed for the manner of deciding things, the condu& or direGion of which is left at large, and not re- ducible to any determinate rules or meafures; or where there is no ground for preference; as at cards, dice, lot- terics, &c. The ancient fors, or chance, M. Placette obferves, was in- flituted by God himfelf; and in the Old Teftament we find feveral ftanding laws, and exprefs commands, which prefcribed its ufe on certain occafions: hence the Scrip- ture fays, the Jot, or chance, fell on St. Matthias; when it was in queflion who fhould fll Judas’s place in the apoftolate. Hence alfo arofe the fortes fun@orum, or method of deter- mining things among the ancient Chriftians, by opening fome of the facred books, and pitching on the firit verfe they calt their eye on, as a fure prognoftic of what was to befall them. The fortes Homerice, Virgiliane, Prenefline, &c. ufed by the heathens, were with the fame view, and in the fame manner. See Sorres. St. Auguiftine feems to approve of this method of deter- mining things future, and owns that he had practifed it him- felf; grounded on this fuppofition, that God prefides over chance, and on Proverbs xvi. ver. 33. Many among the modern divines hold chance to be con- dued in a particular manner by Providence, and efteem it an extraordinary way which Ged ufes to declare his will, and a kind of immediate revelation. Cuances, dodrine of. This fubje&, no lefs ufeful than it is curious, does not appear to have engaged the attention of mathematicians in former times fo much as its importance required. Until the beginning of the laft, or, at leaft, the middle of the preceding century, little is to be found in any of their writings concerning it. Of the few problems which they hac been accuftomed to inveftigate, they with- held the folutions both from the publicand from each other, and they feem to have confidered the doétrine of chances rather as an exercife for their ingenuity, than as capable of being applied toany ufeful purpofe. Before Mr. Huygens publifhed his book “ De Ratiociniis in Ludo Alez,”’ no per- fon had treated the fubjeé&t methodically, and, with the ex- ception of Mefirs. Pafcall and Fermat, who had folved a few problems of no great importance or difficulty, he appears to have been the firft who attempted either to give rules for the folfition of any queftion, or to lay down the principles from which thofe folutions might be deduced. To him, therefore, we are indebted for the firft regular tra& on this Aubje& ; although even 4is work, from the comparatively few problems which it contains, and the want of demonttra- tions to fome of them, can hardly be regarded as an elemen- "tary treatife. To this work fucceeded a {mall anonymous — gract “on the Laws of Chance,” which was publifhed in London in 1692, and a French publication of not much larger fize, entitled, «« L’Analyfe des Jeux de Hazard,” which was written by M. Monmort, and publifhed in the year 1708. In this latter work, the author having chiefly infifted on the fame mode of reafoning with Mr. Huygens, in the folution of his problems, Mr. de Moivre, (who con- fidered fuch reafoning as neither genuine nor natural,) was induced, in his celebrated work on the DoGtrine of Chances, (which was fir publifred in 1717,) to adopt a plainer and lefs exceptionable mode, in which he has proceeded from the mott fimple to the moft complicated cafes; fo that, by the variety of his problems as well as by. the improvements and additions which he has made in two fubfequent editions, he has rendered his work one of the beft and moft copious that has ever been written on the fubje&. In the year 1740, Mr. Thomas Simpfon, in confequence, as he obferves, of the high price of the preceding, and the imperfe€tions of other books on the fubjeét, was led to publifh a {mall trea- tife on ** the Nature and Laws of Chance,” which, like his other publications, is not only clear and concife, but cone tains fome problems, whofe folutions had either never been attempted, or, at leaft, never before comnuinicated to the public. Prior, however, to the two laft-mentioned publica- tions, a pofthumous work of Mr. James Bernoulli was pubs lifhed in the year 1713, entitled, «* De Arte Conje@tandi,”” containing an explanation of Mr. Huygens’s traét, and the folution of a great variety of other problems deduced from the- general principles of combination. The fecond part of this valuable work has lately been tranflated into Englith by Mr. Baron Maferes, with copious notes and commentaries,. and it is to be regretted that the other parts had not been given to the public in the fame manner. In the firft volume of his Mathematical Repofitory, pub- lifhed in the year 1748, Mr. Dodfon has introduced the fo- lution of feveral queftions in the doétrine of chances; but chiefly with the view of applying them to the doétrine of annuities and furvivorfhips, which conflitutes the principal part of his work. In the year 1765, and at other times,. M. D’Alembert in his Opufcules, &c. wrote different eflays.; and about 15 years ago M. Cordorcet publifhed a {mall treatife on the fame fubje@. But as thefe works are almott wholly confined to the inveftigation of events, whofe pro- bability or improbability can be afcertained by no compu— tation, they ferve more to fhew the ingenuity of the authors than to anfwer any ufeful purpofe. In addition to thefe, which are the principal publications on this fubject, may be noticed a {mall traG, ** De Menfura Sortis,”’ given by Mr. De Moivre, in his “ Mifcellanea Analytica,” and fome papers written by him, by Meffrs. Bernoulli, Euler, and: others, in the A¢ts of Leipfic, the Journal des Scavans, the Philofophical Tranfa&tions, &c. among which may be par- ticularly mentioned an ‘* Effay on the Method of calculatin the exact probability of all Conclufions founded on Induc- tion, and a “ Supplement” to that efflay :—the one preferved from the papers of the late Rev. Mr. Bayes, and communi. cated, with an appendix, by Dr. Price to the Royal Society in the year 1762 the other chiefly written by Dr. Price, and communicated in the following year. Thefe tra&s contain the invefligation of a problem, the converfe of which had formerly exercifed the ingenuity of Mr. Bernoulli, De Moivre, and Simpfon. Indeed, both the problem and its converfe may juftly be confidered not only as the moft dif- ficult, but as the moft important that can be propofed on ‘the fubjeét; having (as Dr. Price well obferves) “no lefy an object in view than to fhew what reafon we have for believing that there are in the conttitution of things fixed laws, according to which events happen; and that, there. fore, DOCTRINE OF CHANCES. fore, the frame of the world mutt be the effeé&t of the wif- dom and power of an intelligent caufe; and thus to con- firm the argument taken from final caufes for the exiftence of the Deity.” While the folution of thefe problems re- quire and difplay the higheft mathematical fkill, their ap- plication proves how much thofe are miftaken who have in- finuated that the ‘¢ do@trine of chances is of trivial confe- quence and unworthy of any ferious inquiry.”? In truth, there is no-part of the mathematics of more confequence, at leaft in this country, where the valuation of an immenfe pro- perty, and the future provifion of many thoufands entirely depend on a right knowledge of the fubje@. In addition to the tracts and papers already mentioned, it may be ob- ferved, that the laft communication of Dr. Waring to the Royal Society, in the year 1791, contains the folutions of two theorems on this {ubje& ; but as the chief defign of the prefent article is to explain the general principles on which all folutions in the doétrines of chances are founded, rather than to give a minute hiftory of what has already been done, or an analyfis of every particular cafe, it will be im- proper to proceed further with this account. In order the more rightly to underftand the fubjeG it will be neceflary te begin with the following defini- tions. Derinirion I. The prodability of an event is the ratio of the chance for its happening to all the chances for its hap- pening or failing : thus. if out of fix chances for its happen- ing or failing, there were only two chantes for its happening, the protability in favour of fuch an event would be in the ratio of 2 to 6; that is, it would bea fourth proportional to 6,2,and 1, or 4. For the fame reafon, as there are four chances for its failing, the probability that the event will not happen, will be in the ratio of 4 to 6, or, in other words, it will be a fourth proportional to 6, 4, and 1, or }. Hence, if the fraGtions exprefling the probabilities of an event’s both happening or failing be added together, they will always be found equal to unity. For let a be the number of chances for the event’s happening, and 4 the number of chances for a ia a+o y and its failing, the probability in the firft cafe being 4 a b : : rari 7 their fum will be = BEB Te Having therefore determined the probability of any event’s either happening or failing, the probability of the contrary will always be obtained by fubtraéting the fration expreffing fuch probability from unity. Derinition II. The expefation of an event is the prefent value of any fum or thing which depends either on the hap- pening or on the failing of fuch event. Thus, if the receipt of one guinea were to depend on the throwing of any parti- cular face on a die, the expe@ation of the perfon entitled to reccive it would be worth 3s. 6d.; for fince there are fix faces on a die, and only one of them can be thrown to entitle the perfon to receive his money, the probability that fuch a face will be thrown being 4 (according to Definition I.), it follows that the value of his intereit before the trial is made, or which is the fame thing, that his expedation is equal to one-fixth of a guinea, or 3s. 6d. Were his receiving the money to depend on his throwing either of two faces, his expeGation would be equal to two-/ixths of a guinea, or 7s. And, in general, fuppofing the prefent value of the money or thing to be received to be A, the probability of the “event’s happening to be denoted by a, and of its failing by in the fecond cafe #, the expe@ation will be either expreffed by Bene or by , according as it depends either on the event’s happen. ing, or on its failing. Derinition IIL. Several events are inconfiflent, when, if one of them happens, none of the reft can: tuus, if the fom S were to be received on throwing either am ace or a duce with a fingle die, it is evidznt that the expeGiation in this cafe would depend on either of two events which are incon- JSifent with each other; for if one particular face is thrown it is impoffible that the other fhould be turned up at the fame time. And fince the value on the ace’s being thrown is S . : : S.. > and its value on the duce’s being thrown is alfo Gr itfol- lows that the whole expe€ation will be equal to S multiplied into the fum of the probabilities of the two events, or 4; and this is univerfally true, whatever be the number-of fuch events. Derinttron IV. Two events are contrary, when one or other of them mult, and both together cannot happen. Derinitron V. An event is faid to be determined, when it has either happened or failed. Derinition VI. Events are independent, when the hap- pening of any one of them does neither increafe nor leffen the probability of the reft. Thus, if a perfon undertook with a fingle die to throw an ace at two fucceffive trials, it is ob- vious (however his expe€tation may be affcéted) that the probability of his throwing an ace in the one is neither increafed nor leffened by the refult of the other trial. THEOREM. “© The probability that two fubfequeot events will both happen, is equal to the product of the probabilities of the happening of thofe events confidered feparately.”” ‘ Suppofe the chances for the happening and failing of the firft event to be denoted by 4, and thofe for its happening only to be denoted by a. Suppofe, in like manner, the chances for the fecond event’s happening and failing to be denoted by d, and thofe for its happening only by c; then will the probability of the happening of each of thofe events, feparately confidered, be, according to Definition I. ; and < refpedtively. Since it is neceflary that the firft event fhould happen before any thing can be determined in regard to the fecond, it isevident that the expe€tation on the latter mutt be Ieffened in proportion to the improbability of the former. Were it certain that the firft event would happen, a 3 But if ais lefs than, and in other words, were a = Jor ~ = 1, the expeGation on the fecond event would be = . a the expe&ation on the fecond event is reftrained to the con- tingency of its having happened the firlt time, that expedta- tion will be fo much Jefs than it was on the former fuppo- a A ae é isi ac ress 7 for the true expectation in this cafe. Corollary. By the fame method of reafoning it will ap- pear, that the probability of the happening of any number of fubfequent events is equal to the “* produé of the proba- bilities of thofe events feparately confidered,” and therefore if a always denote the probability of its happening, and 4 the probability of its happening and failing, the fra@ion a b fition as - is lefs than unity. Hence we have 1: le A ee eee DOCTRINE Pi will exprefs the probability of its happening a times fucs b b mee n ceflively, and (by Definition 1.) the fraGtion a prefs the probability of its failing » times fucceflively. Remark. It thould be obferved that, in fome inf{tances, the probability of each fubfequent event neceffarily differs from that which preceded it, while in others it continues invariably the fame through any number of trials. In the one cafe the ' probabilities are exprefled, as in the theorem, by fraCtions, whofe numerators and denominators continually vary ; in the other they are expreffed, as in the corollary, by one and the fame invariable fraétion. But this perhaps will be better un- deritood by the following examples. 1. Suppofe, that out of a heap of counters, of which one part of them are white and the other red, a perfon were twice fucceflively to take out one of them, and that it were required to determine the probability that thefe fhould be red counters. If the number of the white be 6, and the number of the red be 4, it is evident, from what has already been fhown, that the probability of taking out a red one the firlt time will be ;4,: but the probability of taking it out the 2d time will be different ; for fince one counter has been taken out, there are now only nine remaining ; and fince, ia erder to the 2d trial, it is neceflary that the counter taken out fhould have been a red one, the number of thofe red ones mutt have been reduced to 3. Confequently, the chance of drawing out a red counter the 2d time will be 3, and the probability of drawing ir out the rt and 2d time will (by will ex- this theorem) be +3 — —. TON) Hy ais 2. Suppofe next, that with a fingle die, a perfon under- took to throw an ace twice fucceifively : in this cafe the probability of throwing it the firft, does not in the leaft alter his chance of throwing it the fecond time, as the number of faces on the die is the {ame in both trials. The probability, therefore, in each will be expreffed by the fame fraGtion, fo that the probability, before any trial is made, will, by the preceding corollary, be £ x 2 = 3%. On thefe conclu- fions depend all the computations, however complicated and laborious, in the doétrine of chances. But this perhaps will be more clearly exempl. ded in the following problems, which, containing the folution of fome of the molt difficult and im- portant cafes, will ferve to explain the principles on which every other inveftigation is founded in this intricate and ex- hauftlefs fubject. Prosuem I. To determine the probability that an event happens a given number of times and no more, in a given number of trials. Solution. 1. Let the probability be required of its happen- ing only once in two trials, and let the ratio of its happen- ing to that of its failing be as a to 6. Then fince the event ean take place only by its happening the firft, and failing b a+é Ps +6 » or by its failing the firlt and happening the fecond the fecond time, the probability of which is a+) time, the probability of which is ey a+ Bis a: an s 2 a will be the probability required. ‘ a+ 2. Let the probability be required of its happening only twice in three trials, In this cafe the event, if it happens, ? the fum of thefe 2 two fraétions, or OF CHANCES, muft take place in either of three different ways. 1ft. By its happening the firft two, and failing the third time, the b = adly. By its failing the firlt and happening the other two times, the probability of which aa is rears or, 3dly. By its happening the firftand third, and probability of which is failing the fecond time, the probability of which is ya a+b}? 2 , will be the s 3b The fum of thefe fractions, therefore, or 3 a required probability. Py the fame method of reafoning, the probability of its happening oly once in three trials; or, which is the fame thing, of its failing twice in three trials, g3bhbha 9 may be found equal to : a+ 1 OB. Let the probability of the event’s happening only once in four trials be required. In this cafe it mult either happen the firlt and fail ia the three fucceeding trials—or happen the 2d and failin the 1ft, 3d, and 4th trials—or happen the gd and fail in the uit, 2d, and ath trials—or happen the 4th and failin the 1ft, 2d, and 3d trials. The probability of L abs each of thefe being rsa ’ @— O\" the required probability will be ab ae and for the fame reafon the probability of its hap- pening three times and failing only once in four trials will ba? pee a+ byt 4. Let the probability be required of its happening twice and failing twice in four trials: here the event may be de- termined in either of fix different ways. aft. By its hap- pening the rf and 2d, and failing in the 3d and 4th trials—zdly, by its happening. the 1ft and gd and fail- ing the 2d and 4th trials—gdly, by its happening the sft and 4th and failing the 2d and 3d trials—gthly, by its hap- pening the 2d and 3d and failing the rft and 4th trials— Sthly, by its happening the 2d and 4th and failing the 1ft and 3d trials—or, Othly, by its happening the 3d and 4th and fail- ing the rit and 2d trials. Each of thefe probabilities being ab : exprefled by FW it follows that the fum of them, or gee, will exprefs the probabilit ired pans i obability required. ra P P ats | By proceeding in the fame manner, the probability in any other cafe may be determined. But if the number of trials be very great, thefe operations will become exceedingly com- plicated, mid thererors recourfe muft be had to a more ge- neral method of folution. Suppoling 2 to be the whole number of trials, and d the number of times in which the event is to take place, the probability of the event’s happening d times fucceffively, d and failing the remaining nd times, will be jr-4 at oO a a+) D n~d fia " a i\" of its happening any other daffigned trials and failing in, the reft, ‘it is evident that this probability ought to be repeated as often as d things can be combined in x things, which, by nm—l n—2 2 continued x a+d]4 But as there is the fame probability . ° m. the known rules of combination, are = — x x I DOCTRINE OF CHANCES. eontinned to d terms; the general rule therefore will ad jnmd a’b alles sane n=l on—2 n=3 be ——— multiplied into nx —— x—— x 22 con. @ + 6)" 2 3 tinued to d terms. 7 Example. Suppofing a perfon with fix dice undertakes to throw two aces and no more; or, which is the fame thing, that he undertakes with one die to throw an ace twice, and no more, in fix trials, it is required to determine the proba- bility of his fuceceding, a being in this cafe = 1, 6= 5, 2'= 6, and d= 2, the above expreffions will become §* Fx enics 625 xX 15-2 =, multiplied into 6 x =m eee — very nearly. 6 2 40650 1O Hence, fince there are only two chances for his fucceeding, while there are eight for his failing, the odds againft him will be as four to-one. : Prosrem II, ‘To determine the probability that an event happens a given number of times ina given number of trials ; {uppohing, as in the former problem, the probability of its happening each time to.that of its failing to be in the ratio of ato 3. Solution. It will be obferved that this problem materially differs from the preceding, in as much as the event in that problem was reftrained fo that it fhould happen neither more nor lefs oftenthan a given number of times, while in this problem the event is determined equally favourable by its happening either as often or oftener than a given number of times, fo that in the prefent cafe there is no further reflric- tion than that it fhould not fall foort of that number. _ 1. Let the probability be required of an event happening once at leaft in two trials. —If it happens the firlt, and fails the fecond time, or fails the firft and happens the fecond time, or happens both times, the event will have equally fuc- ceeded, The probability in the firlt cafe is Le re a+ b- ,and the probability in the ba a+? ; hence the probability required will be bability.in the fecond is aa a+oV" zab+taa a+lV 2. Let the probability be required of its happening once in three times. Provided it has happened once at Jealt in the firft two trials, ‘the event will have equally fucceeded, third is whether it happens or fails in the third trial, and therefore ene et will reprefent the probability in this cafe. But at it may have failed in the firft two and happened in the third ba b : trial, the probability of which is 3 adding this to the a+é @+3@b+3ah a+a\s bability required. In like manner the probability of its hap- a+ 3ah+3abb a +4)’ , and the probabi- preceding fraction, we have for the pro- pening once at leatt in four trials will be ri ab at + 6a 4602 4 4083 a+ b\ a+ d\* lity of its happening once at leaft in n times will be a+ Po a+ by In other words, fince the event muft happen once at leaft, unlefs it fails every time, the probability re- quired (by Def. I.) will always be expreffed by the differs bn u ctw ni . ence between unity and aT 3- Let the probability be required of an event’s happen- lug twice at leaft in three trials. In this cafe it will fucceed if it happens the rft and 2d, and fails the 3d time, if it happens the rit and 3d and fails the 2d time, if it happens the 2d and 3d and fails the firll time, or if it happens each 5 z time fucceflively. The 1 three probabilities are 2 2 © and a+o : a ate . 3 the 4th is ==; therefore the probability required will at by If the event is to happen twice at leaft a+ i” ‘ ’ in four times, the probability of its happening during the firt three times has been already found. Letit be fuppofed to have happened only once in thefe irs We probabiity of Pes 3 yhic . ecedi roblem, is ~===~ ; then will the which, by the preceding proble tran probability of its happening the 4th, after having happened 3 ; : 3a°b : once in the three preceding, be Si and therefore the. a+ bh} . i BE 90 Sh tnien = + 3a°b Siok, ; | ‘il ar 2505 he ea whole probability will be Sova F rar at 4ab +60 PR a+ i" é it may be found that the probability of an event’s happening : at+4a@b + 6a" a a* %, a 4ab a t+ sath + 10 a + 10 a? Sy SS SS Sc ee Ee + by Seri $s. A\nd if the probability of the event’s happening thrice in 4, 5,6, &c. trials be required, they may, by purfuing the fame Bee ¥eG a at+4ab a& + 54° + 100° PR, e oun erm i Fi e = a)’ at+6 05+ 15 Lit + 204° 53 , & A! refpettively. a+b it follows, that if the binomial a-+-d)be raifed to the xth power, theprobability of an event’shappening at leaitd times ina triala By. proceeding in the fame mazner,, twice at leaft in five trials, will be = fteps, Hence aes a" + na®"b +n. 2 ta” 2 (alt oy ia Nee Ea meeise an that is, the feries in the numerator muft be continued till the index of a becomes equal to d. : Corollary. From this folution it appears that the feries O4+ntatn a b°-2 a? tod terms a+2\" J probability of the events not happening fo often as d times in n trials. —* Example. Suppofing a perfon with fix dice undertakes to throw two aces or more in the rft trial, what is the pro- bability of his fucceeding ? In this cafe a, 4, n, and dbeing refpectively equal to 1, 5, 6, and 2, the above expreffion 1+30+ 15X25 + 20 X 125415 xX 625 . of Hence the odds againf? his fucceeding will be as » will exprefs the will become = 12,281 — 46050" to 12,281, or very nearly as 2. 4 to one. saa/> ers ! d -Prozrem DOCTRINE Prosrem III. To determine the number of trials in which it fhall become an equal chance, thet an event happens d times; {uppofing fill the ratio of the event’s happenin g to that of its failing in any fingle trial to be as a to d. Solution. Let n be the number fought: then fince it ap- pears, from the preceding corollary , that the probability of the event’s not happening d times in a trials is equal to P+nb" “lain. wt Fa 2, ...(d) ve ig ' -———___ *@________, and fince this expreffin ait = ? ce this exprelion, from the nature of the problem. muft be 4, it follows CRE a! —-* Ea (d) willbe = : , na 5 é a oe + } é , and therefore in order to obtain a folution cf this 2 — problem, it will be neceffary to find the unknown quantity Ifa is = 4, or, in other words, if the chances of the event’s happening or failing are equal, the feries will become fimply atts 5 cari = (a) = St atain— tft a 2 But the firft half of the terms of the i ,omia! 1 ++ .\"are equal to the reft of the terms, or half the whole power, and the whole number of terms, in any binomial, raifed to-the nth power, is = 2-1. Hence it follows, that the exponent, n, in this cafe will always be = 2d — 13 fo that fuppofing a counter to have a black and a white face, and that it were required to determine the number of throws which would be neceflary to make it am equal chance, that either face fhould be turned up, 3, 4, 5, &c. times, the number thus required will be 5, 7,9, Kc. If, on the contrary, inftead of being equal, the ratio of 4 to a is indefinitely great, or, which is the fame thing, if the let this fra@ion be mace PP 2 fraction > 1s indefinitely fmall ; = p, then we have r + -— SS wn(d)= 1 +9)" 2 ift. Let d be = 1, then will the above equation become Pp, OP rates Pg i. 3 — &c. = hyp. log. of 2, and confequently, a as tet as pis indefinitely final, np=.Cg314 &e. or 7s very near- ] n x log. 1 + p.= log. 2; that is, (fincep — — &c. is equal the hyp. log. of 1 + p)2x p — Me - Bet Ss : adly. Let ¢ be = 2, and the equation in this cafe will be i P or (making 4p =d + xanda=d +1) bap = — hyp. log. of 2 + hyp. log. of a a x= np. But the aE Oe ee fi ful 1 f —— — + — — &e. uxion of the hyp. log. of a a+ x x is= = = &e x? whofe fluent correfted is = the byP- log. of a + == er x? + a => ke, Vor, VII. OF ‘CHANCES. Let s be made = the hyp. log. of 2 4+ hyp. log. of a, ther a x noe? will d+ be =s + =— +4 &e. and x + — —— a 2a* 2a.a—t : aay wy x Bie S: “=a 2-5 —&4 = — + &. = ——— = ———.. But this 3a .a—'I a=. d feries converges fo extremely faft, that it will be neceffary to take only the firlt term of it, and confequently x will be = tine, or — .31237. Hence d + x (=f) will be = 2 — 31237 = 1 .68763 nearly. gdly. If d be = 3; ge ag Ls EET f it, let d+ as in the former cafe be = npanda=d+r1; let dd m alfo be =r +d+ = then will 7p = hyp. log. of 2 -+ hyp. log. of m + ax + — = hyp. log. of 2 + = ax+xux ax ,m—aa.x* Flu x” : m 2m m+ax+— - 2 24a—-2m—ma aa Gini -x3 + &c. or (making s = hyp. log. 2m) x 4+4%—m-* ampma—taa.e 2.m.m—a Om .m—a m.s—d 2m.s—d . 4 = —— = — — » or, (negle@ing all the terms ia m—a dd this feries except the firft) « = 2 as -— . 3168. Hence we have np = 3 — . 3168 = 2. 6843. By pro- ceeding in the fame manner when d is = 4, the value of -3.m PD Fila may be found = (m being in this cafe 3 I+ rita And ape if m be findd eer arp SiyeeS + &c. (d)and s = the hyp. log. of 2m; mn fee of x» will always be = Te ee OinS)9) og Aust tie oe Ou da‘! a0? ao S.5 d . . -, which, in every cafe, may be found very nearly equal to — 3; ; fo that when the ratio of 3 to ais indehnitely great m will always be very nearly = d—.3 equal, it follows that the true value in all intermediate cafes b = =-xd—.3+ a 3X —; and fince it is = 2d — 1 when b and a are a muft be between thefe limits, or nearly hat a d—.7. If d, however, be a great, and 5r fmall number, the value will be exprefled with fufficient accuracy by the . bd fraftion —, a Example 1. In how many throws with four d’ce may it be undertaken to turn up the four aces. Anf. The number of chances for the event’s failing in any 3K fingl~ DOCTRINE OF CHANCES. fingle trial being 64 — 1 == 1295, while there is only one 12¢ ee and the num- chance for its happening, = will be = —_ —— ber required will be O°: ?, Example 2. Tn how many throws with four dice may it be undertaken to turn up 15 points twice? Anf. The number of chances for throwing 15 points with 4 dice being 140 (fee Prob. VII.), and the number of T2905 °X, Do 12/3 chances for mifling being 64 — r40 = 1156, — will be a 6 : ; equal to 15 :, and therefore the number required will be = Tk T1156 — —— xX 2—.3 + 2—-3 = 15 nearly. 140 Example 3. Suppoling a lottery, like that for the prefent year (1806), confilting of 25,000 tickets, of which 20 are to be prizes of 1ocol. and upwards ; how many tickets muft be bought in erder to make it an equal chance that the purchafer has one of thofe prizes? L 8 Anf. In this cafe —is = 24on2t and, therefore, the A a 2¢ number required will be = 1249 X 1—.3 +1-.7= 875 nearly. It may be obferved, that in this lottery the whole number of prizes of every defcription being 5210, it may be found by the preceding rule that it will be neceffary to buy about 3 tickets, in order to make it an equal chance that the pur- chafer has a prize. Prosriem IV. Suppofe a given number (n) of counters of the fame fhape and fize, but marked with different colours, (of which a are white, dare red, ¢ are blue, &c.) to be mixed pro- mifcuoufly, and that a given number (m) of them were to be taken out at random; it is required to determine the probability that there fhall be precifely p white, g red, r blue, &c. Solation. By the well known rules of combination, the number of ways in which a things may be combined, fo that there fhall be » things in each parcel, is = tne ee ; the number of ways in which & things may be combined, fo that there fhall be g things in b.b=1.b — 2...(q) 7 1.2.3 &c. (q) in which c things may be combined, fo that there fhall be r each parcel, is = ; the number of ways Cr a Oa rd) ¥ H2%. 38: (r) en. The number of ways, therefore, in which, a, 4, c, &c. things may be combined, fo that there fhall be p of the 1ft, things in each parcel is = and fo q@ of the 2d, x of the 3d, é&c. will be = — 1.2.3 cc. (p) b.b—1.5 saa) €.0—1.¢ — 2...(r) Dut 1.2.3 &c. (¢) I .2. 3 &e. (r) the number of ways in which a things may be combined, fo that there fhall be m things in each parcel, without any reftriGtion as to their being compofed of any particular fort, Xx &e. a2.n —T-. — 2eeee( 172) 1.2.3 &c. (m)" in taking owt m (or p + 9 + r + &c.) counters, is = It follows, therefore, that a@.a—i.a—2...(p) the probability that there thall be preeifely p of white, q of red, r of blue, &c. will be expreffed by the fra€tion: @.a—1l.a—2.&c., sr eae 3 Ue oo Se eat ee Ta ance: 9) FETE a Ge, xX bra * x 2 3 4 C¢.c—J1.c—2. & I a. ger : + &e. (m),. Lxample. Suppofing that out of a heap of 30 cards, conlilting of 12 diamonds, to fpades, and 8 clubs, 3 be taken out ; it is required to determine the probability that there fhall be one of cach fort. Becaufe 2, the number of things, is = 30; m, the number of things taken ont, = 3; a= 12,4 = 10, ¢ = 8, and g, g, andr each = 12x 10x 8 48 2 3 Hence, the odds are as 155 to 48, or rather more than three to one again? the contingency above-mentioned. If nine were taken out, of which four were to be diamonds, three f{pades, and two clubs, the odds againff their being taken in that order would be very nearly 22,250 to one. 1, the above expreffion will. be = 30"% Corollary. Tf only counters of one colour are to be taken out, the fraction will be fimply = 23 Oe en —3- 0s), n— In — 2.2n— 3.(m) If counters of two colours, m will become + > and the fraétion exprefling the probability will be a.a—t.a— 2 b.6—1.6—2 (9) Ss) x SS Teese nn — in —2.n — 3. (m) To 52, Fe A OlGr p or g, and confequently a and 4 are very large numbers, the great multitude of terms involved in the operation will ren- der it almoft impra@ticable, and therefore it becomes necef- fary to have recourfe to fome method of reducing the la- bour. . But if either — . Since the denominator “=” — "— * &e, (m) is = DeAsng a eee ns 1s a = 2 uke (2) = ee m.m—I.m— 2. &c. (p) Teo Zin Fie i 4 eR nti e mn—t.n—2 &e. (a) 4. &c. (7) m.m—1.m—2. &e. (p) O50.0, = Bh Paes oe Olea = 3 x Se) a Serie a) the fraG@ion I 32.9.4. &c. (9) a.a—f.a—2 b.6—1.b—2. &e. (9g) 0 Ce mn ep Bes {2).x Tabak gy Sees ee SS ee OOO ee n.fi —~1.n—2.n — 3 &e. hae acer pi Ee ue a Pos (m) will be = &e. (g) X m.m—1I.m— 2 Ke. 2 oe ______P) Burthe lat faAor x hha ae Se) ef DOCTRINE OF CHANCES. ef. bap =D &e. (mm — a) is rs Saran there- fore _the | firft and following terms of the fraétion b.b-—1.b6— 2 &e. (q) b.b=1.56 —2 &e. (m — a) m—1; &c. or (making a +6 — m= v) =v.u—1- vw —2 &c.; hence the required probability will be &e. ayy — (fp) Xv. v—1.0—2.&c.(a + g—m) will bea + 6—ma+b— @.a—1.a—2. Dts Be CCC. n.n ——— Iria xm. m— 2. &c. (p) If counters of three co- n — 3 &c. (a) lours are taken out, the fraGtion exprefling the probability that there fhall be p of a fort, q of b fort, and r of c fort, ‘will, by purluing the fame fteps, (and making d= a + 6 a@.a—-t.a—2 b.b—1 ig per ae Ue) Mire + ¢— m) be reduced to ———___2—_________— min—-t.n—2 ~b-: ween 8S Oe ee EC a ee xm. m—1t.m—2(p+ 9) cree. (a+) labour, provided a, 4, p, and g are not very large, and that r be always put to denote the higheft number.—In fhort, if only one fet of counters or things be very numerous, and the others inconfiderable, an expreffion will always be ob- tained by proceeding in this manner which fhall give the probability required with very little trouble. Example, Suppofing a lottery like that of the prefent year (1806) to confift of 25000 tickets, of which three are to be prizes of 20,0001. each, and three of 10,0001. each; and that a perfon had purchafed 3000 of thofe tickets.— What is the probability of his having among them one prize of 20,o00l. and one prize of 10,0001? In this cafe n is equal to 25,000l., a= 3,5=3,p = 1,9 = I,m = 3000, r = 2998, and d= 22,000; hence the above exprcflion becomes _ 3X 3X 22000°X 21,999 x 21,998 x 21,997 x 25,000 X 24,999 X 24,)98 X 24,997 Xx 24996 x Bone 888 -0777. The odds therefore againf} his hay- 245995 F : ing thofe two prizes will be as 9,223 to 777, or nearly as 12. to I. which will alfo greatly leffen the Prosiem V. Suppofe a given number (7) of counters marked a, 4, c, d, e, &c. to be mixed promifcuoufly and taken out at ran- dom ; to determine the probability that none of them fhall come out in the order of the alphabet. Solution 1. Let it be required to determine the probability that neither of the two counters marked a and & fhall come out in the right order. The probability that any of the counters is taken out at any particular trial is compounded of the probability of its having previoufly failed, and of the probability of its being taken out at that particular trial. Now fince the chance of 2’s being taken out the firft is a and the chance of its being taken out the fecond (when tt — Sak iteeen there are only n — 3 counters remaining) is cree the pro- bability that it is taken out the fecond, after having failed L the firft trial, will be = 1 ~-~ x ss 7 the probabi- nm a E / hake iad lity of its being taken out the third, after having failed I aK n the firft two trials, willin like manner be = 1 —~ I t I 1— —— —j3 and univerfally the probability fl a il Se y probability of its being taken out at any other trial, after having failed 1 ’ 4 I in the preceding ones, will be = --. The probability there. 74 fore, that it will not be taken out at any particular trial will I oe ; be 1 — — ; hence the probability that 4 is not taken out 2 the fecond will be 1 — zo And fince the only cafe in a which the condition of the problem can be defeated, when & is not the fecond taken out, is by a’s having been taken out the firft; if this probability or — x 1 — ~ be fubtradt- n ed from y — © (or from the probability of 6's not being n taken out the fecond without any reftriGtion as to a) the re- mainder or 1 — ~ +: eee will be the probability that CA Sad a dis not taken out the fecond, and that a is taken out at any other trial than the firft: that is, the fraGion 1 — =i —= will exprefs he probability that neither of the fi.n—T1 counters marked a and 4 will be taken out in theirright order. 2. Let it be required to determine the probability that neither of the ¢Arce counters marked a, 4, and c, fhall come out in their right order.—By reafoning as above, and /up- pofing the fir trial to have been made, the probability that the counters marked 4 and ¢ fhall not come out the fecond and I of The pro- m— Zz third will be = 1 — 1 — T n—tI bability therefore that @ is the firft taken out (or ~) being 2 2 + multiplied into this expreffion will give eo = , Le ae, : for the probability of the only event 7.27—1.n—2 (when 4 and c have not been taken out in their right order) which can defeat the condition of the problem. This being fubtra@ted from 1 — ~ + (or the probability u 20) I that 4 and ¢ have not been taken out fecond and third withe 3 2.n— tf out any reftriction as to a) will give 1 — 3 Te: : for the probability that neither of the me.n—I.sn—2 three counters {hall be taken out in their proper order. ai IIT, In the fame manner if — — es —— a a.n—1l n.n—In—2 be fubtra&ted from 1 ae ans Nen— ft DOCTRINE OF CHANCES. n T 4 eeiaas ————_—_-————_ we fhall have 1 ~ — Bs Boi — I Hove fhe ean pine Le ua 6 4 I EPL ian pee ee zis i ——— = n.n—t 4! A nel Te nen—lT.n—-e-n 3 for the probability that neither of the four counters marked a,b, c, d, thall be taken outin their right order. Hence it is manifeft, if the number of counters to be taken out be m, and A, B, C, D, &c. be the feveral co-eflicients of the bino- mial whofe exponent is m; that the probability that neither of -the counters come out in their right order will es rot i be exprefled byt —=——: + == | Sa + i nn——t nm.n—I.n—2 Dd aS KC (m + 1) an — Tn et — 3 Corollary. If ont of a given number of counters taken out, it were required to determine the probability that the firft E of them fhould be in their right order, and the remain- ing m ones 10 the contrary, It will follow, fince the fraGion expreffidg the firlt of thefe contingencies is = and the fraétion expreffing the Ben—I.n—2 -n—3Z ore (b) {econd or the contingency that nene of the m counters + fhall come out in their proper order) is 1 — a= 72 ——., &c. that the required probability in 1 a multiplied into 1— ; n.n—iL.n—2..(k) A B a C Se Re een) Ie _——— OO eh pha be Wee eee + &e. (m+ 1). Corollary 2. If it be propofed to take out the whole of the n counters, or, in other words, if 2 — &be = m, then will the probability that the firft £ counters come out in their proper order, and all the remaining ones in the contrary be I this cafe will be = expreffed by ———= == multiplied into 1 — 1 n.n—1.n—2.n—3 (2) op oc eh ph et een (ew pla ow Rim bem 2 203 Jarge number, this laft feries may be confidered as infinite 5 and fince, thus continued, it ts known to be the number whofe hyp. log.is — 1, the reciprocal of which is the num- ber whole hyp. log. is + 1. Dedutting 1 therefore from 2.3025851 (or the hyp. log. of 10) the remainder 1.3025851 will be the hyp. log. of the number .367878. Hence the above probability io this cafe will be nearly = . .367878 a a et Dee) Corollary 3. Suppofing n — & to be ftill = m, and it were required to determine the probability of taking & things in their proper order, without any reftri€tion as to the relt, it is evident that the above expreflion ought to be repeated as many times as & things can be taken in n things, or a—-l an— 2 ce : (4) times, and confequently that the 2 babili : d will b ere eee probability required will be very neatly =p" Hence, if .367878 &c. be put = ,andé be expounded by ©, 123 &c. we fhall have 7, ¢, = or &c. for the feveral ? . probabilities of taking out 0. 1,2, 3, &c. counters in their wat Hay za proper order; and 1 —7,3 — 27,1 —2r + =, &e. for the feveral probabilities that 0, 1, 2, 3, &c. or agreater num- ber, will not be taken out in their proper order. Corollary 4. If inftead of one there be # counters marked with each of the letters a, 4, c, d, &c. and it were required to determine the probability that 4 forts fhall come out in the order of the alphabet, and m forts in the concrary order, the folution in this cafe will be eafily obtained from that of the preceding problem. For fince the permutations are = p-p—1.p —2, &c. it follows that the probabilities of ail Toi Zia Bisse CP) 0 ho hn =) 2 F (P) the a’s being taken out firft willbe = or (making 1.2.3 (fp) =4)= n.n—-I.n—2 (py Hence the probability that all tha. counters of any particular clafs fhall not be taken in fucceffion will be = 1 — h : ———-; and by purfuing the fame fleps Ui BL. — 2 (Pp as in the folution of the preceding problem, the proba- bility that the a’s do not come out firit nor the b’s next will be = 1 — LENO ——— & nent (p) = C.n—2 (p) ded cgi Se ) Sua Lacie ec art 2h he, a i ) nsn~ien—2 (Pp) iP + ——-__—_—-——-, and the probability that neither 2.n—1.n—2 (2p-) the a’s, b's, c’s, d’s, nor any other clafs wiil come out in their proper order (putting A, B,C, &c. for the quan- tities in Corollary I. of this problem), will be = 1 — Ah BH nen —t.n—2(~)- men—1i.n—2 2p) Ch ; Seton = oe ts SEC, INOWince : n.n—1.n— 2 (3p) n.n—I1.n—2 (hp) ig the probability that & forts fhall be taken out in their right order; if this be multiplied into the foregoing feries, &c. ht (as in Corollary I.) we fhall have non—iI.n—2 (kb Re (4p) 1ntonst tis mers ey Le ee Fee $8 — GRP AB — Re — iI Bs? 4 ch a n—kp.n—kp—i (kp+2p) n—kp-n—kp—1i (kp + 2p) +, &c. (m + 1) for the probability that & forts of counters are taken out in their proper order, and m forts ia the con- trary order. Prosrem VI. Suppofing a folid with # regular faces to be thrown in continued fucceffion by A, B, and C, and that the fum S be paid to the perfon who fhall firit throw any affigned face ; to determine the value of the feveral expectations, or the pro- bability of their obtaining this fum. Selution. By the condition of the problem, A is to have the 1ft, 4th, 7th, &c. throws; B the 2d, 5th, 8th, &c. ; and C the 3d, 6th, oth, &c. The probability of A’s throwing it the 1ft time is : ; the probability of his throw- ing it the 4th time depending on the contingency of his hav. ing miffed it the firft, and of B’sand C’s having miffed it the ad DOCTRINE OF CHANCES. 2d and 3d times, may be found by reafoning as in the folu- tion of the preceding problem, = S = I x —3; the proba- Ln bility of throwing it the 7th time, dependivg on the contin- gency of his having miffed it the 1 and 4th, of B’s having mifled-it the 2d and 5th, and of C’s having miffed it the 3d —- and_Gth times, may be found = pare n In like maaner the probability of B’s throwing it the 2d, I x -, and fo on, n F : : n— 1 sth, &c. times, will be = — nn nv bability of C’s throwing it the 3d, 6th, &e, times will be = u—iI b Sa 5 n— 1}* , &c. and the pro- 3 =e &e. Hence the whole expectation of A m S Ja er \s will be= x 1 $ Sp +° . oS A oh Ss. : um _., the whole expeation of B x san): Rea 4 7 n—t n—I n— 1} Oe. Mn 1 ae i 1} $5'&eo= —) ni — n — 1}3 an = Corollary 1. If the folid be a cube, the odds in favour of A again B will be as 36 to 30, and the odds in his favour againit C willbe as 56 to25. And fuppofing the fym S to be 10. the values of their refpective expectations will be 3). 198-5 gle 65.5 and 2l. 15s. Corollary 2. Lf, inftead of a cube, the folid be a counter with two faces, 2 in this cafe will be = 2, and the odds in favour of A againit B will be as 2 to 1, and the odds in his favour againft C will be as 4 to 1; that is, their refpective expectations in the fum S (fuppofing it to be seh: will be 5L. 145-5 2l. 17s., and 11. gs. nearly. If, on the contrary, the folid have a great number of faces, the chances will be nearly equal. Hence the advantage of having the priority in the throws wil! be greater or lefs in proporticn as the faces are few or many in number. Corollary 3. If inflead of three there he d perfons to throw the folid fuccellively, the expeGation of the rft will be ei ile Deserta get Sa ;of the 2d = ~——; of the 3d = nti—n—i a —n— 1] d- 2 a } pa eee 3 of the qth = 5:7 *a — 10 of the nt —n— il n—n— fi ‘ pp \¢- 3 Sin pt =} * sand: of thevdth = d— ith = Sag esalte Sw nt?’ —n—1} Prosiem VII. To determine the chances of throwing any given number (p) of points with any number (m) of folids, having a given number (7) of regular faces. Solution r. Let the chances be required of throwing on two common dice any given number from 12 to 2. In order to throw 12, the two fixes mutt turn up together, and there- fore there can only be one chance forthis number. In order to throw 11, the fixes and fives may be changed alternately, and therefore there will be two chances for this number. The next number may be thrown by the two fives, or by a fix and four, and as thefe lait may be alternately turned up, it Follows that there are three chances for fucceeding in this cafe. Inthe fame manner nine points may be thrown by the turning up of the four and five, or of the fix and three; and fince cach of thefe admit of being alternately changed, the chances for throwing this number will be four. Again, eight poiets may be thrown by the two fours, the three and five, or the two and fix coming up ; and fince the two laft pairs admit of being changed alternately, the number of chances in this cafe will be five. For throwing feven points, the chances will be fix; for either the three and four, the two and five, or the ace and fix may be turned up, each pair of which admit of being alternately changed. The chances for fix points are only five; confifting of the two alternate throws of an ace and five, or a four and duce, or of the fingle throw of two trays. ‘The chances for throwing five points confilt of the two alternate throws of an ace and four, or of a duce and‘tray, and therefore are juft four. The chances for throwing four points confit of the alternate throws of an ace and tray, and of the fingle throw of two duces, and are therefore only 3. The chances for throwing three points confifting of the alternate throw of an ace and duce are no more than two; and the chance for throwing two points being limited to the two aces being turned up together mutt be afingle one. Hence the chances for throw- ing 12, 11, 10,.... 2 points being refpettively 1, 25 3: 4> .. +. 13 if either of thefe be divided by 36, or the number of allthe changes upon two dice, the quotient will give the pro- bability for any number of points required. By proceeding in the fame manner, the chances may be determined when there are any greater number of dice, oc when the folid has a greater number of faces than the com- mon die. But the following computations, when three and four dice are thrown, will explain the procefs better than a more minute detail of it. Wits DOCTRINE OF CHANCES. Wita Turee Dice. No. of Faces | No of || No. of] Faces No. of } No. of | Faces No. of No. of Faces No. of Points. } turned up. | Permutations. | Points.} turned up. | Permutations. |} Point:.| rarned up. | Permutations. |} 2oints.| turned up. {Permutations paar | a) | (eee ee eee {| = — o one 18 |6.6.64 14 Lome IZMNOs 4s 3 6 | Io) 6. 351 6 8 ieee pe 6 17 16.6. 5 3 3 | RAI AB iaierg | GL 22.2%) 7 Becg ez P aVse BE 16 {6.6.41 3 | Be AStandeigueneaant ge. et eG "Lamia tal oes Scie th ee Lah Cif SS aes 6 12 |hOs Hey ile | i Le 3. 2 | 16 Five aly (6) TG Os Oi gulbes | H | 6. 4. 2 6 i 4-4-2] 3 Boea-9 Tes 6. ge ah Gel 1 Oca 3ed3h tS \-4. 3- 3)| 3°) 27 Beji2e 2 |e es ales 5° 5° 5 | 2 | 10 {{ | Gey Bu ie | 3 |} 9 16.2.1] © 6 Benoa 6 14 |6. 6.2 3 Girufss 6 I fe Qua 6 7 Bea ied ET 3 eG 16 | + 44) 1 425 | ere, 2 A rae grit rede wall eg | ETE On tes to 6 i He B24 6 5 Fete Tg 5: 54 3 eee || 65, 9.52 6 404s 2), -3 225.1 3 Me 13 -Ot 3 5. 5 1 3 = Bs I 25 f f Fa toa | 3 16.5.2 6 | Genus tah 0 i aided z= Pace Te ko ; | } Bae 18 } | 5-21] 6 | | | l4- 43 | 3 | 27 | }4 2.2] 3 Witu Four Dice. No. of Faces No. of | No. ot Faces No. of | No. of| Faces No. of No. of Faces No, cf Points.| turned up. | Pei mutations. |) Points.| turned up. | Pe:mutations.|! Points.| turned up. | Permutations. | Points.| turned up |?ermutations. 24 |6. 6.6; 6] - -¥ } I 10. 16.6, en| rz |, TO 16. 6..3:.1, az seal (oc Pe | ies 23 16.0.-6.55) 4A ONG A732] 2 | GAsertonl| 24 Bieter eee ta byt 22 16.6.6. 4] 4 | Sons Sees ee | 6.5.3.2) 24 4 3-3) 12 O.10.8e 51 0 1510 Ms Osrdona]. wile Eee csc fleas” fae a he pa 21 |6. 6. 6. 3 4 O45. 5. 2h re | Reet Se ts V4. 10. Options 6 6. 5-5-5} 4 5: 5-4-4] 6 | 5: 454-3) 12 |, 6. 5. 2-1) 24 626.952 4" 12 || 20 6: '6.°3."3)""" 6 | 6..4:.4-.2\\ 12 5. ene. ot mane zo |6.6.6.2) 4 6.4.4.4! 4] 80 | \6. cor cla 6.4. 3eqy) 2a O.46.,45, 41 <6 D7 OMOe de T| hae | la: 4.4.4 I | Gabe Guy “I Goce ae Alte 6. 6. 3.2] 12 6. 6. 2.2] 6 Roe. ae 6. 6.5.3] 12 6.5.4.2) 24 5- 5-3-3] 6 | 125 | 5. 4. 3. 2) 24 Stee be Set | 38 Spe aie 4 12 EG 0000 3. rie fra Neti! se Bee |e 19 16.6.6... 4 | \6. eos 3} 12 6. Gear 24 | Aaa 2h met , |6. 6. 5-2) 12 | 15+ 5-5-2) 4 6. 5.2. 2). ne 15. 3- 3°38 4 6. 5: 4. 4] 12 eh oan 3} 12 heehe Aes ae I. asa S 6 755-4) 4 54464) 4 5+ 5-3-2) 12 IS. 3. 3. 2| 12 (0. 6.4.3] 134 6.4.4.3] 12 | 104 Gr .3e, 2), 24 (Ove. gt T2156 | O.4s Ae Maal oe} The chance for turning up 13, 12, 11, &c. points being the fame with thofe for turning up 15, 16, 17, &c. points refpectively, it will be unneceffary to proceed with the ope- ration. The whole number of changes oa 3 dice being 6x6x 6 = 216, and on 4 dice 6x 6xXx6x6= 1296, the prcbability of throwing any given number of points will be the fraGtion, whofe numerator is given above, and whofe denominator is either 216 or 1296, according as 3 or 4 dice are ufed; thus the probability of throwing 9 points with three dice is =, and the probability of throw- 288" ; that is, the odds in the 1296 rft cafe againfl throwing them are as 7.3 to 1, and in the fecond cafe as 8 to 1. If the folids have more faces than a cube, or if their number be much greater than is {tated above, thefe opera- tions will be rendered too complicated and laborious, and 2 ing 15 points with 4 dice is therefore it becomes neceflary to have a more general folu- tion of the problem. Suppole a fingle folid to have x forts of faces, of which one is marked A, r marked B, r* marked C, r3 marked D, and fo on to nterms, then willt +r +7 +r3....7"7', reprefent the whole number of chances on fuch a folid, and each term of the feries, divided by the whole, will reprefent the chance that any particular face will be turn- ed up. Ifthere bem fuch folids, (fince the fum of the ferice is alae “) the whole number of chances on all thofe folids — as . T — ” ” will) be® =" S42 |= Fra alt ee Sle eee 4 ye r| pe =a : ee tas mame aka ere 2 multiplied nto ee ee qe ee ee 2.3 - + ke. SS DOCTRINE OF CHANCES. + &c. Now fince the fmalleft number of points that can be thrown with thofe folids is m, the next m + 1, the third m +2, and fo on: it follows that the firft term of the pro- duct of thefe two feries, or unity, will reprefent the number of chances for throwing m points, the fecond term the num- ber of chances for throwing m + 1 points, the third term the number of chances for throwing m + 2 points, &e. and that the term of the feries, in which the exponent of r is p —m, will reprefent the number of chances for throwing / points. But fince this term arifes from fuch terms of the firft feries, ia which the exponents of r being = p — m pom —n p—m —2n, &c. are refpectively multiplied into the firft, fecond, third, &c. terms of the fecond feries, and ince the lait faGtor of the co-efficient of the term, whofe exponent is p-™, is both in the numerator and denominator =p—m, it 3s evident that the whole co-efficient may be divided into Le lip—2 ASB SY daw rat SY irate 2(m) £42.3....(m — 1) Mim+ lim+2...p—mMae and therefore that the term itfelf will be = ‘a | Dra SAG send) Naar 3 (m— 1) cient of the term in which the exponent of r isp—m—n . In the fame manner the co-effi- Spee ee ets Pests p pea gilts 1) 1. 2. 3. 4. (m—1) co-efficients of the terms in which the exponents of rare po—m—2n,p—m— 320, &e. will Se cnt ee Hea 22 p—ran—2(m—1) p—3n—1.p—3n—2(m—1) 3.(m—1) ; 1.2.3 (m—1) &c.. Hence, if the firft of the terms juit mentioned be multiplied into 1; the fecond into — m2”; the third into ™m. Dh mm oD —_-—. Sth ene p — nbe made = d, p—20 = & p—32x=f, &ec. the number of chances for throwing ex- aGtly p points will be equal to f—! x au o Pa 8 (m—1)x?r ari 22s sg eae 2 x mortem 4 SO x Sa" my x Bo eet x Ft a Oe ae m.m—I.m.—27e-™ aa + &c.which feries are to be continued till they either vanifh or become negative. But if » be = 1, or, which is the fame thing, if there be only one face of a fort on each die, the chances will be expreffed fimply by let Lis St ei ae d—2 ge (m — 1) : i Ba (wi) xa 4 Sty Bee eda “m.m— tI x —— &e. 2 Remark, Since it appears from the preceding computa- tions, that the chances continually increafe till the number of points required becomes a mean between the greateft and leatt poffible number that can be thrown on the folids, and that they then as regularly decreafe till the number of points required be the leaft than can be thrown on thofe folids ; it will be beft, if the number required be nearer the leffer than the greater extreme, to ufe, inftead of the former, a number equally diftant from that greater extreme. Thus, the greateft number that can be thrown on three common dice is 15, and the leaft is 3. If therefore the required number be 6, it will leffen the labour to find the number of chances for throwing 15; the latter being as much lefs than 18 as the former is greater than 3: if the chances for throwing 11 points on 4 dice be required, it wil! be moft convenient to find the chances for throwing 17 points, the latter being as far diftant from 24, the greateft, as the former is from 4) the leaft number that can be thrown on 4 dice. Example. Let it be required to determine the chances for throwing precifely 24 points on 6 dice. In this cafe » is =6,p = 24,r=1, m= 6,d(=p — nt), == 18ye.( = 6 —= 22)>12,f(=p — 32) = 6,¢= 0. The above ex- 29) <2T 2ole MT preflion therefore becomes = 23 x —x — xX — x = 2 4 5 I 16 I st I Il 10 eal SVR a ain gh yt ee ig a \ 2 3 4 5 1 Oe ae 8 7 5 -~xX~x6x2———- 343 and fince 6° (or 2 es the number of all the changes on 6 dice) is = 46,6563 the odds againf throwing exaétly 24 points will be as 123 to one; which alfo are the odds againfi throwing 18 points ; thefe two numbers being equally diltant, the one from the greater, the other from the lefler extreme. Prosiem VIII. To determine the probability that an event thal] happen: p times fucceffively in x trials, when the ratio of its happen= ing to that of its failing is as ato J. Solution. The probability that it happens the firft times a’ ; a+ df having failed the rft time is a is ‘The probability that it happens p times after Pr x as ra and fince +4 a+ bf the probability of its failing any affigned time, without any re-. ftri€tion, as to its having either failed or not in the preceding b ? the probability of its happening a+ ptimes fucceflively, after having failed either the pth time, is conftantly P+ 2, pt3, 2p — 1. preceding time, will be cither a’ 2b a’ x 36 ne ar eae —— xX —— or ——— XK or XK —— ati a+b ato ath atop ats p &c.; fothat ir—— be made = ¢ and = d, the a+4é a+ probability of its happening p times fucceffively, after hav. ing failed in the preceding » — 1 trials will be pd, and the whole probability of its happening during the firft 2 # trials will be = ¢ + pd. In order to its happening p times fucceffively at the end of 2p + trials, it muft have failed upon the whole during the firft p trials, and alfo in the p ri trial. The pro- bability, therefore, of its happening the next / trials after having failed in the firft p + 1 trials willbe = 1 —c.d; which being added to c+ pd (the probability of its happening in the preceding 2 p trials) will make the whole probability DOCTRINE OF CHANCES. probability of its happening p times in 2p + < trials iw —cdt+pti.d. In like manner the probability of its happening p times {ucceffively at the end of 2p+t2z trials will depend upon its having failed upon the whole during the firlt p + 1 trials, and alfo in the p -+ 2d trial. The probability, therefore, in this cafe, w'll be paged wid d = cdl dd; which being added toc —cd+p+u.d (the probability of its happening p times in 2ptti trials) will givec —2ed+ p +2.d— dd for the whole probability of its happening p times fucceffively in op+2 trials. The ‘probability of its happening / times in 2p +3 trials may be found, by proceeding in the fame manner, to be = 1— ¢ — 2 d.d+e ocd ppacd—dd=c—3cd+p t+ 3+d— 3dd. ei The probability of its happening ptimesin 2p + 4 trials tobe=1—c—jd.d+ce—3cd+pt+ 3-d— 3dd =ce—4cd+ res .d —6dd. The probability of its hap- pening p times in apts trials to-be =r —ec—4d.d +o—4gedt+p+q4.d—6dd=c—scdtpr 5 -d—10dd, Therefore fince the p — 1 term of the fi- p p—t gurate numbers 1, 3, 6, 10, &ec. is , the proba- bility of the event’s happening p times frecefiively in 3 p trials will be = ¢— ped + 2pd—f-P = da. 2 The probability of its happening p times in 3p t+ 1 trials will depend on the chance of its having failed during the firtt 2 p trials, andalfo in the 2 p + 1't trial, and of its hav- ing fucceeded in the next p trials ; the probability of which being 1 —c — pd. d, and the probability of its happening ptimesin 2 f trials being ce — ped+2pd — ae fa dd, the whole probability of its happening p times in 3p 2a trials will be =e + 2pt+1-d—pt+ir.cd— por pneen ties 2 +p.dd. By proceeding in this manner, the probability of its hap- pening p times in 4 p trials will be found = ¢— 2p cd+ Pep: 2 add + gpd — 2h Aha iggy PP — d3, The probability of its happening p times in 5p trials =e — ped + nhtho edd —P-2 feeds ipa pra tee = 3 By Shae Bibel 2 Ze el damage pPpEl pref =3 a , and foon. Hence it 3 oer nie Yl follows, that if the number ber p the probability required willbe =e —7—a ped poo a-P TT 3 Pa" —4.p.r —4-p— te — _ <4 o ay patptas potas ta cd € $e PSE on pd ee fig stress 20 -hSBP ea ibah reese Pre 2 @. &e. -Ietn be = rpthen wiln—~p=r—1 . #% n—2p.>r— 2.ppn—3p-=r— 3 +p &e. and if a, B, y,d, &c. be put forn — pa —2pn —3p2— 4p, &c. refpectively, the probability that the event happens p times fucceffively in x trials willbe = ¢c —Bcd + vas $.8— 1.8 — ge eee Deg 2 dd + ar wae pian eee Example. In 30 throws with a fingle counter, having one fide white and the other black, what are the odds that the white does not come up ten times fucceffively 2? In this cafe I 2'° id Rk cdd — cise - = 30.p=10.e¢(=2 —f)= 20. and 8 (= n— 2p) = 10. The foregoing expreffion I re therefore becomes = —— — ——~-+}-. ——_— —-——= = 2' > es he 0016. Hence the odds againft the white fide’s coming . up ten times fucceffively, will be as 9g894 to 106, or nearly as 942toone. If, inftead of acounter, a fingle die had been thrown up, the odds again{t the ace, or any affigned face coming up ten times fucceffively in 30 trials would have been _ nearly a8 50 millions to one. Scholium. By the affittance of the 3d Problem, ‘ the num- ber of trials neceflary to make it an equal chance that an event fhall happen p times fucceffively’? may be found to be nearly aie eee 7 eae) 10 at xt aga alee a? a? meee 7 a + bf —a? anon: Pa Be ot a a a’ GAby 5 ao a4 Wed ett oes i; a a? rahe ee I— d a.4S0 and therefore if ¢ and f refpeétively reprefent the firft and fecoud fractions, the required number will be nearly = ef eae 10 trials are neceffary to make it an equal chance, that an event fhall happen 6 times fucceflively, {uppofing the probabilities of its happening and failing to be the fame. Since a and b Thus, let it be required to determine how many are each = 1, and p = 6, the above expreffion wil become Fi Apis u Mie ok 7 63 ha i 2S ye yee 63 x —— x — = 30. i 2° fe) 2 10 Hence the number of trials will be hetween 87 and 86. Had the probability of the event’s happening to that of © its failing been in the ratio of 1 to 5, the number ef tnals_ neceflary in the above cafe would have been = —— : x #. Sey 7 45655 |. 1 T / = 46,655 x ———— _X — = 39:19% @. Be” x 10 40,055 x 5x 7776 10 39959 mac Prostem IX. , Suppofing A and B to play with equal fill ; to determing 6 the : : ; } t | . _ in proportion as the number wanted by each F more confiderable, and therefore it will be DOCTRINE OF CHANCES. the odds when each of them wants a given number to win the game, Sorurion. If only one can be reckoned at each party, the probabihty that either of them is the winner at the end Saat { A + of it will be = —~-, Hence if A wants 2, and B only one 2 of being up; the former, in order to be fhe winner, mutt gain twice fucceffively, and therefore his chance will be t I I i = — xX ~= —, aed the chanceof the latter = 1 — ~ BD Hy 5 Bom fa 4 = Kl Confequently the edds againft A, or in favour.of 4 B are as 3 toi. If A wants 3, 4, § 6, or any other number of being up, while B wants only one, his chance of winning in thele cafes muft always depend on his fuececding in every party ‘without intermifion, aud therefore the probability when he H I { an i —s = yhe van it wil _ wants 3 will be ae a when he wants 4 it will be =r 2 2 c Pe Pe I I a when he wants 5 it will be - = —, and fo on; fo that i 2 2 tie odds againft him in thofe cafes reipectively will be 7 to I, 15 tod, 34-to 1, 63 tor, &c Tf A wants 3, and B wants 2 of being up; the former may win in either of 4 different ways.—1it. By gaining the rit, 2d, and 3d games.—2dly. By gaining the it, 2d, and 4th, and lofing the 3d game.—3dly.. By gaining the vit, 3d, and . 4th games, and lofing the 2d;—and gthly. By lofing the ift, and gaining the 2d, 3d, and ath games. The proba- ane , and the probability of each of the bility of the rft is 8 ann! I 2 ret is — X-—= =. Hence the fum of the 4 probabili- 2 I ties will be = hed ae 3 — Confequently theoddsagaintt 5 19 16 z him will be as rr to 5, or rather more than 2 to one, Vhen A wants 4, B flill wanting 2 of being up, if he gains the firft game (the probability of which is =) he will be in the fame fituation asin the preceding cafe, and his expecta- . i 1 5 5 tion on fuch an event will be — x —— = —.—TIfhe lofes 5 the 1ft game (the probability of which is alfo ray He will then want 4 while B wants only one of being up, and his I therefore 16 5 2 ; e a 1 expetation in this cafe will be — x ; a 1a ide'Oie : ne the fum of thefe probabilities being —, it follows that-the 22 3 odds againft him are as 26 to 6.—In the fame manner the ocds may be found when he wants 5 of being up, to be as 57 to 73 when he wants 6 of being up, to be as 120 to 8, and fo on when he wants any other number, B being always fup~ pofed to want only 2 of being up. When A wants 4 and B wants 3 of being up, the former may win in either of the 15 following different ways : it, by gaining the 3 2" 3% 4! game, the probability of which is - ad. by gaining the r 2 3 § and lofing the 4th. 7 2 : 3d. — — d. “y: ee sg. “ai rile ; ; i : SOP Se t the probability of each of which is x [ = 32° pth. 2345 — if, J 6th, by gaining the 1 2 3 6 andlofing the qth. 5th.) 7th. —_— relarrsg. 6 3d,< sth. . 8th, — a5 6 Sse 3d | oth, —— mF 4 °6 — od. sth. th. — 6 ———~ 2d. 4th. } e i, I I oy : : 6 eas t : , the probability of each of which is 76 * Fi = fii rath, —— 2 2 14. 26 —~ itt, 5th. rth. — Ze oO XG — ft, 3d. 14th, — re ate ae) — rft, 4th. rth, —~ 3 4 5°56 ae it. 2d. J Adding all thefe probabilities together, we have A a may be combined by 5 of a fort + = multiplied into the To 62 againft A’s winning will be a3 42 to 22. By proceeding in the fame manner when f wants 5 of be= ing up, the ocds again{t him will be found to be as 219 to 37- But thefe operations become more and more laborious pe becomes etter to have _recourfe to the rules of combination, which will greatly re- ‘duce the labour in thofe cafea, Thus; det B want 4 anda want 5 of deing up. The probability here of A’s winning = = for the probability required, and hence the odds will be expreffed by + 4 = multiplied into the number of ways in which 6 things may be combined by § of a fort i ee wey : weed multiplied into the number of ways in which 7 things Vou. VII, 7 number of ways in which 8 things may be combined by 5 of e, = pin Ss 35. 98 a fort = bs a Ls era ee againft A’s winning the game are 163 to 93. In like manner, if B wants 5 and A wants 6 of being up, the probability of A’s winning will be exprefled by that is, the odds I 6 21 RO Et26 386 : seat e+ e+—= ; or in other words, the 2 27 2 2; 2 O24 odds againft his winning the game will be as 638 to 386. If inttead of one only, either one or éeve may be reckoned at each party, fuch asin the game of bowls, quoits, &c. the inveltigation of the problem will be rather differctt, In this cafe, the chance of jult gaining one in two trials may be confidered as the fame with that of taking two out of four things of two forts, fo that the firft may come out of the iit fort, and the fecond out of the contrary ; and the chance of 3L gaining DOCTRINE OF CHANCES, gaining two, in two trials, may be corfidered as the fame with that of taking two out of four things of two forts, fo that both may be of the fame fort. The chance of taking wan eee Mee : , the proper fort the firft time is —; the chance of miffing it 4 A ‘ I "i the fecond time is 1 — ———, the probability therefore of 4-1 i I A a2! the event firfk mentioned is — x 1 — ae The chance of taking out the fame fort twice 1 fucceffion is 2 I and B only x of be- —x-=-—. & 3 6 . ing up, the latter may win at the end of the firft party, either by reckon'ng one or ‘two (the probability of which is I 1 Githw saw «2s at the end of the fir party, and gaining one at the end of the fecond. Nowif A has gained one at the end of the firtt party, the expetation of each at the beginning of the fe- cond will be equal, and therefore B’s chance of winning in the fecond, after having loft in the firft party will be I af =—x—=—. 3 2 I 4 be 1 winning will be = — + a 2 Hence, if 4 wants ) ; or he may alfo win by having loft only one Hence the whole probability of his mat and A’s chance will be 3 bara ie ; : ra the remaining — ; that is, the cdds againfl A will be as 2 3 apne to one. Let A want 3, B fill wanting only 1 of being up. IfA gains one in the firlt fet, he will be in the fame fituation as in the preceding cafe, If he gains 2 he will be on an equa- lity with B. His expe¢tation on the firft event is x- I 3 : I I =-, and his expectation on the fecond = = x —= 9 Onema : : : I 1 —. His whole expeétation, therefore; is = - + rae 9 v 21 = —; that is, the odds againft him are as 209 to 7. 205-36" p & cma In hike manner, cohen A wants 4, B fill wanting only + of being up. If he gains one he will be in the fame fituation as in the foregoing cafe; if he gains two he will be in the fame fituation as in the firlt cafe; henec, his expectation I + I ” I 3 bo him wil be as 95 to 13. By proceeding in this manner, the odds may be found when A wants any greater number, B being always fuppofed to want only one of being up ; nor will the reafoning, indecd, be different when B wants more than one; or when the game is of fuch a nature as that either A or B may reckon 3, 4, or any greater number at each party. will be = — x = 36 13 . TER and the odds againft It would be as tedious as it is unneceffary to proceed further with thefe operations, and, therefore, it will be fuf- ficient to obferve, that the following table has been deduced from a fimilar method of reafoning with that which has been ufed in the preceding cafes, and that it is inferted principally with the view of fhewing the marner in which the odds are conftantly leffened in proportion as the num. ber to be reckoned at each party is increafed. When One may be reckoned|| When Two may be reckon- at each Party. ed at each Party. A B Odds A B Odds. wants |wants again{t A pian pee 2 I jas 3. tor 2 I jas 2 tol 2 I 7 tou } I 47 tol 4 I 15 tor] 4 I 7% tol 5 I 31 tor] 5 1 124 tof 6 I 63 tol 6 1 212 tol 3 2 2% tol 3 2 It, tor 4 2 4; tor 4 2 3+ tor 5 2 5 tor 5 2 5+ tol 6 2 15% form) 6 2) 81 tor 4 3 I, to I 4 3 1) (tO. 1 Ciel ae ye oe a | 3 27 tol fo) 3 6 tot 6 3 4zig to I 5 4 12 tor 5 4 13 tor 6 4 3 tor 6 4 2% tol 6 5 1% tor 6 5 14 tor Were the game. of fuch a nature as to admit of an inde- finite number to be reckoned at each party, the expeétations would be nearly equal, or, in other words, the odds would be indefinitely {mall, whatever. number were wanted on either fide of being up. This, indeed, appears from the preceding table, where the odds are continually leffening as the number to be gained at each party increafes. It is alfo to be obferved, that, except in one infance, the odds in thofe tables are never inverfely as the numbers wanted of being up; aud that particularly in the lait column, where When Three may be When Eleven may be reckoned at each Party. |} reckoned at cach Party. BS} Bi jocGdas.. | A. ty Be fr imonde wants| wants | wants, wants 2 I jas 1% tor 2 I jas 1,’5 tol 3 i 3% tor 3 I Qa tT 4 I 6» "tot 4 I 4; tor 5 I 10} tot 5 I 6y's to I 6 I | 15s. toaz 6 I $,9, to I 3 2 tz tor 0 2 Ids to I 4 2 2% tor 4 2 273, tol 5 2 4% tol 5 2 3x5 tol 6 2 6F torr 6 2 4% tol 4 3 13 tor] 4 3 12% to I Boo biog ob breed sitora’ lf yg tehetigunH lates 6 3 3% tor | 6 3 25:80, x 5 4 1zZ tor 5 4 1 tor 6 4 2% tor 6 4 2, “tox 6 5 eee torr ||) 10 ds 1% tor 11 may be gained at each party, thofe odds vary from thas ratio more than in any other. Hence it follows, thatin the game of whilt, which admits of rr being gained in a fingle deal, it would be very wrong to proceed on fuch principles in determining the odds ; for, although whift may not be ftriGtly of the fame nature in every refpect with the game fuppofed in the table, yet it is to be remarked, that the circumftances in which it differs, — efpecially when lefs than three are wanted of being up, only ferve to increafe the errors of {uch a mode of computation, — Shis, DOCTRINE OF CHANCES, This, however, if any doubt can remain on the fubject, will be more clearly explained in the following problems. Prosiem &. To determine in the game of whift, the chance of any particular p'ayer (A) having one or more honours. Solution. Let A be the dealer, and let the chance be required of his having the 4 honours. / Suppofing it certain that an honour is turned up, it then becomes neccflary to find the chance of his taking 3 particular cards in 12 out of a ftock containing 51. By the corollary to the ath problem this probability is exprefled by 4.2 — a ee (p) v.v—1.u—2 : 3 asn—1. (a+ qg—m)m.m—1.m—2 (pf) “—, where # reprefents wit BP ottd) ae n—2 (4) the number of cards, a the number of honours, p the number to be taken, m the whole number to be taken out of m; v =atb—m=n—™m, and (fince m— q in this cafe is =p)atg—m=a-p. Here then we haven= 51, @ = 3,.p = 35: m = "12, v = 39, and ae = 2: and the fraétion exprefling the required probability = b2. SIE Ke TO ligne Same Date GIG 8) ANS probability that the honour turns up, will become 44% 4 13 X 4165. the honour is not turned up, the chance of having four LZ Xun 3¢ Jo wx Vo 51 X 50 x 49 x 48’ ; which, being multiplied into =, or the 2 Suppoling it certain, on the contrary, that ‘(making a and peach = 4) willbe x which, being multiplied into = (or the probability that an 9. X~ 33 52 x 4165, Hence the whole chance of A’s having the four honours 33 a Sap ee a 52 x 4165 2380 Tf A is not the dealer, the chance of his having the four honours will be found by proceeding in the fame manner, honour is not turned up} will become - 00462. peewee mix. to. 50 53 ee 7 51 X 50 X 49 x 48 igs HOOGOD nt kOe The chance ot his having three honours and no more may alfo be found either = 192: e495. = .0618, or 143 20,825 4165 = .03433 according as he is or is not the dealer. The chance of his having two honours and no more may in like manner be found = come =) 26684, or (<2) = .1957, and the chance of his having one ho. nour and no more = eae =) -43884 whether he is or is not the dealer.—The chance alfo that he has no honour i = 372962 2 4-33 ; may in the firll cafe be found = 5666G0 == .22785; and in 2,842 the fecond cafe= —U-2 4 — 3291. 52 X 41,650 Nor is the method of proceeding different when it is re- quired to determine the chance of any two partners at whilt having either four or three or two honours between them ; the computation in this cafe being made on 25 or 26 inftead of 12 or 13 cards, according as the honour is or is not {up- pofed to be turned up. The chance of the dealer and his partner having four honours between them appears to be 115 = [> = .06903; the chance of their having three honours, 1666 : 468 or reckoning two, = a= «28092 ; and the chance of 1C00 their having two, or not reckoning any thing by honours = 650 2 . — The chance of the efde? hand and his partner’s hay- OO ing four honours between them appears alfo to be = 69 1666 = .04142; the chance of their having three honours, or reckoning two, = = — 364 1665 their having two, or not reckoning any thing by honours = 21849, and the chance of 659 ; : ——, or the fame as in the cafe of the dealer and his partner. 1666 Corollary. Since the chance of the dealer’s having three honours or more is .0618 + .0046 = .0664, and the chance of his having two honours or more is .c664 + .2668 = +3332» it follows that the odds again? his having three or more honours are as 14 to 1, and that the odds againft his having two or more honours are as 2 to x. On the other hand, the chance of his having one honour or more being 4383 + .3332 = .772, the odds for his having one or more hononrs will be as 3.2 to1. Thefe chances in the cafe of the eldcit or any other fingle hand being 0363, +232, and .6708 refpe€tively, the odds againf? fuch hand’s ‘having three or more honours will be as 26.3 to 1; the odds againft bis having two or more honours will be as 32 to 13 and the odds for his having one or more honours will be as 2 to 1. The chance of the dealer and his partner having three ormore honours between them being .06903 + .28093 = aR nearly, andthechance of the eldeft hand and his partner having the like number between them being .og1g2 + -21849 = .26 nearly ; the odds again/? the former partners reckoning any thing by honours will be nearly as 2 to 1, and the odds againit the latter will be nearly as 3 to 1, Prosiem XI. To determine, in the game of whift, the chance of getting the odd orary number of tricks. "4 Solution. Let the chances of getting and lofing a fingle trick be to each other in the ratio of a to b, then will the probability of getting 2 tricks be reprefented by pe ethic probability of getting a+ 0" — It icks b me tl b bilit f i a I tric , ne pro t 2—2 y ae cp abuity of ge ting 2.n = 1 qn-2 fed - , and fo on. In the prefent cafe 2 Sr1Gk 8 |b ya a+t |" the chances of lofing or winning a trick being equal, a will be equal to J, and the chance of winning 13 tricks, or reckon- I I cone = = the chance of winning 12 or ing 7, will be = a ‘ 23. 8192 ? reckoning 6 tricks will be = a and the chance of reck- . ‘ 4 ae 2 6 oning 5, 4, 35 2, and 1 trick will be _18*. ane GeTg Sig2 S1g2 8192 1287 1716 focétivel ae —= vely. Sioa Sige refpectively Corelliry. Hence the chance of reckoning 6 or morc : 3Le2 tricks DOCTRINE OF CHANCES, : Wek as | 192 tricks is ,001709 ; the chance of reckoning 5 nigel it IS ERYS ; or more tricks is = ae = 011233 of reckoning 4 : 286 or more tricks = 2° = = .046143 of reckoning 3 MSA it's ty : : Gr tact tricks = oe -133423 of reckoning 2 ; 1093 + 1287 or tricks = —=.2 ‘ more tricks Bion 9053, and of reckon Prosiem XII. To determine the refpeétive chances at whift, when two of the partners have eight and the other two have nine of the game. Solution. The party who reckon eight may win the game in the firft deal either by having three or more honours between them, or by getting two or more tricks without reckoning any honours. Or, if they do not win the game in that deal, they may, however, reckon one by getting the odd trick, in which cafe they will be on an equality with their opponents. Suppofing them therefore to be the dealers, the probability of their having three or more honours, by Cor. Prob. X. is .35; the probability of their getting two or more tricks, by Prob, XI. is .29053, and the probability of their not having three or more honours is 1 — .35 = 65. Hence the chance of their getting the game in the firlt deal is = .35 + .29053 X .65 = .53882. Again, the proba- bility of their getting one trick and no more by Prob. XI. is a = .20947, which being multiplied into .65 produces +13617 for their chance of reckoning only one in the firt deal ; and as their expeétation in this cafe will be equal to that of their adverfaries, it will of courfe be exprefled by -13617 X 5 = .068085, and their whole chance of winning will be = .53882 + 068085 = .6069. If they be not the dealers, their chance of winning may be found, by rea- foning in the fame manner = .26 + .29053 x 1 — .26 + .20947 X = their winning in the firft cafe is as 3 to 2, and in the fecond cafe as 6 to 5 nearly. But if it be not confidered whether they are, or are not the dealers, their chances of winning will be one with another, very nearly as 7 to §. Corollary, Were thefe two partners only feven, their chance of winning the game might be found by the help of the two preceding problems and their corollaries, equal either to .3867 or .3809 according as they were, or were not the dealers, and their chance of winning if they were only fix might in like manner be found equal either to .3262 orto 3211, that is, the odds againft the two partners who reckon only feven while the other partners reckon nine, are as 8 to 5, and the odds againft them when they reckon only fix are as 21 to ro or a little more than two to one. By purfuing the fame fieps the odds may be determined in every circumitance of the game; but the labour of fuch a computation would be very great, as the operations be- come more and more complicated ia proportion as the game is further from being terminated. 22 6 — =. §. 2 ose Hence the chance of Prospecem Xill. A undertakes to play a match with B of three or five games, in winning the greater numberof which he becomes of courle the winner of the match, A hasan advantage in all the games but one equivalent to the odds of 4 to a—in that one game B has the fame advantage againt A. It is required to determine the refpective chances of A and B; and whether it is material that the games fhould be played in any particular order. Solution 1. Let the number of games be three, and let A be fuppofed to play the two games, on which he has the ad- vantage of 4 to a, firfl, and the game on which he has the chance only of a to 4, laf. Either A or B may become the winner by obtaining the fuperiority over his adverfary in the following order: 4, 2. 2, 3. A’s chance for winning in this order is expreffed by the frahons bb eee mee b+ bbha+2baa ae ——, and confe- a+ir uentiy B’s chance will be = q y T, 3s a+ dh? @ +aab+ 2abb a+ be fuppofed to play the game fir}, on which he has only the- advantage of a to 4, and the other two games /a/?, the frations exprefling the probability of his winning will be- ab @b+h B+ bbat+abaa ror. a+ 6) Ms 7 at+ bj’ eee as before. ar Ne Hence it follows that in this cafe it makes no difference ia what order the games are played. 2. Let the number of games be five, and let A be fup- pofed to play the four games on which he has the advantage of étoa, frfl, and the game on which the odds are againit him, as toa, /af. Either party may become the winner, by fucceeding in the following order: 1, 2 3. 1, 2, 4. T, 255+ 0) 3,4+ Inds §- Ts 35 5+ 25 3 4. 25 3s je 2,4, 5. or 3, 4, 5- A’s chance for winning in this order - : 5 3ab3. 6 a3 6 is expreffed by the fraGtions i —— a+) _b + shat 4h e+ OF a oF a in confequence, be = are E a+ ey » and B’s chance will, @+5a@b6+4@8664+ 62° a 7 8) . If A be fuppofed to play the game fifi, in which the odds are againft him, the feveral fractions exprefling his chance of win- < ak? lave aera a+) a +4)’ a+} b+ 5b:a+453aa + 6b5a3 i = TF Ft oe =e oe a+ b ning may be found = It is evident therefore that in this, as well as in the former cafe, it is not in the leaft material in what order the games are played. ; Example. Sappofing A and B to play a match at piquet of five games, on the particular condition that B isto bethe dealer in all the games except one, which gives an advantage to A in four of the games equivalent to the odds of 5 to 4, It is required to determine their refpective chances of win- ning the match.—TIn this cafe a is = 4, and d= 5; and hence the above expeffion denoting A’s chance becomes. Bs LSS UR SOS ier gee ae, = ae and the exe. 59:049 593049 : 25,024 preffton denoting B’s chance becames = - The odds 59049 therefore in favour of A are as 14to 1s nearly. If they had played a match of only three games, and B was to have been the dealer in two of them, the odds againft him would have been as 385 to 344, or nearly as 19 to 17, Prosrem XIV. To determine the chances in the game of Macao. Solution. In this game two packs of cards ere fhuffled together, from which three cards are dealt to each of the : players * . _ 3, being = 2. DOCTRINE OF CHANCES, layers, who are generally five in number, The tens being always dedu@ted from the aggregate number on the faces of the three cards, the remaining numbers will of courfe be either 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, oro. If the firft of thefe numbers is turned up, the perfon having it is entitled to 3 flakes; if the fecond, he is intitled to 2 flakes; if either a 7, or any of the lower numbers, he is intitled to 1 ttake ; but if a o is turned up, he is intitled to no ftake. The quellion, therefore, to be folved is, the chance of having either 9, 8, 7, 6; 5) 45 3, 2) I, oro. The number of changes on » things when taken 3 and -_nw 2 iol ; re it follows that all the changes in of this kind on two packs, or 104 cards, will be TO4 X 103 X 102 t9) the fum of all the chances for having either 9, 8, 7, &e. oints mult be equal to this number. Jn order to find the chances for having nine, let it be enquired in how many ways 1g may be dealt; rift, by having 1, 8, and io. Asthereare 8 aces, 8 cights, and 32 tens, the different ways in which 19 may be dealt in this cafe will.be 8 x 8 x 32 = 2048, adly, 19 may be dealt by 2, 7, ro. 3,6, 10. or 4, 5, 10: and as there are 2048 chances for dealing each of thefe, the whole number of chanzes for dealing 19, when one of = 182,104, and, confequently, that the faces is a 10, is = 2048 x 4 = 8192. But 19 may alfo be dealt by 1,9, 9. 2.9, 8. 35.95 7. 459) 6: ’ > Se &, 8, 3. 8, 79 4 8, 6, Se Zo 7s 5. or "9 Os 6, Phe number of ways in which the cards under fey may be : y 8 combined, when two of them are of a fort, is Bod == 224, and the number, when they are all different is 8° c= 512. Hence, the number of combinations in the pre- ceding cafe is 224 K 5 + 512 x § = 3680; and, confes quently, all the chances for dealing 19 are B1g2 + 3680 = 11,872, The number of ways in which ail the fens may at == 496; therefore, the number of ways in which 29 may be dealt, is 496 x 4 == 3968. The number g alfo may be obtained by dealing either of the three following cards: 1, 1, 7. I, 2, 6, Dy Sop Melsytp Antu Soie Bo: Vey Sodan i OF The Bu Fag: chances for obcaining the lait of thefe being be combined two and two, is 8x7x 6 sz 56, the chances for obtaining any of the whole of them are 56 + 224% 3+ 512% 3.m5 2264., Hence; all the chances for obtaming a ging, according to the rules of the game, are 11,872 + 3968 + 2264 = 18,104, By proceeding in the fame manney, the chances for obtaining ¢ight may be determined; thus, 18 may. be had by 3, 7,10. 2,6, 40. 355,30. 4, 4, 10 = 3 X ee ee ; : 2048 + ne == 70405 or it may be had without a ten, by having 9; 8, I, 9. 4.2 9; OG 3, 99534: 67,3. 80,4, 85,5. 88,2 7. 7) 4. 7, O 5) or 6, 6, 6 ==.7 X 512 + 3X 224 + 56 mm 4312 Hence, all the chances for having 1B gre yo4o 4 4352 = $1,352: 28 may be obtained, either with an 8 and 2 tens, or with 10 and 2 nines, Thefe chances are 8 x 406 + a8 x 32 = 4864. Joallly, an eight may be had by 6, 1, 3, yt, Je. ids Boit> Ay ay, de OF 95 By Oar 13 S204) te 2X 512 = 1696. The fum, therefore, of a// the chances for having ¢ight, according to the rules of the game, is $5,352 4- 4894 4 1696 = 14,912. By purfuing the amie teh, the chances for having = ¢ 4 57g» and 3, may be found to be the fame with thofe for aving 9; and the chances for having 6, 4, and 2, the fame with thofe for having 8: but the chances for having o will be found to be = 19,936. In other words, the fum of all the chances for having each of the odd numbers is 18,1043 the fum of all the chances for having each of the even num- bers is 17,912; and the fum of all the chances for having a blank is 19,9363 which, being added together, make up the number 162,104, and, therefore, provethetruth of thefolution, Corollary. It appears from this problem that the odds againff the number Q being turned up are nearly as 9 to 1; againft the number 8, as 92 to 13 again/? a blank, as 84 to 1; and for either of the other numbers, as 2.6 tor. If, therefore, each ftake (as is generally the practice in this game ), be five guineas, the expeétation of the player on the number g will be worth 11, 118, 4d. 3 his expectation on the number 8 will be worth 1]. 0s. 8d., and his expectation on all the remaining numbers together will be worth 3\. 428. Sd., making m the whole the fum of 6l. as. Sd. Innumerable other problems might be added for deter- mining the laws ef chance, as well in the preceding games, as in thofe of Hazard, Pharaon, Piguet, &c. &c.; but the folution of them (were the fubje&t of much more importance than it appears to be), would {well beyond all due limits, an article whofe chief defign has been to give a clear idea of the’ principles o1 which the do@rine of chances is founded, together with the folution of fuch general probleme 2s may admit of the moft extenfive application. Thofe, however, who with for further information refpe@ing the games of chance, may have recourf: to the writings of De Maivre, James Bernoulli, Thomas Simpfon, &c., but particularly to thofe of the former, which are not furpaffed, and, perhaps, not equalled by any other work on this fubje¢. In addition to the problems given in this article, two others fhou!d be noticed, which are not only the moft ab- ftrufe, but the moft important in ‘the whole dorine of chances; the firft of them folved by James. Bernoulli, and afterwards, to greater exactness by De Moivre; the fecond, communicated by Dr, Price to the Royal Society, from the papers of the late Mr. Bayes, as hath been already obferved in the begining of thisarticle. In regard tothe former of thefe problems, Mr, James Bernoulli introduces his folution of it with obferving, “ Hoe eft illud problema, quod evulgandum hoe loco propofui, poftquam jam per vicennium preffi, & cujus tum novitae, tum fumma utilitas cum pari adjunGa difficultate ommibus reliquis huins doctrine eapitibus pondug- & pretium fuperaddere potelt,””? Such, therefore, being the opinion of that eminent mathematician concerning this problem, perhaps the prefent article ought not to be eoneluded without giving the folution of it, more pars ticularly as M. De Moivre, though he purfued the invefti- gation to a greater degree of accuracy, has contented him< felf with ftating the rules, without giving any demonitration of them, Proposition. J, Suppofing a very great number of trials to be made con- cerning any event, it is required to determine the probability there is that the proportion of the number of times it will happen to the number of times it will fail in thofe trials will differ lefs than by very imail affigned limits from she proba- bility of its happening to the probability of its failing in a. fingle trial. Solution. Let the probabilities of happening and failing be equal, and the number of trials be ~~ Let L and Lalfa. be the two terms equally diftant. by the interval /, from the middle term of the binomial | + 1)", and ¢ the fum of the terms included betweea Land L, together with the ex- tremes; then af # bea very great number, the probability J that the event happens neither more frequently thas » + 4, 2 nor DOCTRINE OF CHANCES. But if the probability ef its happening to the probability of its fail- ing in any one trial be asato d, let Land R be the two terms equally diftant by the interval / from the greateft term of the binomial a + 4),, and let S be the fum of the terms included between L and R, together with the extremes, then willthe probability that the event happens neither more I : i $ nor more rarely than sis 7times will be = — Qn an : frequently than = a + @ times, nor more rarely than on —/times be rightly expreffed by yi a+b i ar bj" Thefe are the rules given by M. De Moivre for the fo- lution of this very difficult propofition, which. he obferves, are founded on the common principles of the doétrine of chances, and therefore require no demonftration. This is certainly true, fo far as regards the general principles of the folution, but the method of determinisg the values of s and S are by no means fo obvious. In this, indeed, confifts the whole difficulty of the folution; and as M. De Moivre has omitted the procefs by which he obtained thofe values, it will be neceflary to fupply the omiffion by inferting the fol- lowing lemmas, which are chiefly derived from Mr. Simpfon’s treatife “© On the Nature and Laws of Chance.’ Lemma t. To fiod the fum of the feries 1 x 2 x 3 x 4 continued to x terms. Solution. Let the feries be P, and its hyp. log. BE ws Carrer : s—a.log.x + Ax +B+ raga &e. then will ae — janniot Cc xf i1—a.log.x + x EP ha LP Gi eesy, by tiie &e. = log. 1 ol gman « Gea = log. P + x fai) log. x + Zand #7 — alog. +4 AY Se Cie SE hina —x + D.x + 1 Peas (eccy — 0.. > But the filuxion of the jog. of Aub) is Besa whofe fluent is x—! x + x ~— 2 —3 ~4 Bian + X= 4+, &c. The above feries, there- 2 3 4 oe : ‘ = x or fore, converted into fimple terms will be 1 — See ; == <3 =2 3 m4 Set BC ea aa ee oa; a a ree, 4 2 +A—Cx-? + Cx — Cxo*4+, &e. ~2D x73 + 3x4 —4Dx> +,&ce — El Oty + 6Ex —, &e. Hence, by equating the homologous terms, A will be found T =—10=—-,C = —,D=sbE= t= 2 ote 3-4-5. 6 F=0,G= ey &c. and confequently the above expreffion will be changed into x + 4. log.x —x + B+ I I I — — —— + —— —-, &c. = log. P. If x be fup- pofed = 1, this equation will become = — 1 + B+ = I I Fs hago &c. = o. Hence B will be = x — = + a —, &c., and therefore the log. P =x + 4. log. I I i z Oa Ne a — —, &e. a at ai: 12 5 360 os 12x 360 x3 I 5 pe? &c. Now the number whofe hyp. log. is 1 is . = 2.71828 &c., the number whofe hyp. log. ig costes I2% ae I ee I I I 360108. intz60u® hw 2 12% 2B8a" 51840me +, &c. (fee Cotes’s Harm. Menf. Prop. I. Schol. 2.), and I is I 7 ais »~ &c. is eafily found to be 2,5056 &c. which Mr. Stirling has proved to be the {quare root of the circumference of a circle, whofe radius is unity. Let this circumference be denoted by c, the number whofe hyp. log. —, &c. by d, and the num- Petes 2a ee the feri f e 2b : le lerles I -- -———— Syne 12 x 288 x? ber 2.71828 &c. by m, then we fhall have =P. But when x is a very great number, the feries de- noted by d b-comes inconfiderable, and P in this cafe will be =, x nearly = —| X Vf y m Lemma 2. To find the ratio which any given term of a binomial, raifed to an infinite or very great power, bears to the whole feries. Solution. Let the binomial be a + b, and n the index of its power. Let / be the diftance of the given term from CX the fir, and s be made = n —/. nn— Il. n— 2..n —. +1 Thsi2 9gy- eee ot (multiplying the numerator and denominator equally by In this cafe the term ab propofed will be = ’ » which by Rb eerie tie ec Uy 2 A Railecstel Soqil \s, Aaeusie ee | XVenx ah | m ' the preceding lemma is = = i —— : — 5] x Velx =| x , pa al atials att ap / aire Vels.a +a" ae , hence the ratio required is lst J cls Corollary. Since the greateft term of the binomial a is that in which the exponents are to each other as a to J, if s be taken to /in that proportion, or, in other words, if 7 be n an candi a+b a+b fubftituted in the values given above, the ratio of the greateft a+ ———a Ue if a , and if thefe expreffions be made = term to the whole power will become = 2_, which are thevery Ven expreffions given by M. De Moivre in thofe cafes re{pectively.— Lemma3. To find the ratio which the greateft term of a binomial raifed to an infinite, or very great power, bears to a given number of terms next to it. Solution. The fame fymbols being retained, as in the pre= ceding lemma, let y be the greateft term, and / the number and 4 are equal, it will become = of terms to be taken on either fide of it. Now fince SSt— 5, 0 === is the next term to y, Sa Se thet yest T= 1.@ d41.J/4+2.a@ following, DOCTRINE OF CHANCES. following, — peo 8 tee Tle the third term, and fo /+1-/+2./+3.4 on, it follows that the term whofe diftance from the greateft -—_— — Ge ep tll be Aer eee ee et YY and lt+r.lt+2./4+ 3../+ 7 “ (POA nae Da | s 2S. Che Soni elas 2 4 8 i6 CEs Ae ET uae at er List a nish 5 287 Biss 45% c [aet5. op De guen Sle gull crc, J s 2us Bn So pint A: 3 L &c. top — 1 feries. But fince a/is = 35s, p. log. bs — log. a/ will vanifh out of the equation ; and fince the numerators of the re- maining terms are feries of powers whofe roots are in arith- metical progreffion, their fum may be eafily obtained (by the ft Fropofition in Stirling, De Summatione Serterun); and hence the foregoing expreffion will be found = log. y — 2.p—i2—3.p—12 — pt pr-Uitp—t 2s 12 s* : EP oe top See re Srey aaa Sai &ce. But p being very {mall in refpeé&t of / and s, all the terms except the firft in which /and s are denominators may be omitted, and confequently the log. of the term whofe diftance from the greateft is denoted by p will be very nearly = log. y eye Bis AES or fubftituting == » and pedi. for 21 28 a+ a+ pp-4 + bP ; —-. Let thisterm 2ab their equals sand /, = log. y — nm. a + 1) 2 be denoted by T, and let dbe = , then will log. ab Ei) eg litphdynees 2” vata T=, yea Nee ease Deal g n 2.2 d> p° d+ p* dsp’ ae Ae ait 2.3-4.n' 2 For cee (See Cotes’s Harm. Menf. Prop. 1. Schol. 2.) By proceeding in the fame manner the p — ift, — 2d, p — 3d, &e. terms may be found; fo that the fum of all the terms between y and T, including the laft, will be == y intoxr — Ke = n a.p— i) | seme, d? ps ie ; p— il n n 2” 2 un? d? p® dad, =a \; + &e. — a, — La — &c. which, as in the former cafe of the pth term being feries of powers whofe roots are in arithmetical progreflion, the fum of the whole, negleting in each feries all the terms except the firft, will be obtained (by the propofition juft referred to) = y x ? Th SP EP + te. ovifp be made Bers ig Sate ky a ae Loe DSi el 2 _titye ditty dietye OF PIGS BY BPE s/s Olds aa Oe ido inten Corollary 1. The fum of the terms between the th and the greateft term being given above, the ratio which this 2 . therefore that its hyp. log. will be = log. y + p. log. — p-log. a + the fluent of = + 3 + z! (s—p+r1) : Bee | s—2 i i r — the fluent of =—— + —— + —— (J + p) = log. y feat hi? oiled tig + p.log.bs—p.log.al+ Sacer saedeae se Y: | (aie aie a ee 2 4 8 16 games lonbeiagl Ave Sgelian aT ts he Bhgan Ob bsp 22 By | pahnge paige singe ee L to p feries. fum bears to all the terms, will be = mesa into v ./2— 2 atl 3 2 95 w/n av al Bs ii But ues (being the ra- 3 a+ tio which the greateft term has to all the terms) has beer proved in the coroilary to the preceding lemma to be = 4 BY ie wean ee the above ratio therefore will be = ae xv Vaben Nabe dw | dv ad wy d+ v? asia” 3 sales Bwiana ty 2.0 hioQ 12. Zo 5 AK + &e. Corollary 2. If the probabilities of happening and failing oz a will alfo 2ab be = 2, hence the feries in the preceding corollary will be- are equal, a + 4 willbe = 2, and d = Ze: 20° Aew 8.07 come = —=1ntov — — + en, — Vc 3 2g WEN 9 Ww edi See: LA eee + &c., which is given by M. ra A Op Ze ar Ale Lk De Movvre for determining the ratio between the fum of as many terms immediately fucceeding the greateft as there are units in v,/n, to the whole power of the binomial Deku a Ke Corollary 3. Since the log. of the pth term from the pp-a + . , ne2ra tion, when a and 4 are equal, will be log. T = log. y — greateft, or log. T, is = log. y — this equay 7th But the greateft term of the binomial 1 + 1)” is the middle term, the log. of y, therefore, in this cafe, will be the lag. of the middle term; hence will the log. of the ratio which T has to the middle term be exprefled, as M. De Moivre has obferved, by — zeP n Corollary 4. In this lemma it is to be obferved, that the ratio only of the p terms next fucceeding the greateft term is given. But the ratio of the p terms preceding the greateft term may be determined in the fame man- ner. For fince the pth term which precedes y is LJ—1-l—-2...l—p+t -» it may be found by purfu- SH Leo + Bae + p 4 y as ing the fame fteps as have been taken in this lemma, that the expreffion denoting the ratio, in this cafe, is = log. y — Pdi pee wT are Me Be Dt 2d : 2d ; _ tet 2s DOCTRINE OF CHANCES. 2pP+3 pp +p : = 2 fits PP eP er Ce which, on ac- 2 12.58 2S count of the fmallnels of » compared with s and /, is = D 5 - . tJ lox. y — Loe 2h, or the very fame with the ratio of 2s 2 the pth term /ucceeding the greateft. Hence, agreeable to the obfervation of M. De Moivre, when n is a very great number, L and R, and confequently the fum of the f-terms from the greatelt, whether they precede or fucceed it, will be equal. By the affiltance of thefe lemmas and_ their corollaries, the folution of this propolition may now be obtained with- out much difficulty. ‘ Firft, fuppofing the probabilities of the event’s happening Pe I ; and failing to be equal, let v be taken = —, then will the fum of the p terms included between L and the middle : OE eee 2 term (by Corollary z, Lemma 3d) be = —=> x —— —— NAR ears . 4 S ont F 2 + + &e. = —— & . 427812, and S = 320 3360 Ae nnet — x . 855624 &c., hence we have £8e we ood ty Ve 2” Ve 2 Aa “r624 r — 2.50062 &e, sO pes 68269 &c. If, therefore, the number of trials be infinite, the probability that the event will happen neither more fre- 855624 &e. = I ro Se quently than —2 + > vn times, nor more rarely than I Sa 2 (1 — . 68269 =). 31731, or nearly as 28 tox3. But itis by no means neceffary that the number of trials fhould be infinite; if they be 3600, or even 1600, the probability that they happen neither more frequently than y$30, nor more rarely than 1770 times in the firlt cafe ; nor more frequenth than 820, nor more rarely than 780 times in the fecord cafe will be very nearly in the proportion given above, ~ Nay, M. De Moivre afferts, that he has, by repeated tials, found this rule tolerably correét, when the number is even fo low as 100. j S-condly, let the probabilities of the event’s happening and failing be unegual, {uppofeas 1 to 2, and let v, as in the former cafe, be = oy then will the fum of the terms included v/n times will be to the contrary as . 68249 to between L and the greateft term (by Corollary 1, Lemma 3) rae r 3 s 243 243 = “Hsinto > ~24—~—~—E 1 BS Vac 3 32 $120 114,688" Fo4bsay n+t Ke, = al x . 421183 &c. Hence, L + R (by 26 : a) Ene a4 Corollary 4, Lemma 3) = S = = = ote $ 3X —— x . 842366 &c. and « 842566 Ke. Bo)” 2% s 62831 Ke. ; bability, therefore, that in a very great number of triala the na 4. a+ na . a / times, will be to the =. 7129 &e, “The pro- events will happen neither more frequently than i, nor-more rarely than contrary a8 . 7129 to. 2871, or very nearly as 5 to 2. "IE the probability of the event’s happening to that of its-failing in one trial be as 3 to 1, the probability that it happens neither more frequently than 5 ae + /,; nor more rarely than = a Ztimes, may be found to be as ..9163 to 0837, or nearly as 11 tot. Thelefs, therefore, the ratio of the probability of the event’s happening is to that of its failing, the greater will be the probability that in an indefi- nite number of trials, the event will- happen neither more frequently nor more rarely than the number of times limited in this-problem. Thus, ifami,b=2, v= and a = 3600, the probability that the event happens neither | more frequently than 1230, nor more rarely than 1170 times, is.as § to 2 nearly, but if a = 1 and 4 = 3, the pro- bability that it happens neither more frequently than 9395 nor more rarely than 870 times is nearly as 11 tor. § I in Ae If v, inftead of -, be = 1, the above feries will converge 9 more flowly, and therefore Mr. De Moivre has recourfe in this cafe to the quadrature of curves, by means of equidiltant ordinates, in order to obtain the fum of it. Thus, fuppoing a and equal, and / to be fucceffively denoted by o ./m 1 2 3 4 5 6 Perse rs J ts rad sas Jf Os av My Raf a Bal Ms thea a lor of the ratio which the term diftant from the middle by the ‘ i 2 aan ‘ intervals EV MEV &c,. has to the middle term, will (by Corollary 3, Juemma 3d), be refpetively equal to the loga- rithms — = tJ = = Pid i= 30°36" gh 36" 36 36 I 2 I 8 28 2 aoe = eS: a ip and — ;? whefe correfpond- ing numbers being .94595, .80073, .60653, .41II1, 124935, and «13534, may be confidered as fo many equi- Giftant ordinates of a curve; and if the laft four of them be taken, the are@ of the curve contained between thefe ordinates 60653 + 24035 ~. 3 X -AUTIL +).24035 3 wil be ==> a eh ee ee eee = .24160, Adding this to .682688, or the area of the curve contained between the ordinate when /is interpreted by o /m av fy a ts and ae we have .95429 for the probability required. In other words, the probability that the event happens neither more frequently than Sn +./n A rt See . times, nor more rarely than ~7— ./a times, will be to the probability that the contrary happens as .95429 to 04571) OF, 26 21 to x nearly, If v be taken = a, the aren contained between the ordi- « sys 6 hips nates, when ? is interpreted by av m iy th af ts and 2 a/ nf; will be found = .02902, which, being added to .95429 found above, will give.9633 forthe probability in this cafe ; that is, the probability that the event happens neither more fre- : 2 eae n quently than aps ev # times, nor more rarely than “r wie DOCTRINE OF CHANCES. CHA the province 6f Quang-fi; 403 leagues S.S.W. of Peking. N. lat. 22° 6’. E. long. 106° 17’. CHANG-CHEW, a city of China, of the firft rank, in the fouthern part of the province of Fo-kyen; fituate on a river which ebbs and flows; over which is a ftately bridge, confifting of 36 very high arches, broad enough to admit fhops on both fides, which are fiored with all forts of rich merehandize, both of China and the Indies. Its vicinity to Amoy (which fee), a place of vaft commerce, occafions a con- ftant traffic to be continually carried on between them. The neighbouring mountains yield the fineft cry ital, of which they make buttons, feals, fivvres of animals, &c.— Alo, a diitrict of the province of Kiang-nan or Nanking. CHANG-CHOUJ, a town of China, of the third rank, in the province of Honan; 15 leagues S.E. of Hiu. CHANGE, in Commerce. See ExcHAnce. Cuancé, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart- ‘ment of the Mayenne; one league N. of Laval_—Allo, a town of France, in the department of the Sarthe; one league S. of Le Mans. Cuancs, in the Maneze. hand, is to turn or beat the horfe’s head from one hand to the other, from the right to the left, or from the left to the right. You fhou!d never change your horfe without puthing him forward upon the turn; and after the tura, pufh him on flraight, in order to a top. Cuance of crops, in Agriculture, is that part of hufbandry which relates to the mode of changing, diltributing, and cultivating different forts of crops, on any kind of foil, in order to prevent its being exhaulted in the leaft poffible de- gree. This is an improvement of confiderable importance ; and which modern cultivators have attended to in a par- ticular manner. It has been obferved that “ experience feon taught men, that even the moft fruitful foil cannot con- flantly yield the fame grain ; and that this of courfe laid them undera neceflity of {eeking for fome means to remedy the defe&t. They found that the plough was then the mott ready, and perhaps the moit effectual: and hence all the ancient writers fo highly recommend a thorough ploughing. Atthe fame time the apparent lofs of the procuce of the round, during the year of fallow, put them upon ingujring ES. this inconvenience might be prevented, confiflently with keeping the land in good heart. Repeated obfervations con- vinced the Romans, the moit attentive of all nations to every thing relative to hufbandry, that, be fides the alternate refling of the land, wheat might, as is obferved by Piiny, be fown after lupines, vetches, beans, or any other plant which has the quality of fertilizing and enriching the foil.” A judicious change of crops muft therefore, without doubt, be of great importance in the common tillage hufbandry, as it enables the farmer to fave the expence and lofs of a crop in the fallow year; and to get quit of weeds, by attacking them at diffcrent feafons of the year, and in different periods of their _ growth; both from the nature of the crops cultivated, and where the intermediate crops are heed, as thofe of beans, peafe, and many other fimilar feeds. It has been well re- marked by cultivators, that in the change of crops that are . cultivated for the purpofe of preventing the exhautt:on of land, by the repeated fowing of the fame kinds of grain, _ attention fhould always be had, both to the nature of the ~ foil, and the intentions of the farmer; as it is only in this way that the moft advantagecus changes can be adopted and introduced io the different fituations and conditions of land. But this method of operating, though a praétice of infinite confequence in agriculture, and which was much examined and attended to at an early pericd of the art, feems to have been much overlooked and negleéted, until lately, when the Vor. VII. a) a Pe Pe To change a horfe, or change, CH A culture of turnips probably furnifhed the ufeful hint, and led the farmer to perceive that his land, inftead of being im- poveriihed by that valuable root, was greatly enriched, and prepared to yield a better crop of baricy in the fpring, than would otherwife have been the cafe. This migl ukewife fuggelt to him, that other fucculent plants, which fhade and cover the earth much with their leaves, might have the fame effect ; and the fuccefs which has followed has anfwered his . utmolt expeétation, as it is now found that a fallow does not become neceflary in feveral years; the ground bemg kept clean from weeds and in heart by a variety of green and other crops, when rightly timed and properly maraged in refpect to their introduction and culture afterwards. It has been difcovered by modern cultivators that fome forts of crops, fuch as peafe, beans, clover, and all plants of the pulfe kind, are enrichers and cleaners of the earth ; while wheat, oats, barley, and the whole tribe of vegetables, whofe roots are fibrous and {pread far, impoverith and rob the ground. The latter alfo let it become foul, by giving way to weeds and grafs, which, being the natural produéts of every foil, are more readily nourifhed by it than fuch plants as it does not {pontaneoufly produce. It is therefore evident, that by judicioufly interpofing fuch green or other enriching crops as are adapted to the foil between the grain-crops, the farmer may not only, in a great meafure, avoid the neceflity and expence of fallowing, but frequently be enabled to reap better crops. Befides, under this fyftem of management, he may be enabled to keep a much larger ftock of cattle, and couiequently produce a much larger quantity of manure, the’ advantages of which are very great. See Green Crores and Course of Crops. Cu anGe of feed, denotes the praétice of fowing feed taken from a different foil, in order to prevent the land from becoms ing tired with the fame kind of grain. This is a cultom pretty common among farmers, though experience has not yet fhown how far it is well foundede Great importance has been attached to this praGice by fome cultivators, probably from adopting imperfect notions of the nature of vegetation itfelf, or from purfuing falfe analogies in refpeci to the breeding of animals; but it is evident, a cultivator of much experience obferves, from the trials that have been made in the cultivation of grain, and from what happens in particular cafes of gardening, that it will be of no utility to have recourfe to the change of feed, provided it is properly adapted to the foil, except it be for an improv- ed kind. ‘The only thing neceflary, is that of collecting and preferving the belt of the different kinds, and by that means preventing a degeneracy. “It is hardly, he ubferves, to be {ups pofed that the foil can become tired of, or be improper for, producing a fort of grain for which it is adapted, fince it may be obferved that the fame forts of plants are frequently propagated on the fame fpots of ground, for a vaft length of time, without any manifeit injury in refpe&t to their qua- lity.” A great objeCtion to the practice is alfo found by fome on the ground of the expence. It is obferved by Mr. Middleton, in the Agricultu-al Report of Middlefex, that the changing of the feed of cora every two or three years, though extremely general, is done at an extra expence of from 6d. to 1s. a bufhel on wheat, and half thefe fums on other kinds of grain. This pra@tice is, he thinks, as little founded cn propricty, as a change of live-itock once in every two years would be, and never will be the means of advancing cern to a high pitch of excellence. On the contrary, when corn farmers become wife enough te apply Bakewell’s method of improving cattle to the raifing of iced grain, the advance will be rapid indeed, and its im- 3N provement CHA provement will go on towards the mark of perfeftion, in a degree which, in the prefent ftate of things, can fearcely be conceived. ‘The method he wifhes to recommend to thofe cultivators who defire to excel in the article of grain, is, he fays, the following: namely, a few days before harveft, to walk through their fields of corn, to feleét and gather the prime famples of every fpecies of feed, and ever afterwards to continue the fame practice, by repeating the operation of colleGing the moft perfeG@ grain from the crops produced from {uch fele@ted feed. The fame obfervations, he afferts, apply to every variety of cultivated crops. However this may be, we are inclined to believe, from ob- ferving what takes place in refpect to the curl, a difeafe in potatoe crops, that a change of feed may fometimes be ufe- fol, though, perhaps, much lefs frequently than is the prac- tice of farmers in general. ; But it is added by the firft of thefe writers, on the autho- rity of Mr. Donaldfon, that ‘as fome of the varieties of the fame fort of grain or feed, when fown under fimilar circum- ftances of foil and climate, are, however, often found by the cultivators of land to be of a much more early growth than others, as well as of a more or lefs hardy and vigorous na- ture; it may be of utility to change them in thefe refpecis, the early kinds being always cultivated on the colder and more backward defcriptions of land, while thofe of the later are fown upon the dry and more’warm foils. In this way the crops may often be confiderably improved, as, in. fo far as regards themfelves, they will esjoy the advantages of more genial foils and climates. Another advantage may be gained in this method, as by employing {uch early kinds of feed, the farmer may, in fome cafes, delay the putting in of his feed for {everal days, without the danger of the crop being injur- ed thereby, or of its not being reaped at the ufual time. He may likewife, in the Jate foils, thus obviate the difficul- ties and inconveniencies attending bad feed times, as by fuch a change the feed, thouzh put in later, may be equally early at the harveft.”?. And it has alfo, he fays, been remarked, that ‘* there is an advantage refulting from changing feed from foils of oppofite natures, which cannot be depended upon when the change is made from fimilar foils. Some weeds will grow only in ttrong deep lands, while others are peculiar to light and fandy foils. When, from whatever caufe, grain abounds fo much with the feeds of weeds as to render it improper for fowing, by procuring feed from a foil of an oppofite nature the farmer is to a great degree certain that no dangerous feed-weeds will be introduced by the change. The fowing of fuch grain as contains the feeds of weeds fhould, however, never be practifed, except where perfectly clean {eed cannot be procured, as, though the above may be the cafe in regard to particular forts of weeds, it does not by any means extend to all’? It is alfo found from experience, that grain, like all other feeds and plants, when brought from a warmer to a colder climate, gradually dege- nerates, till, by being frequently cultivated, it becomes na- tural both to the foil and climate.”? And ‘ experience has fhown that it degenerates fooner, and to a greater degree, in mountainous diftri&s, than in the level and better fheltered parts of the country. At the fame time, it is well known, that many vegetables introduced from other countries, and which it was once thought would not come to maturity in this, have, by proper care and attention, been brought to a great degree of perfection. It is certain, too, that the in- troduCion of better forts of grain has foon become effeGtual in removing the poor kinds that were originally cultivated. This has been the cafe in re{pe& to oats in fome parts of Scotland: which is a circumftance that, the writer juft men- tioned thinks, proves how much the quality of grain may be ¢ HA improved by proper attention; and further, that frequent and judicious changes of feed, in the way ftated above, are of the greateft importance in effecting this improvement.”? And it is further “‘ concluded, that from the long eftablithed practice, and the acknowledged advantages derived from an- nually importing feed-wheat from England into all the dif- tri@s in Scotland, where that fpecies of grain is cultivated, which are well known; as well as from the praétice being no lefs general, although more local, for the farmers in Banff- fhire, where deep {trong cold foils prevail, to procure, in un= favourable feafons, a great portion of the oats neceflary for feed from the light dry fandy foils in the adjoining count of Moray; ard alfo the practice of many other diftri@s where improved agriculture is to any confiderable degree ef- tablithed ; it will, he thinks, be found that frequent changes of feed, for fome or other of the reafons mentioned above, are not only highly proper but indifpenfably neceffary.” But the author of Phytologia on the whole concludes, “ that, as the varieties of plants are {uppofed to be produced from dif- ferent foils and climaces, which varicties wili afterwards con-« tinue through many generations, even when the plants -are removed to other foils and climates, it muft be advantageous for the agricultor to infpeét other crops as well as his own ; and thus, wherever he can find a fupericr vegetation, to col- le& feeds from it; which ts, he thinks, more certain to im- prove his crops than an irdifcriminate change of feed. And that where feed-corn is purchafed withouta previous obferv- ation of its fuperior excellence, perhaps it would be more advantageous to take it from better kinds of foil, and from fomewhat better climates; as the good habits acquired by fuch feeds may be continued long after their removal to in- ferior fituations. But on the contrary, care fhould be taken not to colle& a change of worfe feeds from worfe climates or inferior foils, unlefs the agricultor is previoufly certain that they are of a fuperior kind or quality.” See Seep and Sowine. CHANGEABLE Ref. See Hraiscus. CHANGER, or Cuauncer, an officer belonging to the king’s mint, who changes money for gold or filver bullion. See Mint. Cuancer, Money, is a banker who deals in the exchange, receipt, and payment of monies. CHANGES, in Arithmetic, &e. the permutations, varia- tions, or alternations of any number of quantities; with regard to their pofition, order, &c. To find all the poffible changes of any number of quantities, or how oft their order may be varied. Suppofe two quantities @ and 4. Since they may be either wrote ab or dg, it is evident, their changes are 2 = 2 x 1. Suppofe three quantities a, 4, c : their changes cab will be asin the margin ; as is evident by combining ach ce fir with 24, then with da; and hence the num- abc berof changesarifes 3 x 2x 1=6. If the quan- tities be 4, each may be combined four ways with cba each order of the other three; whence the num- bc a. ber of changesarife6 x 4=>4x 3xX2xX I= 246 bac Wherefore, if the number of quantities be fuppofed n, the number of changes will be 2 x m—1 X n—2Xn—3xXn-—4, &c.ton—n. If the fame quantity occur twice, the changes of two will be found 4, of three bab, abb, bbc; of fourchad, bcab, babe. And thus the number of changes in the firft cafe will be 1 = (2 x 1) 2x 1; in the fecond, 3 = (3 x 2 x 1) +2 xX 1; in the third, 12= (4x3 x2x1)+2x1I. If a fifth letter be added, in each feries of four quanti- ties, it will beget five changes, whence the number of all the changes will be 60 = (5 x4X3X2X1I)+2x1. Hence t r C HA if the number of quantities be », the number of changes will be(u xX n— 1 X n—2- X23 X n—4, Ke.) 2 XI. From thefe fpecial formule may be collected a general one ; viz. if 2 be the number of quantities, and mthe number which fhews how oft the fame quantity occurs ; we fhall have (nxXn=—-IXn2—2X0~—3xXn—-4Kn—-5 xXn—OXn— 7,5 &c. (+) m—1 X m—2X m—3B,&c.); the feries being to be continued, till the. continual fubtraGion of unity from n and m leave o. After the fame manner we may proceed farther, till putting 2 for the number of quantitics, -and 7, m, r, &c. for the number that fhews how oft any of ‘ them is repeated, we obtain an univerfal form (n X a —1 Xn mH 2xXn—-3xn—-4xn—}5, &c.) + (lx/—1xl-2*x 7—3x/l—4, x, &.mxm—1 xX m—2xXm—3, Ke.)rX nL xk G2 X73, aC. Suppole, for inftance, n = 6,/= 3, r= 3. Thenumber of changes willbe (6x 5x 4X3X2X1I)S3X1X2X 3 Pazera — 0 Xb A 3K 2a Oe Qi 2 Oe Hence, if it be propofed to affign how many diferent ways 6 perfons might be placed at table, the anfwer would be 6X%5X4xX3X2xX1==720. For 13 perfons we hall find the number 13 X 12K 11 XIOXQX8BX7XOX5X 4X 3X2 1 = 6227020800. If it were required to find how many changes may be rung on feven belis, the anfwer would ber x 2X 3X4 xX 5 x 6 (= 720) x 7 = 5040. On 12 bells, it would be WP Sea e Re TON Ou OU XOX i AL Bl Kp 2) XK Less 479001600. Suppofing 10 changes to be rung in one minute, that is, 10 X% 12 or 120 {trokes in a minute, or two {trokes in each fecond of time, then, according ta this mode of computation, it would take upwards of o1 years to ring over all thefe changes on the r2 bells. If two more bells were added, fo as to make the whole number 14 bells, it would require, at the fame rate of ringing, about 16575 years to ring all the changes on 14 bells but once over. And if the number of bells were 24, it would require more than 117,;0000C0900000900 years to ring all the different changes upon them, See ALTERNATION. In this manner may all the poffible anagrams of any word be found in all Janguages, and that without any ftudy. Suppofe, v. g. it were required to find the anagrams of the word Roma, the number of changes will be 4 x 3x 2x1 = 24. Thus, Roma orma mroa arom roam oram mrao armo rmoa omra mora aorm rmao onar maor aomr raom oarm maro ainro rano oanr maor amor The anagrams therefore of the word Roma, furnifhing any word of krown fignification in the Latin tongue, are feven; viz. Roma, ramo, oram, mora, maro, armo, amor. Wallis’s Algebra, p. 117. See ANacram and Comurnation. Whether this new method of anagrammatizing be likely to prove of much fervice to that art, is left to the poets. CuanGEs of infeds. See Aurexta, and transformation, &c. of infeds in article Entomovocy. CHANGEWATER, in Geography, a town of America, _in the ftate of New Jerfey ; 25 miles W.S.W. of Morrif- town. CHANG-HAT, a town of China, of the third rank, in the province of Kiang-nan, or Nan-king; 6 leagues S.E. of Song-kiang. CHANG-HANG, a town of China, of the third rank, in the province of Fo-kien ; 50 miles S. of ‘l'ing-tcheou, CHANG-HIA-TONG, a town of China, of the fecond € HA ranky in the province of Quang-fi; 400 leagues S.S.W. of Peking. N. lat. 22° 27’. E. long. 106° 4'. CHANG-HO, a town of China, of the third rank, in the province of Chang-tong; 6 leagues S.W. of Vou- ting. CHANGI, a gulf in the northern part of the Chinefe fea, which is in the moft advanced and narrow part of a great bay, which begins at the ifland of Fungma, amd ter- minates at the frontiers of the province of Peking, about 50 leagues from the capital of the Chinefe empire. CHANG-IN, a town of China, of the fecond rank, in the province of Quang-fi; 385 leagues S.S.W. of Peking. N. lat. 23° 3’. E.long. 106° 24', CHANG-KAO, a town of China, of the third rank, in the province of Kiang-fi; 10 leagues W.S.W. of Choui- tcheou. CHANGLASSE, a town of Afia, in the county of Thibet, near the river Sanpoo ; 204 miles W. of Laffa, ard 190 N.E. of Catmandu. CHANG-LIN, a town of China, of the third rank, in the province of Quang fi; 6 leagues N.W. of Ping. CHANG-LING, a town of Afia, in the kingdom of Corea; 5 miles.S.S.W. of Hoang. CHANG-NAN, a town of China, of the third rank, in the province of Chen-fi; 14 leagues S.E. of Chang. CHANG-SE, a town of China, of the fecond rank, in the province of Quang-fi; 1180 miles S.S.W. of Peking. N. lat. 22° 18%. E. long. 107° 14/, CHANG-TCHEOU, a town of Afia, in the kingdom of Corea; 20 miles W.of Long-Kouang. CHANG-TCHING, a town of China, of the third rank, in the province of Honan; 8 leagues S.S.E. of Kouang. CHANG.TE, a city of China, of the firft rank, in the fouthern part of the province of Hu-quang. CuAnG-Te, a city of China, of the firit rank, in the pro- vince of Ho-nan. CHANG.TI, or Tren, in Ancient Mythology, a deity of the ancient Chinefe, whom, according to Du Halde, they worfhipped as the fupreme being : the name is faid by fome to denote the fpirit which prelides over the heavens ; but in the opinion of others it is only the vifible firmament. CHANG-TSAI, in Geography, a town of China, of the third rank ; 6 leagues N. of Yun-hing. CHANG-YEON, a town of China, of the third rank, in the province of Kiang-fi; 10 leagues N.N.E. of Nan- nghan. *CHANG-YU, a town of China, of the third rank, in the province of T'che-kiang ; 6 leagues E.S.E. of Chao- king. CHANGY, a town of France, in the department of the Rhone and Loire; 3% leagues N.W. of Roanne. CHANIERKES, a town of France, in the department of the Gironde ; 12 miles E. of Blaye. CHANIEWIEZE, a town of Lithuania, in the palati- nate of Novogrodek ; 56 miles S.W. of Novogrodck. CHAN-LIN, a town of China, of the third rank, in the province of Quang-fi; 8 miles N.N.W. of Ko-hoa. CHANMANNING, a town of Afia, in Thibet, where the grand Lama occafionally refides; 116 miles W. of Laffa, and 266 N. of Catmaudu; about 167 geographical miles of horizontal diftance from Paridrong, in the Lama’s map. CHANNA, in Jchthyolagy, the name of a fith, faid to be caught in great plenty in the Mediterranean, and brought to market in Italy and elfewhere, among the fea perch, which it nearly refembles. It is not fufliciently clear that g3N2 the CHA the above fpecies is the fame with the Gmelinian Jabrus chaunus, as {ome imagine. CHANNADELLA, a name given ‘by Bellonius and others to a fpecies of /abrus, apparently the chane of the elder writers. See Lanrus hepatus. CHANNEL, in Anatomy, Surgery, Fc. See Canar. Cuannex, in Architedure. See Gutter. Cuannet, or bed ofariver. See River. Cuannet of the larmier, is the hollow foffit of a cornice, which makes the pendant mouchelle. See Larmrer. CuAnnet of the volute, in the Ionic capital, is the face of its circumvolution, inclofed bya liftel. See Vo.ure. CuanneL, in Geography, the Englifh name of one of the French departments, called La Manche. This is one of the five departments formed of Normandy, and the north part ot Perche. It is bounded on the north by the Channel; on the eaft by the Channel and the department of Calva- dos; on the fouth by thofe of Mayenne, and of Ille and Vilaine ; and on the weft by the ocean. Its fuperficies is ‘about 1,323,932 fquare acres, or 675,713 hectares, and comprehends 68¢e kiliometres; its: population confils of about 528,912 perfons. It is divided into five communal diftri&s, 48 cantons, and 669 communes. The general total of its contributions amounts to 5,314,740 francs, and the expences charzed upon it are 370,112 francs. Its chief town is Coutances. Cuannev is alfo applied to divers arms of the fea, where the waters run within the land; or to certain narrow feas ‘confined between two adjacent continents, or between an ‘ifland and a continent. In this fenfe we fay, St. George’s Channel, the Britih Chan- nel, the Channel of the Black Sea, or Conitantinople, &-. Cuannet, in the AZanege, is ufed-for that concavity in the middle of the lower-jaw of a horfe, where the tongue lies. This tollow being bounded on each fide by the bars, terminates in the grinders or maxillary teeth. ‘Che barbles grow in this channel. CHANELLINGS. See Fiurines. CHANNI Oupouc, in Geography, a town of Chinefe Tartary, in the country of the Moguls. N. lat. 42° 51’. E. Jong. 114° 14’. CHANON, in Conchology. Mytilus Hirundo by this name. CHANONAT, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Phy de Déme, celebrated for its mineral waters, CHAN-SAN-SHEN, a town of China, feated on the river Chen-tang-chaung, which at this place ceafes to be navigable. See CHEN-TANG-CHAUNG. CHANSCHENA-POU, in Borany, Rheed. See Bav- HINTA. CHAN-SI, Xanst, Suan-st, or SHAN-SEE, a province of China, bounded on the eaft by Pe-che-li; on the wel by Shen-fi; on the fouth by Ho-nan; andon the north by the Chinefe wall, which feparates it from Tartary. It extends from 13° to 6° 23’ W. long. from Pe-king, or 115° 27’ 30” E. long. to 110° 24’ 30” E. long.; but from north to fouth, from 34° 37’ to 40° 50’ of latitude. It is a tradition among the Chinefe, that this was the firft inhabited province of the whole empire. The climate, though the country is mountainous, is mild and falubrions; of the mountains, fome are lofty and rug- ged, and others are well cultivated, by means of terraces, cut from the top to the bottom, which preduce plenty of corn and other grain. ‘The plains are fertile, though not fo well watered as the other provinces. The vines yield ‘excellent grapes, which, inftead of being applied to the 2 Adanfon calls the Linnean CHA purpofe of making wine, are dried, and in this ftate fold in the other provinces. This province furnifhes great.quane tities of mufk, porphyry, marble, and jafper; it has alfo mines of iron-ftone, which affords iron that is fabricated into a variety of utenfils. The mountains fupply an abundance of coal, which is pounded and mixed with water, and formed into fmall cakes: thefe, though not very in- flammable, afford a {trong and lafting fire.. The people are athletic in their frame, and obliging in their difpotition ; but illiterate: the women are much admired for their flender fhape and beauty. The number of inhabitants is eftimated at 27,009,000; occupying an extent of territory of 55,265 {quare miles, or 35,371,520 acres. The revenue received into the royal treafery at Peking from this province, and derived from the land, falt, and other taxes, amounts to 3,722,000 tahels, or ounces of filver. Chan-fi contains five cities of the firlt rank, viz. Tay-ywen, the metropolis of the province; Ping-yang ; Lu-nghan; Feven-chew; and ~ Tay-fing ; and 85 of the fecond and third rank. CHANSON, Jrench, a fong; a fhort lyric poem on fa- miliar fubje€ts, of love, wine, joy, forrow, &c., put to an eafy melody for focial occafions: at table, to a miftrefs, to friends, and even to yourfeif when alone, in order to drive away care, anxiety, low [{pirits in the rich, and to alleviate fatigue and indigence in the poor. A /fong of this kind is totally ci8in& from what is called an air in a mufical drama, which, as a poem when taken out of its niche, has neither beginning, middle, nor end. See Scotia, Sonc, Air, Barcap, and Nationa, Mu- sic. French fongs, not dramatic, or chan/ons 2 table, turn chicfly on love and wine, addrefled by their votaries to Venus and Bacchus. There are in France, likewife, numerous /atirical fangs, under the denomination of Vaudevilles, which Ice. ~ The ancient hiftorians and poets of France mention their military fongs of very remote antiquity, in which were cele- brated the heroic deeds of their favourite chiefs and moft gallant commanders. Thefe ufed to be fang in chorus by the whole army in advancing to attack an enemy ; acuftom probably derived from their German anceftors, as the privi= lege of leading off this kind of war whocp ulually apper-~ tained to the bard who had compofed it. Charlemagne had a great paffion for thefe heroic fongs, and, like cur Alfred, not only had them colleéted, but knew them by heart. -However, the achievements of this victorious prince and his captains obliterated thole of their predeceffors, and gave birth to new fongs. One of thefe, in praife of Roland, the Orlando inamoratoand furicfo of Boiardo, Derni, and Ariotto, was longer preferved than any of the reft. This, the French hiftorians tell us, was begun at the battle of Haft- ings, where William became the conqueror of the Englifh nation, by a knight called Taillefer, on whom this honour was conferred for his ftrong and powerful voice. Here he performed the office of herald minflrel (meneftrier huchter ) at the head of the Norman army, and was among the firlt that was flain in the onfet. The fong upon Rolaud continued in favour among the French foldiers as late as the battle of Poitiers, in the time of their king John; who, upon reproaching one of them with finging it at a time whien there were n0 Rolands left, was anfwered, that Rolands would {till be found if they had a Charlemagne at their head. But however popular this fong may have been in the fourteenth century, it is not come down entire to the prefent times. Concerning the heroic fong called ? Homme armé, on the melody of which all the firft great contrapuntiits compofed mafles of the moft elaborate kind ; nothing is more probable than, rn SS CHA . than that the tune of this fong was the famous Cantilena Ro- landi, or melody to the fong which the French armed champion ufed to fing at the head of the army, in honor of their hero Roland, in advancing to attack an enemy. CHANSONS @ Gefles. Songs on heroic, hiftorical, and chevalerefque fubjects. This kind of fong was called in England during the Norman dynafty, chant-royal; and Chaucer, in fpeaking of the mufical talents of the poor {cholar Nicholas, in the Miller’s Tale, fays: And after that he fong the Ainge’s note ; Full often bleffed was his mery throat. The Chanfon de Gefle was dillinzuifhed from common fongs, according to Alberic, by the title of Meroica Cantilena. Vhefe hiltorical fongs or ballads muft have been fung to very fhort and fimple tunes, fzch as our Chevy-Chace, or fuch as is ufed by the Jmprovifatori of Italy in accompanying their infpirations, which frequently amount, in length, to many hundred thanzas. Though the reft,of Evrope is not partial to the mufic of France, the qwords of their /ongs, from the time of the “Crou- badours to the prefent, mnit be allowed to abound in wit, irony, dadinage, and elegant, warm, and ingenious praifes of love and wine, more than thofe of any other country. CHANSONETTE, French. The diminutive of chan- fon, a little fong. CHANT, in our cathedral fervice, bears very little re- femblance to the canto fermo, or .plain-chant of the Roman Catholics, which is chiefly pronounced, rather than fung by the prieft alone, without bafe; whereas our chants are fhort phrafes of melody, {ung antiphonally from fide to fide, in four parts, accompanied by the choir organ, exceptin the firft verfe and Gloria Patri. Some of our chants are as vancient as the reformation ; and perhaps {till more ancient, as they refemble, in length, facility, and counterpoint, thofe ufed in Italy during the middle of the XVith century. Several compofed by Paleftrina and his contemporaries have been preferved in an ancient MS. procured in Italy, called Studii di Paleftrina, and believed to be the autography of that father of ecclefiaftical harmony. Cuant, Ambrofian. See AmBrosian Chant. Cuant, Gregorian. See Grecorian Chant. Cuant, French, is equivalent to melody, or the principal or treble part ina mufical compofition. See Canto; Can- TILENA, ltal. Cuanrt, Cantus, is ufed for the vocal mufic of churches. Tn church hiitory we meet with divers: kinds of chant or jong: the firit is the Ambrofian chant, eitablifhed by St. simbrofe. The fecond, the Gregorian chant, introduced by pope Gregory the Great, who etftablifhed {chools of chanters, and corrected the church fong. This is {till retained in the church under the name of plain Jong at firit it was called the Roman /ong. : The plain, or Gregorian chant, is where the choir and people ting in unifon, or altogether ia the fame manner. See Cuorav Service. Cuant Jur le livre, French, is difcant, or finging extem- pore in the plain fong in the cathedral fervice of the Romifh ~Church; which is done by three or four fingers on the Gre- gorian notes, in the mafs book on the defle in the middle of the choir, fo that, except the canto fermo in the miffal, which is generally fung by the tenor, the fingers have nothing to ‘guide them. However, there are choral fingers, fo verfed in counterpoint, that they even lead off and purfue fubjects of fugue and canon on this foundation, without confufion, or violating the rulesof harmony. See Discant, Contra- eunTO alla monte, or AL’1MPROVISO. CHA CHANTADBOUN, in Geography, a fea-port town of the kingdom of Siam, on the frontiers of Camboja. CHANTADA, a town of Spain, in the province of Galicia ; 20 miles N. of Orenfe. CHANTAGIR, a river of Siberia, which runs into the Enifei; N.lat. 51° 50’. E. long. g1° 34’. CHANTELLE-& chateau, a town of France, in the department of the Allier, and chief place of a canton in the diltri&t of Gannat, three leagues N. of Gannat; the place contains 1334, and the canton 11,916 inhabitants : the territory includes 225 kiliometres and 20 communes. CHANTAUNAY, atown of France, in the department of the Lower Loire, and chief place of acanton, in the dif- tri& of Nantes; two miles weft of it.—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Sarthe, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrict of Le Mans; 15 miles W.S.W. of it. CHANTER, French, to fing. We thall not go to France for inftruétions in this art; though Mefirs. Fra. mery and Ginguevé have adopted and given in the Encyl. Meth. fome very ufeful precepts from the Italian {chool,. which we apprehend will not be generally received or put in practice by their countrymen for fome time. We ac- knowledge, however, that Mr. Framery has difcuffed this fubjcct with delicacy, difcrimination, and good tafte. Rouffeau’s definition of the verb chanter, is clear and pre- cife: it is, in its general application, the forming with the voice fuch founds as are appretiable. See Metropy. But it is more commonly underitood to imply the producing, by vocal inflexions, a variety of fuch tuneable founds as are agreeable to the ear, and by intervals admitted in harmony,. and confonant to the rples of modulation. A finger pleafes in proportion as the voice is clear and well toned, the ear perfectly accurate, the organs flexible, the tafte well formed, and when initruélion and practice have polifhed and im- proved the gifts of nature. To which, in imitative and theatrical mufic, fhould be added that degree of fenfibility which imprefles others with the fentiments which we affeét to feel. From obfervations in hearing great vocal per= formers, many rules have been formed for facilitating and perfecting a vocal ftudent ; but many difcoveries {lill remain to be made on the mot eafy, fhort, and certain path to per- fection in this diffcnlt art. CHANTEREAU-LE-FEVRE, Lovis, in Biogra- phy, a learned antiquary of France, was born at Paris in 1558; and became eminent no lefs for the qualities of his heart than for thofe of his underitanding. He diftin- guithed himfe'f by his knowledge of jurifprudence, hiftory, politics, and belles-lettres, and was advanced by Lewis XIII. through fucceflive pofts to that of intesdant of the finances of the duchies of Bar and Lorraia. He compiled from original records, ‘* Hiftorical Memoirs of the Houfes of Lorrain and Bar; the firt part of which only was pub- lifhed at Paris, 1642, fol. He alfo publifhed other works on detached parts of l’rench hiftory ; and after his death, his fon publifhed his «* Treatife on Fiefs,”? 1662, fol. in which he maintains an opinion, which has been thought to be erro- neous, viz. that hereditary fiefs commenced only after the time of Hugh Capet.» He died at Paris in 1653.. Nouv. Dia. Hitt. CHANTERELLE, French, the firlt {tring of a violin, tenor, or violoncello. CHANTIER, in Military Language,.a {quare piece of wood, which is ufed for railing any thing upon, as, for inftance, for ranging barrels of gunpowder on, or for prov- ing cannon without the affittance of gua-carriages, CHANTILLY, in Geograp/y, a town of France,.in the departe CHA department of the Oife, and chief place of a canton, inthe ‘dillri& of Senlis. he prince of Condé had, before the re- olution, a magnificent palace in this place, with beautiful gardens, a managery, extenfive park, and curious water- works. The flable was reckoned fuperior to any in France, and the foreft for the prefervation of game extended many miles in circumference: 14 league W. from Senlis, and 4 5.8.E. from Clermont. CHANTLATE, in Building, a piece of wood faftened near the ends of the rafters, and proje€ting beyond the wall, to fupport two or three rows of tiles fo placed to prevent the rain-water from trickling down the fides of the wail. CHAN-TONG, Cuan-tunc, SHan-Tonc, or Xar- tun, in Geography, a province of China, bonnded on the welt by part of Pe-che-li, Chan-fi, and Honan; on the fouth, by Kiang-nan; on the eaft, by the Yellow Sea, and on the north, by the fame fea and part of Pe-che-li. Tt extends from 34° 30° to 33° N. lat. and from 1° to 6° 25’ of eaft longitude from Peking, or 117° 47°30” to 122° 2! 307 E. long. ; and ‘t is reckoned one of the mofl fertile provinces and fineft climates in China. One crop is faid to afford the inhabitants; who are not fo numerous as thofe of fome’ other provinces, fev-ral years’ fuftenance. Befides the grand imperial canal, which traverfes fome part of this pro- vince, it has feveral lakes, : vers, and brooks, which con- tribute to fertilize and enrich it ; though it frequently fuffers from drought, as it feldom rains here. It is much infefted by locufts, wolves, and gangs of robbers, who befet tra- vellers in the highways over the mountains, and often de- {cend to the plains, plundering and ravaging the villages and open towns. The inhabitants are itrong and healthy, and are employed in manufaCturing great quantities of filk: befides the common fort produced by the filk-worms, they find another fort upon trees and bufhes in great plenty, which is fpun by a kind of worm not unlike our caterpillars. This laft kind, though coarfe, is ftronger than the other ; and with this they carry ona great trade, by means of their rivers and canals. The barks that come from the fouthern parts to Peking pafs along the imperial canal; and the tri- bute of the merchandize they thus convey has been com- puted to amount to a very large fum. Among other fruits produced in this province, they have one which is called Se-tfe, a kind of figs, which ripen about the beginning of autumn, and being dried, contract a cruft of candied fugar, that gives them a delicious flavour. This province is ren- dered particularly venerable among the Chinefe by a tradi- tion, that their great philofopher Kongfuntfe, commonly called by us Confucius, drew his firft breath init. Chan- tong is divided into fix diftrids, which contain fix cities of the firft rank, that dre very populous and flourihhing. Thefe again include no lefsthan 114 towns of the fecond and third rank, befides a great number of towns and villages, fifteen fortreffes, fome of them very large, and all of them built to guard the entrances of their ports and the mouths of their rivers. There are likewife feveral iflands fcattered along the gulf, extremely well peopled, affording conveni- ent harbours for Chinefe tranfports, and a quick and eafy paffage to and from Corea and Leao-tong. The cities of the firft rank are Tfinnan or Cinnan, the metropolis of the province, Yeng-chew, Tong-chang, Tfing chew, Ten- chew, and Lao-chew. The population of Chang-tong confifts of twenty-four millions, occupying a territory in extent 65,104 {quare miles, or 41,666,560 acres. ‘Lhe re- venue of this province, tranfmitted to the treafury at Peking from the land, falt, and taxes, amounts to 3,000,c09 - CHA tahels or ounces of filver, befides 360,000 meafures of rice and other grain. asd CHANTONICE, in Ancient Geography, acountry of Afia, which made part of Carmania, according to Prolemy. CHANTONNAY, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Vendée, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of Fontenay-le-Comte; 44 leagues W. from La-Chataignoraye. The place contains 1421, and the canton 8928 inhabicants: the territory includes 2673 kiliometres acd 15 communes. CHANTOR, in the Fesvifh Antiquities. In the temple of Jerufalem there was a great number of Levites, who were employed in finginz the praifes of God, and in playing upon inftruments before his altar. In the reign of David there were four thoufand finging men, with their heads and prefi- dent. The chantors and Levites who were employed in finging, playing upon inftruments, and other funétions of the Tem- ple, had no habits diftin& from the reft of the people. Never- thelefs, in the ceremony of removing the ark to the Temple of Jerufalem built by Solomon, the chantors appeared drefled in tunics of byflus, or fine linen. Jofephus remarks, that in king Agrippa’s time they obtained the favour from that prince of wearing a linen robe‘in the Temple, like the pricfts. Agrippa believed it would be for the honour of his reign, to fignelize it by fo confiderable a change as this. The other Levites, employed in different exercifes under the command of the prieits in the Temple, procured likewife commiffion to learn to fiag, to the end that they might en- joy the fame privileges with their brethren. Cuantor, or Cuauntor, a perfon who fings in the choir of a cathedral. All great chapters have chantors and chaplains to eafe and affift the canons, and officiate in their abfence. St. Gregory firlt inftituted the office of chantors, ere&- ing them into a body, called /chola cantorum: though Ana- ftafius feems to attribute their rife to pope Hilary, who lived an hundred years before Gregory. But the word grows obfolete in this fenfe, and inftead of it the word choir-man er finging-man is now ufed. Cuantor is ufed, by way of excellence, for the preeentor or mafter of the choir; which is one of the dignities of the chapter. The chantor bears the cope and the ftaff at folemn fefti- vals ; and gives tune to the reft at the beginning of pfaims and anthems. At St. David’s in Wales, where they have no dean, he is next in dignity to the bifliop. The ancients called the chantor, primicerius cantorum. To him formerly belonged the direction of the deacons, and other inferior minifters. CHANTRIGNE’, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Mayenne, and chief place of acanton, in the diftri& of Mayenne ; 2+ leagues N. of it. CHANTRY, or Cuauntry. See Cuaunrry. CHAN-YN, a town of China, of the third rank, in the province of Chan-fi; 25 miles E.N.E. of Sou, CHAO, one of the claffes into which the late Mr. Muller arranged the iflands between Kamtfkatka and America; comprehending eight iflands; viz. Immzk, Kifka, Thhet- ghina, Ava, Chavia, Tfhagulak, Ulagabina, and Amthhigda, or the more diftant Alevtans. CHAOASES, an order of horfe in the fervice of the grand fignior. Thefe and the muteferriker were originally the guards of the fultans in Egypt, and their leaders were his.two vizirs, that always accompanied him. They now conftantly go out with the bafhaw. ; 6 The CHA The body of the chaoafes feems originally to have been the guard out of which the fultan ufed to fend perfons to execute his orders. CHAO-HING, a city of China, of the firft rank, in the province of Tche-kiang ; 673 miles S.S.E. of Peking. N. Jat. 30° 10’. E.long. 120° 14’. CHAO-IM, a town of Chinefe Tartary; 8 miles S. of Geho. CHAO-KEOUING, a town of China, in the province of Chang-tong ; 35 miles SE. of Tei-nghin. CHAOLOGY, the hiftory or defcription of the ‘chaos. Orpheus, in his Chaology, fets forth the different altera- tions, fecretions, and divers forms, which matter went _ through till it became inhabitable : this amounts to the fame with what we otherwife call cofmogony, or the creation of the world. See Cosmocony. Dr. Burnet likewife gives us a chaology, in his Theory > of the Earth. He reprefents the chaos, as it was at firk, entire, undivided, and univerfally rude and deformed ; or the tohu dohu: then fhews how it came divided into its re- {peGtive regions ; how the homogencous matter gathered it- felf apart from all of a contrary principle; and laftly, how it hardened, and became a folid habitable globe. CHAO-MA-ING, in Geography, a town of Afia, in Thibet ; 10 miles N. of CHAO-MA-ING-HOTUN, is a town of Thibet, 285 miles E. of Hami. : CHAOMANTIA, among the Lnthufiaflical Chemifls, is the art of making prelages from obfervations on the air. CHAON, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of the Pelo- ponnefus, fituated to the left of the route from Argos to ‘Tegza, the lower part of which was planted with fruit trees. Hence proceeded the river Erafinus, which fupplied that of Stymphalus in Arcadia. Bacchus and Pan were ho- noured with facrifices at the fall of the water which formed the Eralinus, and a feaft was celebrated in honour of Bac- chus, which was denominated zyrde. Paufan. Corinth. 1. ii. Cc. 24. CHAONES, or Cuaontt, the name of a people who had the fovereignty of the whole of Epirus betore the Moloffi, according to Strabo. Virgil (An. 1. iii.) fuppofes that they were more ancient than the war of Troy ; and in another place he {ays that Ceres and Bacchus introduced the ufe of wheat inftead of the acorn of Chaonia. It is more natural however to trace the defcent of the Chaonians from the ancient Pelafgithanfrom thé Trojans, as the greateit num- ber of the people of Greece and its environs had originated from the Pelafzi; and Steph. Byz. reports that Chaonia in particular had been formerly called Pelafgide. Plutarch feems to have affigned the time of their eftablifhment, and the’ chiefs of their colony, when he fays, that the hiltorians related, that-after the deluge of Deucalion, Phaeton, one of thofe who accompanied Pelafyus into Epirus, was the firit king of the ‘Vhefprotii and Molofii, that is, of the Chaonians, the predeceffors of thefe people. If the eftablifhment of the Pelafziin Chaonia foon followed the deluge of Deuca- ‘lion, this lait event ferves to fix the origin of the Chaonians ; for although we cannot precifely afcertain the period of “this deluge, it is knowa that Deucalion lived 200 years be- ‘fore the liege of Troy, and that fome of his defcendants ~affifted at this fiege. The deluge happened about the clofe ‘of his reign, and therefore could not have preceded the ) Trojan- war, more than about five generations, or 150 years ; or, according to fir Llaac Newton, four generations, a CHA or about 133 years, reckoning with the ancients three gene- rations to 100 years. The eftablifhment of the Chaonians, which immediately followed the deluge, mult therefore have taken place about three or four generations, or from roo: to 133 years, before the Trojan war. Upon this fuppofition, we may determine who was the Pelafgus that conduGed the Chaonians into Epirus. He could not have been the ancient Pelafgus, who lived before the flood of Deucalion, according to the hiftory of his pofterity, traced out by Paufanias ; but he had a grandfon of the fame name, who, according to the relation of Plutarch, conducted a colony to Epirus after the deluge of Deucalion. Steph. Byz. mentions a Pelafgus, the fon of Lycaon, and father of Thefprotus, and he alfo mentions his defcendants, who inha- bited Epirus. We have reafon, therefore, to believe, that this is the Pelafzus to whom Plutarch refers, fince a period near the deluge of Deucalion correfponds to the time of a fon of Lycaon ; and we learn from Apollodorus (I. iii. c. 8. § 2.) that Deucalion’s flood occurred in the reign of NyGimus, the fucceflor of Lycaon. Moreover, Paufanias (I. viti. c. 3.) informs us, that the fons of Lycaon, amounting in number to not lefs than 24, difperfed themfelves in Greece. The oracle of Dodona in Epirus was of Pelafgian origin ; and fince the Pelafgi were not fettled in Epirus till after the deluge of Deucalion, this oracle could not have been efta- blithed at an earlier period, or till after the fettlement of the Chaonians, and hence we may infer that it was probably of Chaonian origin. Herodotus (1. ii.) affures us, that the ancient Pelafgi invoked the divinity in general, without af- cribing to him thofe appellations which afterwards dittin- guifhed the gods and goddeffes, whofe worfhip was not yet introduced into Greece. This author adds, that the Pe- lagi confulted the oracleof Dodona. The Pelafgi, according to Herodotus, were more ancient than the gods of Greece, and more ancient than the other Greeks, who, according to Strabo, cannot be traced toa higher antiquity than the Trojan war, fince Pelafgus, their chief, was a defcendant in the 8th degree of thofe who aflifted in this war, according to Paufa- nias. The fcholiaft of Ariftophanes fays, that the Chaones were defcended from the Thracians; but Ariftotle traces them to the Oenotrii, one of the moft ancient nations of Italy. CHAONIA, a country of Greece, the moft northern part of Epirus, fo called from its ancient inhabitants the Chaones. It was bounded on the north by the Oreflide territory and part of the country of the Peneftes;, on the fouth-welt, by the Mediterranean fea; on the fouth, by Thefprotia ; and on the eaft, by the country of the Anti- tanes. The Acro-ceraunian mountains boutded it to the north, The moft noted cities in this part of Epirus were, according to Ptolemy, Oricum or Oricus, Caffiopza or Caffiope, Antigonia, founded by Antigonus, Phenice, He- catompédum, Omphalium, Eleus, and the {trong town, or, as Pliny calls it, caftle of Chimera, much frequented on ac- count of its hot baths. See Epirus, Cuaonta, a town of Alia, in Syria, fituated at the con- fluence of two {mall rivers, S.W. of Zeugmae Ptolemy places it in Comagene, a country of Syria. CHAONITES, a {mall country of Atia, in Affyria, LE. of the Tigris; more properly Chalonitis, which fee. CHA-OU-FOU, in Geasraphy, a town of China, of the firft rank, in the province of Fokien; 775 miles S, of Peking. Nilat. 228s) Be lonpermee, ao! CHAO PAI, a town of Chinefe Tartary. 13/.. .E. Jong. 1249 4243 CHAO-PING, a town of China, of the third rank, in the N. lat: 42° CH A the province of Quang-fi; 5 leagues S.E. of Yong- nehan. “CHAORA, one of the fmaller Cape Verd iflands. CHAOS, among the ducient Philofophers, was defcribed a dark, turbulent kind of atmofphere ; or a d:forderly fyf- tem, or mixture, of all forts of particles together, without any form or regularity; out of which the world was formed. Chaos is’ every where reprefented as the firft principle, ovum or feed of nature, and the world, All the ancient fophifts, fages, naturalifts, philofopbers, theologues, and poets, hold that chaos was the eldeft and firtt principle, +o mpPyKabov XU. The Barbarians, Pheenicians, Egyptians, Perfians, &c. all refer the origin of the world to a rude, mixed, coufufed inafs of matter. ‘The Greeks, Orpheus, .Hefied, Menander, Ariftophanes, Euripides, and the writers of the Cyclic Poems, all fpeak of the firfl chaos: the Ionic and Piatonic philofophers build the world ovt of it. The Stoics hold, that as the world was firlt made of a chaos, it fhall at latt be reduced to a chaos; and that its periods and revolutions in the mean time are only tranfitions from one chaos to another. “Laftly, the Latins, as Ennias, Varro, Ovid, Lu- eretius, Statius, &c. are all of the fame opinion. Nor is there any fe& or nation whatever, that does not derive their Siaxorunors, the frudure of the world, from a chaos. The opinion firlt arofe among the Barbarians, whence it f{pread to the Greeks, and from the Greeks to the Romans, and other nations. Dr. Burnet obferves, that befides Ariftetle, and a few other pfeudo-Pythagoreans, nebody ever afferted, that our world was always, from eternity, of the fame nature, form, and ftructure, as at prefent: but that it had been the ftand- ing opinion of the wife men of all ages, that what we now call the terreftrial globe, was originally an unformed undi- gefted mafs of heterogeneous matter, called chaos; and no more than the rudiments and materials of the prefent world. It dees not appear who firlt broached the notion of a chaos. Mofes, the eldeft of all writers, derives the origin of this world from a confufion of matter, dark, void, deep, without form, which he calls tohu bohu ; which is precifely the chaos of the Greek and Barbarian philofophers. Mofcs oes no further than the chaos; nor tells us whence it took its origin, or whence its confufed ttate ; and where Mofes ltops, there precifely do all the rett. Dr. Burnet endeavours to fhew, that as the ancient philo- fophers, &c. who wrote of the cofmygony, acknowledged a chaos for the principle of their world ; fo the divines or writers of the theogony, derive the origin or generation of their fa- bled gods from the fame principle. Mr. Whifton fuppofes the ancient chaos, the origin of our earth, to have been the atmofphere of a comet; which though new, yet all things confidered, is not the mo{t im- probable affertion. He endeavours to make it out by many arguments, drawn from the agreement which appears to be between them. So that, according to him, every planet is a comet, formed into a regular and lafting conftitution, and placed at a proper diltance from the fun, revolving in a nearly cir- cular orbit ; and a comet is a planet either beginning to be deftroyed, or re-made : that is, a chaos, or planet, unformed, or in its primeval ftate, and placed as yet in an orbit very ec- centrical. See Cosmocony. Cuaos, in the phrafe of Paracelfus, imports the air. It has allo fome other fignifications among the alchemitts. Cuaos (redivivum) &c. of Linn. in the 12th edit. of Syft. Nat. is the Vibrio glutinis ot Goeze and Gmelin. © HA CHAOURCE. in Geography, a town of France in the department of the Aube, and chief place of a canton in the diftrict of Bar-fur-Seine; 5 leagues S. of Troyes. The place contains 1630, and the canton 12,339 inhabitants : the territory comprehends 415 kiliometres and 26 communes. CHAP, in Ornithology, denotes either of the mandibles of a bird’s bill, which are diftingnifhed by the epithets upper and dower, "Lie term mandible is moft commonly that adopted by modern oraithologilts. Cuap. See CHiesBramm. SHAPALA, in Geography, a lake of North America, in Mexico, and the province of Guadalaxara; 18 leagues Jong and § bread: 15 miles S. of Guadalaxara. CHAPARANG, or Dsaraonec, a town of Afia, in the country of Thibet, fituate near the head of the Ganges ; 140 miles N.N.I. of Sirinagur. N. lat. 33° 10’. Bi long. 79° 22!. CHAPARRAL, a town of Spain in the province of Granada; 5 leagues from Antequera. CHAPE, the metallice part put on the end of a feab- bard to prevent the point of the fword or bayonct from piercing through it. CHAPEAYU, in a general fenfe. See Har. Cuapeau i fometimes alfo ufed to denote the cap, orco- ronet, armed with ermine, borne by dukes; and of late fres quently met with above an helmet inftead of a wreath, under gentlemen’s or noblemen’s cretts. S:e Car of Maintc- nance. The creft is borne on the chapeau ; and by the chapeau the creft and coat are feparated’; it being a rule, that no creft muft touch the fhield immediately. ; Cuareau, Fr. literally means a hat ; but in mufic it im- plies the femicircle over two or more notes which we call a flur, ~~ ; and by which a fingey underftands that ail the notes under or over this femi-cirele or flur are to be fung to one fyllable ; and im violin mufic to be played with one bow. Crapeau de Mineur. lerie. CHAPEL, or Cuapren, a kind of little church, ferved by an incumbent properly under the denomination of.a chap- Jain. he word chapel, according to fome, comes from xamnrsc., little tents, or bcoths, {et up by traders in fairs, to fhelcer them from the weather. Papias derives it both from the Greek and Latin, quafi capiens rao» or populum, vel lau- dem: others derive it from the chape, or cope, which ferved to cover the body: others, d fellibus caprarum; becaufe thefe places were anciently covered with goat-fkins. Rebuff derives it from cappa, St. Martin’s cope, which the kings cf France carried to war with them as their ftandard, and preferved very carefully in particular tents, thence called chapels. There are two kinds of chapels, the one confe- crated, and held as benefices : the other fecular, being of the nature of oratories. The firft are built apart, and at a dif- tance from the parifh church ; being neither parifhes, cathe- drals, nor priories, but fubfiiting of themfelves. Thefe are _ called by the canonifts /ub dia, and by us chapels of eafe; as — being ere€ted at a diftance from the mother-church, where the parifh is larze and wide, for the eafe and corvemiency of fome of the parifhioners who refide far off. “They are ferved by fome inferior paftor, provided cither by the re&tor of tke parifh, or by thofe for whofe eafe and benefit they are in- tended, by prayers or preaching merely. Some of thefe ere alfo parechial, having the parochial rights of chriltening and burying, and differing from a church only in the want of a rectory and endowment. The fecond kind are frequently built in, or adjoining to a church, as a part thereof; beving only a defk, &c. to read See the article Cuasses de ga- ‘jon, Bourges, Bourbon, &e. CHA read prayera in ; and in the Romith churches, an altar, &c. to celebrate mafs on; but without any baptiltery, or font. Thiele the canonilts call fub tedo. They are generally ereéted by fome confiderable perfon fer the ufe of their own fami- lies ; ut ihidem familiaria fepulcra fbi conflituant. The twen- ty-firlt canon of the council of Agda, heid in 506, allows pri- vate perfons the ufe of chapels ; but wich prohibition to all elerks to officiate in them without leave from the bi- fhop. Cuarers, free, ace thofe chapels of eafe which have a fet- tled revenue for perpetual maintenance of a pattor, &e. by charitable donatives of lands, or rents beftowed en them: fo as not to be-any charge either to the rector, or the parifhio ners; ard they are thus called becaufe they are free from ail ordinary jurifd:ction, There are feveral collegiate churches in France, which they call /aintes chapelles, holy chapels ; as thofe of Paris, Di- Thefe are fo denominated, from being repofitories-of certain relics. Hence, all thofe places where relics were preferved came to be called chapels ; and the perfons who had the care of them, chaplains. Cuapet is alfo a name given to a printer’s workhoufe ; becaufe, fay fome authors, printing was firft actually per- formed in chapels, or churches; or, according to others, becaufe Caxton, an early printer, exercifed the art in one of the chapels in Weflminfter Abbey. In this fenfe they fay, the orders, or laws of the chapel, the fecrets of the chapel, &c. Cuarer, knights of the, an order of knights intlituted by king Henry VIII. in his teftament, to the number of thir- teen; though thefe have been increafed to the number of twenty-fix: they are called poor snights. Thefe are not knights of the order of the Garter; but are, as it were, their affilants or deputies, ferving to dif- charge all their offices in the funeral fervices of the kings of England. They are febject to the office of the canons of Windfor, and live on pentions which the order affigns them. They bear the blue or red cloak, with the arms of St. _ George on the left fhoulder; but the cloak is only.cloth, and they wear no fort of garter: which dillinguifhes them fufficiently from the knights of the Garter. Cuarer Royal Efablifbment. We have an account of this eftablifhment in the ‘ Liber niger domus Regis,” in the time of king Edward IV. in which there is likewife a lift of the feveral muficians retained in that monarch’s fervice, as well for his private amufement .as for the duties of his chapel. As this feems the origin of thofe eftablifhments, of the chapel royal and king’s band, which ftill fubift, we fhall give the account of them, and their feveral employ- ments. at full length from this ancient book, as well as from N° 293 of the Harl. MSS. in the Britifh Mufcum, and N° 1147, 2. 3. 11. of the Athmol. ColleG&. Oxf. for Ordinances touching the King’s houfehold, made in the time of Edward II. as weil as in that of Edward 1V. _. * Minitrelles thirteene, thereof one is Virger, which di- reGeth them ail feityvall dayes in their ftatyones of blowings and pypyngs to fuch offyces as the offyceres might be warned to prepare for the King’s meats and foupers ; to be more redyere in all fervices and due tyme; and all thes fytying in the hall together, whereof fome be trompets, fome with the fhalmes and imalle pypes, and fome are {trange mene coming to this Court at fyve feaftes of the year, and then take their wages of Houfhold, after iiijd. ob. by daye, after as they have byne prefente in Courte, and then to avoyd altere the Vou. VII, : CHA next morrowe aftere the feafte, befydes theire other rewards yearly in the King’s Exchequer, and clothinge with the Houf- hold, wintere atid fomere for eiche of them xxs. And they take nizhtelye amongefte them all iiij galanes ale; and for wintere feafone thre candles waxe, vj candles pich, iiij talc fheids [fire-wood cicft and cut into billets} ; lodging fuf- fytyente by the Herbengere for them and theire horfes nighteley to the Courte. Aulfo hauing into Courte ij fervants to bear their trompets, pypes, and other inftruments, and torche fonwintere nightes, whilft they blow to fuppore of the chaundry ; and alway two of thes perfones to contynewe ftylle in Courte at wages by the cheque rolle whiles they be pre- fente inj eb. dayly, to warne the King’s ridynge houfhold when be goeth to horfbacke as oft as it fhall require, and that his houfhold mene may followe the more redyere aftere by the blowinge of their trempets. Y£ any of thes two Minttreiles be lete bloode in Courte, he taketh two loves, ij meffz of greate meate, one galone ale. They part not at no tyme with the rewards given to the Houfhold. Alfo when it pleafethe the. King to have ij Minflrelles continuinge at Courte, they will not in no wife that thes Minftrelles be fo famylliere to efke rewards. « Children of the Chappelle viij, founden by the King’s privie Cofferes for all that longeth to their apparelle by the hands and overfyghte of the Deane, or by the Mafterof Songe affigned to teache them, which Maftere is appointed by the Deaze, chofen one of the nomber of the fellowfhipe of chap- pelle after rehearfed, and to drawe them to cther Schooles after the form cf Sacotte, as well in Songe in Orgaines and other. Thes Children eate in the Hall dayly at the Chappell bord, nexte the Yeomane of Ueltery ; taking amongfte them for lyverye daylye for brekefalte and all nighte, two loves, one meffe of greate mete, ij galons ale; and for wintere fea- fone'iilj candles piche, iij talfheids, and lyttere for their pallets cf the Serjante Uther, and carryadge of the King’s cofte for the competente beddynge by the overfyghte of the Comp- trollere. And amongtte them all to have one fervante into the court to truffle and bear their harneffe and lyverye in Court. And that day the King’s Chappelle remoueth every of thes Children then prefent receaueth iiijd. at the Grene Clothe of che Comptyng-houfe for horfhire dayly, as long as they be jurneinge. And when any of thes Children comene to xviij years of age, and their uoyces chauge, ne cannot be preferred in this Chappelle, the nombere being full, then yf£ they will affente the King affynethe them to a College of Oxcford or Cambridge of !)1s foundatione, there to be at fynd- yng and ftudye bothe fuffytyently, tylle the King may other~ wife aduance them.”? In the Liber niger, there is hkewife not only an account of the gentlemen and children of the chapel, but of the *¢ Deane’s perfon and eftablifhment, with that of the xxiij Chaplenes and Clerkes of the Chappelle by the Deane’s eleétyone or denomynatione,” &c. The eftablifhment of cardinal Wolfey’s chapel, and of Henry Algernon Percy, fifth earl of Northumberland, was fiill more numerous and {plendid. Cuaret-in-the-Frith, in Geography, is a {mall town of Derbyfhire, England. It ftands on the fide of a high con- vex hill, which rifes from a contracted vale, formed by fome high mountains. The church was erected at the com- mencement of the fourteenth century. Here are fome {mall cotton manufatories which furnifh employ to part of the lower clafs of inhabitants. ‘This town is 166 miles N.W. from London, and has a {mall weekly market on Thurfdays. CHAPELAIN, Joun, in Biozraphy, a poet and man of letters was-born at Paris in 1595, and having complerr 4 3 CHISA: his education under the beft mafters, became tutor to the children of the marquis de la Troufe, grand marfhal of France, and afterwards fteward to this nobleman. During an abode of 17 years in this family he tranflated ‘* Guz- man d’AJfarache,’’ from the Spanifh, and direéted his par- ticular attention to peetry. In this art he acquired reputa- tion by a critique oa the Adonis of the cavalier Marino, refixed to a Paris edition of that poem, in 1623. By an ode addrefled to-cardinal Richelieu, a critique on the Cid, and other performances, he obtained the credit of an oracle in matters of tafte. Conceiving himfelf capable of producing an original work, he undertook the compofition of an epic poem on the fubje& of Joan d’Arc, but when the firft 12 books of his ‘¢ Pucelle, ou ia France delivrée,” appeared in 1656, ufhered into the world with all the advantages of typography aed engraving, and pufhed by court influence through fix editions, in eighteen months, the expe€tations of the public were difappointed, and the author’s fame fuf- tained a deadly blow, fo that the name of Chapelain as a poet was regarded in Trance much in the fame manner with that of Blackmore in England. ‘he harfhnefs of the ftyle and verfification of this poem became a fubjeG of con- temptuous fatire; and Boileau, Racine, and Ja Fontaine are humoroufly faid to have impofed upon themfelves tie penance, for committing any fault in language, of reading a certain number of pages of this poem. The learned Huet in vain endeavoured to vindicate and extol the Pucelle againft the more effectual cenfures of Boileau and others: and thus the 12 additional books have ever fince remained in MS. in the king’s hbrary. His intereft at court, however, remained undiminifhed ; and as his penfions were more am- ple than thofe of any other literary man, Boileau calls him “le mieux renté de tous les beaux-efprits.’ ‘The lift of perfioners, recommended by Colbert to Lewis in 1662, was formed by Chapelain; and this diftin@tion {ecured him a degree of homage which counterbalanced the failure of refpe& which he had incurred as a poet. His private cha- ra¢ter was held in high eftimation ; and though he was not wholly exempt from the charge of avarice, he was not am. bitious of polts of eminence, and wifely declined the office of preceptor to the firlt dauphin, to which he had been no- minated by Montaufier. Boileau himfelf-is conftrained to bear an honourable teftimony to his morai qualities. He died in 1674, leaving property which few poets of far fu- perior merit have acquired. His works, befides thofe al- ready noticed, are, a tew odes, a “ Dialogue on the reading of old Romances,”’ and fome mifcellaneous pieces on lite- rary fubjeéts. Nouv. Did. Hitt. CHAPELET, in the Manege, a couple of flirrup-lea- thers, mounted each of them with a ftirrup, and joining at top in a fort of leather buckle called the head of the chape- let, by which they are made faft to the pummel of the faddle, after being adjufted to the’ ridev’s length and bore. They are ufed both to avoid the trouble of taking up or letting down the ftirrups every time that a gentleman-mounts on a different horfe and faddle, and to fupply what is wanting in the academy faddles, which have no {tirrups to them. CuareEver, armour of iron forming a circle with three branches of the fame metal, by means of which the noyau of the mould of a piece of ordnance is faftened tothe chape. They alfo give this name to a pump or chain pump. Itis likewife given to an hydraulic engine for drawing water out of a wet or inundated foundation, where people are going to carry on mafonry or other work. CHAPELLE, Craupe Emanvet L’Huitrier, in Bio- graphy, a Freach wit and poet, was the natural fon of Francis CHA V’Huillier, mafter of the accounts, and received'his name from the village of La Chapelle, betwen Paris and St. Denys, the place of his nativity. His education was hberal, and he Jearned philofophy under the famous Gaffendi. His genius, however, inclined to poetry of the light and eafy kind, and he excelled in double rhymes. His difpefition was convivial, and his habits were thofe of a man of pleafure. His “ Jour- ney to Montpellier,”? written jointly with Bauchaumont, and confilting of a mixture of siole and verfe, is a “ model of that pleafurable facility which is more rare than correéinefs and elevation.” Without availing himfelf of his connetion and intereft in order to obtain any pofts of honour or profit, he was content with a moderate annuity, and prolonged a life of cafe and indulgence to the age of 7o years. He died at Paris in 1686. A new edition of his *- Journey” was pub- lifhed by Le Fevre de St. Marc, in 1755, 2 vols. 12mo. To this edition are alfo annexed fome “ Fugitive Pieces,’ in verfe and Profe. Nouv. Dict. Hitt. Cuapevre, Joun pe La, a member of the French acade- my, was born at Bruges in 1655, and obtained by his father’s purchafe the pott of receiver-general of the finances at Ro- chelle. Abandoning the career of bufinefs, he became a dramatic writer, after the manner of Racine, whom he ftu- died to imitate, but could not rival; and -his performances owed their fuccefs in a great degree to the aGting of Baron, and a due attention to flege cfleG&t. The fubje& of the moft popular was Cleopatra. A farce entitled ‘* Les Carrofles d’Orleans,’’ maintained its place at the theatre. In 1687 La Chapelle became fecretary to the prince of Conti, and he was difpatched by his patron to Switzerland on bulinefs of impertance to his houfe. Hewas alfo employed by the king on public affairs ; and he gave evidence of his patriot- ~ ifm and political knowledge in a feries of “ Letters from a Swifs to a Frenchman, on the true Interefts of the Powers at War,” the objeét of which was to difluade Europe from its league againtt the French monarch. Asa member of the French academy, into which he was admitted in 1688, and in the chair at its public fittings, which he often occu- pied, he condu@ed himfelf fo as to gain applaufe. Although he incurred the difpleafure of Defpreaux, who was a formi- cable adverfary, he was fo well {upported as to efcape in- jury; and his private conduét was inch as to conciliate ge- neral elteem. He died at Paris in 1723, at the age of 68 years. He wrote, befides the works above mentioned, “© Aillorical Memoirs of the Life of Armand Bourbon, Prince de Conti,” printed in 1699: and the ** Loves of Ca- tellusand Tibullus,” forming 2 feparate works, the bafis of which are the fats and fentiments detailed by thofe poets. D’Alembert, Hift. des Memb. de Acad. Fr. Cuaperte Agnon; La, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of Puy-de-Dome; 5 miles N. of Ambert. Cuapecte d’Angillon, La, a town of France, in the department of the Cher, and chef place of a canton in the diltri& of Sancerre; 16 miles N. of Bourges. The place contains 531, and the caaton 4238 inhabitants; the terri- tory includes 315 kiliometres and 5 communes. Cuaretre dubry, La, atown of France in the depart- ment of the Maine and Loire, 8 miles S. of St. Florent. Cuaretre Bafe, La, a town of France in the depart- ment of the Lower Loire ; 9 miles N. E. of Nantes. Cuarevve-LEgalite, La, atown of France, in the depart- ment of the Seine and Marne, and chief place of a canton in the diftri& of Fontainebleau. ‘The place contains 833 and the canton 6920 inhabitants. The territory compre- hends 235 kiliometres and 20 communes. : CHAPELLE Ga A Caarence la Lrirée, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Ille and Vilaine, and diltri€t of Vitré; 14 league E. of Vitrée. ; Cuaretre fur Erdre, La, a town of France, in the department of the Lower Loire, and chief place of a canton in the diftrict of Nantes ; 5 miles N. of Nantes. The place contains 1097 and the canton 7913 inhabitants: the terri- tory includes 924 kiliometres and 6 communes. CuareLre de Guinchay, La, a town of France, in the department of the Saone and Loire, and chief place of a , canton in the diftrict of Macon; 2 leagues S. of Macon, _ The place contains 1376 and the'canton $176, inhabitants : the territory comprehends 774 kiliometres, and twclve - communes. Cuapecce la Moche, La, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Mayenne ; 44 leagues N.W. of Vilaine. Cuarerre fur Oreufe, La, a town of France, in the department of the Youne ; 2 leagues S. of Sens. Cuarirce St. Laurent, La, a town of France in the department of the Two Sevres; 11 mtles N.W. of _ Parthenay. ; Craretre St Mefnin, La, a town of Trance in the department of Loiret, and chief place ef a canton, in the difri& of Orleans ; 3 miles W. of Orleans. Cuarecece Tailliferet, a town of France, in the depart- ment of theCreufe ; 14 league S. of Gueret. Cuarevre La Thircuil, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Two Sevres, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrict of Paithenay; 4% leagues W.S.W. of Parthenay. Cuarevre en Vercors, La, a town of France, in the department of the Dréme, and chief place of a canton in the diltri& of Die; 13 miles N. of Die. The place con- tains 1326 and the canton 4534 inhabitants; the territory includes 155 kiliometres and five communes. CHAPELLING, in Seamanfbip, is bringing a fhip to the fame tack fhe was previoufly on, when in a light breeze of wind, and clofe-hauled, fhe had been taken a-back, either through a tudden fhift of wind, or want of attention or fill in the perfon at the helm. This is ufually done, by inftantly bracing fharp rovnd the head fails, and keeping faft the jib and ftay-fail theets. CHAPELNESS, in Geography, a cape of Scotland, on the coait of the county of Fife, in the Firth of Forth; 13 mile W. of Elienefs. CHAPELRY, Capfellania, is ufed for a certain precinét belonging to a chapel, having the fame relation to it that a arifh has to achurch. CHAPERON, Cuareronne, or CHAPEROON, pro- perly fignifies a bonnet garnithed with a fort of hood, or covering of the head, having a tail hanging down in a point behind, anciently worn both by men and women, the nobles, and the populace, and afterwards appropriated to the doétors ; and licentiates in colleges, &c. It was worn of _ different {tuffs divided into two colours. During the time ofthe famous league, which terminated with the acceffion ~ of Henry of Navarre to the crown of France, the different, parties made themfelves known and diflinguifhed by the colours of their Chaperons. And the fame fort of diftinc- tion took place during the great difputes between the Dukes _ of Orleans, Bourgogne, and Armagnac. Hence the name paffed to certain little fhields, afd other l funeral devices, placed on the foreheads of the horfes that _ drew the hearfes in pompous funerals, and which are ftill called chaperacns, or JSoafferoons 5 becaufe fuch devices were _ originally faltened on the chaperons, or hoods, worn by ~ thofe horfes with their other coverings of fate.’ C Aya Cuareron ofa bit mouth, in the Manege, is only ufed for {catch-mouths, and all others that are not cannon-mouths, fignifying the end of the bit that joins to the branch juft by the banquet. In featch-mouths the chaperon is round, but in others it is oval: and the feme part that in featch and other mouths is called chaperon, is in cannon-mouths called Sronceat, See Birr. CHAPETE, or Cuarrorte, in Ancient Geography, a ftrong place of Afia, in Mefopotamia. CHAPETONES, a denomination diftingwifing thofe Spaniards who arrive from Europe to America, and who are the firt perfoas in the country with refpeét to rank and power. As the Chapetones are raifed to fuch preeminence in America by the confpicuous predileGion of the court, they look down with difdain on every other order of men, The interior traffic of every colony, as well as any trade which is. permitted with the neighbouring provinces, and with Spain itfelt, are carried on chiefly by the Chapetones who, as the recompence of their induliry, amafs immenfe wealth ; while the Creoles, funk in floth, are fatisficd with the revenues of their paternal cates. CHAPITEAU ad’une piece d' Aviillerie, is compoled of two finall pieces of boards or planks joiied together in fuch manner, as to form the fynre of atent, or of a roof witha pitch, and ferves to cover the vent or touch-hole of a piece of Ordnance. CHAPITERS, in ArchitcGure, the crowns or upper parts of a pillar, See Carira Cuarirers with mouldings, ave thofe which have no orna- ments, as the Tuican and Doric. CuHarirers with feulptures, are thofe which are adorned with leaves and carved works, the finelt of which is of the Corinthian order. Cuapirers, in Lazu, were anciently a fummary of fuch matters as were to be inquired of, or prefented before jufti- ces in eyre, juftices of affize, or of the peace, in their feffions. Chapiters are now taken for articles delivered by the mouth of the juflice, in his charge to the inqueft : though it appears from Braéton and Britton, they were formerly written exhortations given by the jultices for the good ob- fervation of the laws, and the king’s peace; firlt read in open court, then delivered in writing to the grand inquett : which the grand jury, or inqueft, were bkewife to aniwer to upon their oaths, either affirmatively or negatively. CHAPLAIN properly figniliesa perfon provided witha chapel ; or who difcharges the duty thereof. Cuapvain is alfo uted for an ecclefiattical perfon, in the houfe of a prince, or a perfon of quality, who officiates in their chapels, &c. : With us there are forty-eight chaplains to the king, who wait four cach month, preach in the chapel, read the fervice to the family, and to the king in his private oratory, and fay grace in the abfence of the clerk of the clofet. While in waiting they have a table, and attendance, but no falary. An archbifhop may retain eight chaplains; a duke or a bifhop, fix ; a marquis or earl, five; a vifcount, four; a baron, knight of the Garter, or lord chancellor, three; a duchefs, marchionefs, countefs, baronefs, the treafurer and comptroller of the king’s houfe, the king’s fecretary, dean of the chapel, almoner, and matter of the rolls, two each ; the chief juftice of the king’s bench, one: all of whom may purchafe a licence or difpenfation, and take two benefices with cure of fouls. Stat. 22 Hen. VIII. C. 18. Every judge of the king’s bench and common pleas, the 302 chancellor GHIA chancellor and chief baron of the exchequer, the king’s attorney and folicitor-general, may each of them have one, entitled to one benefice with cure, and non-refident. Stat, 25 Hen. VIIL. c. 16. ; And alfo the groom of the ftole, treafurer of the king’s chamber, and chancellor of the duchy of Lancafter, may retain cach one chaplain. Stat. 33 Hen. VIII.c. 28. A chaplain mult be retained by letters teftimonial under hand and feal, or he is not a chaplain within the ftatute: and a chaplain thus qualified may hold his livings, though difmiffed from attendance, during life; nor can a nobleman, though he may retain other chaplains in his family, qualify any of them to hold pluralitics whilit the firfl are living. 4 Rep. oO. The firft chaplains are faid to have been thofe inftituted . by the ancient kings of France, for preferving the chape, or cape, with the other relics of St. Martin, which the kings kept in their palace, and carried out with them to the war. The firft chaplain is faid to have been Gul. de Mefmes, chaplain to St. Louis, Previous to and at the laft war each regiment had its chaplain. Regimeatal chaplains were afterwards reduced and put on half-pay during the war, There remained however on the eftablifhiment, a chaplain general, who directed the performance of cherch fervice, throughout che army. Cuaprain in the order of Malta, is ufed for the fecond rank, or clafs, in that order; otherwife called diaco. The knights. make the firlt clafs, and the chaplains the {econd. Cuaprains of the pope, are the anditors, or judges, of caufes in the facred palace; fo called, becaufe the pope an- ciently gave audience in his chapel, for the decifion of cafes fent from the feveral parts of Chriitendom. He hither fammoned as affeflors the moft learned lawyers of his time ; and they hence acquired the appellation of capellani, chaplains. : It is from the decrees formerly given by thefe, that the body of decreta!s is compofed: their number pope Sixtus IV. reduced to twelve. Some fay, the fhrines of relics were covered with a kind Of tent, cape, or capella, 1. @. little cape; and that hence the priefls, who had the care of them, were called chap- jains.. In time thefe relics were repofited in alittle church, either contiguous to a larger, or feparate from it; and the fame name, capella, which was given to the cover, was alfo given to the place where it was lodged; and hence the prieft who fuperintended it came to be cailed chaplain. - CHAPLET, or Cuarecer, a firing of beads, ufed in the Romith church, to keep account of the number of Pa- ter-nofters and Ave-Marys, to be rehearfed in honour of God and the Holy Virgin. Chaplets are otherwile called Pater-noflers. is a chaplet of fifteen decads of Ave-Marys. Menage derives the word from chaprau, hat ; becaufe of the refemblance the thing bears to a hatband, or chaplet of rofes, chapeau de rofes. The modern Launs call it capeilina; the Italians more frequently corona. Larrey and P. Viret alcribe the firft invention of the chaplet to Peter the Hermit, well known in the hiltory of the croifades. There is a chaplet of our Saviour, confilling of 33 heads, in honour of his 33 years living on earth, initituted by father Michael, the Camaldulian. The Orientals have a kind of chaplets which they call chains, and which they ufe in their prayers, rehearfing one of the perfeCtions of God on each link or bead. The A ROSARY C Ha great mogul is faid to have 15 of thefe chains, all of pres cious ftenes, fome diamonds, others rubies, pearls, &c. The Turks have likewife chaplets, which they bear in the hand, or hang at the girdle: but father Dandini obferves that they difler from thefe ufed by the Romanifts, in that they are all uf the fame bignefs, and have not that diftinc- tion into decads; though they confift of fix decads or 60 beads. He adds, that the muffu'men have prefently ran over the chaplet, the prayers being extremely fhort, as con- taining only thele words, Praife io God; or thefe, Glory ta God, tor each bead. - Befides the common chaplet, they have likewife a larger _ one, confilting of 100 beads, where there is fome diitinétion, as being divided by little threads into three parts, on one of which they repeat go times Scubhan Allah, 1. e. God is worthy to be praifed; on another, Lllamb Allah, Glery be to God; and on the third, A/a echer, God is great. Thefe thrice 30 times making only co; to complete the number 100, they add other prayers for the beginning of the chap- - let. He adés, that the Mahometan chaplet appears to have had its rife from the mea heracath, or hundred benediaionsy which the Jews are obliged to repeat daily, and which we find in their prayer-books; the Tews and Mahometans hav- ing this in common, that they feldom do any thing without pronouncing fome laud or benediction. Crapvet, or CHAPeLet, in Archite@ure, a little mould- ing, cut or carved into round beads, pearls, olives, or the like. A chaplet, in reality, is little elfe but a baguette en- riched with feulpture. See Bacuetrs. CHAPMAN, Georce, in Biography, an early Englith dramatic writer, and the firft tranflator of all the works of Homer, was born in 1557, and partly educated at Trinity College, Oxford, where he was diflinguifhed for claffical erudition, From Oxford he removed at an early age to the Metropolis, and cultivated an acqvaintance with the wits of that period, Shakefpear, Spenfer, Marlow, Daniel, &c. Ia 1595, he publickly commenced author, by printing a poem entitled ** Ovid’s Banquet of Sauce,” &c. Before this time he mult have been engaged in his tranflation of Homer, as his feven books of the Iliad appeared in 1596. fifteen books were printed in 1600, and the whole poem, though publifhed without date, appears by the dedication to prizce Henry, not to have been later than, 1603. Betore this pericd he was a writer of comedy ; and for feveral years he fupplied the public with dramatic pieces, both tragic and comic, many of which were popular. He was a joint writer with Joufon, and rivalled him in fame. In 1614, he pub- lified his verfion of the Qdyfley, and foon after completed his tranflation of all Homer’s works by the Batrachyoma- omachia and Hymns. He alfo tranflated Mufeus and He- fiod; but fome doubt exilts whether the latter verfion was ever printed. Many other works were produced by him in the courfe of his laborious life, which terminated in 1634, atthe age of 77 years. A monument of Grecian architecture was ereGted to him by his friend, Inigo Jones, in the church of Sc. Giles’s in the Fields, which was deftroyed with that edifice. Chapman was inuch elteemed in his time, both for his poctical ard moral character: and though he may now be ranked among our extinét poets, his merit in introducing Homer to the knowledge of his countrymen ought ever to refcue his name from oblivion. His tranflations of that poet, though rude and incorre&, and rendered tirefome by a protracted meafure of lines of 14 fyllables, are nor deftitute of fpirit, and afford feveral examples of the naturalization of CHA the Homeric compounded epithets, which have been happily employed by his {ucceffors. Waller, as Dryden fays, could never read Chapman’s Homer without tran{port; and Pope has derived advantage from the attentive ftudy of it. His critical additions furnifh no favourable fpecimen of an accurate acquaintance with the Greek language. Biog. Brit. Cuarman, Enmunpb, an eminent furgeon, and ac- coucheur, had the merit of giving the firft delineation and ac- count of the obftetric forceps, invented by the Chamberlens, more than 60 years after their being firft ufed by that fa- mily. Of this intelligent and ingenious practitioner, we have only been able to learn, that he was born about the end of the feventeenth, orthe beginning of the laft century, and after being well inflruéted in his profeffion, in fome neighbouring county, where he is {aid to have practifed a few years, he came to London, and foon diftinguithed himfelf by his fupe- rior fkill and adroitnefs, in conduéting difficult labours. The management he adopted confilted in turning the child and delivering by the feet, when it prefented any other part than the head to the uterine orifice, and in fome cafes, when the head was the prefenting part ; and in ufing the forceps in many difficult births, in which it had been ufual before to deliver with the crochet. The Chamberlens, to whom, by general confent, the in- vention of the forceps is attributed, guarded the fecret with fo mich caution, that they avoided callirg it an inftrument, leaft it fhould lead to a difcovery. ‘* My father, brothers, and myfelf, Dr. Hugh Chamberlen fays, (preface to his tranflation of Mauriceau’s Midwifery) ‘ have attained to, and long praétifed a way of delivering women,” &c. T'rom Mauriceau we learn, that thefe fortunate deliver es were at- chieved by means of an inftrument, but of what kind he was not able to inform us, and it remained concealed, or at the Jeaft no account of it was given to the public, until Chapman publifhed his ‘* Treatife on the Improvement of Midwifery, chiefly with regard to the Operation, with Cafes,” Svo. 1732, that is, nearly feventy years from the time they were firit uled by the Chamberlens. Chapman’s Treatile is a work of con- fiderable merit. It contains a delineation and defeription of the forceps, in which he had made confiderable improve- ments, with an ample account of the cales, in which they might be advantageoufly employed. Sometimes, he tells us, be made ufe of a fillet, but on the whole, he prefers the forceps. He condemms the practice of pufhing back.the os coccygis, in difficult births, which was recommended by Deventer, as well as the opinion, fo ftrongly infifted on by that writer, that labour is frequently rendered tedious and difficult, by the uterus being placed obliquely in the pelvis. Chapman was alfo author ot a fmall work, ‘a Reply to Douglas’s fhort Account of the State of Midwifery in Lon- don,”’ 8vo. 1737, in which he ably defends the caufe-of the men-midwives (or mid-men, as Douglas calls them) againtt the fevere ftrictures of their adverfary. Haller Bib. Cli- rurg. CHAPOTENSIS, in Writers of the Middle Age, a kind of coin. We do not find any certain account of its value, Du-Cange inclines to think it the fame as the Cuatus. CHAPPAR, a courier of the king of Perfia, who carries difpatches from court to the provinces, and from the pro- vinces to the court. The word, in the original Perfian, fignifies courier. The potts, M. Tavernier tells us, are not eftablifhed and regulated in Perfia as among us: when the court fends out a chappar, the fophi’s mafter of the horfe furnifhes him with a ingle horfe, how long foever his journey be, and aman to sun after him: when his horfe is weary, he takes that of the C HA firft horfeman he mects with, who dares not make the leaft refufal, and fends his own home by the man who follows him. As for the mafter of the new horfe he has taken, he mult run, or at leaft, fend after the chappar, to retake him, when the chappar difmounts fome other horfeman to change him. CHAPPE, in Heraldry, the partition of an efcutcheon, by two lines drawn from the middle point in chief to the two hafe angles of the fhield. The feétions of the fides are to be of a different colour from the reft. Mackenzie calls it, 4 chief party per bend dexier, or finifler, or both. CHAPPE D’AUTEROCHE, Joun, in Biography, a French aftronomer, was born at Mauriac, in Upper Au- vergne, in 1728. His parents, who were perfons of rank and opulence, afforded him every advantage of education, ard placed him firft in the Jefuits’ College at Mauriac, and afterwards removed him to the College of Louis le Grand at Paris. In his earlieft years he manifefted a tafte for ma- thematics and defign ; and employed his leifure hours in drawing plans and making calculations. In acquiring the elements of mathematics und aftronomy, he was affilted by a Carthufian, named don Germain; and to the latter of thefle fludics he was fo ardently devoted, that he {pent a confi- derable part of fuch nights as were favourable for his pur- pofe in obferving the heavenly bodies. Father de la Tour, who was then prefident of the college, conceived a high opinion of his talents and performances, and recommended him to M. Caflini, as a young perfon who deferved peculiar encouragement. Accordingly, this celebrated aftronomer employed him in drawing a general map of France, and in the French tranflation of Halley’s tables, which were pub- lithed, with confiderable additions, in 1752. In the follow- ing year, he was engaged by the French government in furveying the county of Bitche in Lorrain, and in afcer- taining: the true pofition of that town, in order to complete the Jocal geography of the diflrié& to which it belonged. Having accomphthed this undertaking to the fatisfaGtion of his emplovers, he was elected a member of the Royal Aca- demy at Paris, and in 1750, he was appointed affittant attro- nomer in the room of M. Lalande, who had been promoted to the rank of affociate. In 1760, he was occupied in making obfervations on the two comets, which then appeared, and in forming, by means of his obfervations, a theory of their orbits. He communicated to the academy at the ame time, an account of the zodiacal light, and of the au- rora_ borealis, which he had a favourable opportunity for obferving. At this period he prepared for an expeditiar to Tobolfls in Siberia, in order to obferve the tranfit of Venus over the fun, which was to happen on the 6th of June, 1761; and after encomntering many difficulties, and purfuing aroute of about S00 leagues from Peterfburgh, arrived at the dettined place of obfervation on the roth of April. M. Ifmaeloff, the governor of the town, to whom he pre- fented the order of the emprefs, received him with refpeet, and afforded him every neceffary aflitance in accomplifbing the obje& of his expedition. He loft no time in con{truét- ing an obfervatory, and-in fixing and adjutting his inflru- ments ; and by means of a folar and lunar eclipfe, he was ennabled accurately to fettle the longitude of the place. His obfervations of the trafit, which were made with great precilion, in the prefence of M. Ifmaeloff, count Poufchkin, and the archbifhop of ‘Tobolfk, were {peedily tranfmitted both to Peterfourgh and Paris. ‘The feverity of the climate, which injured the abbe Chappe’s health, and other circum- ftances,, induced him to haiten his return; and having vi- sited Cy Era fited the mines at Catharineburgh, of which he has given an interelting account, he proceeded to Cafan, and at length, after a journey of much fatigue and danger, arrived at Peterf- burgh. Declining the offer which the emprefs made him of the place that had been occupied by Mr.de Lifle, he returned to France in 1762, after an abfence of two years. In the courfe of his peregrination to and from Tobolik, he availed himfelf of fach opportunities as occurred for inveltigating the nature of the foil and its produétions; the rivers, moun- tains, volcanoes, animals, and mincrals; the manners aad cuftoms of its inhabitants ; and for colleQing fuch particu- lars of information as might ferve to improve an acquaint- ance with the extenfive empire of Ruffia. Upon his return he applied with diligence to the arrangement of the various materials which he had collected; and from thefe he formed a narrative of his travels, iliuttrated with charts and feveral engravings of different kinds, and comprehended in a work, which appeared in 1768, in 3 vols. ato. He was no lefs induftrious in the difcharge of his official duties, as afiiltant aftronomer. In the profpedt of the tranfit of the fua in June 1769, it was reafonably fappofed, that it might be advan- tageouflly obferved in the north-weft part of Murope ; but it was neceflary to obtain a feries of obfervations to the fouth-weit, at the extreme point of California, viz. at Cape St. Lucar. ‘Che abbé Chappe offered his fervices, and re- pairing to Cediz, fet fail in a {mall veffel manned by eight perfons only, for Vera Cruz; and from thence procezded to Mexico, and reached California 19 days before the com- puted day of obfervation. At this time an alarming dif- order prevailed in the diltrict of California, where he pro- pofed to make his obfervations, and he was advifed to re- move out of the reach of danger. But his zeal for the promotion of {cience was fuch, that before his departure from France, he replied to thofe who apprized him of the infalubrity of the climate, ‘¢ That if he were fure of dying the day after making the propofed obfervation, that aflurance fhould not deter him.’’? Accordingly, he determined to remain at the village of St. Jofeph, where he completed his obfervations in the moft fatisfactory manner. Three days after the tranfit, he was attacked with the diforder, which had before feized his companions; but his refolution was in- vincible. On the 1Sch of June, when he was thought to be in a ftate of convalcfcence, he infifled on fittingy up to obferve a lunar eclipfe, and this occafioned a relapfe. During the progrefs of his diforder, ard as it approached to the fatal crifis, whit he deciared his conviction that he fhould not furvive, he alfo exprefied his fatisfaction, that the objeG& ot his miffion had been accomplithed before his death, which happened Augult 1%, 1769, in his 42d year. His papers were tranfmitted by M. Pauli, a French engineer, the only furvivor of this expedition, to the French Academy, and afterwards publithed under the direction of the younger Caffini. The Abbé Chappé was of a lively, cheer- ful, focial difpofition, upright in his views, and candid in his condu@: cevoted to the purfuit of {cience, and in a great degree regardlefs of all confiderations of private interelt. The brict hiftory above given evinces his unconquerable firmnefs and intrepidity. CHAPPEL, or Cuaper. See CuHarer. Cuaprer, Wittian, in Biography, a pious and learned prelate, was born in 1582 at Lexington in Nottinghambhire, and educated at Chrilt’s college, in the univerfity of Cam- bridge, of which he became fellow in 1607. Having no rof{peét of advancement, he continued at college and devoted himfelf to the bufinefs of tuition, for which his talents, dif- pofition, and general character peculiarly qualified him. As a difputant he was {kilful and formidable ; and it is faid that CHA on occafion of an aét performed when king James vifited the univerfity in 1624, he puthed his refpondent, Dr. Roberts of Trinity college, fo hard, that, unable to maintain the conteft, he fainted away. ‘The king attempted to fupport him, but without fuccefs ; upon which he declared himfelf happy that fo redoubtable a champion was at the fame time fo good a fubjeét. By the intereit of Laud, bifhop of Lon- con, he was promoted, in 1633, to the deanery of Cafhel in Ireland ; and to the provofthhip of Trinity college, Dublin, in 1634. Subfervient to the views of government in oppof- ing that puritanical {pirit, which very much prevailed in both kingdoms, he conducted himfelf with that temper and fteadi- nefs of difcipline which anfwered the purpofe of his appoints ment ; and in recompence of the fervices which he perform- ed, he was promoted, in 1638, to the bithopricks of Cork, Cloyne, and Rofs, and was aliowed aifo to hold his provoft- fhip till the year 1640. Apprchenfive, however, of ‘the gathering ftorm, he wifhed toexchange his Irifh preferments for fome {mail bifhopric in England. In 1641, articles of impeachment were exhibited againft him before the lords, to which he was unable to give a fatisfa€tory reply ; and that his conduG, whatever mizht be the general tenour of it, was in fome degree cenfurable, we may reafonably prefume from the circumftance of his having for his two warmett ad- verfarics primate Uther and Dr. Maflers, bifhop of Meath, — and alfo from his avowed complaifance for his great patrons, Laud and Wentworth. At length he obtained leave to embark for England; but at Tenby, foon after his ar- rival, he was committed to gaol, on account of his having left Ireland without licence, and detained in cuftody for feven weeks. His misfortunes were further aggravated by the lofs of the thip in which molt of his property and his books were embarked. Thus reduced almoft to a ftate of indigence, he retired to his native county; and having afterwards fixed his refidence at Derby, he died there in 1649. Although he was a man of acknowledged learning, his publications were few. His ** Methodus Concionandi,”’? was printed at London in 1648, Svo., and an Englifh tranflation, entitled, « The true Method of preaching,’”? appeared in 1656. His other works were ‘* Tne Ufe of Holy Scripture,” Lond. 1653, 8vo., und his own life “ Vita Gulielmi Chappel,”? twice printed. Biog. Brit. Cuareet Hitt, in Geography, a polt-town of America, in Orange county, N. Carolina, feated on « branch of New- hope creek, which difcharges itfelf into the N.W. branch of Cape Fear river. This fpot has been fele&ted for the feat of the univerfity of North Carolina, which was opened for (tudents in 1796. ‘This town is placed on a beautiful eminence, and commands an exterfive profpe@ of the fur- rounding country; 12 miles S. by E. of Hillfborough, and 472 S.W. of Philadelphia. N. lat. 35° 40’. W. long. ore ° 6', é CHAPPES, in Geography, 2 town of France, in the de- partment of the Aube, and diftiG of Bar-Sur-Seine ; 10 miles S.E. of Troyes. Cuarpes, or Cuares, in Military Language, are barrels that are made ule of for covering others filed with powder, the better to preferve it, and to prevent any of it from being loft by pafling or finding its way through between the ftaves of the barrels containing it when they are moved, fhaken, or jolted. The name of chappe or chape, is alfo given toa plailtering of cement, which is fpread all over the vaults of fouterrains, bomb-proofs, and magazines, to prevent any moifture or humidity from penetrating. This appellation is likewife given to a compolition of earth, horfe-dung, and hair, that is employed for covering the mould of a cannon or mortar. 7 CHAP- L CHA CHAPPOY, in Geography, a town of France in the depart- ment cf Sura; 24 leagues 5.S.E. of Salins. CHAPRARAL, a town of South America, in the country of Chili, and jurifdiétion of Coquimbo. CHAPTALIA, in Botany, Ventenat. Sze Perpicium. CHAPTER, Capfitulum; a community of ecclefiaftics be- longing to a cathedral, or collegiate church. ~The chief or head of the chapter, is the dean; the body confiits of canons, or prebendaries, &c. See Dean. The chapter has now no longer any fhare in the admini- ‘ftration of the diocefe, during the hfe of the bifhop ; but fucceeds to the whole ep'fcopal jurifdiGion during the va- cancy of the fee. The origin of the chapters is derived from hence, that anciently the bithops had their clergy reffding with them in ~ their cathedrals, to affilt them in the performance of facred offices, and the government of the church; and even after parochial fettlements were made, there was ftill a body of clerks who continued with the bifhop, and were indeed his family, maintained: out of hisincome. After the monattic life grew into requelt, many bifhops chofe monks rather than feculars for their attendants. Thefe bodies, either of monattics or fecvlars, then had the fame privilege of chufing the bifhop, and being h's council, which the whole clergy of the diccefe had before; but, by degrees, their dependence on the bifhop grew lefs and Icfs ; and then they had diftin@ parcels of the bifhop’s eftate af- figned them for their maintenance ; till at laft, the bithop had little more left than the power of vifiting them. On the other hand, thefe capitular bodies by degrees alfo loft their privileges ; particularly that of chufing the bifhop, for which the kings of England had a long ftruggle with the pope: but at laft Henry VIII. got this power velted in the crown; and now the deans and chapters have only the fhadow of it. The fame prince likewife expelled the monks from the cathedrals, and placed fecular canons in their room ; thofe he thus regulated, are called deans and chapters of the new foundation ; fuch are Canterbury, Wincheiter, Worcetter, Ely, Carliile, Durham, Rochelter and Norwich: fuch alfo are the chapters of the four new fees, of Peterborough, Oxford, Gloucefter, and Briftol. Cuarrer is alfo applied to the affemblies held by reli- gious and military orders, for deliberating on their affairs, and regulating their difcipline. Papias fays they are fo called, gudd capitula ibi legantur. The eftablifhment of gencral chapters of religious orders is owing to the Ciftercians, who held the firft in 1116, and were foon followed by the other orders. Cuaprer is alfo ufed for a divifion of a book; contrived for keeping the matters treated thereon more feparate, clear, and difting. The ancients were unacquainted with the divifion of books into chapters and {cétions. Papias fays, the name chapter, caput, arofe hence, quod fit altcrius fententia caput, or quad capiat totam fummam. St. Augultine compares chapters ' to inns, inafmuch’ as thefe refreih the reader, as thofe the traveller. The divifion of the Bible into chapters is attributed by fome to Stephen Langton, archbifhop of Canterbury, in the reigns of king Johnand Henry III. But it was really done by Cardinal Hugo, who flourifhed about the year 1240, the author of the firit Scripture Concordance, with a view of rendering this work an ufeful index to the Scripture. Sce Bisve and Concorpance. Thechapters were again fub- divided, not into verfes, but by the letters A, B, C, D, E, F, G, placed in the margin at an equal diftance from each CHA other, according to the lenzth of the chapters. In fome, all the feven letters were ufed ; in others fewer, as the length of the chapters required. In 1445, Rebbi Nathan, a fa- mous Rabbi among the Wellern Jews, finifhed a Concord- ance to the Hebrew Bible, in the manner of Hugo’s above mentioned; and introduced the divifion of the Hebrew Bible into chapters: he alfo in:proved on his plan, by ufing the ancient divifion into veries, and by numbering them, fixing the numerical letters in the margin at every fifth verfe. Athias, in his edition of the Bible, 1661 and 1667, intro- duced the Indian figures, and placed them at every verfe. Vatablus publifhed a Latin Bible, ia which the fame kind of divifion was adopted ; though fome fay this divifion and diltintion by numbers were firft ufed in R. Ste- phens’s Latin Bible, publifhed at Paris, 1557. R. Ste- phers made the fame divifion of the chapters of the New Teftament into verfes, for the fake of a concordance to the Greek Feftament, which was printed by his fon H. Stephens. Cuaprers, the three, is a phrafe famous in Eccle/ia/fical Hiffory, fignifying a volume publifhed by Vheodoret, an ad- herent of Neftorius, agaiult St. Cyril; confilting of a letter of Ibas pricft of Nedeffa, to Maris a bithop of Perfia; of extracts from the works of Diodorus of Tarfus, and Theo- dore of Mopfuettia, wherein the fame doétrines were taught, that were contended for by Nettorius ; and of two pieces of Theodoret, the one again{t the council of Ephefus, the other againft the anathemas of St. Cyril. Thefe make the famous three chapters; which were firft condemned by an edict of Juftinian, A. D. 544. and fince by various councils, and many popes. CHAPTREL. See Imposr. CHAPUZEAYD, Samuet, in Biography, a native of Geneva, who became preceptor to William III. king of England, and afterwards governor of the pages of George, duke of Brunfwick- Lunenburg, in which fituation he died “old, blind, and poor,” at Zell, in 1701. Of his various works in hiltory, politics, and belles lettres, we hall mention his “ Defcription of Lyons,” 1656; ‘An Account of Savoy ;” ‘ L’Europe vivant,”? or political ftate of Europe, ia 1666; ‘* Prefent State of the electoral Houfe of Bavaria,” 1673; ‘ Le Theatre Francois,’ 16743 feveral comedies under the title of * La Mufe enjouée, ou le The- atre comique.”? His arrangement and publication of Ta- vernier’s voyages and travels, firft printed in French, 1675, qto, may be reckoned among his molt uftful labours. In 1694, he publifhed the plan of an ‘* Hiltorical,Geozraphical, and Philofophicai D tionary ,”? to which he had devoted 15 years ; but it never appeared. He complained that Moreri had made great ufe of his MSS. in compiling his own dii- onary. Gen. Biog. easusureayee in Geography, atown of Perfia, in the province of Segeltan, now in ruins; 90 miles N.E. of Za- reng. CHAR, a town of Arabia; 140 miles N.W. of Mecca. —Alfo, a river of France, which ruus into the Boutonne, near St. Jean d’Angeli. Cuar, ia Ichthyology, See Sarmo alpinus, and Cuarr, or CHARRE. Cuar de Neptune, in Natural Hiflory, one of the nume- rous fynonymous names of Maprerora muricata, which fee. Cuar of lead, denotes the quantity of thirty pigs. CHARA, in Afronomy, the name of onc of the Canes venatict. Cuara,in Botany, (fuppofed to be fancifully derived from xespw, becaufe, fays Profeffor Martyn, it is the joy or de- light of the water; or rather, if it be worth while to add one uncertain conjecture to another, becaufe it delights in “ia ter CHA ter,) Linn. gen. 567. Schreb. 1397. Juff. 18. Vent. vol. 2.91. Gert. 528. Clafs and order, eryptogamia alge, Linn. Sp. Pl. Afonecia monandria, Linn. Syit. Nat, JMonandria monogynia, Smith Flor, Brit. Nat. Ord. Jnundate, Linn. Naiades, Jul. Allied to Filices. Vent. Gen.Ch. Male. Cal.none. Cor. none. Stam. Filament none; anther globular, projeing before the germ, and placed rather beneath it, at the outlide of its calyx, one- celled, not opening. Female. Cad. Perianth four-leaved; leaflets awl-fhaped, unequal, permanent; fometimes none. Cor. none. Pi/?. Germ top-fhaped, {pirally ftriated ;_ ftyle none; {tigmas five, fimple. Per. Berry ovate-oblong, {pirally ftriated, one-celled, containing the feds within a very flender crult, Sveds feveral, very fmail, {pherical. Schreb. Ef. Ch. Male. Cal. and Cor..none; anther before the germ, beneath. Fem. Cal. four-leaved. Cor. none. Stigmas five. Whole herb conttantly immerfed in water. Obf. Authors are much at variance with refpe& to the ftruGure of this ower. Haller and Gertner are of opi- nion, that the ycllow:fh or red globules which are found near the germs, cannot an{wer the purpofe of the anther. “Of what ufe, inquires the latter author, can be a cellular anther which never opens? What effeét can be produced by pol- len which is not difperfed, and which, if it were, difperfed, is fo light and oleaginous, that it cannot remain on the germ, but muft inflanily rife to the furface of the water? It is therefore fufficiently evident, that thefe globules are rot real anthers; but are cither mere air-veflels defigned to enable the plant to float on the water, or abortive germs filled with unimpregnated feeds.” See' Gert. de frué. vol. i. In- trod. p. 34. Dr. Smith acknowledges that as the plant flowers under water, there can be no wonder if the nature of its anther and pollen be obfcure; but he has not a doubt with refpe& to the part in queflion being a proper anther, and recommends to further inquiry the opinion of the very able Mr. Correa, who thinks that the impregnation may be performed within the fem, by a clandeftine communication between the anther and germen, and that the five leaves which crown the germen, are not (as has been fuppofed) the fligma, but the tips of a five-leaved calyx clofely enfolding that part in a fpiral manner. The analogy of Hippuris, to which this genus is nearly allied, induces him, alfo, to con- ceive that the flower is really a naked one, and that the four ieaflets which have been thought to conftitute the calyx of the female flower, and which are fometimes wanting, are no other than proper leaflets of the plant. Under this per- ‘Suafion he has removed the genus to Monandria Monogynia, with the following effential chara&ter: Cal. none. Cor, none. Anther feffile. Style none, Berry with many feeds. See Eng. Bot. 336, and Flor. Brit. vol. 1. p. 4. Gaertner calls the fruit a one-celled, many feeded nut; and accord- ingly thus deferibes that of the moft common [pecies. * Pericarp, a nut cloathed with a membranous integument, which never fplits or feparates fpontaneoufly from the nut; fhell ovate-globular, cruitaceous, brittle, rather thick confi- dering the fize of the nut. Szeds bedded in a pale, friable, herbaceo-flefhy fubitance, which fills the whole cavity of the nut.” But from this defcription the fruit is properly a Sp. x. C. vulgaris, Linn. Sp. Pl.2. Lam. x. Mart. 2. Hedwig Theor. tab. 32,33- Eng. Bot. tab. 336. Lam. lll. Pl. 742. fig. 1. (Equifetum teetidum fub aqua repens; Bauh. Prodr. 25. Ger. emen, 1115.) “Stem without prickles, ftri- ated ; leaves awl-fhaped, jointed.”? Whole herb foetid, brittle, Stem a foot long, thread-fhaped, twifted, Leaves about eightin ~ a whorl, ereét-{preading, acute, compound, channelled above, bearing the flowers. nther naked, feffile, depreffed, ficthy, CPA ‘ in its decay cracking into chinks, Germ furrownded by four leaflets adjoining to the anther, egg-fhaped, five-toothed at the tip. Zerry*with a thickifh bark, This, in common with the other fpecies, is often cloathed with a greyith gritty matter, which has been fuppofed to conflitute part of the plant; but is nothing more than an adventitious incruftation of calcareous earth depofited from the water, which is never found on plants growing in clay-pits or any pure grounds. The plant in its natura! ftate is {mooth and of a bright green colour, and is the C. vulgaris6 of Dr. Smith, and the Chara minor caulibus & iollis teauiffimis of Ray’s Sy- nopfis. .The figure in Englifi Botany was drawn from a {pecimen covered with the calcareous crutt. 2. C. bifpida, Linn. Sp. Fl. 3.* Lam. 2. Mart. 3: Eng. Bot. Fl: 463. Lam. Ill, Pi. 712. fig. 33. (Equifetum f. Hippuris muf- cofus; Pli:k. Alm. tab. 193. fig. 6.) ‘¢ Prickles on the ftem capillary, crowded.”’ Linn. ‘ Stems aud leaves fpinous- hifpid.?? Lam. “ Stem furrowed; leaves awl-thaped, jointed; leaflets whorled; prickles on the item fetaceous, and de- flexed.” Dr. Smith. Habit of the former, but larger; witha jem often five times as thick, rather furrowed than flriated, prickly chiefly on its upper part. &Vowers limilar to thofe of C. vulgaris. 3. C. tomentofa, Linn. Sp. Pl. r. (Equifetum fragile ; Mori. hilt. 3. tab. 29. fig. 4. E: S. Hippuris la- cultris; Pluk. alm. tab. 29. fig. 4.) ‘¢ Prickles of the ftem egg-fhaped.’” The Englifh plants which have been referred to this ipecies by Hudfon, Withering, and Sibthorp, are fuppofed by Dr. Smith to be only a varicty of the preceding. We have fpecimens now before us, gathered many years fince in the outlet of Malham farm, in the Craven diftri& of Yorkfhire, which- appear to us to be the C. tomentola of Linnzus, but the plant is fo mafked by its calcareous crult, that we will not venture to pronounce it {pecifically diflin& from C. hifpida. 4.C. fexi/is, Linn. Sp. 4 Lam. 4. Mart. 4. Eng. Bot. tab. ro70. minor. Lam. Ill. Pl. 742. fig. 2. major. ‘ Joints of the tlem without prickles, tranfparent, broader upwards.” Linn. ‘* Without prickles, even, tranf- parent; leaves cylindrical, obtufe, fomewhat mucronate.” Dr. Smith. Whole plant {mooth, not flriated. There are two varieties figured by Vaillant (AG. Paris. 1719. tab. 3. fig. 8, 9.) one larger and the other fmaller. Specimens of both are before us, both gathered, we believe, in fome part of Yorkfhire ; and it appears to usthat Linnzus formed his fpecific chara¢ter from the former; Dr. Smith his, from the latter. All the {pecies are annual, and grow in ponds and flow ditches, flowering in July and Augult. CHARABASA, in Ancient Geography, a town in Africa Propria, according to Ptolemy. CHARABAUN, or Tsrerison, in Geography, a fea- port town on the north coalt of the ifland of Java, fituated in acountry which produces abundance of rice, fuzar, coffee, pepper, cotton, &c. which is purchafed by the Dutch at a low price: about 130 miles eaft of Batavia, N. lat. 6° 5’. E. long. rog° 4’. CHARABE, or Carase, is fometimes ufed for amber, (which fee) ; as alfo for the juice of the poplar-tree, CHARABEY, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the province of Mazanderan ; 60 mies W. of Afterabat. ; CHARACENE, in Ancient Geography, a country of Afia, being the fouthern diitri& of Sufiana. According to peice it was the territory of the town of Charax, which OF CHARACENI, a denomination given by Pliny to the inhabitants of Charax, on the fouthern coaft of the Tauric Cherfonefus. CHARACINA, a fmall country of Afia in Cilicia, ia which Ptolemy places the town of Fluviopoiis. ; 3 CHARAC- : CHA CHARACITANI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Spain, placed by Plutarch in the Tarragonnefe diftidt. He adds, that they inhabited deep caverns, near the Tagus, into which they retired when they were pillaged by their neigh- bours. CHARACOMA, a town of Laconia, fituated on the road that paffes from Arcadia to Sparta, and to the north of that city. Cwaracoma, a name given by Ptolemy to a town of Arabia Petreaa. Some have denominated it Characomba. CHARACTER, ina general fehfe, fignifies a mark or figure, drawn on paper, metal, ftone, or other matter, with a pen, graver, chiffcl, or other inftrument, to fignify, or de- note any thing. The word is xapuarng; formed from the verb xapuocev, infeulpere, to engrave, imprefs, Se. The various kinds of characters may be reduced to three heads, viz. /iteral charaGers, numeral chara@ers, and abbre- wialions. Cuaracter, literal, is a letter of the alphabet, ferving to indicate fome articulate found, expreflive of fome idea, or conception of the mind. See AuPHABET. Thefe may be divided, with regard to their nature and ufe, into nominal, real, and emblematical. Nominal charaélers are thofe we properly call /e‘ters ; which ferve to exprefs the names of things. See Lerrer. Real chara&ers are thofe that, inftead of names, exprefs things andideas. Zmblematical, or /ymbolical charaders, have this in common with real ones, that they exprefs the things themfelves; but they alfo have this further, that they in fome meafure perfonate them, and exhibit their form: fuch are the hieroglyphics of the ancient Egyptians. See Hir- ROGLYPHIC. CuHaracrers, /ileral, may be again divided, with regard to their invention and ufe, into particular and general, or uni- verfal. ; ; Particular charaGers, are thofe peculiar to this or that nation; or that have been fo: fuch are the Roman, Italic, Greek, Hebrew, Arabic, Gothic, Chinefe, &c. characters. See each of thefe articles. Univerfal charaders, are alfo real chara&ers, and make what fome authors call a philofophical language. The diverfity of charatters uled by the feveral nations to exprefs the fame idea, is found the chief obftacle to the ad- vancement of learning : to remove this, feveral authors have taken occalion to propofe plans of charaéters that fhould be univerfal, and which each people fhould read in their own language. The character here is to be real, not nominal ; to exprefs things and notions ; not, as the common ones do, letters, or founds: yet, to be mute, like letters, and arbitrary ; not emblematical, like hieroglyphics. ; Thus, the people of every nation fhould retain their own language, yet every one underftand that of each other, without learning it ; only by feeing a real or univerfal cha- racter, which fhould fignify the fame thing to all people ; by what founds foever each expreffed it in their particular idiom. * For inflance, by feeing the character deftined to fignify to drink, an Englifhman fhould read tv drink; a Frenchman, boire ; Latin, bibere; a Greek, rus; a Jew, Mme a Ger- man, érincken ; and fo of the reft: in the fame manntr as feeing a horfe, each people exprefs it after their own man- ner; but all mean the fame animal. This real character is no chimera; the Chinefe and Japanefe have already fome- thing like it. They have a common chara&ter which each of thofe nations underftand alike in their feveral languages ; though they pronounce it with fuch different founds, that Vor. VIL. CHA they do not underftand a tittle of the f{peech of one ano- ther. The firft, and molt confiderable attempts for a real cha- racter, or philofophical language, in Europe, are thofe of bifhop Wilkins, and Dalgarme: but thefe, with how much art foever they were contrived, have yct proved ineffc@ual. M. Leibnitz had fome thoughts the fame way: he thinks thofe great men did not adopi the right method ; and adds, it was probable, indeed, that, by this means, people, who do not underftand one another, might eafily have a com- merce together ; but that they have not fixed on true real charaGters. According to him, the charaers fhould refemble thofe ufed in algebra: which, in effea, are very fimple, yet very expreffive ; without any thing fuperfluous or equivocal; and contain all the varieties reqnired. The rea! charaéter of bifhop Wilkins has its jut applaufe: Dr. Hook recommends it, on his own knowledge and expe rience, as a molt excellent fcheme ; and, to engage the world to the ftudy of it, publifhed fome fine inventions of his own relating to it. See Lancuace. M. Leibnitz tells us, he had under confideration an alpha- bet of human thoughts ; in order to a new philofophical lan- guage, on his own fcheme; but his death prevented this from being brought to maturity. M. Lodwick, in the Philofophical Tranfa@tions, gives us a plan of an univerfal alphabet, or chara&ter of another kind : this was to contain an enumeration of all fuch fingle founds, or letters, as are ufed in any language ; by means whereof people fhould be enabled to pronounce truly and readily any language; to defcribe the pronunciation of any language that fhould be pronounced in their hearing ; fo that others accuftomed to this language, though they had never heard the language pronounced; fhould at firlk be able truly to pronounce it: and, laflly, this character is intended to ferve as a ftandard to perpetuate the founds of any language. Abridgm. vol. iii. p. 373. In the Journal Litteraire, an. 1729, we have a very inge- nious project for an univerfal charaéter: the author, after obviating the objections that might be mide againft the fea- fiblenefs of fuch fchemes in the general, propofes his own : his charakters are to be the common Arabic, or numeral figures. The combinations of thefe nine are fufficient to exprefs diftin€ly an incredible quantity of numbers, much more than we fhall need terms to fignify our a€tions, goods, evils, duties, paffions, &c. Thus is all the trouble of framing and learning any new charaéters at once prevented; the Ara- bic figures having already all the univerfality required. The advantages are immenfe: for, 1, We have here a ftable, faithful interpreter ; never to be corrupted or changed, as the popular languages continually are. 2. Whereas the difficulty of pronouncing a foreign language is fuch as ufu- ally gives the learner the greateft trouble, and there are even fome founds which foreigners never attain to; in the cha- rater here propofed, this difficulty has no place: every na= tion is to pronounce them according to the particular pro- nunciation that already obtains among them. All the diffi culty is, the accuftoming of the pen and the eye to affix cer- tain notions to characters that do not, at firft fight, exhibit them. But this trouble is no more than we find in the itudy of any language whatever. The inflexions of words are here to be expreffed by the common letters: for inftance, the fame character {hall exprefs a filly or a colt, a horfe or a mare, an old horfe or an old mare, as accompanied with this or that diltinétive letter, which fhall thew the fex, youth, maturity, or old age: a letter is 3P ; allo CHARACTERS. alfo to exprefs the bignefs or fize of things; thus, v. g. a man witb this or that letter, to fignify a great man, or a lit- tle man, &c. The ufe of thefe letters belongs to the grammar, which, when once well underftood, would abridge the vocabulary exceedingly. An advantage of this grammar is, that it would only have one declention, and one conjugation ; thofe numerous anomalies of grammarians are exceeding trouble- fome, and arife hence, that the common languages are go- verned by the populace, who never reafon on what is beft : but ia the charaéter here propofed, men of fenfe introducing it, would have a new ground whereon to build regularly. The difficulty, however, is not in inventiog the molt fim- ple, eafy, and commodious chara@er, but in engaging the feveral nations to ufe it; there being nothing they agree lefs in than the underftanding, and purfuing of their com- mon intereft. The confideration of an univerfal language, with refpect to the mode of its formation, as well as its ad- vantages and pradticability, will be refumed under the article Lancuace. Cuaracrers, literal, may be again divided, with refpe& to the nations among whom they have been invented, and ufed, into Greek charaders, Roman charaers, Hebrew cha- raéers, &c. The chara&er now ordinarily ufed throughout Europe, is the Latin chara&er of the ancients, which was formed from the Greek, and that from the Pheenician, which Cadmus brought into Greece. The Pheenician charaéter was the fame with that of the ancient Hebrew, which fubfifted to the time of the Baby- lonifh captivity ; after which they ufed that of the Afly- rians, which is the fquare Hebrew, now in ufe ; the ancient being only found on fome Hebrew medals, commonly called * Samaritan Medals.” Poftellus and others fhew that, befide the Phcenician, the Chaldee, Syriac, and Arabic charaéters were likewife formed from the ancient Hebrew. The French were the firft who, with the Latin of St. Gregory, admitted the Latin charaéters. And in a pro- vincial fynod, held in rog1, at Leon in Spain, the ufe of the Gothic chara&ters invented by Ulilas was abolifhed, and the Latin ones eftablifhed. Medallifts obferve, that the Greek charaer, confifting only of majufcule letters, has preferved its uniformity on all medals as low as the times of Gallienus; there being no alteration found in the turn of the character, notwithitand- ing the many confiderable ones both in the ufe and pronun- ciation. From the time of Gallienus, it appears fomewhat weaker and rounder: from the time of Conftantine to Michael, the {pace of 500 years, we find only Latin cha- racers; and after Michael, the Greek characters recom- mence, but from that time they began to alter with the lan- guage, which was then a mixture of Greek and Latin. The Latin medals preferve both their character and lan- guage as low as the tranflation of the feat of the empire to Conttantinople. Towards the time of Decius, the character began to alter, and to lofe of its roundnefs and beauty : fome time after it retrieved itfelf, and fubfifted tolerably till the time of Juftin; when it fell into the laft barbarity mentioned tinder Michael ; though it afterwards grew worfe, and de- generated into the Gothic: fo that the rounder and better formed the charater is on a medal, the greater pretence it has to antiquity. Cuaracrers, numeral, are thofe ufed to exprefs numbers. Numeral Chara@ers are either letters, or figures, otherwife called digits. ‘The kinds now chiefly in ufe, are the Com- mon and the Roman: to which may be added the Greek, and another called the French charaéter ; 28 alfo the letters of other alphabets which have been made ufe of to exprefs numbers. ‘The common charaéter is that ordinarily called the drabic, as fuppofed to have been invented by the Arab altronomers; though the Arabs themfelves call it the Jn- dian charaGer 3 as if they had borrowed it from the people of India. The Arabic charaGers ave ten, ViZ. I, 25 3) 41 5» 6» 7 85 9, 0; the lalt is called cipher. The Arabic character is ufed almoft throughout Eurape, and that on almoft all occafions ; in commerce, in meafuring, in aftronomical calculations, &c. The Roman charader, confilts of the majufcule letters of the Roman alphabet : whence probably its name: or, per- haps, from its being ufed by the ancient Romans on their coins, and in the infcriptions of their public monuments, ereSed in honour of their gods and great men; on their fepulchres, &c. The numeral letters that compofe the Roman character are in number feven, viz. I, V, X, L,C, D,M. Thel denotes one, V five, X ten, L fifty, C a hundred, D five hundred, and M a thoufand. The I, repeated twice, makes two, IL; thrice, three, III; four is expreffed thus, IV, I before V or X. taking an unit from the number exprefled by each of thofe letters. To exprefs fix, an I is added toa V, VI; for feven, two, VII; and for eight, three, VIII: nine is expreffed by an I before X, IX; agreeably to the preceding remark. The like remark may be made of the X before L or C, except that the diminution is by tens, not units: thus, XL fignifies forty, and XC, ninety ; an L followed with an X, fixty, LX, &c. The C before D or M, diminifhes each by a hundred. Befides the letter D, which expreffes five hundred, that number may alfo be expreffed by an I before a C inverted, thus, 1D; and thus, in lieu of the M, which fignifies a thous fand, is fometimes ufed an I between two C’s, the one dire&, the other inverted: agreeable to this, fix hundred may be exprefled LDC; and feven hundred, IDCC, &c. The addition of C and O before, or after, raifes CID by tens, thus, CCID D, 10000 ; CECIDID, 100,000, &c. This is the common way of notation, formerly ufed by the Romans ; who alfo expreffed any number of thoufands by a line drawn over any numeral lefs than a thoufand; e. g. V, 50003 LX, 60,000: fo likewife Mis 1,000,000; MM 18 2,000,000, &c. Befides which, (I.) certain liberties or variations have been admitted, at leaft by fome modern writers ; e. g. ILX, 8; IICIX, 89. (1I1.) And certain characters have been ufed, which feem to have been derived from the letters; e. g. M, by which they exprefs (Mille) 1000, was formed from CXD, or CID; half of which, viz. 1D, ftood for soo. (JIL.) And for the eafier writing of thefe characters, 1. 19 feems to have been altered into D; 2, 1D) into A: or ; 3. CID into oo or 43 whence VY TF, 1000 3 ‘4 Y y, 200, V. X. In Ro man infcriptions, we meet with the characters Q — and oo, ufed to exprefs a thoufand. The ufual note of a thoufand, is either I between two CC’s (direét and reverfed) thus, CID; or elfe X, thus, CKD. The former figure, when clofed at top, exactly refembles an ancient M, thus, - @; and the latter, when fhut up, the figure of 8, inclined thus oo. We alfo find in fome infcriptions, the chara&ter ©, which is X between two CD’s, but clofed on all fides. But the learned Dr. Taylor feems to fufpe& the accuracy of the copy CHARACTERS. eopy of the infcription from whence this character is taken. See Phil. Tranf. N° 482. § 2. Pp As to the origin and ufe of the charaéter X, fo often met with on the coins, utenfils, and manufcripts of the an- cients; fee X. Greek numerals. The Greeks had three ways of expreff- ing numbers. (I.) The moft fimple was, for every fingle letter, according to its place in the alphabet, to denote a number from « 1 to # 24; in which manner the books of Homer’s Iliad are diflinguifhed. (II.) Another way was by dividing the alphabet into, (1.) 8 Units: @ 1, 8 2, &e. (2.) 8 Tens: + 10, x 20, &e. (3.) 8 Hundreds: p 100, & 200, &c. N.B. Thoufands they exprefled by a point, or accent undera letter, e.g. @ 1000. 8 2000,,&c. (III.) A third way was by fix capital letters, ‘thus, I [sa for usa J I, WI [weve] 5, A [dexe] 10, H [Hexarov] 100, X [ruArix ] 1000, M [yvs2] 10000: and when the letter IT inclofed any of thele, except I, it fhewed the inclofed letter to be five times its own value, as || 50, JH] 500, |X|j 5000, JM 50000. 7 N. B.-6,90,900 are expreffled by the character n. Hebrew numerals. The Hebrew alphabet was divided into g units: & 1, 3 2, &c.—g tens: 9 10, 320, &c.—9 hun- dreds: } 102, J 200, &c. J 500, TF 600, Ff 790, 4 Soo, ¥ 900.—" “houfands were denoted, 1. By two points, or acute accents, marked above the letters, which, without fuch points, would exprefs unities; e. g. 8 or & 1000, 3 2000, =} 4000, ? 10,000, 5 100,000. 2. By the letter $9 with two points marked above it, which letter & is an abbreviation of the word 58 or O'DSR, fignifying one thoufand or thoufands, to which other letters were prefixed, expreffing the number of thonfands at pleafure: e. g. & I000, RO 2000, S 4000, &% 10,000, NP 100,000. From thefe complete or round numbers, if they may be fo called, they formed compound numbers, as in the following table: Norn 9 110 YY 2 9p 134 gh 73 mow 348 + wage ¥ AID 652 no 2 MDF 868 15 36 TY 987 TD 47 NN oor TM 58 NYN 1o7I DD 69 IIPN 1162 a 72 “INT 4004 1D) 84 “ND 100074 WY 06 AND 64008 Rp tor TDN 1727 It is to be obferved, that the number 15 was never ex- preffed by [*, according to the above mode of notation, 9 fignifying 10, and PF] 5, becaufe they reckoned it inde- corous to ufe one of the names of the deity for a number; but they denoted 15 by 3%): 4} being 6 and ty 9, the fum of which is 15. For the fame reafon, D9 and 7 is ufed inftead of 49 10 and 6, to exprefs 16. The 22 Hebrew letters exprefs numbers as far as 400 ; and © the 5 remaining hundreds, under one thoufand, are exprefled by different forms of § of the letters, which feem to have been invented on purpofe to exprefs them. It has been above obferved, that five letters of different forms, called the final letters, were invented in order to affiit or complete the Hebrew numeration. ‘This {carcely admits of a doubt, when it is confidered, that as 5, and only 5, of the feveral hundreds wanted each a fingle letter, and as 5, and only 5, of thefe different forms were invented ; theres fore thefe forms were invented to exprefs thofe remaining hundreds. The different forms of thefe § letters have been ufed at the end of words, perhaps, ever fince their firft invention. Itistherefore probable, that if we could fix the age of thefe final letters, we might then fix the time, when the Bible numbers were expreffed by fingle letters. Thefe finals are not known to the Samaritans, and as they are riot at all wanted to exprefs words, and fet are ufed in the Bible, we may hence conclude, that they were firft intro- duced into the Bible for the purpofe of numbers. This is the ufe made of them by the Jews in their own writings ; and indeed they are admitted, even now, into the Jewifh Commentaries, as printed with the Hebrew text. See H. 5S. Jarchi on Gen. xxv. 8. As the age of thefe finals tends to fix the age of thefe numeral letters; it may be obferved, that the final AZem is mentioned in the Talmud of Babylon; and that the authors of both Talmuds {peak of the five finals as of great antiquity, even in their time. St. Jerom alfo, in his preface to the book of Kings, men- tions the finals as equally in ufe with the 22 letters ; and as his Hebrew MSS. might be 200 years old, if the finals were in his MSS. it follows, that they muft have been ufed foon after the time of Chrift. If, therefore, we may infer from Jerom, that the finals were ufed in the Hebrew MSS. at the lateft, about 200 years after Chrilt, we may infer from the Greek verfion, that they were not ufed in the Hebrew MSS. till about roo years before Chrift. Dr. Hody tells us, that the book of Jeremiah was tranflated into Greek about 130 or 140 years before Carilt, and from this verfion of Jeremiah, (ch. xxxviii. 8.) it feems clear that the finals were not then in the Hebrew text. For in that verfe the 7 letters 5 yyy [99 (which are here 2 words, and pro- perly fignify « avjois zvPdos) are rendered in all the copies of the Greek verfion » eogm. But fuch a rendering, being the proper Greek of 4 y}$99, which is one word only, fhews that the 7 was not then (E>) mem fina§ fince the final would have divided the letters into two words, and pre- vented fuch a wrong tranflation. Dr. Kennicott has applied thefe obfervations to the purpofe of accounting for the core ruption of the Hebrew text in its numeral letters. See his fecond differtation on the ftate of the printed Hebrew text, &c. p. 212. Cuaracter, French, fo called, becaufe invented, and chiefly ufed by the French, is more ufually denoted, chara@er of account, or finance. It confifts of fix figures ; partly taken from the letters of the ufual current hand, and partly invented by the contriver; the fix chara€ters are 7, 6, x, L, C,y. Thejconfonant ftanding for one, the 6 for five, the x for ten, the L for fifty, the C for a hundred, and the laft charaGter y for a thoufand. This charaGter is only an imitation of the Roman cha- racter; and in its ufe in moft refpects the fame, particularly in what relates to the combination of certain letters, which placed before or after others, diminifh or increafe their value. Indeed it has thefe things peculiar in it, that when feveral things occur fucceffively, only the latt is expreffed. adly, That ninety, and the following numbers to one hundred, cw are CHARACTERS. are expreffed, thus, /jj***, ninety; jijj**/, ninety-one ; Lye; &e. é It is principally ufed in the chambers of accounts, in the accounts giyen in by treafurers, receivers, farmers, and other perfons concerned in the management of the revenue. Cuaracters, in Printing, denote the letters or types, by the various arrangement whereof are compofed forms; whence impreffions are taken, by means of a prefs, on paper. For the method of cafting thefe Charaéers, fee Letter Fouxpery. For other characters in Printing, fee CorRECTION., Cuaracrter, is alfo ufed in feveral of the arts, for a fym- bol, contrived for a more concife, immediate, and artful con- veyance of the knowledge of thirgs. Tn this fenfe of the word, Paulus Diaconus refers the in- vention of charaéters to Eunius; who, he fays, contrived the firlt eleven hundred. ‘l’o thefe were many more added by ‘T'yro, Cicero’s freedman, and by Philagyrus, Fannius, and Aquila, freedmen of Mzcenas. Lailly, L. Annzus Seneca made a colleétion of them, re- duced them into order, and increafed their number to five thoufand. ‘l'yro’s notes may be feen at the end of Gruter’s inicriptions. Valerius Probus, a grammarian, in the time of Nero, la- boured to good purpofe in explaining the notes of the ancients. P. Diaconus wrote an ample treatife of the explication of the charaéters in law, under the reign of the emperor Conrad I. ; and Goltzius another for thofe of medals. CharaGters, or fymbols, are now chiefly affeted in the fe- veral parts of mathematics; particularly in algebra, geometry, trizonometry, and aftronomy : asalfo in medicine, chemiftry, mufic, &c. The principal of each kind we fhall here fub- join. Cuaracters ufed in Arithmetic and Algebra. a, b, c, and d, the firft letters of the alphabet, are the figns or characters that denote given quantities; and x, y, x, &c. the laft letters,. are the characters of quantities fought. Some for the former, ufe confonants, or large letters ; and vowels, or {mall ones, for the latter. Stifelius firft ufed the capitals A, B, C, &c. for the quantities, unknown or required. Afterwards, Vieta ufed the capital vowels A, E, I, O, U, Y, for quantities, unknown or required, and the confonants BacCy Ds &c. for awn or given numbers. Harriot changed Vieta’s capitals into the {mall letters a, e, i, 0, uy for unknown, and b, c, dy &c. for known quantities. And Des Cartes chang- ed Harriot’s vowels for the latter letters x, y, x, &c. and the confonants for the firft letters, a, b,c, d, &c. Note, Equal quantities are denoted by the fame cha- racter. For the method of exprefling the powers of quantities. See ALGEBRA. m, my r, s, t, &c. are characters of indeterminate expo- nents, both of ratios and powers; thus x™, y", 2°, &c. de- note indeterminate powers of different kinds; mx, ny, rx, different multiples, or fubmultiples of the quantities x, y, 2, according as m, n, r, are either whole numbers or fractions. + the fign of addition, is called the affirmative, or po- fitive fign, and is read plus, or more thus 9 + 3, is read g plus 3; or g more 3: that is, the fum of 9 and 3, equal to 12. When this chara@er is fet before any fingle quantity, it denotes that it is an affirmative or pofitive quantity ; when dt is fet between two or more quantities, it denotes their fum, fhewing that the latter are to be added to the former. It is not eafy to afcertain when, or by whom, this fign was firit introduced ; but we owe it probably to the Germans, and it feems to have been firft ufed by Stifelius in his arith- metic printed in 1544. The early writers on algebra ufed the word plus in Latin, or piv in Italian, for addition; as they ufed minus, or meno, or merely the initial m, for fub- traétion: and thus thefe operations were denoted in Italy by Lucas de Burgo, Tartalea, and Cardan, while the figns -+ and — were employed much about the time in Germany by Stifelius, Scheubelius, and others, for the fame opera- tions. — Before a fingle quantity, fhews the quantity to which it is prefixed to be a negative quantity. Between quanticies, it is alfo the fign of fubtra@tion, and is read minus, or /efs; thus 14 — 2, is read 14 minus, or abating 2; that is, the remainder of 14, after 2 has been fubtratted, viz. 12. This fign frit occurs in Stifelius. = Is the fign of equality: thus, g + 3 = 14 — 2; fig- nifies 9 plus 3, to be equal to 14, minus 2. This chara&ter was ufed by Robert Recorde, and after him by Harriot: Des Cartes in lieu of it ufes 20. Wolfius, and fome other authors, ufe the fame charafer, =, for the identity of ratios; or to denote the terms to be 7 a geometrical proportion; which moi{t authors exprefs thus :: x Is the fign of multiplication, denoting the quantities on either fide to be multiplied into one another, and was introduced by Oughtred ; thus, 4 x 6, is read 4 multiplied by 6; or the factum, or produét of 4 and 6 = 24; or the reCiangle between 4 and 6. Ordinarily, however, in algebra, the fign is omitted, and the two quantities put together: thus 4d expreffes the product of the two numbers denoted by J and d, which fuppofe 2 and 4, the produét whereof is 8, fignified by bd. Wolfius, and others, make the fign of multiplication a Got (.) between the two faétors: thus 6.2 fignifies the pro- duG of 6 and 2 = 12. Where one or both the factors are compounded of feveral letters, they are diftinguifhed by a line drawn over them : thus, the fatum of a + 4 — c into d, is wroted x a + 6 — ce. Guido Grandio, and after him Leibnitz, Wolfins, and others, to avoid the perplexity of lines, in liew thereof dif. tinguifh the compound factors, by including them in a pa- renthefis, thus (a + 6 — c)d. The parenthefis ( ), as a vinculum, was invented by Albert Girard, and ufed in fuch expreffions as thefe / (72 + 4/5120), and B (Bg + Cq), both for uni- verfal roots, and multiplication, &c. The ftraight-lined vinculum was uled by Vieta for the fame purpofe : thus A — Bin B + C, —- Is the charaéer of divifion, and was introduced by Dr. Pell: thus, 2a + 4 denotes the quantity @ to be divided by 4. TTadeed! ordinarily, in algebra, the quotient is expreffed fraction-wife ; thus, 5 denotes the quotient of @ divided by 4. y Wolfs, &c. make the fign of divifion (:) thus, 2: 4 denotes the quotient of 8 divided by 4 = 2. If either the divifor or dividend, or both, be compofed of feveral letters, v. g. a + 3, divided by cs inftead of writing 2) Wolfius, &c. in- clude the compound quantities in a parenthefis; thus, (a + 6 :c), or (a + b):c. @ Is the character of involution, or of producing the fquare of any quantity, by multiplying it by itfelf, 2 & The ; : ; a the quotient fra&tion-wife, thus, CHARACTERS, » bv The charaster of evolution, or of extra&ting the roots out of the feveral powers, the reverfe ot @. Both thefe charaéters were ufed by Dr. Pell. 7 Is the fign of majority, or of the excefs of one quan- tity beyond another: {ome ufe this [~, or this “1. Z Is the fign of minority. Thefe two characters were firft introduced by Harriot, and have been fince ufed by Wallis and Lamy. Other authors ufe others ; fome this @ The fign of fimilitude, commended in the Mifcellanea Berolinentia, and ufed by Lebnitz, Wollius, and others ; though the generality of authors ule none. The {ame character is ufed by other authors for the dif- ference between two quantities, while it is yet unknown which is the greater. It was introduced for this purpofe of denoting a general difference by Dr. Wallis. / Isthe chara&ter of radicality, and fhews that the root of the quantity, to which it is prefixed, is extracted, or to be extracted: thus ,/25, or 4/25, denotes the fquare root of 25, viz. 5; and 4)’25, the cube root of 25. This fign is derived from the initial R or x of radix or root, which was ufed at firlt by Paciolus, Cardan, &c. Vhe character ,/ feems to have been firft ufed by Stifelius in 1544, and by Robert Recorde in 1557.° At firit they ufed the initial of the name after it, to denote the feveral roots: as ,/g the quadrate or {quare root, and ,/c the cubic root. But the numeral in- dices of the root were prefixed by Albert Girard, jult as they are now ufed, viz. 3/, are in the fame uninterrupted pro- portion. This mark was introduced by Oughtred. When one or more terms in an equation are wanting, their places are ufually marked with one or more afterifms ; as, y+ py + ah —py-EP PHO va -kP +7 = % See Accesra and ee sabciy Cuaracter of Decimals. See SEPARATRIX. Cuaracters ufed in Afironomy. WI Herfchel, or Georgian 9 Venus. planet. % Mercury. }h Saturn. © The Sun. 2 Jupiter. @ The Moon @ The Earth, or 3. ¢ Mars. y Aries. x Libra. 8% Taurus. iL Scorpio. m Gemini. } Sagittarius. & Cancer, ys Capricornus. SU Leo. we Aquarius. m Virgo. x Pilces. The charaéters for the Sun, Moon, Mars, Mercury, Jupi- ter, Venus, and Saturn, are ufed to denote the days of the week, viz. Sunday, Monday, &c. With regard to the mythological fiznification of thefe charaéters, we may obferve, that antiquaries and aftrolo- gers, according to whofe opinion the planets were firit dif- tinguifhed by them, confidered them as the attributes of the deities of the fame name. The circle, in the earlictt periods, among the Egyptians, was the fymbol of divinity and per- fe€tion, and feems with great propriety to have been chofen by them as the character of the fun; efpecially as, when fur- rounded by {mall ftrokes proj-Ging from its circumference, it may form fome reprefcentation of the emiffion of rays. Some have thought, however, that the character of the fun, ©, is the piéture of a buckler; the middle point of which reprefents the umbo or bofs; and it is obferved, that the bucklers of the ancients ufed to be bright, in order to dazzle the eyes of their enemies, (vid. Plautum, art.1. fca1.) Hyde, (de Rel. Vet. Perf. p. 106.) informs us, that the Perfians often call the fun by a word which fignifies a buckler; and in MSS. the chara¢ter is often a buckler, feen in a fide views often a cone, which was facred to the fun, (Porphyr. ap. Eufeb. Prep. Evang. p.98.) A circle is mentioned as aa Egyptian character of the fun, by Clemens of Alexandria, (Strom. |. v. p. 657. ed. Potteri). The femicircle is, in like manner, the image of the moon, the only one of the heavenly bodies that appears under that form to the naked eye; and accordingly it is thus mentioned by Clemens, (ubi fupra.} As tothe charaGters of the planets, the common opinion is, that they were taken from the fymbols of thofe deities whofe names they bear: thus, the charaéter of Mer- cury & is his caduceus or wand, with ferpents twilting round it; that of Venus 9, a looking-glafs, with a handle ; that of Mars g, a lance and buckler; that of Jupiter 2, his thunderbolt ; or, as others more generally agree, the firlt Jetter Z of his name in Greek, with a ftroke through it, as a mark of abbreviation ; and that of Saturn hk, a fickle or feythe. (Riccioli, Almag. vii. c. 1. vol. x. p. 480.) Sal. mafius, (Phin. Exercit. p. 1237,) fuppofes, that all the cha- raéters are the initial letters of the Greek names of the pla- nets. Kircher, fomewhat fancifully, (CEdip. Egypt. t. 1. pars 2. p. 402.) compounds the characters of the planets out of © and ), acrofs +, the mark ufed for the four elements, and y, the character of Arics, which, he fays, denotes fruitfulnefs. Cuaracters of the Ajpeds, Nodes, Sc. S or ¢ Conjunétion. Bq Biquintile. Ss Semifextile, Ve Quincunx. * Sextile. 8 Oppofition. Q. Quintile. § Scorpion’s head, or af- o Quartile, or quadra- cending node. ture. % Scorpion’stail,or defcend- Td Tridecile. ing node. 6 A Trine. Cuaracters of Time. A. M. (ante meridiem) or M. morning. O.or M.noon. P. M. (fof meridtem) or A. afternoon. . Cuaracters, Chemical. The reafons that have chiefly led CHARACTERS. Jed tothe invention and ufe of chemical characters, are the ‘two following ; namely, their concifenefs, and the facility which they afford of concealing from the uninitiated the knowledge of valuable or curious fa&ts. The latter reafon is that by which the ancient chemilts were for the mott part influenced ; the former is that which has induced fome moderi chemits to their adeption. In the early ages of chemiftry, or rather of alchemy, this feience was intimately conneéted with aftrolozy ; and, being cultivated chiefly by the Alexandrian Greeks, and the Sara- cens after their conquett of Egypt, it is po wonder (efpe- cially when the fappofed importance of the ftudy is taken into confideration) that hieroglyphics fhou'd be adopted, to exprefs both the fubfances of experiment, and the pro- cxffes to which they were fubject. The extenfive deftru@ion of chemical books in Egypt, by order of Dioclefian, and the combuftion of the Alexan- drian library by the Arabs, in all probability occafioned the lofs of many curious facts and procefles, and the characters in which they were recorded: the utter incomprehenfiblenefs alio of many of the early manufcripts on thefe fubjects that are yet extant, (efpecially thofe written in Greck or Arabic), has contiderably diminifhed the number of characters which jt is at all worth while to be at the trouble of reprefent- mg. Inthe table of ancient chemical characters, Plate Chemiffry, are comprehended all that are to be found in the printed works of chemi(ts, from the time of Roger Bacon to Berg- man, It is cbvious, even on a curfory infpeétion, that fome of thefe are borrowed from the fcience of aftronomy ; that others are mere arbitrary figns; and that others are rude types or hieroglyphics: the whole being deftitute of any uniform fyitem, and very little applicable to the ule of chemiltry, after it had aflumed a fcientitic form. Bergman, being aware of the ufeleffnefs of the old figns, has rejected all except thofe employed to denote chemical fubltances: to thefe he has added others to reprefent thofe bodies which were unknown to the older chemilts ; and has formed the whole into a fyftem, capable of expreffing in a tabular form, with brevity and clearnefs, the refults of fingle and compound affinity, which was the only purpofe to which they were applied by this eminent chemift. When Lavoifier had invented the fyftem of chemiftry which is at prefent received, and had reformed the nomen- clature in conformity with it, two of his countrymen, Meflrs. Halfenfratz and Adet, chofe to employ themfelves in the formation of a fpecies of ftenography to corre{pond with the terms of the new fyllem; but the good fenfe ot the age being convinced that to add to the neceflary cifficultics of the molt comprehentive of all fciences was wholly needlefs, has fo unanimoufly rejected the fetters which thefe gentle- mien have taken the trouble to forge, that any criticifm upon the fubject would be entirely fuperflucus. Cuaracters in Commerce. {h -Pound weight. D? Ditto, the fame. N° Numero, or number. C. or @ Hundred weight, or _ 112 pound. qi 4 F° Folio, or poge. Quarters. R° Redo, ae FP? Verfo, oats p Per, or by. As % ann. by the year. ‘p cent. 1. or £. fterling, Pound by the hundred, &c. tterling. R* Rixdollar. gy. Shillings, D* Ducat. w@. Pence, or Deniers. P. S. Poitfcript- Cuagacters in Geometry and Trigonometry. ) Is the charaéter of parallelifm; implying twe lines or planes to be equidiftant from one another. RALLEL. 4 A triangle. O A fquare. {] IA reGangle. © A circle. t. A right angle. = Equality of angles. _L A perpendicular. ° A degree; thus, 75° implies 75 degrees. ' A minute, or prime; thus, 50’ implies so minutes. mt, &c. the characters of feconds, thirds, fourths, &c. of a degree; thus, 5”, 6”, 18’”, 20”, denote 5 feconds 6 thirds, 18 fourths, and 20 fifths. , Note. The fame charaGters are fometimes ufed, where the progreflion is by tens, as it is here by fixties. : Cuaracters ia Grammar, Rhetoric, Poetry, See Sce Pae See TRIANGLE. : -L. Equality of fides. < An angle. vow The 9. be ’ Comma. > Apoltrophe. ; Pi oa ' Emphafis, or accent. : Colon. “ Breve. . Period. ; ” Dialyfis. ! Exclamation. " Caret, and circumflex. ? Interrogation. §* Quotation. () Parenthetis. + and * References. [] Crotchet. § Scion, or Divifion. - Hyphen. q Paragraph. LL. D. Door of Laws, or of the Civil and Canon Law. SS. T.D. Sacro-San@e Theologie Dodor, or D. D. i.e. Doéior in Divinity. J. V. D. Door of Civil and Canon Law. M.D. Doétor in Phyfic. oe Verbi Dei Minifter, Minifter of the Word of od, A.M. Artium Magifter, Mafter of Arts. A. B. Artium Baccalaureus, Bachelor of Arts. F. R.S. Fellow of the Royal Society. F. A. S. Fellow of the Antiquarian Society. CuHaracters ufed in the Arithmetic of Infinites. The chara&er of an infinitefimal, or fluxion; thus, +}, &e. exprefs the fluxions, or differentia!s of the variable quan- tities x and y; two, three, or more dots, denote fecond, third, or higher fluxions. See Fruxion. This method of denoting the fluxions, we owe to fir Ifaae Newton, the inventor of fluxions: it is adhered to by the Englhih ; but foreigners generally follow M. Leibnitz, and in lieu’of a dot prefix the letter dto the variable quantity ; on pretence of avoiding the confufion arifing from the mul- tiplication of dots, in the differencing of differentials. d he charaéter of a differential of a variable quantity, thus, dx isthe differential of x; dy the differential of y. The charadler was firft introduced by M. Leibnitz; and is ids by all but the Englith. See Carcutus Diffren- tials. Cuaracrers among the Ancient Lawyers, and in Ancient Inferiptions. § Paragrapho. ff. Digettis. C. Code. E. Extra. CC. Confules. S. P.Q. R. Senatus Popu- T. Titulus, &c. lufque Romanus. P. P.D. D. Propria pecunia BAY. Bonisavibus, or Bonis _dedicavit. aufpiciis. D. D. M. Dono dedit Monu- Scto. Senatufconfulto. mentum. Cuaracters in Medicine and Pharmacy. P. P. Pater Patria. R Recipe. 3 A Drachm. 4, Ga, or ana, of each alike. 9 A Scruple. tb A Pound, or pint, gr. Grain. 3 An Ounce. & ox sf. Half of any thing. Cong. CHARACTERS. Cong. Congius, a gallon, S. A. According to art. Coch. Cochleare, a fpoonful. Q. 5. A fufficient quantity. M. Manipulus, a handful. © Q. pl. As much as you pleafe. P. A pupil. P. P. Pulvis Patrum, or Je- P, AE. Equal quantities. fuit’s Bark. Cuaracters ufed in Mufic. : , . Chara&ers of the mufical notes, with their proportions. A Large 8. Ey A Long 4. j= Breve © Semibreve 1. ( Qua ver y HE Semiquaver ss. or Demifemiquaver +4,. x Chara&ter of a fharp note. This charaGer at the be- ginning of a line or fpace, denotes all the notes in that line or {pace to be taken a femitone higher than in the natural feries. And the fame affects all their o¢taves, above and below, though not marked. When the charatter is prefixed to any particular note, it fhews that note alone to be a femitone higher than it would be without fuch character. Refts or Paufes of Time. ror = of money for the expence of his funeral, and the pocketing of it for his private ufe?, What cao the voice of faétion fay to the treatment of their avowed and {teady patron, the, earl of Clarendon; what to the king’s behaviour to the duke of Ormond, in the cafe of Blood, &c. and what to the indifference with which he trest- ed the memory of a filter, whom he pretended to love with the higheit degree of affeGtion? If with the men of plea- fure, and the thoughtlefs companions of the bottle, we view with complacency, and even with applaufe, the licentious manners of a prince infeed with the vices of every coun- try which had yielded an afylumto his wandering fteps, is it poflible not_to refleét, that Charles was totally deficient in that kind of fympathy and indolent good nature which often accompany the effeminacy of a luxurious life ; and that the unjuft feverity and even cruelty with which he treated all thofe whom he regarded as his enemies, are blemifhes not to be excufed when united to the fevereft. man- ners and the higheft rectitude of principle. If with the Papiits, we applaud the king for the pious defign he had entertained of reltoring the Britifh empire to the church of Rome; what can we fay to the eafy manner in which he abandoned this defign, and the whole party, to their inveterate enemies? What can we fay to the breach of the promife he had-made to this body, that he would eeclare his converfion, and avow his patronage after the receiving a {um of money for this purpofe from the court of Trance? And what can we fay to the mean manner in which he concealed his predilection to Popery till the hour of his deceafe, in which he vainly hoped: to fecure a fafe paflage to. the regions of eternal buis, from the merits of a fubmiffion extorted by the terrors of an af- frightened confcience? And if, with the zealous churck- men, we regard him as the patron of the reftored privileges of that holy body, what excufe can we make for the deep defigns he had entered into, of facrificing all thofe facred rights to the ambition of Papilts, and the interefts of the papal chair? In the duties of private life, we are told by the panegy- rifts of Charles, that his condu&, though not free from ex- ception, was in the main laudable: but though a’ large meafure of indulgence isto be given to the foibles, the in- firmities, and even the vices of every man or woman, who has not received the benefits which arife froma perfect form of education, yet we cannot poflibly trefpafs fo highly on our fenfe of propriety, decency, and the ineftimable virtues of fobriety, as to rank that facility with which the king be- came the conftant dupe of his amorous inclinations and paf- fion for variety, among the good qualities of a rational agent; nor can we agree to the obfervation, that Charles was a civil and obliging hufband, merely on the merit of his not having facrificed an innocent woman to the venom of party fpirit. Onthe contrary, fetting alide the advantages of affluence, and the {plendor of rank, the queen’s fituation mutt be confidered as equally mortifying to that in which every other female is involved, whom a fevere fate unites in the indiffoluble bonds of matrimony with a profligate rake. On the fubje€ of the king’s conftancy to the’ duke of York’s interelt, it is obfervable, that a coldnefs and mutual jealouly prevailed between the two brothers till the period of the firft French treaty; a circumftance which rendered all future Giflenfion dangerous to the peace and happinefs of both. Burnet afferts, that Charles both hated and feared his bro- ther; and fir John Rerefby, who has manifelted the higheft degree of partiality to the eondué of the king, allows thaz it was motives of policy alone which were the grounds of his inflexible patronage: as on this fingle inftance, therefore, thus circumitanced and oppofed by the whole tenor of Charles’s public and private condu€, it is impoflible to agree with the duke of Buckingham, that this prince was even, inclined to juftice ; or with the reft of his panegyrilts, to found on the merits of the a@tof indemnity, extorted from the neceflity of the times, a propenfity in his difpofition to clemency and forgivenefs ; we mult conclude, that the harfh picture drawn of Charlés II. by bifhop Burnet, is a juft likenefs, viz. that he had enormous vices without the tince ture ef any virtue to corre& them; that, under the ap- pearance of gentlenefs, he concealed a cruel and unrelent- ing heart ; and under the mafk of fincerity, the higheft de- gree of hypocrify and diffimulation; that he was void, not only of every princely, but every manly fentiment ; that he was as incapable of friendfhip as of integrity ; that he con- fidered power ayd the trufts which accompany it, in no other light, than as the means to gratify his criminal and felfifh paflions ; that he acted as the foe rather than the pro- tector of his people; and that it was lewdaefs, indolence, and the love of eafe, which were the fingle correétors to that rage for abfolute power which infeGts almott all princes.; and which, but for the predominancy of-lefs exalted paffions, Charles would have purfned with a vigilance equal to the importance of the undertaking ; and which, notwithftand- ing the unconquerable indolence of his temper, the depra- vity of the times had, in a great meafure, enabled him to effect. Lord Lyttelton fpeaks of this monarch in the follow- ing terms. ‘The methods purfued by Charles the Second, in the condu&t of his government, were in many refpeéts different from his father’s, though the purpofe of both was _ much the fame. The father always bullied his parliaments 5 the fon endeavoured to corrupt them: the father objtinately refufed to change his minilters, becaufe he really efteemed — them as honeft men ; the fon very eafily changed Ais, becaufe — he thought they were all alike dilhonett, and that his defigns might as well be carried on by one dnave as by another: the father was a tool of the clergy, and a perfecutor, out of zeal for his religion; the fon was almoft indifferent to religions but ‘ferved the paffions of his clergy againft the diffenrers from motives of policy : the father defired to be abfolute at home, but to make the nation ref{peétable abroad; the fon affifted the king of France in his invafions on the liberties of Europe, that, by his help, he might mafter thofe of England; nay, he was even a penfioner to France, and, by fo vile a” prothitution of his dignity, fet an example to the nobility of his realm, to fell ¢hetr honour likewife for a penfion ; an exam- ple, the ill effeGs of which have been felt too fenfibly ever fince, Yet, with all thefe vices and imperfeGions in the character of Charles the Second, there was fomething fo bewitching in» his behaviour, that the charms of it prevailed on many to connive at the faults of his government: and, indeed, nothing can be fo hurtful to a country, which has liberties to defend, as a prince who knows how at the fame time to make him= felf de/potick and agreeable : this was eminently the talent of Charles the Second; and, what is moft furpring, he pof- fefled it without any great depth of underftanding. ~.> But the principal initrument of his bad intentions, was a general depravity of manners, with which he took pains to infect his court, and they the nation. All virtues, both public and private, were openly ridiculed; and none were allowed to have any talents for wit or bufinefs, who pretended to an fenfe of honour, or regard to decency. C. MAR LES! Ik The king made great ufe of thefe new notions ; and they proved very pernicious to the freedom, as well as morals, of his fubje&ts ; but an imdolence, natural to his temper, was fome check to his defigns ; and, fond as he was of arbitrary power, he did not purfue it any further than was confiftent ‘with his pleafure and repo/e. ‘ ? All mutic, except fyllabic pfalmody, feems to have been filenced from the year 1642 to 1660; but at the rettoration of monarchy and ancient religious eftablifhments, all the fur- viving muficians; who had been degraded and involved in the calarities of the civil war, quitted their retreats. Many ‘however had died in, and during the confliét, in every order of the ftate. No more than nine of the fix and twenty bi- fhops were living; and death had probably made the like havoe among the reft’of the inhabitants, in proportion to age and numbers. Of thofe that fell by the fword, we know not the exact calculation ; but, except archbifhop Laud, the _ prelates may be {uppofed to have died in their beds. Of the gentlemen of Charles the Firlt’s chapel, none feem to have claim-d their former ftation, but Dr. Wifon, Chriltopher Gibbons, and Henry Lawes; the lalt, indeed, did not long furvive the reitoration, * Child, Chrittopher Gibbons, Rogers. and Wilfon, were created doStors, and thefe, with Law of Oxford, though advanced in years, were promoted; Child, Gibbons, and ‘Law, were appointed organifts of the Chapel Royal, and Captain Henry Cook majter of the children, been bred up in the King’s Chapel, but quitted it at the be- ginning of the rebellion ; avd in 1642, obtaining a captain’s commiffion, he retained the title of captain ever efter. Gib- bons was hkewife organift of Weltmin{ter Abbey ; Rogers, who had formerly been organift of Magdalen College, Ox- ford, was preferred to Eton; Wilfon had a place both in the chapel and Weftminfter. Abbey ; and Albertus Bryne, a fcholar of John Tomkins, was appointed organilt of St. - Paul’s, where he had been brought up. The ettablifhment of Charles the Second’s chapel, at the time of the coronation, appears by the following entry inthe cheque-book. April the 23d, being St. George’s day, 166r. Dr. Walter Jones, fubdean. William Howes Roger Nightingale _ 7 Thomas Blagrave Ralph Amner Gregory Thorndall 1 Philip Tinker | e Edward Bradock John Sayer Va Henry Purcell ‘Durant Hunt -= James Cob < ‘George Low | —& Nathaniel Watkins | ¢ “Henry Smith i John Cave i} ‘William Tucker J. Alphonfo Marth 5 “Edward Lowe = RaphaelCourteville | °° William Child } S, Edward Colman “Chriftepher Gibbons 5 Thomas Purcell “Henry Cook, matt. of the children "Henry Lawes, clerk of the cheque "Thomas Piers q s Fy “Thomas Hazzard ' ‘John Harding é Thomas Haynes, ferjeant of the veltry. William Williams, yeoman. George Whitaker, yeoman. a‘ Auguttine Cleveland, groom. . Henry Frott John Goodgroom George Betenham Matthew Peunel J - % wae _ At which time every gentleman of the chapel in orders, i ailowed to him for a gown five yards Of fine {carlet ; d the reft of the gentlemen being laymen, had allowed unto each of them foure yards of the like {carlet, Cook had ~ The falaries of the gentlemen of the chapel had been ange mented both by James I. and Charles I. and in the year 1663 Charles II. by the privy-feal, farther augmented them to feventy pounds a-year ; and granted. to Capt. Cook and his fucceffors in office, thirty pounds a-year, for the diet, lodging, wafhing, and teaching each of the children of the Chapel Royal. A copy of this grant is entered in the cheque-book, and faid to have been obtained by the folicita- tion of Mr Cook. The {mall ftock of choral mufic with which the chapel be- gan, becoming in a few years fomewhat lefs delightful by fre- quent repetition, the king perceiving a genius tor compofi- tion in fome of the young people of the chapel, encouraged them to cultivate and exercife it’; and many of the firft fet of chorifters, even while they were children of the cha- pel, compofed anthems and fervices that are ftill ufed in our cathedrals. Thefe, by the king’s {pecial command, were ac- companied by violins, cornets, and facbuts, to which inftru- ments introductory fymphonies and ritornels were given, and the performers of them placed in the organ-loft. ;' Dr. ‘Vudway, in the dedication to the fecond volume of his manufeript Colle@tion of Englifh Church-mufic to Lord Harley, afligns the following reafons for the change of flyle in the mufic of the Chapel Royal, by a mixture of what he terms theatrical and fecular. ** The ftandard of church-mufic begun by Mr. Tallis, Mr. Bird, and others, was continued for fome years after the Reftauration, and all compofers conformed themfelves to the pattern which was fet them. . «* His majelty, who was a brifk and airy prince, coming to the crown in the flower and vigour of his age, was foon, if I may fo fay, tired with the grave and folemn way which had been eftablifhed by Tallis, Bird, and others, ordered the compofers of his chapel to add fymphonies, &c. with inftru« ments to their anthems; and thereupon eltablifhed a fele& number of his private mufic to play the fymphony and ritor- nellos which he had appointed.—The old matters of mufic, Dr. Child, Dr. Gibbons, Mr. Low, &c. organifts to his ma* jelty, hardly knew how to comport themlelves with thefe new-fangled ways, but proceeded in their compofitions, ac- cording to the old ftyle, and therefore there are only fome fervices and full anthems of theirs to be found. “Tn about four or five years time, fome of the forwardelt and brighteft children of the chapel, as Pelham Humphrey, John Blow, &c. began to be matters of a facilty in com- poling; this his majefty greatly encouraged, by indulging their youthful fancies, fo that every month, at lealt, they produced fomething new of this kind. In a few years more, feveral others, educated in the chapel, produced their com~ pofitions in this ftyle ; for otherwife it was in vain to hope to pleafe his majetty.” King Charles the Second, “(fays the Hon. Roger North, Mem. of Muf.) though a profeffed lover of mutfic, had’ an utter averlion to Fancies, which was increafed nd confirmed by a fuccefslefs entertainment given him by fecre- tary Williams. After which the fecretary had no peace; for the king, as was his cuftom, could not forbear whetting his wit upon fancy mufic, and its patron the fecretary; nor would he allow the matter to be difputed upon the point of fuperiority, but ran it all down, by faying, Aave not.J ears?’ He could bear no mufic to which he could not beat me, which he conftantly tried to do to all that was performed in his prefence, which he generally heard ttanding. OF fongs he only approved the foft vein, in triple time; which ren- dered that kind of movement fafhionable among the matters and compofers for the ftage, as may be {een in the printed fongs.of the time. His CMWAR LES! V. His majefty had once.a wifh, in order to compare ftyles, to hear the fingers of feveral nations, German, Spanifh, Ita- lian, French, and Englifh, perform together on the court ftage, at Whitehall. The Italians performed the celebrated trio of Cariffimi, Che dite, che fate ; and the Englifh brought up the rear under great difadvantage, with J pa/s all myhours in a_foady old grove ; for though the king chofe that fong as the beit, others were not of his majefty’s opinion. The old way of conforts was laid afide by this prince immediately after his rettoration, when he eltablifhed his band of 24 violins, afterthe French model, and the ftyle of mulic was changed accordingly. So that French mufic be- came in general ufe at court, and in the theatres; indeed, performers on the violin had a lift into credit before this pe- riod, when Baltzar, a Swede, came over, and did wonders upon it by fwiftnefs and double ftops. But his hand was accounted hard and rough, though he made amends for that by often tuning in the lyra way, and playing leffons con- formable to it, which were very harmonious, as is manifeft by many of his pieces ftill extant. During the firft years of king Charles’s reign, all the mu- fic in favour with the beau-monde, was in the French ttyle ; which, at this time, was rendered famous throughout Eu- rope, by the works of Baptift Lulli, a frenchified Italian, and matter of the court mufick at Paris, who enriched the French mufick by Italian harmony, which greatly improved their melody. His ftyle was theatrical, andthe pieces called branles, or ouvertures, confifting of an entrée and a courante, will everbe admired as the moft flately and complete movements in mufic. All the compofers in London {trained hard to imi- tate Lulli’s vein. However, the whole tendency of the ayre, affected the foot more than the ear; and no one could liften to an entrée, with its ftarts and leaps, without expecting a dance to follow. The French inftrumental mufick, however, did not make its way fo faft as to bring about a revolution all at once; for, during a great part of this king’s reign, the old mufick was ftill ufed in the country, and in many private meetings in London; but the treble viol was difcarded, and the violin took its place.”’ The taite of Charles II. feems to have been French in all things, but particularly in mufic ; for he had French operas ; a band of twenty-four violins, in imitation of the French band at Paris; French mafters of his band, Cambert, and, after- wards, Grabu; he fent Pelham Humphrey to ftudy under Lulli, and young Banifter to learn the violin at Paris. In- deed, though we have fince had better models for our mufical ftudies of all kinds, from Italy and Germany, mufic, as well as every other liberal art, was at this time in a higher ftate of cultivation in Francethanin England. But though Lulli carried Italian dramatic mufic into France, it was fuch as had been produced during the infant ftate of the art in Italy ; yet, notwith{tanding the fubfequent improvements it re- ceived in its native country, from innumerable matters, parti- cularly fince they were furnifhed with lyric poetry by Metaf- talio, near a century elapfed before our neighbours the French perceives it poflible to compofe better mufic than that of Lulli. Our merry monarch, (as he is called in the Spe&tator, No. 462) certainly loved mulic, and had an accurate ear, particu- larly for time; nor would he allow any compolition to be mulc, to which he could not beat the meafure ; which is, in gereral, a very good.criterion of clearnefs, accents, and rhythm; but-thefe being all wanting in the mufic of Lulli, excites a wonder at his majefty’s partiality for French mufic. But, « What can we reafon but from what we know ?” He had heard little or no Italian mnfic, and the German mufic of his time was rude and unpolifhed in melody, though in harmony and fugue very learned, But thefe our gay and voluptuous fovereign would not give himfelf the trouble to analyfe, orevento hear. Purcell, the nation’s darling, born in 16553, was but two years old at the reftoration ; and at the death of Charles but 24; at which time his fame had fearcely taken wing. Cuartres V. This celebrated prince was born at Ghent, on the 24th February, 1500. He had not completed his fixteenth year, when the rich inheritance of Caftile, of Arra- gon, and Navarre, of Naples, Sicily, and Sardinia, devolved on him, by the death of his maternal grandfather, Ferdi- nand. His early youth had been formed by Margaret of Auttria, his aunt, and Margaret of York, the widow of Charles the Bold. ‘Thefe two princeffes were diftinguifhed equally by their virtue and abilities. On the death of his father, Philip, William de Croy, Lord of Chievres, and Adrian of Utrecht, were the perfons appointed by his grand- father Maximilian, for the purpofe of carrying forward his education, and forming his fentiments and principles. It was tlie whim of Adrian, however improbable its fuccefs, to involve his young mind in all the vexatious mafs of metaphy- fical theology ; but the more authoritative and more acce able inftructions of Chievres led him from monattic fpecula- tions to the robuft exercifes of military life. The arts of government were a no lefs acceptable ftudy, conneéted with the hiftory of his own kingdom, and of thofe neighbours with whom he had moft frequent intercourfe. From his fifteenth year, when he affumed the government of Flanders, Charles was accuftomed to bufinefs. It was a part of his difcipline to perufe ftate papers, to prefide at the delibera- tions of his council, and to propofe in perfon thofe queftions on which he wifhed for advice. From fuch an education, his habits and manners affumed a charaéer difproportioned to his years. Yet his outfet was marked by no feats of fuperior genius. His figure and addrefs, his graceful and manly accomplifhments, were flattering to the vanity of his fubjets; but there was a certain temporizing deference, which feemed to lay him open to the artifices of courtiers, and a tone of paffion which prepared him for a dupe, and his people for a prey. Ferdinand, his grandfather, died in 1516 ; on which event Charles claimed the title of king, while his mother Joanna was yet alive. The times were difficult; but Ximenes was equal to the crifis. ‘The Pope, as head of the church, and the Emperor, as head of the empire, concurred in confirm- ing the dignity, as of their own right ; and on thefe grounds was Ximenes inftru€ted to prefs the claim on the Spanifh nation. Yet, by the laws of Spain, the fole right to the crowns of Caftile and Arragon belonged to Joanna; nor had any public a€, declaring her incapacity, reconciled the pretenfions of Charles, either to the delicacy of filial for- bearance, or to the privileges of the two nations. Ximenes protefted againft the principle, but was prompt and vigore ous in carrying his orders into execution. The title was re- cognifed at Madrid, in fpite of difcontent ; though the ftatea of Arragon were obftinate, under the irrefolute adminiftra- tion of the archbifhop of Saragoffa. The Arragonians waite ed for the king’s arrival in Spain, before they would ace knowledge any other title than that of prince. The war which had arifen from the holy league had been tranfmitted by Ferdinand to his grandfon, who, as king of Spain, was in aGual hoftility againit France. But Chievres, con{cious of the advantage which his countrymen, the Flem- ings, derived from their commerce with the French, warmly recommended an accommodation, and obtained the manage= ment 2 CHARLES V. ment of the treaty. The king of France liftened with joy to the firft overtures. The principal articles of the treaty were, that Francis fhould give in marriage to Charles his eldeft daughter, an infant of a year old, with all his claims and pretenfions to the kingdom of Naples, for her dowry, In confideration of Charles’s being already in pofleffion of Na- ples, he was to pay 100,000 crowns a-year to the king of France until the accomplifhment of the marriage, and the half of that fum annually as long as the princefs had no children. When Charles fhould arrive in Spain, the heirs of the king of Navarre might reprefent to him their right to ‘that kingdom; and in default of due fatisfaGtion, Francis was at liberty to affilt with his forces. Charles probably would never have figned fuch conditions, but for the pur- pofe of fecuring a fafe paflage into his Spanifh dominions. Yet fuch was the afcendancy of his Flemifh favourites, and their jealoufy of Ximenes, that after a year’s delay, nothing but the repeated remonftrances of the cardinal, and the murmurs of the Spaniards, prevailed on him to embark. No fooner was Ximenes informed of his arrival, than he ad- vanced to meet him. But his journey was ftopped by ill- nefs, which fome attributed to poifon, though it feems na- turally acounted for, by extreme old age and unfeafonable fatigue. The negle& of his counfels, and the cold forma- Jity with which the king, as a matter of form, allowed him to retire, produced an effeét equal to any poifon, in his al- molt immediate death. Charles received the news of it with indifference ; but he had fcarce entered Valladolid, before he was fenfible of his lofs. he cortes of Caftile infifted on his mother’s name appearing firft in all public aéts, and on the refervation of her authority, in cafe of her recovery. They were liberal in their grants; yet was the difcontent loud ; to which the king’s hefitation in {peaking Spanifh, and attach- ment to Flemith favourites, not a little contributed. Thefe events took place in the years1518 and 1510. Before his departure from Arragon, Charles fent his bro- ther Ferdinand into Germany, and thus obviated his in- trigues. He found the cortes of Arragon highly refraftory ; the aflembly of Catalonia {till worfe ; and the Caftilians were taking thofe meafures, in defence of their-privileges againft ftrangers, which laid the foundation of that memorable union among the commons of Caltile. With refpeé to the relti- tution of Navarre, neither the monarch nor his Caftilian no- bility were inclined to part with it ; and the conference at Montpelier was abortive. The death of Maximilian vacated the imperial throne ; and the European princes had learned, from the Italian wars, the advantages which might be de- rived from that dignity. The previous negociations of Maxi- milian, and the fituation of his hereditary dominions with refpedt to the Turks, had predifpofed the former towards the elevation of Charles. But he was oppofed by a for- midable rival in Francis, who prefled it on the confideration of Europe, that the crown was elective, and ought not to be made, by prefcriptive cultom, hereditary in the houfe of Auttria. His emiffaries contended befides, that the perfon who held the crown of Naples was excluded by a funda- mental conftitution, To their arguments were added horfe- -loads of treafure, and unlimited promifes. __ The electors dire&ted their views to Frederick Duke of Saxony; but he rejected their propofal, and at the fame ‘time effectually turned the fcale in favour of Charles, who received the news of his eletion at Barcelona. But his Spa- nifh fubjeéts were fullen and refraGtory, refufing to grant any fublidy to an abfent fovereign. Charles, in his turn, *countenanced the affociation of the ** brotherhood,”? which | proved the fource of much calamity to the kingdom. The cortes of Caflile were not lefs ae nt than the Valencian ba- rons, Oppofition and artifice united could with difficulty extort a donative, to enable him to appear with becoming fplendor in Germany. Confcious of the rivalfhip which ftill fubfifted between himfelf and the king of France, Charles was defirous of courting the alliance of Henry VIII. of England, whofe pofleffion of Calais gave him a great degree of influence with both monarchs. Henry had agreed to an interview with the French king between Guifnes and Ardres ; but Charles adroitly pre-occupied his favour, by fteering diretly from Corunna to Dover, and, by a vilit of only four days, at once made a favourable impreflion on the king of England, and attached Wolfey to his intereft, by a penfion of 7,000 ducatsy and the lure of his future fucceffion to the apottolic chair. After the interview with Trancis at Guifnes, Henry return- ed the vifit of Charles at Gravelines, who effaced, by his feeming deference, the impreffions which the conduét of his. rival had made. From the Low Countries, Charles purfued his route to Aix-la-Chapelle, where he was invelted with the crown of Charlemagne. Germany was now his by eleétion; Cattile, Arragon, Auftria, and the Netherlands, by fucceffion ; Na- ples and Granada inherited by the right of conqueft; Mexico. added to his refources by Fernando Cortes. Yet his terri- tories were diftant and disjointed; his authority was limited; his fubjeéts were ftrangers to each other, and relu€tant in their obedience to him. Luther had now declared the pope to be Antichrift. The firlt aét therefore of the emperor’s adminiftration was to ap- point a diet at Worms, to check thefe new and dangerous doétrines. Thefe events occupied the years 1520 and 1521. In the mean time, the difcontents in Spain had gathered toa head, The citizens of Toledo, Segovia, Burgos, Za- mora, were all influenced by the fame fpirit. Adrian trem- bled in Valladolid at the rapid progrefs of infurreétion ; but he forced his naturally Jenient difpofition, and ordered a body of troops to proceed againft the delinquents. Charles, though he had received accounts of thefe tranfactions, could not return immediately to Spain, without endangering the im= perial crown. He therefore promifed, to thofe who conti- nued faithful, not to exaét the fubfidy granted by the late cortes; and engaged, that no office fhould be conferred in future, but upon native Caftilians. At the fame time he wrote to the nobles, to excite them to the defence of their own rights, and thofe of the crown, againft the commons.. He appointed the high admiral and the high conttable of Caftile, whofe abilities and influence would be highly ufeful in an appeal to arms, to act as regents in conjunction with Adrian. But the junta, relying on an unanimous fupport, now aimed at a more extenfive reform of political abufes. They demanded that the king fhould return, and refide in his Spanifh dominions: that he fhould not marry without the confent of the cortes; nor appoint a foreign regent im cafe of unavoidable abfence. That no ftranger fhould be naturalized ; and that thofe who already held public offices. fhould refign them. A reduétion of the taxes, an extended and reformed reprefentation in all future cortes, which were to aflemble as matter of right once in three years, were the other objects to which their remonftrances were directed. Thefe internal faétions encouraged Francis to take up arms. A body of troops, under Andrew de Foix, invaded Navarre, in behalf of Henry d’Albret. The Caftilian no- bles heard of the irruption with indifference; but when the enemy prefumed to inveft Lagrogno, a {mall town of Caftie, all parties were roufed at once: they took the Freneh general prifoner, and brought Navarre back to its obe- diences. Charles, C HA RIL SS ON. Charles; having entered into an alliance. with pope Leo, determined on open war. The progrefs of this treaty, fo contrary to his inclinations, had been concealed from Chievres.. The chagrin of the latter, on the difcovery, fhortened his days, and left the royal pupil to the uncon- trouled exercife of his own powers. Robert de la Mark had ravaged the open country of Luxembourg, and laid fiege to Vinton. Charles, at the head of 20,000 men, over- whelmed the territories of Robert, and reduced him to fue for mercy. . The count of Naflau was commanded to invelt Mezieres ; but the chevalier Bayard, the knight, without fear, and without reproach, managed his flender r¢fources with fuch fill and gallantry, that the imperialifts abandoned the fiege with confiderable lofs. At this time, Francis, at the head of a fuperior army, from excefs, of caution, mifled the opportunity of a perfonal engagement with, his rival, fuzgelted by the conltable Bourbon, which might have been fatal to the future grandeur of Charles, who foon ef- faced the difgrace of his retreat by the redeGtion of ‘Tour- nay, and fecured an important advantage in the alliance of Henry, king ef England. In the mean time, Francis, deferted in Italy, had renewed the war on the fide of Spain. Navarre was again invefted, ard Fontarabia, a {trong town of Bifcay, was.taken by Boa- nivet, admiral of France. This lofs determined Charles to re-vifit his Spanifh dominions. On his way, he tlaid at London fix weeks, received the garter, confirmed his alliance with Henry, and again cajoled Wolfley with diltant hopes _of fucceeding Adrian. “The emperor’s firft attention was direGted, on his arrival in his Spanifh dominions, to heal the wounds of faétion. He rejeficd the bloody fuggeftions of his council, and excepted only fourfcore. perfons from the general pardon. When an officious courtier offered to in- form him where one of the mott confiderable rebels was to be found, he replied, with a fmile, “* you had better let him know I am here, than tell me where he is.”? Thus, by his magnanimity and addrefs, he eftablifhed an afcendancy over the Spaniards, of which he availed himfelf to obtain pecuniary grants and military fupport, equal to the profecu- tion of all his enterprizes. Among thefe, kis myfterious correfpondence with Charles, duke of Bourbon, was not the leaft important. "That nobleman was equally entitled to favour by his birth and fervices. But Louila, the kiny’s mother, had contraéted a violent averfion to the houfe of Bourbon, and had communicated her prejudices to her fon. The death of the duke’s wife reverfed Louifa’s paffion; but her advances were rejected, and her affection again converted into hatred. She commenced a fuit again{ft him for the eftates of his deceafed confort, and he was {tripped of his fortune by an openly nefarious fentence. This political in- trigue was brought to bear in the year 1523. , But the con{piracy was difcovered and difconcerted. The confede- rates were repulfed in three feparate attempts to invade France, and loft half the Milenefe. But the wealth of Mexico prompted Charles to new enterprizes, and purchafed him new allies. He opened the campaign of 1524, with the fiege of Fontarabia, which he took while the magazines were yet full, and the walls entire. Charles received the intellizence of the victory of Pavia at Madrid, with.an air of the moft perfect compofure and moderation: but the pro- jects which he entertained on this unexpected fuccefs, were moft extenfive and ambitious. Yet his own embarraflments were fcarcely inferior to thofe of the prince his prifoner, from the limited condition of his revenues, and the univerfal jealoufy of his neighbours. In the mean time France was filled with confternation by the defeat at Pavia: the king feut the firft news of it to his mother, in thefe words: ** Madam, all is lof, except our honour.?’ Henry now began: to. tremble for the balance of power, and his minifter Wolfey refented ‘the fallacious. promifes of the papacy. The | former therefore fecretly affured Louifa of his fupport, + but in his language to the emperor, offered to invade Guienne with a powerful army; on condition that Francis fhould be delivered to him, and the monarchy of France ex- tinguifhed. ‘Thefe extravagant propofals were defigned to difzuft the emperor, on whole rejeétion of them the king of ~ a England found a decent pretext for withdrawing from his _ alliance. The low flate of the emperor’s finances preventing him from penetrating into France with the forces of Spain and — the Low Countries, he propofed terms to Francis of fo rigor- ous a nature, that the latter, drawing a dagger, exclaimed, “It is better that a king fhould die thus.”’ The removal of Francis from Italy had equally enraged Bourbon and Pefcara. ‘The difcontent of the latter had reached Jerome Morone, vice-chancellor of Milan, whofe genius for intrigue was inflamed by the hope of delivering Italy from the yoke of foreigners. He tempted Pefeara with the throne of Naples; and the latter acceded to the propofal: but, on reflection, he deemed it either moi ho- nourable, or moft fafe, to reveal the whole confpiracy to the emperor, who had been already apprifed of it by his {pies. He commanded Pefcara to continue the negociation. ‘The latter invited Moroné to a laft interview ; but Antonio de Leyva had been concealed in the apartment, and, appearing fuddenly, arrefted Moroné, and committed him to the caftle of Pavia. Sforza was declared to have forfeited all title to the duchy of Milan, which was feized in the emperor’s name. But the emperor’s recent acquifitions in Italy were more than counterbalanced by his increafing dangers. The health and even the life of Francis, whofe captivity was ex- pected to prove fo advantageous, had been endangered by fix months of harfh treatment. Charles, therefore, haftened from Toledo,to Madrid, and infpired his priforer with the hopes of fpeedy deliverance; but he relapfedinto his former diltance and indifference, as foon as he had produced the effet intended, which was foon counteraGted by the arrival of Bourbon in Spain. Charles met the rebellious fubjeét without the gates of Toledo, thongh he had with difficulty been prevailed on to, vifit the king. But the Spaniards’ detefted Bourbon’s crime, and {hunned all intercourfe with him. ‘ : ‘ In the year 1526, the two monarchs came to an agree- ment, by which the French king was to reltore Burgundy to the emperor in full fovereiguty, as foon as he was left at hberty, delivering at the fame time the Dauphin and the duke of Orleans, or twelve of the principal nobility in lieu of the laft, as hoftages. _Inmconfirmation of this agreement, Francis was to marry the emperor’s fitter, the queen dowager of Portugal, Thetreaty was figned abontthe middleof January, and on the return of the ratification from. Paris fome weeks after, the marriage was confummated, and Francis took leave of his new brother-in-law with diflembled demonflrations’ef regard. In the courfe of the-fame year, Charles married Tiabelia, the filter of John III. king of Portugal, a choice equally acceptable to the Cortes of Caltile and Arragon, and pleafing to the court of Lifbon. ‘ , On the death of Lewis II. king of Hungary and 6£ Bohemia, on the field of Mohaoz, thofe kingdoms were claimed by the’archduke Ferdinand, as inheriting the ancient pretentions of the houfe of Auttria, and in right of his wife, the filter of the deceafed monarch. The Vaywode of Tranfylvania was a competitor ; but the perfonal’merit o Ferdinand, and the influence of the emperor now laid th ) foundation ab NN hh CS CES A A a ——— PY lan i — ie earns CH AR foundation of that pre-eminence, which has rendered the houfe of Auftria fo formidable to the rett of Germany, fince thefe acquifitions became hereditary in their family. Having expericnced the danger of awakening the fears of » mankind, Charles affe€ted to difclaim the enterprize of Bourbon again{t the pope’s liberty.. But Europe was not to be cajoled by prayers and proccflians, and Francis rufhed to action. The Milauefe had been drained of the imperial forces, by the expedition againit Rome, and the Italians re- ceived Lantree with open arms. he whole duchy, as well as Alexandria and Pavia, muit have been reftored to France, had not Lautree feared the ‘jealoufy of the confederates. He, therefore, marched towards Rome, where the pope was {till @ prifoner in the cattle of St. Angelo. The Impe- rial army demanded their arrears; and Charles, who could depend neither on their fidelny, nor the liberality of the cortes, fold Ciement his freedom for three hundred and fifty thoufand crowns. Part of this fum was diftributed among the Imperial troops, who then quitted Rome, and pointed their retreat towards Naples. In the year 1529, while the contending parties were fluctuating in their counfels, a negotiation, undertaken be- tween Margaret of Auftria, the emperor’s aunt, and Louifa, the mother of Francis, terminated in the peace of Cambray, by which Francis was to pay two millions of crowns for the ranfom of the dauphin and the duke of Orleans; to reftore the towns he ftili held in the Milanefe; to renounce his claims to Naples, Milan, Genoa, and all beyond the Alps ; to abandon the Venetians, the Florentines, and the duke of ferrara; in a word, to facrifice every objeét of the war, and to purchafe the indulgence of his parental feelings at the expence of his chara¢ter as a public man and a fovereign. Henry VIII. acceded to the peace of Cambray ; fo that this interval of tranquillity gave Charles an opportunity of viliting his Italian and German dominions. Before his embarkation, a queflion having arifen whether the inhabit- ants of Barcelona fhould receive him on his entry, as em- peror or as count of Barcelona, he inftantly decided for the _ latter ttle, and was rewarded for his flattering difpofitions by _an oath of allegiance from the itates of the provinces to his infant fon Philip. In Italy, he appeared in all the pomp of military and civil ftate; and took infinite pains to efface every unfavourable prepoffeffion from the minds of the natives, by the equity and moderation with which he ad- julted the concernsof the country. Butin the year 1530, the affairs of Germany called for his immediate attention. ‘Though Solyman had been obliged to abandon the fiege of Vienna with difgrace, the religious diforders of the empire demanded the prefence of its head. Several of the Cerman princes, who had embraced the opinions of Luther, had not only eftablifhed in their territories that form of worfhip, but had entirely fupprefled the rites of the Romiih church. Many of the free cities had imitated their conduét. Nearly one-balf of the Germanic body had revolted from the papal fee, and its authority w2s conliderably weakened in the other half. Che Imperial influence began to be weakened by thefe divifions, to iupprefs which, the dict of Augfburgh was called, and attended by all the princes of the empire, efpecially thofe who had protefted againft the decree of a Jate diet at Spires, for the celebration of mafs. The prin- cipal of thefe Proteltants were the electors of Saxony, the - marquis of Drandenburgh, the Landgrave of Hefie, the dukes of Lunenburgh, and the prince of Anhalt. They conduéted themfelves with decency, but defended their opinions with fortitude. Their tenets were, however, condemned by the majority of the diet, whole decree induced them to confede- rate more clofely, and produced the league of Smalkalde. In the year 1532, the emperor marched again{t Solyman ; ~ Vou. VII. Si V. but the campaign wore out without any remarkable event. He afterwards failed againft Tunis, and took the Goletta, garrifoned by fix thoufand Turkith foldiers, ueder the command of Sinan, a renegado Jew, which led to the defeat of Barbarofla. But before Charles could give the neceflary orders for protection againt military violence, the foldiers had precipitated themfelves on the city of Tunis, where thirty thoviand inhabitants perifhed in one day, and Charles’s viGtory was flained by the exceffes of luft and avarice. Muley Hafcen took poffeffion of the throne, and confented to do homage for the crown cf Tunis; to fet all Chriftian flaves at liberty without ranfom; to allow the emperor’s fubjects the free exercife of their religion ; to exclude the Turkith corfairs from his harbours ; to deliver up the Goletta and all his fortified polts, and to pay twelve thoufand crowns annually for the fubfiltence of the garrifon. The luftre of this expedition dazzled Europe, and 20,0co flaves, freed from bondage, and cloathed at his expence, traced his return to Spain; after which, in the year 1536, he improved his leifure in providing funds and forces for a new war. He drew money from Naples and Sicily, troops from Germany, ard then threw down the gauntlet to the king of France, in prefence of the pope and cardinals. His confidence of fuccefs was fo great, that, notwith{tand- ing the remonttrances of his minitlers and generals againtt the plan of his campaign, he defired the hiitorian, Jovius, to make a large provifion of paper to record his impending victories. But Francis had difcovered his defign of pene- trating into the fouthern provinces of Fraxce, and left it to the Marefchal Montmorency to defeat the plan} who executed the truft by making a defcent from the Alps to Marfeilles, and from the fea to the confines of Dauphiné. Charles walted two months in Provence, and then, having loft half his troops by difeafe or famine, gave the fignal for a relu@tant retreat ; and nothing could have faved the Imperialifts from deftruction, but the adherence of Montmorency to his favourite maxim, that a bridge of gold fhould be made for a flying enemy. Inthe year 1538, the two monarchs, liftening to the ex- hortations of the Roman pontiff, extended their truce of ten months to ten'years. A few days after figning the treaty, the emperor, on his-paflage to Barcelona, was driven by contrary winds on the coalt of Provence, and invited by Francis to a perfonal interview, at which the two rivals feemed to have buried all animofity, and to contend only for fuperior candour and liberality. Charles had no fooner landed in Spain, in 1539, than he was acquainted with the fedition of his troops, who had plundered the Milanefe, and were only to be quieted by the addrefs of the imperial gene- rals, who borrowed and extorted money to dilcharge -their arrears, and then difbanded the greater part of them. Be- fore the fuccefs of his plan was afcertained, the emperor had endeavoured to roufe the liberality of his Caftilian fub - jeéts; but the nobles pleaded exemption from any tax, and prefumed to urge on Charles a conttant refidence in Spain. They were difmiffed with indignation, and were not after- wards called to the aflembly of the Cortes. But they {till aflerted their perfonal privilege. On the return of the em- peror froma tournament, one of the ferjeants (truck the . duke of Infantado’s horfe, who drew his {word and wounded the officer. Charles ordered the judge of the court to arrett the duke; but the conttable of Caltile claimed-the right of a jurifdi€ion over a grandee, and conducted Infantado to his apartment, attended by all the uobies prefent. The emperor perceived the hazard of irritation, and prudently fent to the duke of Infantado, offering to punifh the perfon who had infulted him: but the duke forgave the officer, and gave him a compenfation for lis wound. 3U Ja cH AR L ESR, In the year 1540, Charles, having negotiated a fafe con- duct by deceitful affurances, pafled through France with a {mall but fpiendid train of about an hundred perfons, and meeting the king at Chatelherault, proceeded with him to Pa- ris, where he itaid only fix days, and pleading the neceffity of his prefence in the Low Countries, was accompanied as far as St. Quintin by his gensrous and unfufpecting rival. The citizens of Ghent were incapable of reliftance; and he received their ambafladors with a declaration, that he would appear among them as their fovereigny witlr the {cep- tre in one hand, and the {word in the other. He entered the city on his birth-day, and put twenty-lix of the principal citizens to death, and thus fet an example of feverity, which might bridle the feditious fpirits of his other fubje&s inthe Netherlands. In the year 1541, he fummoned a diet at Ratifbon, in which while he confirmed the papal autho- rity, he privately aflured the reformed of his protection, and thes induced them to grant him a liberal fupply of men and money for the waragainit the Turks. The remembrance of the glory he had acquired in his late expedition to Africa inflamed him with the defire of conquering Algiers. After a tedious and tempeltuous navigation, at an advanced feafon of the year, againit the advice of Andrew Doria, he an- chored off the coaft of Africa, to experience a feries of ca- lamities, which neither prudence coald countera& nor exer- tion overcome. On the fecond day after his landing, there arofe a tempeft which overflowed the camp during the night, and the next morning at day-break they were attacked by the enemy, who were with difficuity repulfed. His fhips were molt of them wrecked, and exght thoufend men pe- rifhed in an hour, either in the fea or by the hands of the Arabs. The next day Doria fent him word that he had borne away with the remnant of the flees to Cape Metafuz, which was three days march from the prefent camp. Preffed by ficknefs and by wounds, by famine and the Arabs, they at length reached Metafuz, and Charles by thele difatters, gained a cred:t for fortitude-and humanity, which profperity had hitherto allowed him no opportunity cf claiming. He fhared in the hardfhips of the meanelt foldier ; he expofed his perfon, and animated his, fellow- fuflerers; and though a body of Arabs hovered about his rear, he was the Jatt to quit the fhore. On his return to Spain he was attacked on various fides. In the year 1542, five formidable armies invaded his dominions, but they only confumed their ftrength in fruitiefs enterprizes. In 1543, he obtained a liberal fupply from the Cortes, borrowed a confiderable fum from John, king of Portugal, onthe fecu- rity of the Molucca ifles, negotiated a marriage between bis fon Philip, and Mary the daughter of that monarch, obtained donations from the flates of Arragon and. Valen- cia, and a valuable confideration from Cofmo de Medici for withdrawing his garrifons from the citadeis of Florence and Leghorn, and prevailed with Henry of England to declare on his fide. Under thefe circumflances, it might have been expected that Charles would have opened the campaign of 1544 with vigour; but after providing for the fecurity of Spain, and detaching a body of Spanifh troops into the Netherlands, he pafled into Germany, and preferred the in- trigues cf the diet to engaging in the operations of the field. He at length figned his laft treaty with Francis, in which, befides the public articles, there was a private agree- ment for the extermination of the proteftant herefy. He now fummoned the dict to Ratifbon, whither the Protett- ants fent deputies, though the Roman catholic members appeared in perfon. The emperor, while the clector of Saxony and the landgrave of Helle were helitating whether to genounce their homage and prefer war, had been rein- forced by Paul’s quota of troops, and fome of his own 2 Spanifh forces. Me determined, however, to wait withia his lines till the proteltant force fhould be diffolved by dif- union and neceflity. As foon as Maurice of Saxony, with whom he was in fecret league, had by an irruption with- drawn the elector to the relief of his fubjests in Saxony, the emperor put his troops in motion in the winter of 1547, and reduced the duke of. Wurtemburgh, the cities of Ulm, Augfburgh, and Strafburgh, to fubmiffion. At this pe- riod, by that goed fortane which has been called the itar of the houfe of Aufria, Francis died at Rambouillet, in the thirty-third year of his reign. reed {rom this fource of difquietude, the emperor croffed the Elve, leading his ca- valry in perfon, together with the flower cf his army, routed the Saxons, and took the cleCtor prifoner. « Having vow difperfed his enemies in the field, Charles fummone ed a diet at Augfburg, and in the year 1548 propofed that fyftem of doctrine, known by the name of the Interim, which was confidered by both parties as an unfatisfactory and infidious compromifz. But the power of the author enfured its reception every where, but in Magdeburg, Bre- men, Hamburg, and Lubeck. On the death of Paul, and the fucceffion of Julius the Third to the apcltolie chair in 1550, the emperor began to cherifh the ambitious defign of tran{mitting the German empire to his fon, as well as the kingdom of Spain, and his dominions in Italy and the Low Countries. But he met with a powerful obftacle in the jea- loufy of his brother Ferdinand. The Germans were befides difgufted with the referve and haughty manners of Philip, and alarmed at the concentration: of fo much power in the head of the empire; fo that Charles was relu¢tantly com- pelled to drop the fcheme. He therefore refumed the en- forcement of the inte:im, and would probably have fuc- ceeded completely, had he not been deceived by Meurice, whofe intricate plan of policy blinded the mof quick-fighted prince in Europe. In 1551, the diet pointed Maurice out as the molt proper general ta enforce the reception of the interim, and Charles approved of the recommendation. His credulity could not fai! of placing him at length in a moft embarraficd fituation, and he tried the effect of negotiation. The dangcr of the emperor at Infpruck and his fudden re- treat by torch-light are well known; and thefe two mafters of finefle foon came to a better underitanding, which termi- nated in a_ peace, and the eftablifhment of the protectant church in Germany, by the treaty of Paffau in 1552. But the German princes, engroffed by their own con- cerns, took little care of the French, who were expofled fivgly to the refentment of Charles. Emerging from his retreat, he affected to march towards Hungary, but turning fuddenly to the right, and being joined by Albert cf Brandenburg, invetted Metz at the head of eighty thou- fand men. His intentions having been anticipated, the city was ably defended by Francis duke of Guife; and notwith- itanding the emperor’s perfeverance even to obit macy, find- ing himfelf deferted by his foldiers, whofe fpirits had been exhauited by hardfhips, and whofe numbers had been thinned by a pettilential difeafe, he yieided to the folicitations of his generals, and retreated. His difappointment extorted from him a fevere fareafm againft fortune. whom he likened to other females, in her preference to young men, and incon- flancy to her earlier favourites. In 1553, however, he effaced in fome meafure the dif- grace of his repulfe at Metz, by the capture of Terouanre aod Hefdin. In 1554, the French king determined to a& vigoroufly both in the Low Countries and Italy, that he might com-- pel Charles to an equitable peace. He ravaged Hainauwit, Liege, and Artois; reduced Mariemburg, took Bouvines, _ and Dinant by affault, and invelted Renfi, to the relief of which 4 ; CHARLES V. which the emperor marched notwithftanding lis infirmities. He wifhed to avoid a decifive aGtion, but a difpute about a polt brought on a general engagement, in which the Impe- rialifts were repulfed, and might have been completely roxzt- ed, but for the tardinefs or jealoufy of the enemy. The emperor, on his retreat, entered Picardy, and took his re- venge for the ravage of Hainault and Artois. In Italy, his general, the marquis of Meriznavo, defeated the Florentine exile, Strozzi; ‘Sienna was befieged, and capitulated on ho- nourable terms; and Charl-s was in hopes of recovering Metz by an iatrigue with the father guardian of a convent of Francifcans in the city. But in this defign he was d f- appointed by a difeovery on the very day of execution. The death oF pope Julius the Third, and the exaltation of cardinal Caratla, the inveterate enemy of his houfe, aug- mented his chagrin, and he now, at the early age of lifty- fix, determined to retire from public life. Both his conflitu- tion and mental powers began to be ferioufly impaired by the increafing feverity and duration of the gout; the com- plication ef his political concerns, extending to every nation of Europe, was beysud his ftrength to manage, and he had a natural ai‘truft of minifters. He therefore thought that he fhould better confult his fame by a voluntary retreat than by continuing to truggle againt the tide of more ae- tive and vigorous competition. On the twenty-fifth of Odoeber, 1555, when the States of the Low Countries were aflembied at Bruflels, Charles feated himfelf for the lat time in the chair of itate, and explained, by the prefi- dent of the council, his intention in calling the meeting. He then rofe from his feat. avd leaning on the prince of Orange’s fhoulder, took a folemn review of his own edmi- nillration, and pathetically detailed his reafons for retiring. He addrefi:d his fon ina ftrain ef ferious and digaihed ex- hortation, in which he enjuined him to prove his gratitude by confulting the welfare of his people. Exhaufted by this long addrefs, he funk into his chair, more honoured and be- loved by his fubjects in his réw charaéter of a philofopher, than when dazzling their eyes by the pomp of ftate, and {welling their pride and his own by conquelt and aggran- difement. ‘ In the beginning of the next year, he refigned the crown of Spain, and all its dependencies, referving nothing to him- felf but aa annua! pention of an hundred thoufand crowns, for domeltic expences and charity. His laft public aét was the negociation of a long truce with France, by which he fecured his fon an interval of peace, and finding it hopelefs to tamper with his brother for the transfer of the imperial dignity to Philip, he clofed all by formally transferring his claims of allegiance from the Germanic body to the ‘king of the Romans. On his way to the place of his retreat, he vifited Ghent, the place of his nativity, and after a prof{perous voyage, arrived at Laredo in Bifcay. As foon as he landed, he proftrated himfelf on the earth, and faid, «© Naked 1 came out of my mother’s womb, and naked I sow return to thee, thou common mother of mankind.’’ He felt mortified at the thin attendance of Spanifh nobility at Burgos, and was {till more afflicted at his fon’s ingratitude and dilatory payment of his penfion. His retirement was fixed at the monaltery of St. Jultin’s, a few miles from Piazenciain Eftremadura, with which {pot he had been {truck in paffing by it fome years before. It was efteemed the molt healthful and delicious fituation in Spain; and an archi- tedt, whom he fent before him, had accommodated the ar- rangements to the fimplicity of his future habits. His plan ef life was that of a private gentleman, from which all ceremonious forms were difcarded. He never inquired after the politics of Eusope, but occupied bimfelf with the cul- tivation of his garden, and the exercife of riding on a little horfe, the only one he kept. He occafionally entertained a few neighbouring gentlemen at his table, and ftudied me- chanical principles with Turriano, an ingenious artitt, who accompanied him. in his retreat. A confiderable portion of his time was referved for religious exercifes, and in this dig~ nitied leifure did he pafs the firit year of his feclufion. But the debility arifing from a broken conftitution, and the na- tural tendency of a fuperttitious faith and practice, at Jength degraded his finking mind to the fervility and infanity of mona%ic penances. Prompted by the monks, to whofe direétion he had refined himfelf, he re- folved to celebrate his own obfe quies, which he did with all the folemmity -of a real funcral. The awful impreflions which the ceremony, however abfurdly. and improperly de- vifed, had left upon his mind, haftened the event which he had fo firgulsrly anticipated. On the following day he was feized wich a fever, and expived on the twenty-firlt of Sep- tember, 1558, in his ifty-ninth year. The character of his mind was rather that of careful and deliberate attention than of brilliant talents or rapid con- ception. He preferred belinefs to pleafure, and made public concerns at once his ftudy andamufement. But his promptitude in-execution was equal to his patience in deli- berating ; he was at once fagacious in deviling meafures, and frivtful in refources for carrying them forward. Though he devoted himfelf more to the cebiret than to the field, he never appeared at the head of his armies without en- titling himfelf to rank with the greate!t generals of the age. Bat his principal excellence confitted im the felicity with which he applied the important fcience of human nature te the choice of fit agents and the adaptation of abilities to fituation and office. Ef his manners were lefs pleating ¢han thofe of his rival, his virtues were at lealt as folid, and his adherents as faithful and attached. His confidence in his generals was unbounded ; he rewarded their fervices muniti- cently; he nvither envied their glory, nor miftrufted their intentions. But his ambition was infatiable, and his policy too often ungenerous; while his contemporaries, Francis the Firlt and Henry the Eighth, with numberlefs vices from which he was exempt, were characterized by an open- nefs and credulity, which made them more popular, princi- pally becaufe it rendered them lefs dangerous. Charles feems to have lived more in the Netherlands, thaa either in Spain or Germany. And it was daring his reign that fo many great compofers flourifhed in that coun- try, as to incline mutical hiftorians to affign to them the in- vention of counterpoint. Rabelais, in the prologue to the 34 book of his Pantagruel, written in 1552, names 60 ef aul- tres joyeux muficiens, whom he had heard perform, the chief of whom were Netherlanders. Sandoval in his life of the emperor Charles V. tells us that he was a great friend to the feience of mufic, and after his abdication, would have the church- offices only accompanied by the crgan, and fung by fourteen or fifteen fryers, who were good muficians, and had been feleéted from the molt expert performers of the order. He was himlelf fo {ki!fel, that he knew if any. other finger in- truded, and if any one made a miltake, hie would cry out, fuch an one is wrong, and immediately mark the man. He was earneft too, that no feculars fhould come in’; aud one evening, when a contralto from Placentia ftood near the def with the fingers, and fung one verfe with them emi- nently well, before he could fing another fome of the bar- barians ran and told the prior to turn him out of the choir, or at lealt bid him hold his tongue. The emperor underftood mufic, felt and tafted its:charms: the fryers eften difcovered him behind the door, az he fate 202 ia GHAR E ES: Bi in his own apartment, near thé high altar, beating time and finging in parts with the performers; aad if any one was oui, they could overhear him call the offender names, as redheaded blockhead, &c. A compefer from Sevilie, of my own acquaintance, continues his biographer, whofe name was Guerrero, prefented him with a book of motets and mafies: and when one of thefe compofitions had been fung as a fpecimen, the emperor called his confeffor, and faid, fee what a thief, what a plagiari(t, is this fon of a —! why here, fays he, this paflage is raken from one com- pofer, and this from*another, naming them as he went on. All this while the fingers ftood aftonmfhed, as none of them had difcovered thefe thefts, till they were pointed out by the emperor. Cuarces VI. fifth fon of the emperor Leopold, was born 1685, declared king of Spain by his father in 1703, and crowned emperor in 1711. ‘bough we never heard, from good authority, that this prince was a poet, a mulical com- pofer, or performer, his retaining Apoltoio Zino and Meta- ttafio fo many years in his fervice, chiefly to furnifh dramas for mufic, and employing the belt compofers of the time, of whatever country, to fet them,’ and every great vocal per- former of good morals to fing in them, prove him to have been an intelligent, tmunificent, and dignilicd patron of the mufical art, in all its higher departments, facred and profane. See Opera and Oratorio. Cuarzes XII. king of Sweden, was born in 1682, and fucceeded to the crown on the death of his father Charles XI. in 1697. - According to the laws of that country, he was not entitled to the reins of government till he had attained the age of 18, but he fpeedily emancipated himfelf from the reftri¢tions by which the will of the late king intended him to be bound. In very early life he had been trained to violent and martial exercifes ; and had ina thoufand inftances fhewn an impracticability of difpofition, which no force could con- quer, but which was always alive to fuggeltions of military glory. He was incited to the ftudy of Latin, becaufe his contemporaries, the kings of Poland and Denmark, were re- puted to be well verfed in that language. From reading the hiftory of Alexander, by Quintus Curtius, his paffions were inflamed with a delire cf imitating that renowned con- queror, and of becoming himfelf another Alexander in feats of martial prowefs. With this view, he, ina fhort time after nis father’s death, gained over a party in the council to deprive the dowager regent of her authority, and to furrender to him the reins of government without any limitations. An early day was fixed for his coronation ; but be, unwilling to wait for the ufual forms that long cultom had rendered necef- fary on fuch folemn occafions, {cornfully {matched the crown from the hands of the archbifhop of Upfal, and placed it on his own head. At firil the young king feemed little am- bitious of entering into the details of government ; he was fond of amufements, and attached to thofe who were fubfer- vient to his pleafures; but to others, however high their rank, and refpeGiable for talents and wifdom, he exhibited a proud and fullen referve. The inexperience of Charles encouraged the kings of Poland, Denmark, and the czar of Ruffia to enter into a confederacy again{t him, for the purpofe of wrefting from him a part of his dominions, which had been ceded to his father and grandfather. The youthful monarch was not difconcerted at the news of this powerful league ; he feemed rather to rejoice that an.opportunity would be afforded him of difplaying his hitherto latent courage and abilities. When their deligns were certainly known, a Swedifh council was convened, at which the king attended, for fome time, the filent fpetator of their proceedings; in the midit, however, ‘ chim, I treft the others will be intimidated.” of their difcuffions, refpeCting the meafures to be purfued, he rofe, and with a dienified air declared that he had deter- mired never to engage in an unjult war, but having been drawn into one by the ambitious views of an enemy, he would never defift ull he had humbled and ruined him. “ It is,”’ fays he, ‘‘ my refolution to go and attack the firft who fhali dare to avow his defigns; and when I have conquered ‘This declara- tion, fo unexpected on the part of hjs council, was followed by a total change of conduct. He gave up all his former amufements, and ‘renounced thofe habits and indulgences that might feem to withdraw h's attention from the more im- portant bufinefs of his country. In his domeftic concerns he enjomed, by fanGions not to be flighted, the ftriGteft economy; he laid alide all the exterior {plendour of drefs’; and prepared to exhibit in his own perfon the ftatefman and the hero. The Danes, commanded by the duke of Wirtemburg, attended by the king in perfon, commenced the attack, by invading the duchy of Holttein, which belonged to the brother-in-law of Charles. The Swedifh fovereign at firft fent a body of troops to his fuccour, and fome attempts were made at a negociation between the parties; but the Danith king, inftead of liftening to the {till voice of peace, excited the fovereizn of Poland to invade Livonia with a Saxon army, to draw off the attention of the Swedes from affifting the duke. The king was no fooner informed of this circumftance, than’ he drew his fword, determining never to fheathe it till he had brought the invaders into a ftate of complete humiliation. He quitted his capital in May 1700, to revifit it no more; and, embarking his troops at Carlfcroon, failed for Denmark, and proceeded at once to Copenhagen. As foon as the veflel in which he was touched the ground, he leaped into the fea, {word in hand, followed by his guards and great officers ; and advancing in the midit of a fhower of mufket-fhot, he aiked of the ge- neral who flood next him, what the whillling was which he heard: * It is the noife of the bullets fired at you,” replied the general. ‘¢ This then,” faid the king, * fhall henceforth be the mulic in which I will delight.” At the fame mo- ment the general was’wounded, and a lieutenant feil dead b his fide. The Danith entrenchments were fpeedily forced, and Charles approached Copenhagen without further oppo- fition. The king of Denmark had taken refuge with his army in Holilein. Under thefe circumftances, Charles refolved to finifh the war at once, and prepared to befiege Copenhagen by land, while the fleet blockaded it by fea: The citizens, deferted by their fovereign, and terrified at’ the preparations making by Charles, befought him not to dellroy the town; and the king on horfeback, and at the head of his regiment of guards, received the deputies, who fell on their knees, and. whofe requeft he granted, on the confideration of their paying a certain fum of money. The king of Denmark, finding his capital gone, and himfelf without the means of extricating his country from the power of the Swedes, was glad to liften to almott any terms that might be offered. ‘The victorious monarch afflured him that he required nothing but juftice to be done to the duke of Holfeia, which mutt include a complete indemnification for all his loffes, as well as a reitoration to’ all his pof- {effions, Thus, in a few weeks, did a youth only 18 years of age conclude a war on terms the moft honourable to him- felf, and to the total difcomfiture of the aggreflor. In the mean time Riga, the capital of Livonia, had been fo bravely defended, that king Anguftus of Poland, in defpair of tak- ing it, raifed the fiege. At this period, the Swedes, after the example of their king, were feized with an enthufiafm 7 for GOH ARLES °XI for military glory, that allowed no time for reflexion. Taxes, which are the finews of war, were confidered and readily granted asan honorary tribute ; and every family was ambitious of furnifhing a foldier. ‘lhe troops foon became habituated to the toils and privations conneéted with a military life, and were contented with the coarfeft fare, and that even in {mall quantities. No fooner had Charles concluded a treaty with the king of Denmark, than he turned his arms againft the Ruffians who had undertaken the fiere of Narva, with 80,000 men. The Swedifh monarch, though at the head of 20,000 troops, advanced to the relief of the place with lefs than half that number. Wuhen he was within fight of the Ruffian van- guard, he was urged to refleét upon the great difparity of numbers; to which he replied, ‘* Do you doubt whether the king of Sweden, with Sooo men, can beat the czar of Ruffia, who is at the head of So,ooo men???) ~The Ruffians at firit ftood the fhock with firmnefs; but, after an engage- ment of three hours, their entrenchments were forced with great flaughter, and Charles entered Narva in triumph. The Swedes captured many times their own number of prifoners, befides all the enemy’s artillery ; but the king only retained the principal officers, whom he treated with great kinduefs. On this occafion the czar, who was abfent from this battle, faid, ‘* I knew that the Swedes would beat us ; but, in time, they will teach us to become in our turns the conquerors.” A clofe alliance was now formed between the czar and the king of Poland; and the latter engaged to furnifh a large fuccour of Germans. Charles having pafled. the winter at Narva, entered Livonia, and appeared in the neighbourhood of Riga. He pafled the Dwina, on the banks of which were potted the Poles and Saxons, whom the Swedifh mo- narch attacked with great bravery, and after an obitinate and bloody engagement, gained a complete victory. He then advanced to the capital of Courland, from whence he pafled into Lithuania, and entered in triumph the town of Bergen, where the czar and the Polith fovereign had a few months be- fore planned his deftruction. ‘The king of Sweden now de- termined to dethrone the fovereign of Poland; the intrigues formed in that country facilitated the enterprife; and Au- guftus finding little refource in the attachment of his fub- jects, attempted to negotiate, and employed for the purpofe the countefs of Konigfmark, one of the molt captivating women of the age; but all her feductions were ufelefs againtt him who had renounced pleafure, and who, as a farther fe- curity to his virtue, conftantly refufed an interview. Aware alfo of the difcontents of the Poles, he entered into a fecret correfpondence with the malcontents, and marched into Warfaw, which opened its gates to himat the firlt f{ummons. He was foon waited upon by the leaders of the difcontented party, to whom the Swedifh monarch gave the mott pofitive aflurances that he would never give the Poles peace tll they had cletedanewking. Auguftus, being informed of thefe procecdings, affembled all his troops, which were at leait double the number of thofe under his opponent. The con- tending kings met in a plain between Cracow and Warfaw : the attack was begun by the Swedes, and though the battle was fought with the greateft valour on the part of Auguttus, yet vidtory declared itfelf for Charles. It colt him, however, the life of his friend and relation, the duke of Holftein, over whom he fhed tears of unfeigned affeGtion. The king of Sweden marched to Cracow, which immediately furrendered ; and Auguftus fled into Saxony; in the purfuit of whom Charles unfortunately fell from his horfe, and broke his thigh, an accident which detained him fome weeks in a ftate of inactivity. A fecond vitory obliged the Polith fovereign to provide for his fecurity by retiring into Saxony. At length the Poles refolved to depofe their fovereign, which was effected in February 1704; and Stanifldus Leckfinfki was chofen his fucceffor on the r2th of the following July, and by the intereft of Charles he was crowned at Wartaw the 4th day of O&tober. The czar fent 60,000 Ruffians to attack the Swedes in their conquefts; they entered Poland in feparate armies, and were joined by a great number of Saxons and Coflacks. Charles attacked and defeated the Roffian troops, and nothing could impede the progrefs or equal the celerity of the victorious Swedes. If a river interpofed, they {wam over it; and the Swedifh monarch, at the head of his cavalry, marched 30 leagues in 24 hours. Struck with confternation and difmay at thefe rapid movements, the Ruffians retired beyond the Borilthenes, and left Auguftus to his fate; who was, in a fhort time after, compelled to renounce his pretenfions to the crown of Poland, and to acknowledge Staniflaus lawful fovereign of the kingdom. He renounced, at the fame time, his alliance with the czar, his moft powerful friend, and gave up all the fubjeéts of Charles who had withdrawn their allegiance, and efpecially Patkul, who at the time bore the character of ambaflador to the czar. While the treaty was pending, Charles and Au- guftus had an interview ; during which the dethroned fove- reign received marks of ftudied civility from the conqueror, but he was neverthelefs obliged to fubmit to his will, even to the writing a letter of congratulation to his rival and fuccef- for Staniflaus. Such condué& on the part of the Swedifh monarch cannot be jultified on any principle, and the favage treatment. of the virtuous Patkul, whom he caufed to be broken on the wheel, with every circumitance of ignominy and feverity, will for ever render him, on that account, worthy of general indignation. Charles, now in the zenith of power and reputation, compelled the emperor of Germany to make fome very hn- miliating conceffious in favour of his Proteftant fubjeéts in Silefia, of whofe interefts he declared himfelf the proteétor. But his heart was principally occupied in meafures of revenge againft the czar, whom he determined to dethrone, as he had done Augultus: for this purpofe he marched at the head of 43,0co men from Saxony. The czar was at Grodno in Lithuania, whither Charles followed him, in the depth ct winter, and entered the city at one gate as the czar went out of the oppofite one. Determined on his objeé& he purfned the Ruffians and drove them acrofs the Dnieper. In his way, with the advanced guard alone he defeated a large body of them entrenched behind a morafs. ‘The czar Peter began now to be ferioufly alarmed for hisempire, and catifed propofals of peace to be made; to which the haughty king anfwered, “+ T will treat with the czar at Mofcow.”? To this the czar re- plied with diffidence, but in the tone of a predi€tion, «* My brother Charles is determined always to aét the Alexander, but I flatter myfelf he will not find me a Darius.’”? In the month of O&ober, 1708, he had arrived within too leagues of the Ruffian capital, when impuffable roads and a fearcity of provifions induced him fuddenly to turn afide into the Ukraine. A rigorous winter now commenced, which to the Swedes, who were unprovided with proper clothing and necef- faries, was fo far infupportable that in one march two thoufand of them perifhed with cold. Charles, however, fhared with his foldiers all the hardfhips incident to the fituation, and thus infpired them with principles of patience and fortitude {carce~ ly to be expeéted. In April, 1709, the whole army under the Swedifh monarch was reduced to about 30,000, and in a few weeks the king penetrated to the town of Pultowa on the eaftern frontier of the Ukraine. Here the czar had laid up his GHAR LES eo his magazines ; it was therefore of the utmoft importance to Charles to gain pofleffion of the place. He accordingly invelted it, but his operations were interrupted by the ap- proach of the czar at the head of 70,000 men, Charles al- ways unwilling to truft to another what he could himfelf per- form, went to reconncitre the enemy, and was weunded bya muilet (hot, which broke the bone of his heel. No change in his countenance betrayed the wound to his attendants, and he continued fix hours longer on horfeback giving his orders with the greateft tranquillty. He was, at length, carried to his tent in exceflive agonies, and fuch was the na- ture of the wound that the fargeons were of opinion that the king mult lofe his leg. Another mode was, however, adopt: ed, and the king, during a very painful operation, kept his Jeg fleady with both hands, looking on Ike an indifferent fpetator, ‘The czar having colleied all his forces, was ad- vancing, and to the Swedes a retreat feemed impoffible. Without calling a council of war, Charles refufed to wait for the enemy 10 his entrenchments, but ordered a general attack for the next day, and then weni to fl-ep. On the Sth of July, 1709, was fought the celebrated battle of Pul- towa which decided the fet: of the Swedifh king : he caufed himfelf to be carried in @ litter, at the head of his infantry, and after the combat of cavalry, which was difaftrous to his caule, he advanced againit the Ruffian line, defended by a formidable artillery. One of the frit volleys killed the two horfes of his litter, by another, two frefh horfes were killed, and the litter dathed to pieces. He was then carried by his life-guards, and of thefe twenty-one were deftroyed out of twenty-four. The Swedes began to give way on all fides ; their principal officers were killed or made prifoners, nine thoufand were left dead on the field of battle, and their camp at Pultowa was forced. Even in this extremity the king refufedto fy. By the orders, however, of Poniatow iky, he was placed on horleback, notwithitanding the pain occaliomned by his wound, and about five hundred horfe rallied around him, by whofe exertions he was conveyed fafe through ten Ruffian regiments, and brought to his baggage. At length he reached the Dnieper, whither Lewenhaupt had arrived with what remained of the army, amounting to about fixteen thoufand men of various countries. Thefe were clofely pur- fued by the Ruflians, to whom they eventually furrendered, with the exception of the king, who was conveyed acrols the river in a {mall boat, a few of his officers who accompa- nied him, and about three hundred Swedifh horfe, with a number of Poles and Coffacks, who ventured to {wim acrofs, With thefe Charlkcs efcaped to Bender, a Turkifh town in Moldavia. Here he was received with every mark of re- f{pect, and remained ina {tate of ina@ion, employing himfelf partly in military exercifes, partly in reading, and playing chefs. The Turks and neighbouring Greeks, having heard of his exploits, flocked in crowds to fee him. His inflexi- ble refolution to abitain from wine, and his great regularity in conforming to their cuftoms, and in attending at their re- ligious fervices, made the Mahometans confider kim as a true believer, and infpired them with an ardent defire of march- ing under him to the conquett of Ruffia. While thus at a vat diftance from his kingdom, his enemies were bufied in pulling downall the fabric of power which he had raifed by his conqueits. Auguitus returned into Poland, and repoffefled himfelt of his throne. The czar took Wi- burg, and all Carelia, poured his troops into Finland and laid fiege to Riga. ‘The king of Pruflia invaded Swedith Pomerania ; and the king of Denmark made a defcent on Schonen, and took the town of Hellingburg. The Swedes however, remained firm; and the difafters of their king rather inflamed their loyalty and patriotitm than difpirited them. The idea of dethroning the czar of Ruffia was All uppermoft in the mind of Charles: he folicited the affitt- avce of the Ottoman Porte, and Achmet III. the reigning fultan, fent him a prefent of a thoufand ducats, while the grand vizier faid to his envoy, “ I will take your king in one hand, and a {word in the other, and conduét him to Mof- cow at the head of 200,000 men.” ‘The czar’s money, however, changed the fentiments of the Turkifh minifer, who Jaid afide all thoughts of war. T-e military chef which Peter had taken at Pultowa furnified him with new refources againlt the vanquithed Charics, whole treafures were turned again‘t himfelf. “Phe hopes which the fallen king bad entertained againit his enemy being thus fruftrated, he accufed the grard vizier with corruption, who in his turn precured an order for him to leave the Turki(h dominions, but with this he refufed to comply. By fome unexpeéted changes in the Ottoman court, his intercf again prevailed and liberal oflers were madeof fending hin home with : large efcort, and provifions for al his wants. With this even he was not contented, but perlifted in demanding an army for his convoy ; and at length he retufed to goat all, though he had received 1200 purfes from the grand {cigner to pay his debts and defray his expences. An order was figned fo compel him to depart, bet Charlies determined to refit the whole Ottoman power with 300 Swedes, and aétually began fortifying kis camp in the face of an army of “26,009 Turks and Tartars. No entreaties againft this mad prejee& had any avail, he cunceived his honour concerned, znd no confiderations of prudence or humanity had weight with bim. The Janizaries unwilling, from a refoeét for his charaGer, to proceed to extremities, fent a deputation of their feniors to propole terms of accommodation, but inflead of litenin to them, he threatened to cut off their beards, +f they did vot depart.“ Let the iron-head then perifh, if he w ill perifh,” they indignantly replicd, and the attack immediately com- menced. The little camp was foon forced, and the 3co Swedes were made prifoners. Charles fought refuge in his houfe, together with a few general officers and domettics. With thefe he fired from the windows upon the Turks, 200 of whom he killed, and bravely maintzined him(elf till the edifice was in flames. In this extremity, a centinel had the prefence of mind to obferve that the chancery-houfe, which was at the diltance of fifty yards, had a tone roof, and was proof againit fire, and in which they might defend themfelves to the lait. “ There is a true Swede,” exclaimed the mo- narch, rufhing out, like a madman, at the head of a few defperadoes. From refpe& to the perfon of the king, the Tuiks at firft recoiled, but recollecting their orders, they made him prifoner, and carried him, by main force, to the tent of the bafhaw. That officer fent the Swedifh monarch in a chariot to Demotica, a fmall town at the diftance of ten leagues from Adrianople where the emperor then ‘refided with his court. left the ‘Lurks fhould not pay him the refpe& due to his royal perfon, or fhould be tempted to exaét from him any thing beneath his dignity, he feigned illnefs, and confined himicif to his bed for the {pace of ten mouths. It was ge- nerally believed throughout Europe that he was dead, and the fenate of Sweden, no longer expecting his return, re- quelted his filter to undertake the regency. She feemed at arit willing to comply, but finding it was their intention to put an end:to the wars which were ravaging their country, the refufed to act, and fent her brother word of their pro- ceedings. He indignantly wrote to the fenate, that if they pretended to interfere with public affairs, he would fend oue of his boots to govern them. : Weary of the thate of inaétivity is which he lived, he ob- tained Here he remained a confiderable time, and_ ~—+ ? CHA R tained permiffion to return to his own dominions, He took a formal leave of the Turkifh court by a very fplen- did embafly.. He fet out on his return in OQober 1714, and after fixteen days inceflant travelling, he arrived in the night at Stralfund: he was admitted with difficulty, but as foon as he made himfeif known, the whole city was in a blaze of ijlumination for joy at his arrival. Charles found his af- fairs in a very difattrous ftate; but without giving himfelf time to refle& upon this, he difpatahed orders to his gencra’s to renew the war with frefh vigour. Intoxicated by the _phrenzy of glory, all the young men crowded to the flandard of their king, and fcarcely any were left for the labours of agriculture but the aged and infirm, who were little quali- fied to fave Sweden from a famine, with which fhe was threatened. On opening the campaign, Charles was fur- rounded by fo many enemies, that valour could be of lite fervice, without a greater force. The combined army of Proffians, Danes, a d Saxons, inveftcd Stralfund, in hopes that the king would there perifh, be taken prifoner, or be compelled to make peace. he ifle of Rugen being pof- felled by the enemy, it was of importance to diflodge them; Charles made a dcfperate attempt for that purpofe, but was repulfed. He returned to Stralfund, futtained the fiege in perfon, and performed, as ufual, prodig’es of valour. The fall of the city was, however, inevitable, and fearing I-[t he ould come into the hands cf the enemy, he embarked in a {mall veffel, and by favour of the night, pafled fafely through the Danifh fleet, and was landed in Sweden. The next day the town capitulated. He wintered at Carlfcroon, rcfufing to vilit his capital till he could appear there under more profperous circumitances, He levied new troops, and ia the following {pring made an irruption into Norway with twenty thoufand men. He puthed on as far as Chriftiania, but for want of provifions, was obliged to return to Sweden. He now, through his miniiter, the baron de Goertz, effeGted a peace with Ruffia, and began to devife means for the de- thronement of George I. of England, and the reftoration of the Stuart family. Another object of his ambition was to re-eftablifh Staniflaus in Poland. ‘To effect thefe pur- poles, an alliance was formed between Sweden and Ruffia, by the intervention of cardinal Alberoni, an Italian, a man of conliderable aétivity and enterprife. The impetuofity of Charles, the alliance which he had formed, and the ambition of his minifter, feemed ready to overturn the fyftem of Enu- rope. In the interval, however, of preparing for this va{t enterprife, the Swedifh monarch, as if willing to lofe no time, invaded Norway, in order to wrelt it from the king of Denmark, and thus indemnify himfelf for the provinces which he had ceded to the czar. He formed the fiege of Frederickthall, in the month of December, regardlefs of the cold of a Norwegian winter, which not unfrequently froze the centinels to death on their pofts. To animate his troops, the Swedish fovereign expofed himfelf to all the ri- gour of the climate, and to the dangers of the fiege; and, covered only with his cloak, ufually flept in the open air. Anxious to finifh the fieze, he, on the evening of the 11th of December, vifited, with his principal engineer, the trenches that had been formed. He was refting with his elbows upon the parapet, attending to the workmen who were opening the ground by ftar-light. Almoft half his body was expofed to the battery of the enemy, which was firing grape fhot at the very {pot in which he flood. He had been in that dangerous fituation fome time, with no one near him except the chief engineer, and an aide-de-camp, when he was feen to fall upon the parapet, heaving a great figh. He was taken up dead, with his forehead beat in by acannon fhot, and his right hand grafping the hilt of his LES Xi {word. Such was the end of this extraordinary charaer, though there have been hiftorians who maintain that he was affaffinated by the French aid-de-camp, Sizuier; but afer invettigating all the circumftances that attended the event, there is no good reafon for believing otherwife than that he received his wound from one of the Danihh batteries. Charles dred at the age of 36 years and 6 months, after a reign of 21 years. His military taleuts may command admi- ration, but there was little in his charaGter to awaken in the feclings any emotions of attachment or efteem. He pof- {effed many eminent, but few, if any, amiable qualities. He was a mere foldier; in perfon he was well formed: in converfation he was awkward and bafhful: he was juft, but rarely exhibited any traits of kindnefs. Charles feems never to have known what it was to fcar, and the bluntnefs of his feelings rendered him infenfible to hardfhips and dangers for himfelf and others. His wonderful intrepidity and perfever- ance in whatever he undertook ; his fartitude under misfor- tune ; his contempt of danger, and his paffion for glory, will for ever rank him foremott among military heroes, but no king was ever more lavifh of human blood, or ever lefs con- fulted the realinterc{ls and happinels of his people. Univerf. Hilt. Voltaire Hitt. de Charles X11. Du Frefnoy. Coxe’s Travels, vol. 4. OF the other eleven Charleses of Sweden, there is little to be faid to entitle them to feparate articles in this work. Charles Canutfon, the eighth of that name, from grand marfhal in the reign of Eric, made himfelf fovereign in the year 1434. In the exercife of his office he was twice compelled to renounce all pretenfions to the crown. He retired to Finland, where his credit was fo low, that the archbifhop refufed himafmallloan, His retreat did not give peace to his diftracted country; he vas accordingly recalled, and put in pofleflion of all the honours of fovereignty ; and in 1470, he clofed an eventful life, refigning his kingdom te his nephew Stene Sture. By the hiftorians of his country he is praifed for his regard to jultice, as well as for political ta- lents: he is faid alfo to have been verfed in philofophical and mathematical knowledge. —Charles X. was born in 1622, and very early engaged in military fervice. His rank and high reputation as a military commander caufed him, in 1648, to be appointed general in chief of the Swedith forces. In 1655, he fucceeded to the crown. He immediately. re- vived the martial {p:rit of the country, and during the fix years of his reign was engaged continually in war. He died in 1660, of a fever, leaving behind him a confiderable repu- tation for private virtues, which were wrétched compenfa- tions for the difaflers which he infligted on his country, by an inerdinate ambition, and a fondnefs for martial glory.— His fon, Charles XI. though a minor, at the death of his father, concluded an advantageous peace with his neigh» bours. In a few years he made himfe f abfolute, after which one of his firlt meafures was to raife the nominal value of the coin, in order to liquidate the public debts. Sucha ftep is always unjuit, and in general, very injurious to the ftate that adopts it. He forbade the exercife of any religion ex- cept the Lutheran, and performed many other a¢ts of defpotic authority. His fubjeéts remonftrated againit his affumed arbitrary power by means of deputies; thefe he caufed to be profecuted and convicted of high treafon, among them was Patkul, who pleaded the caufe of his country with energy and manly eloquence, for whicha fentence of capital punifhment was pafled againit him, which he avoided by flight. The charaéter of this monarch was ftern, inflexible, and unfeeling ; in reply to his queen, who was interceding in behalf of fome of his fubjeéts grievoufly oppreffed, he faid, “Madam, we have taken you to bring us children, not to give CH «A give us advice.”? This fovereign was chafte, temperate, eco- nomical, vigilant, and a¢tive: he was a patron of literature ; fevere, yet not implacable: prone to anger, but eatily fof- tened. His love of peace, and the reputation of his chara@er, gave him an afcendancy in Europe, and he was confidered as the principal mediator at the treaty of Ryfwick. In his endeavours to effet a general pacification he died in April, 41697. Univerf. Hilt. Coxe’s Travels. Cuarces Emanven I. duke of Savoy, furnamed the Great, was born in 1562, and fucceeded to the throne of his country in 1580. This prince was of a bold and enter- prifing fpirit, and during a long reign engaged in many actions which could not be jultified upon any principles of juftice. During the reign of Henry ILI. of France, he in- vaded that country, and wrefted from it the marquifate of Saluces, thereby gaining a fronticr for Turin his capital, which before was expofed to the inroads and infults of his enemies. It was on this occafion that the duke {truck a medal in commemoration of the event, with the word oppor- tuné as a motto; intimating that he had hit upon the lucky moment for the enterprife. A€ing upon the fame maxim, he feized upon fome other provinces of France, during the reign of Henry IV.; he even afvired to the crown of that kingdom, but his plans were'defeated, and he was obliged to give up a part of his own territory in exchange for the marquifate of Saluces which he had formerly gained by force of arms. Another a& of glaring injuftice he com- mitted upon the Genevefe, whole capital he attempted to take in the midit of a profound peace. The body of his troops deftined to fcale the walls, obtained their objet un- perceived, but on an alarm being made, the inhabitants, long famed for their ardent ‘attachment to the rights of inde- pendence, attacked the invaders before the troops ¢ame up who were ordered to co-operate with them. Some prifoners taken by the Genevefe were defervedly hanged as common robbers. A reprefentation of the faé was laid before the feveral ftates of Europe, and the duke was obliged eventual- ly to make ample fatisfa@ion to the city. Charles af- terwards attacked the Genoefe and took many of their towns. He afpired to the imperial crown at the death of Matthias. He projected alfo the conquett of the ifle of Cyprus, and was defirous of accepting the fovereionty of Macedonia, of- ‘fered to him by the oppreffed inhabitants; but in none of thefe projects was he fuccefsful. In a conteft with the French he lott the trong fortrefs of Pignerol, the difgrace of which is fuppofed to have hailened his-death in July 1630, after a turbulent reign of fifty years. This prince had many fhining qualities: he was an able commander and a fagacious ftatefman; he was a patron of literature and the arts: he was deemed pious on account of the feveral churches that he built: he was, however, licentious in his private charatter, unbounded in his ambition, faithlefs, and diftruft- ful, fo that it has been faid © his heart was as inacceffibie as his country.”” He gained reputation by his valour, but loft all pretenfions to rectitude by his invafion of the law of nations, and of the rights of independent ftates. The Second Duke of Savoy of this name, was a friend to peace, and an ardent lover of his country, His great am- bition was to maintain terms of friendfhip with furrounding ftates, and to improve his own by grand and ufeful projets. He adorned his capital with fome of its moft magniticent edifices, and he is celebrated for penetrating the rock Monte Vifo, with an arched road 500 paces in length, and admitting two laden mules to walk abrealt, for tran{porting goods to and from France and Italy. He died in 1675; after a reign of 38 years. CHA Cuarces Emanvet III. is, however, by much the mof celebrated of the dukes of Savoy. He fucceeded to the throne, by the voluntary refignation of his father, in 1730, with the titles of duke of Savoy and king of Sardinia, his predeceflor having, at a general peace in 1713, been given Sicily, with the title of king; this, in four years after, he exchanged with the emperor for Sardinia, which it was agreed he fhould enjoy with the regal title. This prince, in 1733, united with France and Spaimin a war againft Auftria; andiin 1742 he allied himfelf with the queen cf Hungary. During the feveral wars in which he was en- gaged, he experienced various reverfes of fertune, but was for the mott part fuccelsful. When he had obtained a peace, © he devoted himfelf to the eftablifhinent of fuch regulations as might be beneficial to his fubjects: he was particularly anxious to pay the debts which had been incurred by tke war. When he had accomplifhed that favourite obje& of his heart, he exclaimed, ‘ This day is the happteft of my life; [have jut now fuppreffed the laft of the extraordi- rary taxes.’”? ‘* How few,” fays a contemporary writer, * of the occupiers of thrones, have been capable of fecling fuch a pleafure?”? His moderation and attachment to his country kept him free from the war of 1756, and in 1763 he enjoyed the felicity of aGing as mediator between the contending powers. He zealoufiy promoted every thing that could render his kingdom profperous. He corre€ted the abufes of law by a new code, which was afterwards puk- lifhed at Paris, in 2 vols. r2mo. By his example, as well as by ediéts, he fan@ioned the principles of economy and good morals. He died on the 22d of February, 1773, leav- ing behind him the charaéter of a wife and good king. Du Frefnoy. Univerf. Hitt. Smollett. Cuares, Cape, in Geography, a cape on the eaft coaft of Labrador, N. lat. 52° 25’. W. long. 55° 20'.—Alfo, a cape of America on the coa{t of Virginia, at the eait fide of the mouth of the Chefapeak. WN. lat. 37° 12’. W. long. 75° 58’. Cuarces River, a river of America, in the flate of Maffa- chufetts, anciently called Quainobequin, the principal branch of which rifes from a pond bordering on Hopkinton. It paffes through Hollifton and Bellingham, divides Medway from Medfield, Wrentham, and Franklin, and proceeding to Dedham, forms, by a curious bend, a peninfula of goo acres of land. A {tream, called ‘* Mother Brook,” runs out of this river inthis town, and falis into Neponfit river, forming a natural canal, uniting the tworivers, and affording a number of excellent mill-feats. From Dedham the courle of the river is northerly, dividing Newton from Needham, Welton, and Waltham, paffing over romantic falls: it then bends to the N.E. and E. through Watertown and Cambridge, and paffing into Boflon harbour, unites with the waters of Myftic river at the point of the peninfula of Charleftown. It is navigable for boats 7 miles to Watertown. The moft remarkable bmdges on this ri- ver are thofe which conne& Bofton with Charleitown and Cambridge. On this river are 7 paper mills, befides other mills. Cuarves County lies on the weltern fhore of Maryland, between Potowmack and Patuxent rivers. Its chief town is Port Tobacco, on a river of that name. Its extreme length is 28 miles. and breadth 24; and it contains 20,613 inhabitants, including 10,085 flaves. hills, is generally low and fandy, and dian corn, {weet potatoes, &c. Crarces, a cape on the S.W. part of the ftraic entering ‘into Hudfon Bay. N. lat.62° The country has few c Ce W long. 75° 15. CHARLES | ¢ produces tobacco, : ¥ aati CHA Cuarres City, a county of America in the flate of Virginia, lying between Chickahominy and James rivers. it formerly contained part of what now forms Prince George’scounty. It has 5583 inhabitants, including 3141 flaves. Cuares-fort, a fort on the weit coaft of the ifland of Barbadoes ; one mile S. of Bridge Town.-—Alfo, a fort on the welt coaft of the ifland of St. Chriltopher; one mile S.E. of Sandy Point town. Cuarves-fort, a fort onthe eaft fide of the bay of Kin- fale, county of Cork, Ireland. It was begun by the earl of Orrery in 1670, and was finifhed at the expence of 73,000/, The duke of Ormond, on vifiting it in 1681, called it Charles- fort in honour of the reigning monarch. It is a regular fortification, with a {trong citadel to the land fide, and is fo fituated, that all fhips coming into the harbour, muft fail within piftol fhot of the battery. It has a'ways a regiment in garrifon, and another regiment is quartered in the town of Kinfale, about a mile and a half diftant. Cuarces t/land, an ifland in Hudfon’s Straits. N. lat. 62° go’, W. long. 72° 55'.—Alfo, a fmall ifland in that part of the {traits of Magellan, called Royal Reach. Cuarces, Sr. a lake of Canada, about twelve miles dif- tant from Quebec; about 43 miles in length, and about 2 of a mile in average breadth. It confifts of two bodies of water nearly of the fame fize, communicating by a narrow pafs, through which acurrent fets towards Quebec. The views on the upper part of this lake are highly picturefque, exhibiting rocks and trees beautifully blended, and fhores that are bold and richly ornamented with hanging woods. ‘Towards the upper end the view is terminated by a range of blue hills, which appear at a diftance peeping over the tops of the tall trees. The depth of the water in the lake is, at an average, about 8 feet. The water is clear, but not well tafted; and as feveral {treams fall into it, to fupply what runs off by the river St. Charles, it is kept in a conttant ftate of circulation. The fhores abound with bull-frogs. Cuarces, Sr. a river that flows from the above-men- tioned lake into the bafon near Quebec ; at its mouth it is about 30 yards wide, but not navigable for boats, except for a few miles, on account of its numerous rocks and falls. In the {pring of the year, when it is {wollen by the floods, rafts have been conducted down the whole way from the lake; but the paflage is difficult and tedious, as there are feveral poltages. The diltance from the lake to Quebec being fo fhort, land carriage mutt always be preferred to a water conveyance along this river, except for timber. The courfe of the river is very irregular, and the views upon it extremely romantic, particularly in the neighbourhood of Lorette, a village of the Huron Indians, where the river, after falling in a beautiful cafcade over a ledge of rocks, winds through a deep dell, fhaded on each fide with tall trees. Cuarces’s Wain, in Affronomy, feven {tars in the con- ftellation Urfa Major. This figure is alfo called Davia’s Chariot, the Plough, &c. Thefe appear to have altered in brightnefs with refpeé&t to each other, fince the time they were marked by Bayer. [or if their prefent apparent order in fplendour be denoted by the firft feven figures, 1 an{wer- ing to thatof the higheit magnitude; then «, which was the brighteft according to Bayer, is now the fourth in order of brightnefs; @, which was the fecond in brightnefs, is the fifth in the prefent order; y anfwers to the fixth; 3 to the feventh ; «to the firt; ¢ to the third; and », which was the laft in order accordmg to Bayer, is apparently the fecond in brightnefs. Upon the 3d of December, 1786, M. de La Lande obferved a change in the above order. Vor. VIL C. Hitz CHARLESTON, in Geography, a pol town of Cecit county, in the flate of Maryland, near the head of Chefa- peak bay; 6 miles E.N.E. from the mouth “of Sufquehan- nah river; 10 W.S.W. from Elkton, and 50 S.W. by W, from Philadelphia. N. lat. 39°34’. In this place there are about twenty houfes, chiefly inhabited by people who are employed in the herring fifhery. Beyond it the coun- try is much diverfified with hill and dale ; and the foil being of an indifferent quality, the lands are fo little cleared, that in many parts the road winds through uninterrupted woods for four or five miles together. The fcenery in the neighbourhood is highly interefting. Near Charleiton there is a {mall foundery for cannon, which are bored by water, and of which two 24 pounders are manufactured every week. The iron is extremely tough, fo that few of the guns burtt on being proved. Cuarveston, adiftri& in the lower country of South Carolina, lying between Santee and Combahec rivers, and divided into 14 parifhes. To the ftate legiflature it fends 48 reprefentatives and 13 fenators, and to congrefs one member. It contains 66,986 inhabitants, of whom 16,532 are free; and pays taxes amounting to 21,473/. 145. Cd. {terling. Ponen cake the moft cenfiderable town, though not the prefent feat of government, in the ftate of South Caro- lina, fituate in a diltri€t of the fame name, on a tongue of land formed by the confluent ftreams of Athley and Cooper, two large and navigable rivers, though not of great ex- tent. By their union below the town they form a {pacious and convenient harbour, which communicates with the ocean ata diltance of about 7 miles below Sullivan’s ifland, The tide in thefe rivers which commonly rifes about 64 feet, has the fingular property of uniformly rifing 10 or 12 inches more in the night. The fituation of the town is flat and jow, and the water brackifh ; but the agitation occationed by the tides, and the refrefhing fea breezes contribute to render it more falu- brious than any part of the low country in the fouthern ftates. The ftreets, though too narrow fora place fo large, and fo warm a climate, are regularly formed ; running from E. to W. and from river to river, they open in beautiful profpects, and they are kept clean andhealthy by means of {ubterraneous drains. The ftreets are interfected at right angles by others, which dittribute the town into a number of {quares. The modern houfes are chiefly conftru@ed with brick and have tiled roofs ; and many of the buildings are neat, elegant, and airy. The public edifices are, an exchange, a ftate-houfe, an armoury, a poor houfe, and an orphan’s houfe. Befides feveral refpe€table academies, here is a col- lege adapted to the accommodation of a number of ftudents. The two banks of Charlefton are a branch of the national bank, and the South Carolina bank, eftablifhed in 1792. The places of public worfhip are, two epifcopal churches, twa for Independents, one for Scotch Prefbyterians, one for Baptilts, one for German Lutherans, two for Mcthodiits, one for French Proteftants, one for Quakers, a Roman Catholic chapel, and a Jewifh fynagogue. The adjacent country abounds with poultry and wild ducks ; fith are rare in the market ; and with regard to the beef, mutton, and veal, they are not generally elteemed of the beit kind. Charlefton was incorporated in 1733, and divided into 13 wards, in which are as many wardens, chofen by the mmhabit- ants, one of whom is elected intendant of the city, by whom and the wardens is formed the city council, which is em- powered to make and enforce bye-laws for the regulation of the police. The number of inhabitants was ettimated in 1787, at 15,00, including 5400 flaves, and occupying 160¢ 3X houfes ; CHA houfes ; but in 1791, the inhabitants amounted to 16,359, of whom 7684 were flaves. ‘I'his town has often fuflered by fire, and particularly in June 1796. ‘The value of exports from the port of Charieflonin the year ending Nov. 1787, amounted to 505,279/. 19s. Sd. fterling, and the number of veffels cleared in that year from the cuftom-houfe was 987, of which 735 were American, and the reft belonging to Great Britain, Ireland, Spain, France, and the United Netherlands, In 1794, the value of exports amounted to 4,846,392 dol- Jars. The light-houfe of this town lies in N. lat. 32° 41’ 52”, White point at the fouth end of the town, in N. lat. 2° 44" 30". W. long. 80°39! 45”. CHARLESTOWN, a townfhip of Montgomery coun- ty, in the ftateof New York, on the fouth fide of Mohawk river, about 32 miles W. of Scheneétady ; 496 of the in- habitants, being by the ftate cenfus of 1796, eletors.— Alfo, a townthip of Mafon county in Kentucky, fituated on the Ohio at the mouth of Lauren’s creek ; 6 miles N. of Wath- ington, and 60 N.E. of Lexington. N. lat. 38° 43’.—Alfo, atownfhip in Chefter county, Pennfylvania.—Alfo, a pott town in the county of Chefhire, and ftate of New Hamp- fhire, on the E, fide of Conne@icut river, 30 miles S. of Dartmouth college, 116 N. of W.of Bolton, and 431 N.N.E. of Philadelphia ; incorporated in 1753, and contain- ing about 100 houfes, a congregational church, a court- houfe, and an academy. Through this town the road paffes from Bofton to Quebec. N. lat..43° 16’. W. long. ~2° 19'.—Alfo, the principal town in Middlefex county, Maffathufetts, called by the aboriginal inhabitants “¢ Mifha- wun,” conne@ted with Bofton by Charles river bridge. This town is built ona peninfula, formed by Myttic river on the E. and abay from Charles river on the W. It is advan- tageoufly fituated for health, navigation, trade, and almoft all kinds of manufa@tures. The adjoining hills, celebrated in the hiftory of the American revolution, afford delightful prof{peéts of Bofton and its variegated harbour of Cam- bridge and its colleges, and of an extenfive tract of highly cultivated country. It contains within the Neck or parifh about 250 houfes, and 2000 inhabitants. The principal public buildings are a congregational church and an alms- houfe. Its chief manufaCtures are thofe of pot and pearl- athes, fhip-building, rum, leather, filver, tin, brafs, and pew- ter. Its houfes, population, trade, and navigation, have greatly augmented within a few years paft. This town is a port of entry in conjunétion with Botton. At the head of the Neck is a bridge over Myttic river, conne&ing Charleftown with Malden—Alfo, a willage in Berkeley county, Virginia, fituate on the great road leading from Philadelphia to Winchelter ; 20 miles from Wincheiter.— Alfo, a townfhip in Wafhington county, Rhode ifland, having the Atlantic to the S. and feparated from Rich- mond towards the N. by Charles river, a water of Pawea- tuck, 19 miles W. of Newport; containing 2022 inha- pitants, including 12 flaves.—Alfo, a town on the ifland of Nevis, one of the Caribbees, belonging to Great Britain. It has large houfes and well-furnifhed fhops, and is defended by Charles-fort. Near the town is a high mountain, the altitude of which, taken from a quadrant in Charleltown bay, is faid to be 14 mile perpendicular, and from the bay to the top 4 miles. N. lat 16°55’. W.long. 62° Alfo, one of the principal towns in the ifland of Barbadoes called Oftins. CHARLETON, in Biography. See Cuarcton. Cuarveton [flund, or Charles [fland, in Geography,an ifland fituated at the bottom of James’s Bay, in New South Wales, on the coaft of Labrador, and exhibiting a beautiful pro- {pee of trees and branches, which are fpread over the ifland. nee CHA The air at the bottom of the bay, though in N. Jat. 51° is exceffively cold for nine months of the year, and very hot for the other three, except on the blowing of a N.W. wind. The foil, on both the eaft and weft fides, bears all kinds of grain; and about Rupert’s Bay are fome fruits, as goofe~ berries, ftrawberries, and dewberries. N. lat. 52° 30’. W. lon, 82°,—Alfo, a townfhip in Saratoga county, New York. By the ttate cenfus of 1796, 268 of its inhabitants were electors.—Alfo, a townfhip in Worcefter county, Maffachu- fetts, incorporated in 1754, and till that time forming the weitern part of Oxford; 60 miles S.W. of Boflon, i358. W. of Worcelter; containing 1965 inhabitants. CHARLEVAL, Cuartues Faucon pe Vey, lord of, im Biography, a polite fcholar and poet, was born in 1613, and, notwith{tanding the feeblenefs of a peculiarly delicate conttitution, lived to the advauced age of 80 years. Of his converfation and writings, it is faid, they were charac- terifed by {weetnefs and refinement ; and Scarron faid of him, ‘* that the Mufes fed him only with blanc-mange and chick- en-water.”? He was not only perfonally attached to polite literature, but a liberal patron of literary merit. Upon be- ing informed that M. and Monf. Dacier were retiring from Paris to the country, in order to avoid expence, he preffed them to accept of 10,000 livres in gold. His death was occafioned by a fever, which his phyficians thought that they had fubdued by frequent bleedings. On faying to one ano- ther, in the prefence of Thevenot, the king’s librarian, “the fever is going at laft ;’’ he interpofed, and obferved, “ O no, it is the patient that is going ;’’ and he died in three hours. A fmall collection of his poems, confifting of ftanzas, epigrams, fongs, and fonnets, which are eafy and elegant, but feeble in thought and ftyle, appeared in 1759. Nouv. Diét. Hitt. Cuaruevat, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Eure, and diftri€t of Les Andelys ; 10 miles 5.E. of Ronen. CHARLEVILLE, a market and pof town of the county of Cork, Ireland, fituated on the border of the county of Limerick. It is in many refpects a flourifhing town, and its trade is daily increafing. It was formerly called Rath- gogan; but the firft Lord Orrery, better known by his former title of Broghill, being the poffeffor of it, changed its name to Charleville, in honour of the king ; made it the feat of his government, as prefident of Muniter, and had it erected into a borough, fo that it fent two members to par- liament, till the union deprived it of this privilege. Lord Orrery alfo e(tablifhed a free f{chool there; and one of his fucceffors gave ground for a charter-{chool, for the recep- tion of so children. The country round about is very fer- tile ; the foil is a light brown earth lying deep on a limes ftone bottom. Mr. Young fpeaks of 30 looms for making ferge being in this town. It is 112 miles S.W. from Dub- lin, and 29 N. from Cork. Smith. CHARLEVILLE, atown of France, in the department of the Ardennes, and chief place of a canton in the diltn& of Mezieres, from which it is feparated by the Mcufe. Before the revolution, it belonged to the prince of Condé, being exempt from the general taxes of the kingdom. The place contains 7400, and the canton 12,567 inhabitants: che territory includes 1374 kilometers and 12 communes. CHARLEVOIX, Perer-Francis-Xavier DE, in Biography, a writer of voyages and travels, was born at St. Quintin, in 1684 ; and having entered the fociety of Jefuits, taught the languages and philofophy with reputation. After returning from his foreign miffions, he was engaged for 24 years in the conduct of the “ Journal de Trevoux,”’ and was much eiteemed by his brethren of the fociety for the pu- rity CHA ity of his morals and the extent of his knowledge. He died in 1761. His works are, “* A Hiftory of the Ifland of St. Domingo,” 2 vols. gto. 1730. ** A Hittory and Defcrip- tion of Japan,” 1736. 2 vols. 4to. and 6 vols. 12mo. in which work is contained every thing that is true and inte- refting in Kempfer’s account of Japan ; ‘* Hiftory of Para- guay,” 6 vols. r2mo. ‘ General Hiftory and Defcription of New France,” 1744, 3 vols. gto. containing the refult of his own obfervations on the manners and cuftoms of the na- tive Americans, during his refidence in Canada, and in the courfe of his journey from Quebec to New Orleans, which are peculiarly valuable. Nouv. Di&. Hitt. CHARLIER, Jean, an eminent ecclefiaftic, born in 1363, at Gerfon, in France, from whence he takes the name Gerfon, by which he is more commonly known than by that of Charlier. He received his education at Paris; after which, he tludied divinity ten years under Peter d’Ailly and Giles Defchamps, and received the degree of do‘tor in 1392. Three years after, he was appointed to the chancellorfhip and canonry of the church at Paris. At this period, the violent difputes between the dukes of Orleans and Bur- gundy, and the fchifm in the papal fee, rendered Charlicr’s office very difficult to be executed. He went as a deputy, with others, in 1406, to Gregory and Benedict, the com- petitors for the papal fee, with a view of perfuading them to reftore union to the church; and was afterwards highly inftrumental in the depofition of both, and in the eleCtion of Alexander V. On the affaflination of the duke of Orleans, by the order of the duke of Burgundy, in 1408, he inveigh- ed publicly and loudly againft the foul crime, by which he incurred the greateft danger from the triumphant party. He attacked the propofitions written by John Petit in de- fence of the action committed by the duke of Burgundy ; procured the cenfure of them by the faculty of theology at Paris, and fupported their condemnation at the council of Conftance, where he appeared in the capacity of ambaffador from the king of France, and deputy from the univerfity of Paris. At that council, he fpoke on all matters of doétrine and difcipline with fo mach eloquence, and conduéted the caufe in which he had embarked fo ably, that he obtained the highett applaufe from cardinal Zabarella, and the titles of evangelical and moft chriflian do&or were conferred upon him. At the inftance of Gerfon alone, the council of Con- ftance decreed, that Petit’s principle was heretical, feditious, authorifing treafon and perjury ; and they farther decreed, that whoever maintained 1t fhould be confidered as obftinate heretics. On every occafion he difplayed the pureft and moft enlightened zeal for the reformation of manners, and his own example proved the fincerity of the motives by which his conduct was a¢tuated. His noble indignation againit the infamous principles avowed and defended by Petit, drew upon him the malice of the Burgundian faétion, fo that he dared not, upon the breaking up of the council, return im- mediately to France, but remained in Germany in the dif- guife of a pilgrim. At length he undertook the humble occupation of a f{choolmafter at Lyons, in which he conti- nued fome years, and died in 1429, aged 66. Gerfon was author of many works, which were colleéted in 1706, and -publifhed at Antwerp, in five volumes folio. ‘To him has fometimes been afcribed the celebrated treatife ¢¢ On the Jmi- tation of Chrifl ;? but Du Frefnoy, and other French hitto- rians, have determined that this was not written by Gerfon. To the Antwerp edition of his works is prefixed a piece en- titled ‘* Gerfoniana,”’ containing a multitude of curious bio- graphical anecdotes of the author, Peter d’Ailly, and other contemporary divines. According to the teltimony of Du CHA Pin, the church never had an author of greater reputation, more profound knowledge, and more folid picty, than Ger- fon. His ftyle, though harfh and fometimes carelefs, is me- thodical, and his arguments are generally conclufive. ‘* He defends the truth,” fays the ecclefiaftical hiftorian, ‘ upon all occafions, with an admirable and undaunted courage, He fuffered a cruel perfecution for a righteous caufe, and died in exile for maintaining it with vigour.’ Du Frefnoy, Du Pin. Prieftley’s Eccl. Hitt. CHARLIEU, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Loire, and chief place of a canton, iu the diftri& of Roanne; 12 miles N.W. of Lyons, and 3 N. of Roanne. The place contains 2829, and the canton 1036 inhabitants: the territory includes 1474 kiliometres and 15 communes. CHARLOCK, in Botany. See Sinapis arvenfis, and Raruanus raphanifirum. Cuarvock, in Gardening, (Sinapis nigra), is a weed too generally known to the farmer to require a minute delcrip- tion. It is frequently called chadlock, catlock, corlock, and white rape. Almoft the whole plant is covered with pellu- cid hairs. There are, according to fome, two forts of charlock, one bearing white and the other yellow flowers; but they are faid to be only a variety of the fame plant. And it is obferved by the author of the Staffordhhire agricultural report, that the “ ycllow-flowered weed termed chadlock by the farmer, is not one individual, but three feparate and diftiné plants, each fpecies more or lefe abounding in different places, and which are as follow: 1, The rough-leaved chadlock, or wild muftard, (/napis nigra); 2. the {mooth-leaved or wild rape, (bra/fica napus); and the rough-leaved wild radifh with white flowers, (raphanus raphanifirum). Thefe plants are all annuals, produced en- tirely trom feeds, which they bear in great abundance, and which feeds will lie in a clod as fafe as in a granary, and vegetate at the end of twenty years, when ploughed up and expofed to moifture. Thefe intruders are only to be extirpated by ploughing them under when the field is fal- low, or by weeding them out of the crop before their feed fhall have been ripened; for if fuffered to perfect and fhed their feed, each fingle plant will produce an hundred; the farmer fhould therefore carefully prevent this by weeding or hoeing them out in time. The increafe of the above and fome of our field weeds, when they are permitted to fhed their feed, 1s, he fays, beyond all calculation.” The young plants of charlock, are faid fo nearly to re- femble thofe of turnips that they are not eafily diftinguifhed but by the tafle; the charlock being hot and bitter, andthe turnip mild, Farmers fhould therefore be very careful in weeding theirturnips left they miltake them for charlock. Mr. Lifle has fuggelted that cold wet lands are always more fubje& to charlock than white or chalky lands; and that by an experiment which he made in fowing charlock feed and turnip-feed at the fame time, he found that the turnips appeared in three days, but the charlock not in lefs than ten, It has been remarked that fheep are fond of eating thefe weeds ; and that of courfe advantage may be derived from feeding them down in the {pring by fheep. See Wrens. CHARLOTIA, in Geaggraphy, a town on the E. fhore of St. John’s river in Eaft Piorida, feated on a high bluff, 15 or 20 feet in perpendicular afcent from the river, and half a mile or more in length. The aborigines of America feem, from the remains of great tumuli and conical mounts of earth and fhells, and other traces of a fertlement, to have 3X2 had CHA had a large town in this place. The.river for an interval of about 12 miles above the town, is divided into many chan- nels by a number of iflands. CHARLOTTE, a confiderable townfhip on the eaft fide of lake Champlain, and the fouth-wetternmott in the county of Chittenden and ftate of Vermont. It is fepa- rated on the north from Burlington by Shelburne, and contains 635 inhabitants. CuartottTs, a county of Virginia, lying S. W. of Richmond on the head waters of Staunton river, and con- taining 10,078 inhabitants, of whom 4516 are flaves. The court-houfe 1s diftant 214 miles S.S.W. from Prince Edward court-houfe, and 379 in about the fame direction from Philadelphia. Cuartotte’s Bay, a bay on the fouth-ealt of Nova- Scotia. N, lat. 44° 35’. W. long. 58° so’. Cuarvorte, Cape, a cape at the fouth extremity of New Georgia. S. lat 54° 32’. W. long. 36° i1'. Cuartotre Fort,a fort of America, in the tate of South Carolina, near the town of Peterfburg in the ftate of Georgia. Cuariorre’s, Queen, S/les, a group of iflands on the N.W. coaft of America, bounded towards the fouth by Cape St. James, and to the north by Cloak Bay, North Ifland, and Dixon’s Straits; and fituate between N. lat. 51° 48! and 54°12’, and W. long. 134° 30’ and 130°. The anha- bitants of thefe iflands confilt, according to captain Dixon’s account, of feveral tribes of Indians, who are in their difpofition and manners ferocious and favage, fo that they ave frequently in a ftate of hoftility with one another, and featt on the bodies of their enemies that are flain in battle, whilft they preferve the heads as trophies of victory. However, they carry on by means of their canoes, a very confiderable trade in furs of an excellent quality. They appeared to be much addi@ed to plunder, and with this view they not only permitted, but urged their females to go on board the Engiifh fhips whenever invited, availing themfelves of the opportunities which thefe vifits afforded them of ftealing, with fingular dexterity, whatever fell in their way. Al- though every tribe in thefe iflands is governed by its re- fpective chief, they are neverthelefs divided into families, each of which appears to have regulations, and a kind of {ubordinate government of its own. The chief ufually trades for the whole tribe, but fome- times each feparate family, difappreving his method of bar- ter, has claimed a right to difpofe of its own furs, and the chief has always complied, though it 1s uncertain whether he receives in confideration of his compliance any emolu- ment. ‘The number of fea-otter fkins colle€ted by captain Dixon at thete iflands was no lefs than 1821, many of which were very fine; other furs are found in lefs variety bere than in many other parts of the fea-coaft ; racoons, pine-martins, and feals, being the only kinds that were {eep. Portlock and Dixon’s Voyage, &e. p. 228, &c. 8vo. Vancouver’s Voyage, vol. i. p. 369, &c. It has been dif- puted to whom we are indebted for the firft difeovery of Queen Charlotte’s [fands: captain Meares, (Voyages, p. 53,) fays, that captains Lowrie and Guyle, who commanded two vel- fels that were fitted out at Bombay in 1786, and which arrived at Nootka Sound on the z9th of June, where they remained till the 27th of July, indifputably difcovered that Jand to which Mr. Dixon gave the name of Queen Char- Yotte’s 1Jands; which he is faid to have done merely from conjectural opinion, as they were never proved to be fuch, till captain Dougias, in the Iphigenia, failed through the channel which feparates them from what was then fuppofed so he the American.continent. .M, Fleurviev, in his intro- Ciick du@ion to Marchand’s voyage, does not prefume to difpute with the Englith this Jalt difcovery ; for he fays that La Peroufe, who had rightly prefumed that thefe lands mutt be an ifland, had not an opportunity of fatisfying himfelf ia this particular; but he contefts with captain Meares the priority of the difcovery attributed to captains Lowrie and Guyfe. It is not known, he fays, at what precife period they faw Queen Charlotte’s Iflands, nor how the difco- very was made, nor what portion of thefe lands they exa- mined; but we certainly know, that La Peroufe difcovered them onthe 1oth of Augutt of the fame year; that he fol- lowed and examined the coafts of them for ro days, and ranged along them from north to fouth, over an extent of 50 leagues. Afterall, on whatever fide the priority lies, the two difcoveries muit be nearly contemporary ; and it is alleged, that on both fides the honour is equal. Captain Dixon continuing his rout in 1787, from the fpace included between the parallels of 56° and 55° to the S.S.E. difcovered on the-1i of July, land im 54° 24’, which was the rorth part of thofe iflands that are now laid down in the Englith charts under the name of Queen Char- lotte’s Iflands, and of which La Peroufe had been the firft difcoverer the preceding year. Dixon ranged along the Archipelago, as La Pervule had done, by the weitern fhore, to its fouthern extremity, doubled it to the fouthward, and ftood again to the northward, ranging along the eaft fhore, as faras 53° 10’. He afterwards ran down the eaft coatt of thefe illands, as he had afcended it, without pufhing his refearches towards the continent. Captain Duncan in 1788 anchored and traded in feveral harbours of the eatt coaft of Queen Charlotte’s Iflands, examined and vifited them, from the latitude of 52° to 54°. Captain Douglas, who made a voyage to the N.W. coaft of America in 1788, in company with captain Meares, running down the coaft, vifited fome ports which had not been known, and one among others, towarde the latitude of 55°, to which he gave the name of Port Meares. That harbour is fituated on the northern fide of the {trait, which to the north- ward feparates from the continent the lands difcovered in 1786 by La Peroufe, and called Queen Charlotte’s Iflands. It appears that captain Douglas is the firft known navigator who pafled through this ftrait, and thus penetrated by the north fide into the gulf or channel which is fituated be- tween the iflands to the welt and the archipelago of San Lazaro. Douglas ranged along this channel throughout its whole length, without ever ceafing to fee land on both fides, the arm of the ica that feparates the iflands from the continent not being more than 20 leagues wide; and he ran down as far as Nootka Sound, where he rejoined captain Meares. The two fhips of thefe commanders car- ried to Canton the furs which they had procured on the dif- ferent parts of the coaft that they had vifited. See Mar- chand’s voyage by Fleurieu, vol. i. Introd. CHARLOTTE’S, QUEEN, Sound, a found of New Zealand, vilited by captain Cook in 1774; the fituation of which was niinutely afcertained by the obfervations of Mr. Wales, to be in N. lat. 41° 5/ 56.5%. E. long. 174° 25’ 7.57.=— Alfo, a found on the weitern coaft of N. America, in N, lat. about 51°, and E. long. 128°. CuarvoTte’s Jown, a town of the ifland of Dominica, — on the weft coaft, formerly ealled Rofeau. N. lat. 15° 25/. W. long. 69° 24’. Cuarvtorre’s Town, a town of the ifland of St. John, in the gulf of St. Lawrence, fituate about the center of the ifland, towards the fouth coait. N. lat. 46° 15°. W._ bong. 62° 50’. CHAR. CHA CHARLOTTEBURG, a town of America, in the county of Brunfwick and {tate of North Carolina, feated onan tland, and having an inlet and found of the. fame name, alittle to the fouth of it. N, lat. 35° 18’. W. long. 81°. CHARLOTTENBERG, a town of Germany, in the circle of Weftphalia, and county of Holzapfel, built by the French refugees; 4 miles S.W. of Holzapfel. CuarLotrensurc. See Berwin, CHARLOTTENB’ RG, atown of America, in the ftate of Jerfey, and county of Bergen; 12 miles N. of Morris town. CHARLOTTENLUND, a town of Denmark, in the ifland of Zealand; 4 miles N. of Copenhagen. CHARLOTTESVILLE, or Cuartotre, a_ pol town of America in Salifbury diftri€ and ftate of North Carolina, and the chief town of Mecklenburg county, feated on Steel creek, which joins the Sagaw, and falls into Catabaw river, about 10 miles N. of the South Carolina boundary, and 44 S. of Salifbury, containing about 40 houfes, a court-houfe, and gaol. CuarvorresvitLe, a town of America, the capital of Albemarle county in the flate of Virginia, lying on the poft road from Richmond to Danville in Kentucky; and containing about 45 houfes, a court-houfe, anda gaol; 86 miles W.N.W. of Richmond, and go S.E. by E. of Staunton. CHARLTON, Watrer, M.D. in Biography. OF this learned and ingenious phyfician, and of his numerous writings, Anthony Wood, who was cotemporary with him, has given a long account, from which the following is prin- cipally taken. He was born at Shepton Mallet, in Somer- fetfhire, on the fecond of February 1619, and received the rudiments of his learning under his father, who was reCtor of the place. In 1635, he was admitted a commoner in Magdalen Hall, Oxford, and put under the tuition of Mr. John Wilkins, afterwards bifhop of Cheftcr, under whom he made confiderable progres im logic and in philo- fophy. His difpofition leading him to the ftudy of medi- cine, he foon became conf{picuous for his proficiency in that art, and in 1642 he was created doctor in medicine by the favour of the king, Charles the firft, and appointed his phy- fician in ordinary. With this title he came to London, was admitted a fellow of the college of phyficians, and continued to enjoy a confiderable fhare of credit during the trowle- fome times that followed. On the reftoration of king Charles the fecond, he was made one of his phyficians in ordinary, and a member of the newly formed royal fociety, about which time his firft publication appeared, ** Spiritus Gorgonicus exutus, feu de caufis, fignis, et fanatione Li- thiafews.”? Svo. Lug. Bat. 1650. in which he adopts the opinion of Van Helmont, as to the caufe of the generation of urinary calculi, and recommends the feed of the wild carrot as a powerful lithontriptic. ‘‘ Exercitationes pathologice, in quibus morborum pene omnium natura et caufa ex novis anatomicorum inventis inquiruntur.”? London, 1661, gto. In this, as well as in the reit of his medical lucubra- tions, there is little new; but they tended to {pread the knowledge of the many improvements in anatomy and phi- ‘fiology which had been made by the Bartholines, by Har- vey, Ghiffon, &c. ‘* Natural Hiftory of Nutrition, Life, and voluntary Motion, containing all the new Difcoveries of Anatomifts.” 4to. London, 1658. But his inquiries were not confined to medical fubjeéts. He wrote ** The Dark- nefs of Atheifm difcovered by the Light of Nature.” The Ephefan and Cimmerian Matrons ; two remarkable CHA examples of the power of love and wit.’”? In 1660, to thew his loyalty, which had perhaps been fufpeéted, from his hying about the court of Oliver Cromwell, he circulated a thet, containing a character of his mott facred majetty, Charles the Second ; and in 4663 he publifhed ** Chorea Gigantum; or the moft famous Antiquity of Great Britain, vulgarly called Stone Henge, itanding on Salifbury Plain, reftored to the Danes,’ gto. Inigo Jones had fuppofed it was a Roman temple. Charlton, inftru@ted, Wood fays, by Olaus Wormius, the Danith antiquary, infitted, that the flones were placed there by the Danes, but they were {uppofed, with more propriety, to be Druidical remains. We have alfo by him an Harveian oration, printed in 1680 : Leétures on the ftruéture of the heart, the courfe of its motion, &c. read before the college on the 19th, 20th, and 21ft, days of March, 1682, with numerous other pieces, for titles of which fee Wood’s Athene Oxon., Haller’s Bib., General Biography, &c. In 1689 he was made prefident of the College of Phyficians, which office he held two years. It is probable, however, that he never had any very confiderable fhare of praétice, as we find him foon after this retired to the ifland of Jerfey, ‘where he now is, Ant. Wood fays, viz. 1695, a learned and unhappy man, aged, and grave, yet too much given to remances.” Wood gives a lik of more than twenty publications by Charlton, and he is known to have intended many more, the manufcripts being now in the Britith mufeum. The greater part of his publications and writings were alien to the praétice of medi- cine, and muft therefore have tended rather to ob{tru@, than forward his acquifition of fortune. He died in the year 1707, in the 88th year of his age, Cuartton, in Geography, an ifland in the fouthern part of Hudfon’s bay. N. lat. 52° 8’, W. long. 80°. CHARLY, a town of France, in the department of he Bathe: and diltri&t of Chateau-Thierry, 2 leagues S.W. of it. CHARM, derived from the Latin carmen, verfe, a ma-~ gic power, or fpell, by which with the afliftance of the de- vil, forcerors and witches are fuppofed to do wondreus things far furpafling the powers of nature. See Maciec. Phylacteries, hgatures, &e. are, all, kinds of charms. CHARMANDA, in Ancient Geography, a nation of Alia, placed by Xenophon on the other fide of the Euphrates, CHARMES, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Vofges, and chief place of a canton, in the diltriét of Mirecourt, 24 leagues N.E. of it. The place contains 2686, and the canton 10743 inhabitants; the terntory includes 2174 kiliometres and 27 communes. CHARMIDAS, in Biography, the companion of. Philo of Larifla (fee PHito), and celebrated for the compafs and fidelity of his memory, and for his moral wifdom. Cic Tule. Queft. Li. Pha. H. Nu d.x. co 16, Stobz«us, ferm 212. ‘ CHARMIS, a native of Marfeilles, but for his great {kill in the practice of medicine invited to Rome,where he flourith- ed in the time of the emperor Nero, Having fucceeded in rettoring fome. of the principal men there to health, by means of the cold: bath, he foon found himfelf at the head of the profefiion, and was thence enabled to acquire a large. pro- perty.. He is faid to have charged one of his patients 200 feiterces, a fum equal, Le Clerc fays, to 20.0c0 livres, or 8oo/. fterling, for.afingle cure. He decried, Pliny fays, the practice of his brethren ; though be might have recollected, that the cold bath, by the ufe of which he acquired his repu- tation, had been recommended by Ant. Mufa,. He invested aa CHA an antidote, to which he gave his name; the formula is pree ferved by Galen, but it has been long out of ufe. Le Clerc, Hitt. dela Med. Cuarmts, in Ancient Geography, afmall town of the ifland of Sardinia, founded, according to Steph. Byz. by the Car- thaginians. CHARMOGOL, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the province of Chorafan: 200 miles N. of Herat. CHARMONT, a town of France, in the department of the Marne; 14 miles N.E. of Vitry. CHARMOSYNA, in Mythology, a feltival at Athens ; and, accordirg to Plutarch, in Egypt. CHARMOTAS, in Ancient Geography, a fea-port of the Arabic gulf, the entrance of which, according to Stra- bo, was {trait and dangerous. CHARMOUTH, in Geography, a village of England, on the coait of the county of Dorfet, at the mouth of a {mall river called Char, where the Danes made a defcent, and ravaged the country, in the years 33 and S403 3 miles I. of Lime. CHARMUT, io Zchthyology. The Linnean Silurus an- guillaris, which inhabits the Nile, and other rivers of Afia, is known among the Arabians by the name of Charmut. See Sirurws anguillaris. CHARMUTH. Silurus charmuth niloticus of Haffelquitt is the Linnzean Si/urus anguillaris, which fee. CHARMUTHA, in Ancient Geography, a peninfula of the Arabie gulf, on the coall of Arabia Felix, according to Diodorus Siculus. CHARNEL, a portico, or gallery, anciently near the church-yard ; over which were difpofed the bones of the dead, when the flefh was confumed. The charnels, or charnel-houfes, are now ufually contigu- ous to the church. CHARNEZAY, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Indre and Loire, and diftri€t of Loches ; 10 miles S. of it. CHARNUB, in the Materia Medica, a name given by fome of the ancient writers to the /ligua dulcis, or carob- tree. The Arabian phyficians mention two kinds of this ; the Syrian, and Nabathean: the firft they call aljembut, and the other a/abat. Avicenna teils us, that the firlt of thefe was a purge, and was given with fuccefs in pains of the bowels ; and the other an altringent, given in profluvia of the menfes. CHARNY, ion Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Meufe, and chief place of a canton in the diltri€t of Verdun; one league N. of Verdun. The place contains 615, and the canton gott, inhabitants: the ter- ritory comprehends 215 kiliometres and 21 communes, Cuarny, a town of France, in the department of the Yonne, and chief place of a canton in the diltri& of Joigny ; 19 miles N.W. of Auxerre. The place contains $13, and the canton 13,141, inhabitants : the territory includes 2874 kiliometres and 21 communes. CHAROLLAIS, a {mall country of France, before the revolution ; fo called from Charolles, the capital. CHAROLLES,a town of France, in the department of the Sadne and Loire, and chief place of a diftri&. The place contains 240, and the canton 10,811 inhabitants: the territory includes 190 kiliometres and 14 communes. CHARON, a town of France, in the department of the Lower Charente; 3 leagues N. of Rochefort. Cuaron, in Mythology, the ferryman of hell; fon of Erebus and Nox, according to the theogony of Hefiod, whofe province it was to carry in his boat, over the waters of CHA Acheron, Styx, Cocytus, and Phlegethon, the fouls of the dead ; particularly of thofe who were buried; for perfons who were not interred were fuppoféd to wander about the fhores for 100 years before they were carried over. Thus Virgil (AE. vi.) defcribes their ftate : * Centum errant annos, volitant hee litora circum : Tum demum admiffi ftagna exoptata revifunt.’’ A hundred years they wander on the fhore, At length, their penance done, are wafted o’er. However, Charon was firft paid his fare, which was never lefs than one obolus, nor more than three, which was put into the mouths of perfons interred. Some mythologifts have derived his name from Acharon, fine gratia, formed of w priv. and yes, gratia, denoting the ungracefulnefs of his afpe&t. Others fay, that Charoni, in the old Egyptian, fig- nified fimply a ferry-man. ‘The Arabian hiftorians deferibe Charon as a perfon of great power ; who could load feveral camels with the keys which opened the numerous apartments that contained his treafures. Perhaps in Egypt the name of Charon was a dignity bettowed on the boatmen who con- veyed the bodies of the Pharaohs over the lake Mceris to de- pofit them in the cells of the labyrinth, of which he was the keeper. Without donbt, the perfon who performed the fame office on the lake cf Memphis, with refpe& to the in- habitants of that city, had the fametitle. If this conje&ture be founded, we difcover the reafon why the Greeks, borrow- ing from the Egyptians, gave the name of Charon to the boatman of hell; and why the Arabs call the lake of Meeris, “* birkut Caroun,’’? and ruins in its vicinity ‘* balad Caroun,”? the burgh of Charon, and “ cafr Caroun,” the palace of Charon. The prefent inhabitants of Egypt have a kind of traditionary fable, that Charon was a perfon of mean extraction, who placed himfelf near this lake, and de- manded a certain fum for every corpfe that was ferried over to be interred ; which impofitton he continued for feveral years without any authority ; but as he infifted upon receiv- ing the ufual fare for the king’s fon, the fraud was difco- vered and: difcontinued. The king, however, as the fable reports, perceiving the advantage of this impoit, confirmed it by royal authority, and appointed Charon to the poft he had before occupied, which he rendered the mott lucrative office in the kingdom. It is alfo faid that be became fo rich and powerful, as to {faffinate his fovereign, and afcend the throne in his ftead. To this fanciful narration we may fubjoin the account given by T'zetzes, who, reprefenting the Fortunate iflands as Britifh, obferves, that the fouls of the dead are reported to be carried thither; and that on the fhore of the ocean, which wafhes the ifland called Britain, — men fubfift by fifhing, who are fubject to the Franks, but pay them no tribute, becaufe, as it is reported, they tranfport the fouls of the dead to the coaft of Britain, which is reckoned among the iflands of the bleffed, and the habitation of deceafed perfons, conveyed thither by thefe fifhermen. Charon is reprefented by the poets asa fat, fqualid, old man, with a long grey beard, and rheumatic eyes, clad with tat- tered rags, that fcarcely covered his nakednefs. Virgil de- fcribes him as poflefling the vigour and firmnefs of old age, meanly clad, with a long beard, grey matted hair, and fixed © fiery eyes. Thus, © Portitor has horrendus aquas et flumina fervat Terribili {qualore Charon: cui plurima mento Canities inculta jacet ; {tant lumina, flamme : Sordidus ex humeris nodo dependet amictus. CHA Tpfe ratem conto fubigit, velifque miniftrat, Et ferruginea fubve&tat corpora cymb, Jam fenior ; fed cruda Deo viridi{que fene@us.” fin. vi. v. 298, &c. There Charon ftands, who rules the dreary coalts ; A fordid god: down from his hoary chin A length of beard defcends, uncomb’d, unclean ; His eyes like. hollow furnaces on fire ; A girdle, foul with greafe, binds his obfcene attire. He fpreads his canvas, with his pole he fleers, The freights of fitting ghofts in his thin bottom bears. He look’d in years; yet in his years were feen A youthful vigour, and autumnal green. CHARONDAS, in Biography, a native of Catanea in Sicily, flourifhed about 446 years B. C. and is fuppofed to have been a difciple of Pythagoras. He was diltinguifhed both as a philofopher and a legiflator; and is faid ta have framed a code of laws for his own native place and feveral - other cities of the Chalcidians, and alfo for the Magii; and they were afterwards adopted by the inhabitants of Thurium in Magna Grecia, rebuilt by the Sybarites, when they efta- blithed their republic. Some of thefe laws were fuch as follow: Perfons who married a fecond time, if any children by their firft wives were living, were excluded from the fe- nate, and from all public employments, becaufe bad fathers, as the legiflator conceived fuch to be, would make bad ma- giftrates. All falfe accufers were carried through every part of the city crowned with heath or broom, and thus expofed to public ignominy, as the vileft of men. All thofe were perfecuted and fined who formed a corre{pondence, or con- tracted a friendfhip with wicked men. Conceiving ignorance to be the greatelt evil and the fource of vice, Charondas en- joined, that the children of all the citizens fhould be inftruéted in Fterature and the fciences. Inftead of putting deferters and thofe who fled in the day of battle to death, he fentenced them to appear for three days in the city, dreffed in the ha- bit of women. To prevent the rath and halty abrogation of his laws, he enjoined, that thofe who propofed to alter or amend them, fhould appear in the public affembly with a halter about their necks, and if the alteration propofed did not pafs, they were to be immediately ftrangled. Charondas did not long furvive his own laws. Returning one day from purfuing fome thieves, and finding a tumult in the city, he eame armed into the aflembly ; though he himfelf had pro- hibited any perfon’s doing fo by an exprefs law. Whena perfon obferved him and recriminated in fevere terms on ac- count of the violation of his own laws, “I do not violate them, fays he, but thus feal them with my blood ;?’ and having thus fpoken, he plunged his {word into his bofom, and expired. Diod. Sic. Diog. Laert. CHARONIUS, Charonean, is ufed as an epithet for eaves, fome of which are found in Italy, and in other parts of the world, where the air is fo Joaded with a poifonous vapour, that animals cannot live in them even a few mo- ments. CHAROST, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Cher, and chief place of a canton in the diitriat of Bourges, feated on the river Arnon ; four leagues S.W. of Bourges. The place contains roso and the cauton 8635 inhabitants: the territory includes 3024 kiliometres, and 13 communes. CHARPE, in Mihtary Language. This confilts of two ropes or cables faft-ned together, fomewhat croffways from one ponton to another, as aifo to the banks or fides of a ri- ver, when you with to make a bridge acrois it, in order to keep the pontons fteady in their placcs. CHARPENTIER, Francis, in Biography, a native of 9) CHA Paris, where he was born in 1620, Although he was origi- nally intended for the bar, his love of retirement, and at- tachment to literature, diverted him from this purfuit, and induced him to rank himfelf among the men of letters. His reputation and connedtions caufed him, in 1651, to be elected a member of the French Academy; and after he had been employed by the minifter Colbert, in recommending to the nation the propofed eftablifhhment of an Eaft India-com- pany, he was chofen, under the fan@tion of the minilter, a member of the new-inftituted Academy of Infcriptions and Belles Lettres, for which ditin@ion his knowledge of the ancient languages peculiarly qualified him. M. Charpentier, however, though converfaat with ancient writers, and though he had commenced his career by the tranflation of Xeno- phon’s Cyropedia and Memorabilia, was very far from ine dulging a bigotted attachment to antiquity ; and in the dif- pute that agitated the literati concerning the comparative merit of the ancients and moderns, he took part in favour of the latter. In 1676, he wrote “A Defence of the Ufe of the French Language for the Infcription on the Triumphal Arch ;” and in 1683, he publithed two volumes “ On the Excellence of the French Language.”? Thefe publications excited the avowed enmity of Boileau, who fatirized him with an unwarrantable feverity ; although it muft be allowed that his tafte was unequal to his vivacity and learning. The in-- flated ityle of the inferiptions placed under the piftures of Le Brun io the gallery at Verfailles, fuch as The incredible paflage of the Rhine,’”? and“* The miraculous capture of Va- lenciennes,”? incurred juft cenfure, and the epithets were erafed by the king’s order. In his adulation of the king he exceeded his contemporaries, even ata period when they were vying with one another in this kindof panegyric. Charpentier was ambitious of difplaying his rhetorical powers, which he poffeffed in an eminent degree, on various occafions ; and particularly in the meetings of the French Academy, at which he was affiduous in his attendance. His iaft work, entutled ** A Differtation on the Excellence and Uuility of Academic Exercifes,” was publifhed in 1695. As to his ne charaéter, it was eminentiy mild and honourable. bilft he retained the grateful remembrance of benefits which he received, he foon forgot injuries, and never che- rifhed rancour eyainft any of his adverfaries. He died in 4702; and long after his death fome literary fragments were publifhed under the title of Carpentariana,” that are held inno great eftimation. D’Alemb. Hitt.des Memb. de Acad. Fr. Gen. Biog. Cuarrentier, in Military Language, a carpenter. Such workmen are abfolutely neceflary in the fuite of an army. Without their affiftance the miners can do nothing. For all military operations in general their fervices are indeed more or lefs neceflary.. Care fhould be taken, that fuch of them, as follow an army, are ftrorg and robutt. CuHarPENTIER jaune, in Ornithology. See Picus exal bidus. CHARPEY, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Drdme ; 3 leagues E. of Valence. CHARPOTE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, fituate between the mountains, in the valley through which: pafled the river Arfanias in its courfe to the Euphrates. CHARR, Cuar, or as fometimes called Charre, in Jch- thyology, the common name of the Alpine falmon, Sa/mo Alpinus of Linnzus. This fith is found i the lakes of Welt- morland, and the mountainous parts of northern Europe. It is efteetned an excellent &th for the table, and potted is confidered an article of luxury. In England we diltinguifh more than one kind of charr, though they are generally be- lieved to appertain to a fingle fpecies only, Mr. Pennant, upon CHA wpon the aythority of the Revs Mr. Farrith of Carlifle, eru- merates the Ca/? charr ; the Gelt charr, or one which has net fpawned the pre g¢ feafon, and is on that account reck- oned to be in the greatelt perfeion; and the Red charr, which lat is diftinguifhed in Weftmorland by -he name of Red charr, becaufe tn drefling the flefh aflumes a higher co- Jour than the others, ‘The fame cireumftance is obfervable inthe trout. With refpeét to the Torgoch of the Welth, or “ Red belly, a kind of charr found in one of the Snowdo- nian lakes, we are not fatisfied that it is of the fame fpecies as the charr of Weitmorland, though uniformly defcribed as fuch by authors. © This we thall notice more particularly un- der the article Salmo dlpinus, obferving only in this place, that the fith {pawns at a different time of the year from the former, that it 1s {maller, and brighter inftead of paler in co- jour when in feafon than the red charr of the Wettmorland lakes. Vide Donov. Brit. Fithes; and article Saumo alpinus. CHARR, or Cuarrua, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in Mefopotamia, fituate near the river Scyrtus, now ealled ** Harvan,’? and thought to be the fame that bears this appellation in the hiftory of Abraham’s peregrinations. CHARRARA, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the province of Farfiftan: 48 miles N.W. of Schiras. CHARRES, a town of Arabia; g miles N.N.E. of Gana. (CHARRETTE, a cart. Every one knows the meaning of this word. Bat it is proper to introduce it, as charrettes are extremely ufeful in matters of artillery. They ferve the purpofe of carrying and tranf{porting ammunition ;. and vary in their forms or figures in ditferent departments thereof, as the heutenant generals and commanding officers of artil- tery have them conttru€ted each according to his own me- thod. to fuit the:countries they ferve in. CHARRIERE, Joseeu, ve La, in Biography, a fur- geon of eminence of Annecy, in Savoy. After refiding feveral vears in Paris, and receiving the inftruction of the beft matters there, he returned to Annecy, where he foon diftinguifhed himfelf by his fuperior attainments. In 1690, he publifhed, as the relult of an extenfive practice, ‘* Traité des Operations de Chirurgie,” 12mo. Paris. He gives the defcriptions of each of the difeafes, with the reafons for, and the manner of performing the operations ; and though this treatife was fuperfeded by the Inftitutiones Chirurgice of Heifter, as Heiiter’s has been by the works of later writers, it enjoyed, in its time, no {mall fhare of reputation, as appears by its having been reprinted fix or feven times in the fpace of twenty years. ‘ Anatomie nouvelle de la léte de Phomme,”? 12mo,. 1703, Paris. The parts are minutely and with fufficient accuracy deferibed, but with no addition to what was before known on the fubjeét. Hall. Bib. Anat. et Chir. Eloy. Diét. Hitt. CHARRING of Pofls, in Rural Economy, the pra&ice of reducing that part of the furface of pofts which is to be put into the ground to fomewhat of the ftate of charcoal, fo as to render it more durable and lafting. This method of prepar- ing potts is highly ufeful where they are to be placed in wet fituations, or to ftand between wet and dry. The practice is common in Norfolk; where, according to Mr. Marfhall, it is thus performed: “ A trench is dug eighteen inches wide, eighteen inches deep, and fix feet long, and aired by burning fome ftraw and a faggot or two in it previonily to laying downthe pofts. This being done, three poits are laid acrofs the trench ; placing the part to be burnt, namely, the part propofed co fland between air and woitture, immediately over the fire; thrulting the fuel (dry oven faggots) in at the windward end of the trench. As oue Jide becomes charred, another is turned dowaward ; I CHA and, to ptevent the fire from fpreading too wide (reaching too high up the pott), the part not intended to be burnt is wetted by means of a wet ftraw band, tied round the paft, on the part where the fire ought to be checked; pouring water from rime to time upon the twitted flraw. The polts having been repeatedly turned on all fides, until white athes begin to form on the furface of a black coat of coal, about one-tenth of an inch thick, they are removed, and their places fupplied by others. Chips, he fays, are preferable to faggots, as fuel, in this operation ; as they can be dropt in between the pofts wherever an increafe of fire is wanted.” From the great {carcity of hop-poles it has been fug- gefted that this methcd may likewife be ufeful in preferving the bottom parts of them from decaying. As 3000 of thefe poles are required for an acre of land, this is conceived to be an object of great moment to the hop planter. CHARROL, Carriage, or Wainage, in Military Language. This word ought to be regarded as extending in its meaning to all carriages, horfes, mules, and, in general, to every thing deftined for the tranfport of all kinds of provifions and am- munition for the ule of armies. CHARRON, Peter, in Biography, was the fon of a . bookfeller, at Paris, and born in 1541. He was educated for the law at Orleans and Bourges, and in the univerfity of the latter place he took his do¢tor’s degree. He prattifed as an advocate in the parliament of Paris for five or fix years; but renouncing the profeffion in difguft, he direted his attention to theology, tock priclt’s orders, and became a celebrated preacher. His reputation was fuch, that he was folicited to accept the office of canon to feveral churches, and he ferved as fuch to fevcral cathedrals ; he was alfo nomi- nated by queen Margaret her preacher in ordinary, and he was in the retinue of Cardinal d’Armagnac, legate at Avig- non. After a long abfence from Paris, he returned thither in 1588, and made an attempt to gain admiffion firt among the Carthufians, and then amoug the Celefs tines, but he was refufcd, on account of his being too old to adopt their difcipline; he therefore refolved to retain the office of a parifh prieft. At Bourdeaux, he con- tracied an intimate friendhhip with the famous Michael Montagne, and imbibed his philofophical fentiments. Their mutual affection was fuch, that Montagne gave by his will to Charron the privilege of bearing his arms, and Charron made the brother-in-law of Montague his refiduary legatee. In 1594, Charron publifhed his treatife, entitled “ Three Truths,” propofing to maintain, r. That there isa God and a true religion; 2. That of all religions the Chriltian is the only true one; and 3. That among Chriitian communions the Roman-Catholic is the only true church, This orthodox treatife procured for him from the bifhop of Cahors the dignity of grand-vicar, and a theological canon- fhip;.and in 1595 he was deputed to the general affembly of the clergy, and made fecretary to that body. In 1600, he printed a volume of ‘ Chriftian Difcourfes,”’ and in 1601 appeared the firlt edition of his “ Treatife on Wifiom.” In 1603, he went to Paris to print a fecond edition of this work, and there died fuddenly in the ftrect. This book, though his charaéter was unblemifhed, and his fincerity in his religious profeffion unquettionable, occafioned his being ranked among the moft dangerous free-thinkers. Attached from his infancy to a fyftem of faith inconceivable to reafon, he feem3 to have thought it neceffary, in vindication of his opinions, to depreciate the conclufions of mere reafon. Hence he was led to fuggeft, that ftrength of mind inclines to Atheifm ; and alfo to aflert, that the immortality of the fovl, though an univerfal dogma, is founded on very weak natural arguments. He likewife gave offence by maintain- ing eel detente tities 2 nethaien meine 2 ean ade CHA ing that, although all religions derive their origin from heaven by divine infpiration, yet all have been received by human hands and means. In the fecond edition he excepted the Chriftian religion. He was alfo charged with Jay- ing undue ftrefs on the differences that have always fub- fitted among Chriltians, together with the evils refultiag from them; and the ftrength and fairnefs with which he ftated the arguments againtt revelation were difapproved by fome of his adverfaries. On thefe accounts the fecond edition of his work excited great alarm and oppofition among theologians, _ and the impreflion was allowed, after fome alteration in the work itfelf, by particular favour. Although the author in this treatife, which was evidently formed on the principles of Montaigne’s effays, has introduced many original and in- genious obfervations, he exhibits upon the whole a gloomy picture of human nature and fociety. Charron himfelf, however, was of a gay and cheerful difpofition; ready in eonverfation; and liberal, confidering the age in which he lived, as to his mode of philofophifing. Gen. Di&. Nouv. Di&. Hift. Brucker’s Phil. by Enteld, vol. i. CHARRONS, cartwrights, workmen very neceffary in the fuite of an army, and particularly of the artillery. CHARROUX, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Allier, and diftri& of Gannat; 5 miles N. of Gannat. CHARROUX, a town of France, in the department of the Vienne, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of Civray, ti league EB. of it. The place contains 1581, and the can- ton 6808 inhabitants: the territory includes 2374 kiliome- tres and 9 communes. CHART, or Hyprocrapnicat Map, in Navigation, is a reprefentation, in plano, of a part, or of the whole of the water on the furface of the globe, and the adjacent coaft. There are various kinds of charts, as Plane, Merca- tor, &e. Charts were firft introduced into the marine by Prince Henry, duke of Vifco, fon of John I. king of Portugal, about the year 14c0. ‘Thefe were of the kind denominated plane charts, and continued in ufe for many years, and for very {mall portions of the coaft, even to the prefent time. For any confiderable extent, charts of this conftruGion were foon found to be very erroneous ; and their errors were fuc- ceflively expofed by Martin Cortes, a Spaniard, in his trea- tife, intituled Breve Compendio de la Sphera, y de la Arte de Nauegar con nueuos Inflrumentos y Reglas, printed at Seville in the year 1556: by Petrus Nonius, a Portuguefe, in his treatife de Arte et Ratione Navigandi, printed at Bafil in 1587; by Mr. Edward Wright, in his Certain Errors in Navigation | deteéled and correéted, of which the firft edition was print- ed at London in 1599; and by others. hefe errors, as enumerated by this laft author, in his own words, are the following ; ‘‘ 1. Error in the proportion of the Jength and breadth of places in the common fea chart. 2. Error in finding out the difference of longitude by the common fea chart. 3. Error in the lying and bearing of places one fiom another, in the Common fea chart. 4. Error in fetting of places out of the common fea chart into the globe. 5. Er- ror in fhewing the dillances of places in the common fea chart.” In order to correé&t thefe errors of the plane chart, Gerard Mercator, in the year 1556, publifhed a chart, in which the meridians and parallels of latitude are ftraight lines, as in the “plane chart ; but in order to compenfate the errors arifing from the parallelifm of the meridians, he increafed each de- gree or portion of the meridian with its diltance from the equator. It, however, appears, that his charts had no claim to accuracy ; for the intervals between the parallels of each ‘Vou. VII. CH A ten degrees of latitude in the chart, as given by Blundeville in his Exercifes, page 756, do not agree with the differences of the correfponding meridional parts of thofe parailels. Thus, the difference, according to the chart, between the pa- rallels of 50 and 60 degrees, is 14° lefs than the difference of the meridional parts of thofe parallels ; and that between the parallels of 7o and 80 degrees is upwards of 4 degrees lefs than the truth. It is hence evident Mercator had no certain fixed rule for dividing the enlarged meridian. The difco- very ob a rule for this purpofe was left to Wright, who publifhed the firft table for that purpofe in his book above mentioned ; in the preface to which he expreffes himfelf as follows: * But to come to thofe that may perhaps obje@, I doe but aéum agere, in doing no more then hath bin done alreadie by Gerardus Mercator in his univerfall mappe of the world many years fince. I mut anfwer, that indeed by occafion of that mappe of Mercator, I firft thought of cor- reCting fo many, and groffe errors, and abfurdities, as I have alreadie touched, and are hereafter at large fhewed in the common fea-chart, by increafing the diftances of the paral- lels from the equinoial towards the poles, in fuch fort, that at every point of latitude in the chart, a {mall part of the meridian might have the fame proportion almoft to the like part of the parallel, that it hath in the globe. But the way how this fhould be done, I learned neither of Mercator, nor of any man elfe. And in that point I with I had been as wife as he, in keeping it more charily to myfelf. For fo perhaps it might have been more beneticiall to me.” dn the above paragraph, we have Wright’s exprefs decla- ration, that no man taught him the true method of enlarging the meridian line; and as ali charts prior to his difcovery were erroneous in this increafe of the degrees of latitude, he, confequently, was.the firft difcoverer of the true method of conftruéting this kind of a chart.. We cannot omit men- tioning, in this place, Wright’s very ingenious idea of tranf- ferring the feveral cireles, &c. on the globe to a plane fur- face. ‘* Suppofe, fays he, a fpherical fuperficies, with me- ridians, parallels, rumbes, and the’ whole hydrographicall defcription drawn thereupon, to be inferibed into a concave cylinder, their axes agréeing in one. Let the fpherical fuperficies fwell like a bladder, (whiles it is in blowing), equally alwayes in every part thereof (that is, as much in longitude as in latitude) till it apply, and joyn itfelf (round about, and all alongit till towards either pole) unto the concave fuperficies of the cylinder: each pa- rallel upon this fphzrical fuperficies increafing fucceffively from the eguincdial towards either pole, until it come to be of «equal diameter with the cylinder, and confequently the meridians {ill widening themfelves, till they come to be fo far diftant every where cach from other as they are at the equinodial. ‘Thus it may molt eafily bee underftood, how a {pherical fuperficies may (by extenfion) be made a cylindri- cal, and confequently a plain parallelogram fuperficies ; be- caufe the fuperticies of a cylinder is nothing elfe but a plain parallelogram wound about two equal equidiftant circles that have one common axtree perpendicular upon the centers of them both, and the peripheries of each of them equal to the length of the parallelogram as the diltance betwixt thofe circles, or height of the cylinder is equal to the breadth thereof. So as the nauticall planifphere may be defined to be nothing elfe but a parallelogram made of the {phzrical fuperficies of an hydrographical globe infcribed into a con- cave cylinder, both their axes concurring in one ; and the {plerical fuperficies {welling in every part equally in longi- tude and latitude, till every one of the parallels thereupon be infcribed into the cylinder, (each parallel growing as great as the equinodial,) or till the whole {pherical fuperfi- ay cies Cr A Ry, cies touch and apply itfelf every where to the concavity of the cylinder, In this nautical planifphere thus conceived to be made, all places muft needs be fituate in the fame longitudes, lati- tudes, and diretions or courfes, and upon the fame meridians, parallels, and rumbes, that they were in the globe, becaufe that at every point between the equinoGial and the pole, we underftand the {pherical fuperticies whereof this plani- {phere is conceived to be made, to fwell equally as much in longitude as in latitude (til it joyn itfelf unto the concavity of the cylinder) fo as hereby no part thereof is any way dif- torted or difpleced out of his true and natural fituation upon his meridian, parallel, or rumbe, but. only dilated and en- larged: the meridians alfo, parallels, and rumbes, dilating and enlarging themfelves likewife, at every point of latitude in the fame proportion. Now then let us diligently confider of the geometrical lineaments, that is, the meridians, rumbes, and parallels of this imaginary nautical planifphere, that we may in like manner expreffe the fame in the mariners chart. For fo un- doubtedly we fhall have therein a true hydrographical de- fcription of all places, in their longitudes, latitudes, and di- reCtions, or refpeétive fituations each from other, according to the points of the compaffe in all things correfpondent to the globe, without either fenfible or explicable error. Since, in this projection, the parallels are all made equal to the equator, it is evident they are enlarged in the pro- portion of the radius to the co-fines of their refpedtive lati- tudes: wherefore, the meridian, in order to preferve every its proportion to the feveral parallels thus encreafed, mutt, at the latitude-of each parallel, be enlarged in the propor- tion of the radius to the co-fine of the latitude, or fo that the length of a minute of the true or proper meridian, which upon the globe is the fame in all latitudes, and equal to the length of a minute of the equator, may be to the length of a minute on the enlarged in any latitude, as the co-fine of the latitude to radius; or, which is the fame, as radius to the fecant of the latitude: Therefore, the length of a minute on the proper meridian mutt be to the length of a minute on the enlarged meridian, at any latitude, as radius to the fecant of that latitude. Hence, a table of na- tural fecants, to every degree and minute of the quadrant, and whofe radius is 1, will exprefs the feveral lengths of the enlarged meridian at the latitudes belonging to thofe fecants refpectively. And, hence, the fum of the fecants of all the minutes from the beginning of the quadrant, to the degree and minute of any parallel’s latitude, will be, in minutes of the equator, or nautical miles, the length of that part of the enlarged meridian which is contained between the equator and the given parallel. In this manner Mr. Wright con- ftructed his “ Table of Latitudes for graduating a Meridian in the general Sea-Chart,’’ to every degree and minute of the quadrant, which has fince obtained the general name of «A Table of Meridional Parts ;”? and by the French, that of * Latitudes Croiffantes.” The above method of dividing the meridian is not ftri@ly geometrical; and, in order to {hew that Wright knew this tobe the cafe, we cannot avoid extra¢ting the following paragraph from his Correéfion of Certain Errors, &c. p. 12. But in this table it was thought fufficient to ufe fuch ex- actnefs, as that thereby (in drawing the lineaments of the good to adjoyn alfo this geometrical conceit of dividing a meridian of the nautical planifphzre.’? * Let the eguinodial and meridian be drawn upon a globe: Let the meridian (divided into degrees, minutes, {econds, &c.) roul upon a ftreight line, beginning at the equinodial, the globe {welling in the mean time in fuch fort, that the femidiameter thereof may be alwaies equal to the fecant of the angle, or arch conteined between the eguinoc- tial and femidiameter, infifting at right angles upon the forefaid ftraight line: the degrees, minutes, and feconds, &c. of the meridian, noted in the ftreight line, as they come to touch the fame, are the divifions of the meridian in the nautical planifphere. And this conceit of dividing the meridian of the nautical planifphere may fatisfie the curious exactnefs of the geometrician ; but for mechanical ufe, the table before mentioned may fuffice.”” The above paragraph feems to have induced feveral emi- nent mathematicians to* endeavour to difcover a more accu- rate method of enlarging the meridian: and, in the year 1645, a method, ftritly accurate, was publifhed, as an ad- dition to Norwood’s Epitome of Navigation, by Mr Henry Bond. This method appears to have been difcovered by chance; but neither the name of the difcoverer, nor the time when it was difcovered, are known. The demonftra- tion of this method was {till wanting : this, however, was given, for the firft time, by the excellent Mr? James Gre- gory of Aberdeen, in his Exercitationes Geometrie, publithed in the year 1668, but not without a long train of reafoning: and in the year 1690, a more concife demonftration was given by Dr. Halley in the Philofophical Tranfa&tions of London, N° 219. vol. xix. Both thefe demonftrations are reprinted in the 2d volume of Baron Maferes’ Scriptores Lo= garithmict, printed in the year 1791. In Dr. Halley’s demonftration, it is fhewn, that if, ‘ in the common tables of logarithmic tangents, the indices alone be confidered as integers, and all the reft of the places as decimals; then the difference between the logarithm of the radius, and the logarithmic tangent of half the complement of any given latitude, divided by 0.000 126 331 14, &c. will be the meridional parts correlponding to that latitude.’ For the demonftration of this propofition, the reader is re~ ferred to the article Mertpionat Parts. Dr. Halley has fhewn various other methods of con{tru€ting a table of me- ridional parts. Cuart, globular, is a projection fo called from the cons formity it bears to the globe itfelf. This projection was propoled by Meff. Senex, Wilfon, and Harris, in which the meridians are inclined, the parallels equidiltant and curvi- linear, and the rhumb-lines real fpirals, as on the furface of the globe. From this laft property, it is evident it can be of very little ufe in navigation ; asa map, however, it has its advantages. Cuaat, reduced, is that in which the meridians and paral- lels are reprefented by ftraight lines; thefe latt are parallel to, and equidiftant from, each other ; but the former being dire&ted to the pole, are not parallel: and hence a rhumb- line on this chart is a curve, and, therefore, it is of little ufe in navigation. The degrees of latitude are equal, but thofe of the. extreme and intermediate parallels are unequal; the length of each extreme parallel being equal to the length of — a degree on the meridian, multiplied by the cofine of the > correfponding parallels. A chart of this kind will anfwer tolerably well Br the equatorial parts of the earth, but not — for parts diftant from the equator, unlefs fora {mall country, — and then only as a map. ! Cuart, /pheroidal, a chart adapted to the fpheroidal figure of the earth. In Mercator’s chart, the figure of —_ earth | nautical planifphere) fentible error might be avoided. He that lifteth to be more precife, may make the like table to decades or tennes of feconds, out of * Joachimus Rheeticus his Canon Magnus Triangulorum.’”? Notwithftanding, the geometrician that defireth exa& truth, cannot be fatisfied neither: for whofe fake and further fatisfaction, I thought CHA RT. earth is fuppofed to be that of a perfect fphere: but theory confirmed by obfervation has fhewn it to be an oblate {phe- roid. Sir Ifaac Newton, from theory, found the ratio of the equatorial to the polar axis to be as 230 to 229. By comparing men{urations made at different parts of the earth, this proportion has been found to vary confiderably, fome making it more, and others lefs, than what fir Ifaac Newton affigned. From a comparifon of the meafure of a degree in France with that at the polar circle, the diameter of the equator to the axis of the earth was found to be as 178 to 177. Vide Degree du Meridien, &c. Paris, 1741, p. lvi. According to Don George Juan, this proportion 1s as 266 to 265; and agreeable thereto he calculated a table of me- ridional parts for the fpheroid. Again, M. Du Sejour, from a comparifon of the lengths of pendulums vibrating feconds in different latitudes, concludes the proportion to be as 321 to 320. Traite Analytique, tom.ii. p.270, And, agree- able to this proportion, J. De Mendoza Rios, efq. calculated atable of meridional parts for the {pheroid, which 1s in- ferted in the Connoiflance des Temps pour l'année 1793. In the year 1758 Mr. Benjamin Martin publifhed the firft fpheroidal chart, in his ** New Principlesot Geography and Navigation,”’ adapted to don George Juan’s proportion of the equatorial diameter of the earth’s axis. ‘Thefe charts have not, however, come into general ufe. Cuart; variation, a Mercator’s chart, upon which are laid down curve lines, reprefenting the variation of the com- pals at thofe places through which they pafs. This chart was firft conftruéted by Dr. Halley, in the year 1700, with a view to find the longitude. Since the variation at the fame place is liable to an annual change, the above chart, in a few years, became almolt ufelefs. In the years 1744 and 1756, it was republifhed in London by Mefirs. Mountain and Dodfon, from nearly one hundred thoufand obferva- tions. It was alfo publifhed at Paris, in 1765, by M, Bellin, and again at London in the years 1788 and 1794. Varia- tion charts, adapted to different years, have been publifhed by Mr. Samuel Dunn. Vide Dr. Mackay’s Longitude, vol.i. p. 264. For the method of finding the longitude at fea by this method, the reader is referred to the article Lon- GiTupE; fee alfo Variation. Cuart of the Inclination, or Dip of the Magnetic Needle, contains curve lines exprefling the quantity of the inclination or dip of the needle at thofe places through which they pais. A chart of this kind, for a fmall portion of England and France, was publifhed by Mr. William Whitton, in his trea- tife entitled ** The Longitude and Latitude found by the Inclinatory or Dipping Needle,’ printed at London in 1721. In the year 1768, M. Wilcke of Sweden publifhed a general chart, exhibiting the lines of equal dip, in the moft frequented parts of the globe. This chart was re-publifhed by M. Le Monnier, io his treatife ** Loix du Magnetifme,”’ printed at *Paris in 1776. It has been propofed to find the latitude by means of a chart of the inclination of the needle; and by both inclination and declination of the needle, the latitude and longitude might be found, provided the theory of the variation was known, and inftruments could be conftruéted to thew the quantity of the variation and dip, with fufficient accuracy. ; Cuarts, Conflrudion of. 1. Of the plane chart. The number of degrees of latitude which the chart is in- tended to contain, and the extent from eaft to weft being fixed upon ; a line is to be drawn near the fide or end of a fheet of paper, in length equal to the whole length of the chart, from north to fouth ; and this line is to be divided into degrees, and numbered accordingly. From each end of this line perpendiculars are to be drawn, and made equal to the intended extent of the chart from eaft to weit, and their extremities are to be joined by a ftraight line. If the chart is to commence at or near the equator, and to extend only a few degrees of latitude, the divifions of the parallels may be equal to thofe of the meridian: but if the chart begins at any confiderable diftance from the equator, It will conduce to accuracy to make the length of each degree of the parallel equal to the co-fine of the mean latitude, the radius being 60 minutes; or, the extreme parallels may be divided according to the above proportion, and in that cafe it will become a reduced chart. Meridians and parallels are there to be drawn at convenient diltances. A. feale is now to be made of {tiff paper or pafteboard, equal in length to the extent of the chart from eaft to weft, and divided and numbered accordingly. By this fcale, the pofitions of thofe places contained within the limite of the chart are very ealily laid down, by placing the divided edge of the f{cale over the latitude of the given place ; and under the given longitude, a mark being made will reprefent the polition of the place on the chart. A compals is to be inferted in any convenient place of the chart, an arrow fhewing the direétion of the flood tide or current. The times of high water at full and change are to be marked in their proper places, expreffed in Roman charaGters ; foundings and quality of the ground at bottom, the leading marksto avoid dangers, &c. Il. Of a Mercator’s Chart. A Mercator’s chart, for any given portion of the furface of the globe, is conitru€ed as follows: The limit of the propofed chart is firftto be determined, that is, the number of degrees of latitude and longitude which itis to contain, and the degree of latitude and longitude of its commencement. Find the meridional parts anfwering to each degree of latitude within the intended limits of the chart, and take the difference between each, and that correfponding to the leat degree of latitude in the chart ; and reduce thefe differences to degrees, by dividing by 6o. A paraliel, reprefenting that of the leaft latitude, is to be drawn ; upon which the number of degrees in the propofed difference of longitude, from a fcale of equal parts, is to be laid off, and divided into degrees, and {mailer portions if convenient, and numbered at each fifth or tenth degree. From each end of this parallel a perpendicular is to be drawn, and made equal to the difference of the meridional parts of the extreme latitudes taken from the divided paral- lel; and the ends of thefe meridians are to be joined by a ftraight line, which will reprefent the other extreme parallel, and which is to be divided and numbered in the fame man- ner as the firft drawn parallel; the meridians are then to be divided into degrees, and numbered at every fifth or tenth degree. Take the meridional difference of latitude between the beginning of the chart, and the next fifth or tenth degree of latitude from the divided parallel, and lay it off from the firft parallel on each of the fcale meridians, and join thefe points by a ftraight line. In like manner, the meridional difference of latitude anfwering to each fucceffive interval of five or ten degrees, is to be Sis from the firft drawn pa- rallel and laid off, and the correfponding parallels are to be drawn and numbered accordingly, and the intermediate fpaces are to be fubdivided. If the chart is upon a large {cale, the meridional difference of latitude anfwering to each degree, is to be i oon from the leaft parallel. 3Y2 Sm A Ko. If the chart is intended to be upon a larger feale, equi- multiples of the intervals are tobe taken, fuch as will anfwer to the propofed extent of the chart. A flip-of ftrong paper is to be divided and numbered in the fame manner as the firit drawn parallel. Now, each place within the limits of the chart is to be laid down, by placing the flip of paper fo that its extreme points of di- vifion may beat the latitude of the given place on each me- ridian; then, under the longitude of the place a mark is to be made, which will reprefent the pofition of that place. In dike manner, all the places on the coait are to be laid down and conneéted by obfervations made on the coaft ; or if no {ketch had been previoufly made, the contour of the coaft js tobe drawn agreeable to the beft charts. Meridians and parallels are to be drawn through every fifth or tenth de- gree of latitude and longitude and extended to the coatt. A compafs is to be inferted in fome convenient part of the chart, and the points extended to the land: an anchor is to be drawn where there is good anchoring ground, and in places where it is fafe only to ftop a tide, an anchor wich- out a {tock is to be laid down. ‘The foundings, the quality of the ground, the times of high water at full and change, &c. are to be marked in their proper places. For the method of laying downa Mercator’s chart by means of a {cale of logarithmic tangents, the reader is re- ferred to Dr. Mackay’s Treatife on Navigation, from which the greater part of the preceding, and alfo the remaining part of this article are extraGed. LIL. Of the Vartation Chart. Having conftructed a general chart according to Merca- tor’s projection, mark down with dots all the places in which the declination of the magnetic needle has been afcertained ; then draw lines through thofe points having the {ame decli- nation. Thefe lines, or arcs, are called ines of declination ; and by proceeding in this manner as far as the variation is known the chart will be completed. Cuarts, manner of ufing. The principal ufe of a chart is, to find the courfe and diftance between any two places within its limits, and to lay down the place of a thip on it, fo that the pofition of the fhip with refpeét to the intended port, the adjacent land, iflands, &c. may be readily perceived. As it is incompatible with the plan of the prefent work to infert large charts, therefore, in performing the following examples, it is fuppofed, the praétitioner has the neceflary charts befide him. I, Use oF THE Prane Cnart. Prorcem J, To find the Latitude of a Place, on the Chart. Rule.—'Take the neareft diftance between the given place and the neareft parallel of latitude, which being applied the fame way on the divided meridian, from the point of in- terfeGion of the parallel and meridian, will give the lati- tude of the propofed place. Example.—Required the latitude of Port Louis, in the ifle of France. The leaft diftance between Port Louis and the neareft parallel being laid the fame way on the meridian, from the extremity of that parallel, will reach to 20° 8’ S. the lati- tude required, Prosiem II. To find the Courfa and Diftance between two given Places on the Chart. Rule-—Lay the edge of a {cale over the given places, and take the neareft diftance between the center of any of the compafles on the chart and the edge of the fcale, move this extent along, fo as one point of the compafs may touch the edge of the fcale, and the flraight line joining the points may be perpendicular thereto ; then will the other point fhew the courfe, and the interval between the places being applied to the f{cale, will give the required dif- tance, Example.—Required the courfe and diftance from Cape St. André to Cape St. Sebaftian, both in the ifland of Ma- dagafcar ? The edge of a fcale being laid over the two places, then, by moving the compafs as direéted, the courfe will be found to be N.E. 2 E. and the interval between them will meafure 105 leagues. Prosrem III. The Courfe and Diflance failed from a known Place being given to find the Ship’s Place on the Chart. Rule—Lay the edge ofa {cale over the place failed from, parallel to the given courfe; then take the given diftance from the feale on the chart, and lay it off from the given place by the edge of the {cale, and it will give the point on the chart reprefenting the place of the hip. Example.—The corre& courfe of a fhip from Cape St, Maria, on the N. fide of the entrance of the river La Plata, was N.E.by E, and the diftance 235 leagues. Required the place of the fhip on the chart ? The edge of the fcale being laid aver Cape St. Maria, in a N.E. by E. dire&tion, and the diftance 233 leagues, laid off from Cape St. Maria by the edge of the {cale, will give the place of the fhip, which will be found to be in latitude 28° 15'S. Prosiem IV. Given the Latitude in, and Meridian Diftance, to lay down ihe Place of the Ship on the Chart. Rule.—Through that place from which the meridian dif tance is reckoned, let a meridian be drawn, then lay a fcale over the given latitude, and the meridian diftance being taken from the fcale on the chart, and laid off by the edge of the fcale from the point of its interfeGtion with the me- ridian, will give the fhip’s place. The manner of performing this problem is obvious; and the various other problems that may be refolved on the plane chart, require no further explanation, being only the con- ftruGtion of the remaining problems in plane failing. Il. Usz or Mercator’s Cuart. . Prosiem I. To find the Latitude of a Place with the Chart Rule.—This is performed in the fame manner as Problem Fe. on the plane chart. Prosten II. To find the Longitude of a Place on the Chart. Rule.—Take the leaft diftance between the given place and the neareft meridian, which being laid off on the equate, or divided parallel, from the point of interfection of the — parallel and meridian, will give its longitude. Example.—Required the longitude of Funchal in. the ifland of Madeira ? : The leat diftance being taken between Funchal and the -neare{t meridian, and laid off from the interfe€tion of that meridian with the divided parallel, will give 37° 6’ W-the longitude required, PROBLEM : CHART. Prostem IIT, To find the Courfe between two given Places on Mercator’s ; Chart. Rule.—For the manner of performing this problem, the reader is referred to the ufe of the plane chart, Pro- blem IJ. Prosriem IV. To find the Diftance between two given Places on the Chart. r. When the given places are under the fame meri- ’ dian. Rule.—Find the latitude of each; then, the difference, or fum of their latitudes according as they are on the fame, or on oppofite fides of the equator, will be the dif- tance required. Example.—Required the diftance between the neareft extremities of the iflands of Grenada and Gaudaloupe ? Latitude of fouthernmoft extremity of Gaudaloupe - - - BRO 52t N. Latitude of northernmof extremity. of Grenada - - . 12° 14° N. Diftance - - . 338=218 M. 2. When the given places are under the fame parallel. Rule—If that parallel is the equator, the difference, or fum of their longitudes, found by Problem II. is the dif- tance between them. If not, take half the interval between the given places, lay it off on the meridian on each fide of the given parallel, and the intercepted degrees will be the diftance between the places. If the given parallel is near the north or fouth extremity of the chart, the following method may be ufed. Take an extent of a few degrees from that part of the meridian where the given parallel is the middle of the extent; then the number of extents, and’ parts of an extent, contained between the given places, being multiplied by the length of an extent, will give the required diftance. Example —Required the diftance between Cape Cantin and Funchal, both lying nearly in the fame parallel ? By proceeding as diretted above, the diftance will be found to be 6° 44’, or 1342 leagues. 3. When the given places differ both in latitude and lon- gitude. Rule.—Find the difference of latitude between the given places, and take it from the equator, or graduated parallel ; then, lay the edge of a fcale over the given places, and move or flide one pomt of the compafs along the edge of the feale, until the other point juft touches a parallel. Now, the diftance between the place where the point of the compalfs refted, and the pomt of interfe€tion of the edge of the {cale and parallel being applied to the equator or divided parallel, will give the diftance between the places in degrees and parts of a degree ; which, multiplied by 60, will give the diltance in miles. Lxample.— Required the diftance between Cape Finiferre - and Porto Santo? Take the difference of latitude between the given places, viz. 9° 54’, from the graduated parallel, and move one point of the compafs along the edge of the feale, laid previoufly over thefe places, until the other point juft touches a paral- Tel; now, the interval between the place where the point of the compafs refted, and the point of interfeGtion of the feale and parallel, being applied to the diyided parallel, will _meafure 11° 24’; or 228 leagues. ” Remark.—To fome charts a fet of {cales is adapted to each degree of latitude within the limits of the chart; by which the diftance between any two places is eafily mea- fured, by applying that diftance to the fcale anfwering to the middle parallel of latitude of the two places. Prospiem V. Given the Latitude and Longitude in, to Jind the Ship’s Place on the Chart. Rule.—Lay the edge of a feale over the given latitude and lay off the given longitude from the firft meridian, or the difference of longitude from the neareft meridian, by the edge of the fcale, and the fhip’s place will be obtained. Example—The latitude is 47° 30! N. and longitude 12° 15' W.; it is required to lay down the fhip’s place on the chart ? Lay the edge of the feale over the latitude 47° 30’ N. ; then take, from the divided parallel, the interval between 10° and 12° 15’, which laid off by the edge of the {eale from the meridian of 10°, wall give the fhip’s place. Prosiem VI. Given the Courfe fleered from a known Place, and the Latitude in, to find the Ship’s Place on the Chart. Rule.—Lay the edge of a feale over the place failed from, in the direction of the given courfe, and its interfetion with the parallel of latitude arrived at will be the place of the hip. Lxample.—A fhip from the Lizard failed S.W. by S. and by obfervation is in latitude 45°20’ N. Required the place of the fhip on the chart ? The edge of a fcale being laid over the Lizard, parallel’to the 5.W. by S. rhumb, will interfe& a parallel drawn through the given latitude, 45° 20’ N. in the fhip’s place. Prosiem VII. Given the Courfe fleered, and Difance run from a known Place, to lay down the Ship’s Place on the Chart. Rule.—Lay the edge of a {cale over the place failed from, in the dire€tion of the given courfe ; then, take the diftance from the equator, put one point of the compafs at the inter- fection of any parallel with the edge of the fcale, and the other point of the compafs will reach to a certain place by the edge of the feale; now, this point remaining fixed, draw in the other point of the compafs, until it jult touch the above parallel; apply this extent to the equator, or di-+ vided parallel, and it will give the difference of latitude. Hence, the latitude come to will be known; and the point of interfeétion of the correfponding parallel with the edge of the fcale, will be the place of the fhip. Example.—A fhip from Cape St. Vincent failed S.S.W. 300 miles. Required the fhip’s place on the chart? Lay the edge of a {cale over Cape St. Vincent, parallel to: the S.S.W. rhumb. Take the diftance five degrees from the divided parallel; place both points of the compafs clofe to the edge of the fcale, fo that one of them may be at the interf{e€tion of a parallel with the edge of the fcale, and the other on that fide of the parallel on which is the acute angle formed by the feale and parallel. Now this la{t point of the compafs remaining in the fame pofition, diminifh the extent of the compaf{s, until the other point touches the parallel, and this extent applied to the divided parallel, witl meafure 4° 37'; hence, the latitude in, is 32° 25’ N.;. and a parallel drawn through 32° 2.5’, will. interfeé& the edge of the feale in the place of the fhip. Prosrem VIII. Given the Latitude and Longitude failed from, the Cour fe fleered, and Longitude come to ; to find the Ship’s Place on the Chart. Rule.—Draw a meridian through the longitude come to ; then, CHA then, lay the edge of a fcale over the place failed from, in the dire¢tion of the courfe, and its interfeGtion with the me- ridian will be the place of the fhip. Example.—The true courfe of a fhip from Cape St. Ber- nard, in the ifland of Bourbon, was N.E. 4 N. and the lon- gitude come to 59°46 E. Required the fhip’s place on the chart? The edge of a {cale laid over Cape St. Bernard, in a N.E, IN. dire€tion, will interfec&t a meridian drawn through the given longitude 59° 46’ E. which will reprefent the fhip’s place ; the latitude of which is 15° 15! 5. Cuart, Biographical, See Biocraruy. fair’s Chronology, p. 247- Cuart, Chorographic, is a delineation of particular countries. Cuart, Heliographic, a defcription or delineation of the body of the fun and of the macula or fpots obferved on it. Cuart, Hiforical. See History. Cuart, Selenographic, a reprefentation of particular ap- pearances of the {pots of the moon, or of her appearance and macule. Cuart, Telegraphic, a defcription or delineation of the telegraph on paper. Cuarr, Topographic, is a {pecific delineation of military pofts and pofitions in given tra¢ts of country. This onght always to be as correct as poffible in regard to their relative diftances of the pofitions and more efpecially with regard to their relative heights. It is in this refpe¢t particularly that military furveys and reconnoiffances are defective. ‘The French have formed companies of topographers for the purpole of correétly and expeditioufly pointing out to ge- nerals and other commanding officers all the leading points and relative fituations of ground and locality. A general, however, fhould not rely implicitly on their reports or deline- ations, but ought if practicable to examine the principal pok- tions himfelf, particularly thofe that he fixes on for his en- campments. CHARTA primarily fignifies a fort of paper made of the plant papyrus or biblus. Cuarta emporetica, in Pharmacy, &c. a kind of paper made very foft and porous, and ufed ds a filtre. Cuarra, is alfo ufed in ancient cultoms for a charter or deed in writing. See Cuarter. Cuarra de forefla. See Cuarrer of the foref. Cuarta magna, the great charter, is an ancient inftru- ment, containing feveral -privileges, and liberties, granted to the church and ftate, by Edward the Confeflor, toge- ther with others relating to the feudal laws of William the Conqueror, granted by Henry I., all confirmed by the fuc- ceeding princes about thirty times. See Macna charta. Cuarta mercatoria, a charter or declaration of protection and privileges granted to foreign merchants, firlt publifhed by Edward I. in 1303; who alfo afcertained the cultoms or duties, which thofe foreign merchants, in return for the {aid charter, were to pay on merchandize exported and imported. Upon the grounds of this famous charter, hif- torians agree that this king was the firlt who eftablifhed the reat cuftoms on merchandize. This charter was confirmed by Edward III. in 1328. Carta pardonationis fe defendendo, is the form of a pardon for a perfon’s killing another man in his own de- fence. Cuarta pardonationis utlagarie, is the form of a pardon of a man who is outlawed. ‘ Cuarta fimplex, is a fingle deed, or deed-poll. See Deep. See alfo Flay- CH Ss Cuarra, in Ancient Geography, a place of Afia in Me- fopotamia, where the Romans had a garrifon,—Alfo, a town of Paleftine, mentioned in the book of Jofhua as be- longing to the tribe of Zebulun ; it was granted to the Levites of the family of Merari. CHARTAGNE, in Military Language, a folid retrench- ment almoft always withdrawn from the enemy’s view, that is thrown up iu a wood or forelt for the defence of an im- portant pafs. CHARTAIA, in Ancient Geography, a large and rich town of Afia, fituated to the ealk of Hircania. CHARTAN, a town of Paleftine, in the tribe of Nephtali. It was granted to the Levites of this tribe, who were of the family of Gerfhon. CHARTANI, a people of Africa, placed by Ptolemy in Libya near Egypt. CHARTARIUS, the fame with cHARTOPHYLAX. CHARTEL. See Caagrer, Cuampion, Comsat, DueL, &c. : CHARTER, Charta, in Law, an inftrument or written evidence of a thing under the feal of a prince, lord, church, chapter, or community. The word charter comes from the Latin charta, anciently ufed for a public or authentic aét ; from Xzerns, thick paper or pafteboard, whereon public as were ufed to be written. Bra@ton fays, donations are fometimes made in charters, in perpetuam rei memoriam ; and Britton, in his 39th chapter, divides charters into thofe of the king and thofe of private erfons. i Cuaxrers of community, were certain privileges firft ob. tained by violence, or purchafe, and afterwards freely be- {towed by emperors, kings, and barons; whereby the in- habitants of towns and cities were enfranchifed, all marks of fervitude abolifhed, and thefe cities, &c. were formed into corporations and bodies politic, to be governed by a council and magiftrates of their own nomination. The firlt perfon who conferred thefe privileges, was Lewis the Grofs in France, about the beginning of the twelfth cen- tury : and his example was foon very generally followed. Thefe charters convey a very ftriking reprefentation of the wretched condition of cities previous to the inftitu- tion of communities, when they were fubje& to the judges appointed by the fuperior lords of whom they held, and had fearcely any other law but their will. Each con- ceffion in thefe charters muft be confidered-as a grant of fome new privilege which the people did not formerly enjoy, and each regulation as a method of redrefling fome gricv- ance under which they formerly laboured. The charters of communities contain likewife the firft expedients employed for the introdu€tion of equal laws and regular governments, Foran account of the moit important articles in thefe char- ters ranged under the two general heads, of fuch as re(pec& perfonal fafety, and fuch as refpect the fecurity of property; See Robertfon’s Ch. V. vol. i, p. 348. &c. See Cities. Among royal charters granted to communities, it appears that in the reign of Edward IV. by hisletters patent uncer the great feal of his realm of England, bearing date the 24th of April, 1469, in the ninth year of his reign, this prince, di? ‘* for him and his heirs, give and grant licence unto Walter Haliday, Marfhall, John Cuff, and Robert Mar- ’ fhall, Thomas Grane, Thomas Calthorne, William Chiff, Wil- — liam Chriltian, and William Eyneytham, then minitrels of the faid king, that they by themfelves fhould be in deed and name one body and cominality, perpetual and capable in the law, and fhould have perpetual fucceffion ; and that as well the minftrels of thefaid king, which then were, as other minftrels of the faid king and his heirs which fhould be after- wards, CHA wards, might at their pleafure, name, chufe, and ordeine, and fucceffively conftitute from among themfelves, one marthall, able and fit to remain in that office during his life, and alfo 2 wardens every year to govern the faid fraternity and guild.” The original charter is preferved in Rymer’s Foedera, tom. xi. Pro fraternitate minflrallorum regis. James the Firlt, upon what beneficial principle it is now difficult to difcover, by letters-patent incorporated the muficians of the _ city of London into a company, and they {till continue to enjoy privileges in corfequence of their conftituting a fra- ternity and corporation ; bearing arms azure, a {wan argent, within a treflure counter-flure, or: in a chief, gules, a rofe between two lions, or: and for their creit the celeftial fign Lyra. called by eftronomers the Orphean Lyre. Unluckily for the dons-vivans of this tuneful tribe, they have no hall in tle city for feltive delights! However, on days of greatelt gourmandife, the members of this body are generally too bulily employed in exhilerating others, comfortably to enjoy the fruits of good living themfelves. And here hiltorical integrity obliges us to fay, that this company has ever been held in derifion by real profeffors, who have regarded it as an-inftitution as foreign to the cultivation and profperity of good mufic, as the train bands to the art of war. Indeed the only ufes that have hitherto been made of this charter feem the affording to aliens an eafy and cheap expedient cf acquiring the freedom of the city, and enabling them to purfue fome more profitable and refpe@table trade than that of fiddling; as well as empowering the company to keep out of proceffions and city feafts every {treet and country dance player of fuperior abilities, to thofe who have the honour of being ftyled the waits of the corporation. The charter granted by Charles I. to the muficians of the city of Weftminfter, had lain dormant from that time till the reftoration ; but immediately after that event, the -perfors named in it, who were {ill living, determined to refcue mutic from the difgrace into which it had fallen, and exert their authority for the improvement of the fcience, and intereft of its profeffors. Fifty-two muficians, confifting of the king’s band and other profeffors, natives and foreigners, the moft eminent of the time, were enrolled in this charter as the king’s muficians ; * and all fuch as are, and fhall be the muficians of his majefty, his heirs and fucceffors, fhall from henceforth for ever, by force and virtue of the faid graunt, be a body corporate and politique, in deed, fa€t, and name.” The other powers granted by this charter, allowed the corporation to meet from time to time, in order to make bye-laws and impofe fines on fuch as tranfgreffed them, © which fines they fhall have to their own ufe.”’ In purfuance of thefe powers, the corporation hired a room in Durham Yard, in the Strand, within the city and liberty of Weftminfer. Their firft meeting was on the 22d day of O€tober, 1661, Nicholas Laniere then being marfhal; from which day they proceeded to make orders, fummoning, fining, and profecuting the firft profeffors who dared “to make any benefit or advantage of mufique in England or Wales,” without firft taking out a licence from their fraternity. Among the inftances of the exercife of their power, Jan. 13th, 1663, it was ‘ ordered that Mat- thew Lock, Chriftopher Gibbons, Dr. Charles Colman, and William Gregory, do come to the chamber at Durham Yard, on Thurfday next, at two of the clock in the after- noon, and bring each of them ten pounds, or fhew caufe to the contrary.” This feems to have been one of the moft oppreffive and unmeaning monopolies with which the Stuarts had long yexed the nation. Such a tyranny as this over the profeffors ef a liberal art, there is reafon to fear, would be abufed in 2 CHA whatever hands it was lodged. The College of Phyficians, which fuperintends the difpenfations of life and death, may have its ufe by preventing or dete€ting Charlataneri¢ ; but that the minifter of our innocent amufements fhould be fub- je& to any other controul than that which the common law of the realm is empowered to exercife over men of al] ranks and degrees in the ftate, feems at beft but a wanton and ulelefs, if not a noxious delegation of power, which was Jefs likely to benefit the public, br accelerate the progrefs of the art, than to enable artifts to torment and harafs each other. It appears by the tranfaGtions of this corporation, the minutes of which are extant in the Britifh Mufeum among the Harleian MSS. No. 1911, that the meetings of its members continued no longer than 16793; when finding themfelves involved in law fuits and incapable of enforcing the power they aflumed, and penalties they threatened, it was thought moft advifeable to leave the art and artifts to the neglect or patronage of the public. The fund for the fupport of decayed muficians or their families, eftablifhed in 1738, and formed into a regular fo- ciety of muficians, after the commemoration of Handel, in 1784, having been honoured by his majefty’s immediate countenance and proteétion, and gracioufly allowed to aflume the title of Royal Society of Mulicians, had a charter grant- ed them. Sce Commemoration of Hanner, and Funp for decayed Muficians and their families. Cuarter of the fore/t, is that wherein the laws of the forelt are comprifed and eftablifhed. In the time of king John, and that of his fon, Henry III. the rigours of the feodal tenuresand the foreft laws were fo warmly maintained, that they occafioned many infurreGtions of the barons or principal feudatories ; which at lait produced this effect, that firit king John, and afterwards his fon, confented to the two famous charters of Enghith liberties, magna carta, and carta de forefa. The latter, in particular, was well cal- culated to redrefs many grievances and incroachments of the crown in the exertion of foreft law. This charter, as well as the other, was eftablifhed, confirmed, and fettled ix the reign of Edward I. See Forest. r Cuarter, Great, Magna charta. See Macna charta. Cusrters of immunity or franchife, were granted to fome towns and villages by the lords on whom they depended, long before the inftitution of communities in France. But thefe are very different from fuch as became common in the 12th and 13th centuries. They did not ereé& thefe towns into corporations ; they did not eftablifh a municipal govern- ment; they did not grant them the privilege of bearing arms ; they contained nothing more than a manumiffion of the in~ habitants from the yoke of fervitude ; an exemption from certain fervices which were oppreflive and ignominious ; and the eftablifhment of a fixed tax or rent which they were to pay to their lord in lieu of impofitions which he could for- merly lay upon them at pleafure. ‘T'wo charters of this kind to two villages in the county of Rovfillon, one A. D. 974, the other A. D, 1025, are ftill extant. Such concef- fions, it is probable, were not unknown in other parts of Europe, and may be confidered as a ftep towards the more extenfive privileges conferred by Lewis the Grofs on the towns within his domains. Sce Cuarters of community. Cuarters of the king, are thofe whereby a king makes a grant to a perfon or community; v. gr. a charter of exrmption, that a perfon fhould not be impannelled on a jury, &c. See Lerrers patent. Cuarter of pardon, is that whereby a perfon is forgiven a felony, or other offence againft the king’s crown and dignity, of which there are feveral forts. See Parpon. Cuarters CHA Cuaarers of private perfons, are deeds and initruments for the conveyance of lands, &c. And the purchafer of lands fhall have all the charters, deeds, and evidences as in- cident to the fame, and for the maintenance of his title. Co. Litt. 6. Charters belong to a feoffee, although they be not fold to him, where the feoffee is not bound to a general warranty of the land; for there they fhall belong to the feoffor, if they be fealed deeds or wiils in writing ; but other charters go to the ter tenant. Moor. Ca. 637. The ‘charters belonging to the feoffor, in cafe of warrauty, the heir fhall have, though he hath no land by defcent, for the pof- fibility of defcent after. 1 Rep. 1. CuHarTeR governments in the Britifh colonies, are in the nature of civil corporations, with the power of making bye- laws for their own interior regulation, not contrary to the laws of England; and with fuch rights and authorities as are {pecially given them in their feveral charters of incor- oration. ‘The form of government is borrowed from that of England. They have,a governor named by the king (or in fome proprietary colonies by the proprictor), who is his reprefentative or deputy. ‘They have courts of jultice of their own, from whofe decifion an appeal (as fome fay, in the nature of a reference by way of arbitration) lies to the king in council here in England. Their general affem- blies, which are their houfe of commons, together with their council of ftate, being their upper houfe, with the concur- rence of the king, or his reprefentative, the governor, make laws fuited to their own emergencies. But it is particularly declared, by ftat. 7 and 8 W. III. c. 22. that all laws, bye- laws, ufages, and cuftoms, which fhall be in praétice in any of the plantations, repugnant to any law, made or to be made in this kingdon, relative to the faid plantations, fhall be utterly void and of none effect. Thefe are called charter governments, by way of diftinGion from the provincial efta- bli/oments, the conttitutions of which depend on, the refpec- tive commiffions ifflued by the crown to the governors, and the inftru€tions attending them; under the authority of which, provincial affemblies are conftituted, with the power of making local ordinances, not repugnant to the laws of England ; and alfo from proprietary governments, granted out by the crown to individuals, in the nature of feudatory prin- cipalities, with all the inferior regalities, and fubordinate powers of legiflation, which formerly belonged to the owners of counties palatine. See farther Blackitone’s Comm. vol,1. . 108. CHARTERER is in fome places, as Chefhire, ufed for a Freeholder. CHARTER-HOUSE. Sce Cuartrevse. CHARTER-LAND, in Law, is fuch as a man holds by charter, that is, by evidence in writing ; otherwife called freehold. This the Saxons called bock-land ; which Lam- bard ‘renders, terra ex feripto. See Bock-Lanp. It was held on more eafy conditions than the folk-land, or terra fine feripto, held without writing : the former being hereditaria libera F immunis ; whereas the latter cenfum pen- Jfitabat annuum, atque offictorum quadam fervitute erat obligatus. This kind of land was held by deed under certain rents and free fervices, and in effect was in no refpe&t different from free focage lands ; and hence have arifen moit of the free- hold tenants who hold of particular manors, and owe fuit and fervice to the fame. CHARTERPARTY, in Sommerce, denotes the in- ftrument of freightage, or articles of agreement for the hire of a veffel. ‘T'his, among merchants and fea-faring men, is commonly called “a pair of iadentures,’”” containing the covenants and agreements made between them, touching their merchandize and maritime affairs. 2 Init. 673. CHA The charterparty is in writing ; and it is to be figned both by the proprietor, or\the mafter of the flip, and the merchant who freights it. The charterparty is to contain the name and the burden of the veficl; thofe of the mafter and the freighter; the price, or rate of freight ; the time of loading, and unload- ing; and the other conditions agreed on. It is properly a deed, or policy, whereby the mafter, or proprietor of the veflel, engages to furnifh immediately a tight found veffel, well equipped, caulked, and ftopped, provided with anchors, fails, cordage, and all other furniture to make the voyage required, as equipage, hands, victuals, and other munitions ; in confideration of a certain fum to be paid by the merchant for the freight. Laftly, the thip, with all its furniture, and the cargo, are re{pectively fub- jected to the conditions of the charterparty. The charterparty differs from a Jill of /ading, in that the firft is for the entire freight, or lading, and that both for going and returning ; whereas the latter is only for a part ; of the freight, or at moft only for the voyage one way. The common law conttrues charterparties, as near as may | be, according to the intention of them, and not according ; to the literal fenfe of traders, or thofe that merchandize by fea; but they muft be regularly pleaded. Ina cafe of co- venant by charterparty that.the fhip fhould return to the river of Thames by a certain time, ‘ dangers of the fea ex- cepted,”? and afterwards, in the voyage, and within the time of the return, the fhip was taken upon the fea by pi- rates, fo that the matter could not return at the time men- tioned in the agreement ; it was adjudged that this impedi- ment was within the exception of the charterparty, which extends as well to any dangers upon the fea by pirates and men of war, as dangers of the fea by fhip-wreck, tempeft, &c. Stile 132. 2 Rol. Abr. 248. A thip, freighted at a certain premium per month of the time that fhe fhall be out, and covenanted to be paid after her arrival in the port of London, is caft away in coming up from the Downs, but the lading is all preferved ; in this cafe the freight fhall be paid, for the money becomes due monthly by the con- tract, and the place mentioned is only to afcertain where the money is to be paid ;. and the fhip is entitled to wages, like a mariner that ferves by the month, whofe executors, if he dies in the voyage, are to be anfwered “ prorata.”” Mol- loy de Jur. Marit. 260. If a part-owner of a fhip refufe to join with the other owners in the fitting out of the fhip, he fhall not be entitled to his fhare of the freight; but by the courfe of the Admiralty, the other owners ought to give fecurity if the fhip perifh in the voyage, to make good to the owner ftanding out, his fhare of the fhip. Sir L. Jen- kins, in a cafe of this nature, certified that by the law marine and courfe of the Admiralty, the plaintiff was to have no fhare of the freight ; and that it was fo in all places; for otherwife there would be no navigation. Lex Mercat. See — Freicut and Insurance. - The prefident Boyer fays, the word comes from hence, that per medium charta inctdebatur, &S fic frebat charta partitas becaufe in the time when notaries were Iefs common, there was only one inflrument made for both parties: this they cut in two, and gave each his portion, and joined them to- gether at their return, to know if each had done his part. This he obferves to have feen praGifed in his time; agree= able to the method of the Romans, who, in their ftipulations, ufed to break a ftaff, each party retaining a moiety thereof as a mark. : CHARTER-SCHOOLS, arefchools in Ireland, of which there are 38, defigned for the inftruction of the children of the Papitts and other poor natives, in the Englifh tongue = the CHA the principles of morality and true religion; befides two called the Ranelagh Schools,” which admit only the chil- dren of Proteftants. The excellent Mr. Howard, in his journey to Ireland, examined the flate of thefe fchools, and made a report upon them to the committee of the Houfe of Commons in. 1788. He has given a particular account of them, with appropriate remarks in his ‘¢ Account of the principal Lazarettos in Europe,’? &c. p. ro1, Kc. See ScHOOL. CHARTIER, Arain, ia Biography, a native of Bay- eux, one of the firft French citizens who afpired to elegance, ‘ flourifhed about the year 1430. He was fecretary to the kings Charles VI. and VII. and employed in feveral em- baflies. His compofitions in profe excelled thofe that were poetical, and he {poke as well as he wrote, fo that he was efteemed the father of Trench eloquence. ‘he following curious anecdote relating to him is recorded. Margaret of Scotland, firft wife to the dauphin, afterward Lewis XI., as fhe paffed through the Louvre, obferved Alain afleep, and went and kiffled him. When her attendants exprefled their furprize that fhe fhould thus diftinguifh a man remarkable for his uglinefs, fhe replied, ‘* I do not kifs the man, but the mouth that has uttered fo many charming things.” His works were publifhed by the elder Du Chefne, in 1617, in 4to.: the firlt part confifting of his works in profe, viz. the “ Curial,”’ a Treatife on Hope,” the ‘ Luadrilogus Invectif” againft Edward III. ; and others, partly {purious; And the fecond part containing his poems, which are, for the molt part, ob{cure and tedious. Alain Chartier died at Avignon in 1449. Nouv. Dic. Hiit. Cuartier, Joun, brother of the preceding, was a Be- nedictine monk, and chanter of St. Denys.. He was the author, at lealt the compiler, of a dry work, difplaying muchcredulity and inaccuracy, entitled the ‘* Great Chronicles of France,” commonly called ** Chroniques de St. Denys,” from Pharamond to the death of Charles VLI., 3 vols. fol. Paris, 1493- His ‘* Hiltory of Charles VII.”? was pub- lithed at the Louvre, in 1661, fol. by the learned Godefroid, who enriched it with his notes and feveral unedited picces. Nouv. Dict. Hitt. Cuartier, René, born at Vendome, where he received the rudiments of his education. He was fent thence to Pa- ris, and having completed his ftudies, was made doétor in medicine on the r4th of Auguft 1608. He was foon after _ appointed by the faculty of medicine profeffor in furgery and pharmacy. In 1612, he was made phyfician in ordinary to the king, and to the princeffes of France. With one or other of the princeffes, in their turn, he vifited the courts of Spain, Savoy, and England. Returning at length, and fettling at Paris, his whole time feems to have been employ- ed in forming the fplendid edition of the works of Hippo- crates and Galen, which goes under his name, and in which _he is faid to have expended fo large a fum of money, (cin- quante mille ecu, his biographer fays) as to reduce him- felf nearly to a ftate of indigence. ‘he work is printed in 13 volumes, though ufually bound in g, and the volumes eame out at different times, but not in the order of their numbers. Of the ten volumes, which were publifhed in the life-time of the editor, the firft fix, the eighth, and the thir- teenth, appeared in the year 1639, the feventh and the eleventh ten years after, viz. in 1649; the ninth, the tenth, and the twelfth volumes, which completed the work, were rinted under the care and direétion of doétors Blondel and ¥ Maine, and did not appear until the year 1672. Though the editor {pared neither labour nor expence in his endea- yours to give perfection to the work, and has arranged his materials fo that any of the treatifes, by either writer, may Vor. VIE. us CHA be turned to with facility ; yet in the opinion of Freind, and Mack, to which Haller alfo accedes, the works of Hippo- crates, as here exhibited, are more imperfeét than in fome earlier editions. : Chartier alfo edited ‘ Ludovici Dureti Scholia ad Jacobi Hallerii Librum, de Morbis internis,’”? Parifiis, 1611, 4to, ‘* Bartholomai Perdulcis, Univerfa Medicina,’ ibidem, 1630, 4to. His fon John, who was created doétor in medi cine In 1634, publithed, tranflated from the Greek, « Palladii de Febribus, concifa Synopfis,”” 1646, ato., and in 1651, “ La Science du Plomb facra des Sages, ou de l’Antimonie, ou font decrites fes rares et particulieres virtua, puiflances, et qualités,” ato. This work gave great offence ; the fa- culty of medicine at: Paris, with Guy Patin at their head, being particularly hoftile to antimonial medicines. To ridi cule their foolith prejudices, Chartier placed at the head of his book the figure of an owl, with the following lines : ‘Le hibou fuit la clarte vivifique Et bien qu’il ait lunettes ct flambeaux, Il ne peut voir les fecret les plus beaux De l’antimoine, et du vin emetique.”” John Chartier was alfo profeffor in furgery, and phyfician in ordinary to the king, in which honour he was {ucceeded by his younger brother Philip, who was created dodtor in ag in the year 1656. Haller Bib. Med. Eloy Dit. ilt. Cuarrier, in Geography; a township of America, in the county of Wafhington and {tate of Pennfylvania. Cuartier, St. a town of France, in the department of the Indre, and diftri@ of La Chatre; 14 league N. of it. Cuartier’s Creek. See Canonspay and Morcanza. CHARTIS reddendis, a writ which lay againit him that had charters of feoffment intrufted to his keeping, and refufed to deliver them to the owner. Reg. Ocig. 150. ‘ CHARTOPHYLACIUM, a place where records were cept. CHARTOPHYLAX, an officer in the church of Con- {tantinople, intrufted with the cuftody of the archives. The word is formed from xepra, and dura7Iw, cuftodio ; and fignifies charter-kceper. Codin calls the grand chartophylax the judge of all caufes, and the right arm of the patriarch. He adds, that he was the depofitary or keeper of all the charters relating to the ecclefiaflical rights ; and that he prefided over matrimonial caufes, and was judge of all the clergy. He drew up all fentences and decilions of the patriarch, who figned and fealed them: he prefided in the grand council of the patri- arch: he took cognizance of all matters and caufes ecclefiaf- tical and civil, whether among the clergy, the monks, or the people. He took place of all the bifhops, though himfelf only a deacon ; and, on occafion, difcharged the funétions of the pricits: he had twelve notaries under him. The chartophylax was much the fame at Conftantinople with the chartulary at Rome. ‘There were, in reality, two officers who bore this title; the one for the court, the other for the patriarch ; the firft was called alfo regifrator, and the latter /criniarius: though the two are ufually confounded together. Leunclavius, and others, confounded chartophylax with chartulary. CHARTRAIN, in Geography, a {mall county of France, fo called before the revolution, in the environs of Chartres, its capital, CHARTRE, La, a town of France, in the department of the Sarthe, and chief place of a canton in the diltrié of St. Calais; two leagues E.N.E, of Chateau-du-Loir. The 3Z place Oa 5 ea place contains 1551 and the canton 10,152 inhabitants: the territory includes 135 kiliometres and 9 communes. CHARTRES, a city of France, and principal place of a diftri€t in the department of the Eure and Loire, one of the mot ancient towns of the country, and before the revo- lution, the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of Paris. Its cathe- dral is elteemed one of the moll beautiful churches in the kingdom. - Itis fituated on the Eure, over which is a bridge, conilructed by the celebrated Vauban. Its principal trade is in corn. The place contains 14,409, the north canton 16,783, and the fouth canton 16,321 inhabitants: the terri- tory includes 4673 kilometres and 35 communes. N. lat. 28° 46' 49”. E. long. 1° 28! 55". f Cuartres, a fort built by the French onthe eaftern fide of the Miffiippi, three miles northerly of La Prairie du Rocher, or the Rock-Meadows, and 12 milés northerly of St. Genevieve, on the weftern fide of that river. It became unterable on account of the conftant wafhings of the high floods of the Miflifippi, and was abandoned in 1772. South of the fort is a village which was very inconfiderable in 1778 ; above this is another village, fettled by 170 warriors of the Piorias and Mitchigamias tribes of Illinois Indians, who are idle and debauched. . CHARTREUSE, a celebrated monaftery of Carthu- fians ; fo called from the name of a fteep rocky place, ina frightful defart, five leagues from Grenoble in France; where St. Bruno retired from the world, and firft initituted the or- der of Carthufians, which fee. The name has fince paffed to all houfes of Carthufians ; and that near Grenoble is now diftinguifhed by the name of the Great Chartreufe. That of London, corruptly called Charter-houfe, was be- fore the {uppreflion of monafteries by Henry VIII. a priory belonging to that order, and from the powers by which it was firft ereGted into an hofpital, it was denominated ‘The Hof- pital of king James.”’ On occafion of a dreadful plague which filled all the common burial grounds with the dead, Walter de Manny, a Flemifh nobleman, purchafed in 1349; of the mafter and brethren of St. Bartholomew’s Hofpital in Smithfield, 13 acres and a rod of land, denominated “The Spital Croft,”? and appropriated the fame, after it had been inclofed and confecrated, as a common cemetery for the accommodation of fuch deceafed perfons as could not have place in their refpective parifh grounds. A chapel was alfo erected in the faid cemetery by the right honourable proprie- tor, in which many liberal oblations were made for feveral fucceflive years. In 1371, Manny founded in this place a Carthufian monaftery; and the revenues of this convent amounted, at the time of its fuppreffion in 1538, to 642/. 43d. per annum, which was conferred upon Sir Thomas Audley, fpeaker ot the Houfe of Commons, and from him defcended to Thomas, earl of Suffolk, who difpofed of it to Thomas Sutton, efg. by the name of ‘ Howard-houfe,” commonly called the ** Charter-houfe,” confifting of divers courts, a wildernefs, orchards, walks, and gardens, &c. for which he paid the fum of 13,000/.in 1611. By letters pa- tent obtained in this year, the hofpital was eftablifhed, and confirmed by parliament, in 1628. “The charge of the eftablifhment for the admiffion of pen- fioners and {cholars, together with the original purchafe-mo- ney, amounted to 20,000/. Befides this fum, Sutton en- dowed his hofpital, called “* Sutton’s Hofpital,”? with 15 manors, and other lands, to the amount of 4493). 19s. 104d. per annum. After confiderable loffes, which this hofpital fuftained in 1623, 1624, and 1649, Sir Richard Sutton, one of the founder’s executors, improved the eftate belonging to the foundation fo much, that in the year 1673, it amounted ~ 4 C.H-A to 5391/. 135. Sd. yearly. It has fince amounted to about 12,000/. This eftablifhmeat is to confift of decayed geiitle- men, foldiers, and merchants; eighty of whom have a plentiful maiatenance of diet, lodging, and inftead of apparel, a gown once in two years, and 14/. per annum, phyfic, &c. living té- gether in a coilégiate-manner: and of {cholars, or youths, forty of whom are taught, and fupplied with neceflaries; and fuch of them as are fit for the univerfity fent thither, with an exhibition of 40/. per ann. for the firft four years, and 6o/. for the four Jaft, on condition of conftant refidence, viz. eight months in the year; the reft are put to trades, with a pre- miumof go/. each. Asa farther encouragement tothe fcholars brought up in this foundation, there are feveral ecclefiaftical preferments in the patronage of the governors, who, accord. ing to the conftitutions of the hofpital, are to confer them upon thofe that were educated in this {chool. For the fuperintendency of this hofpital there are fixteen governors, generally of the prime quality ; vacancies being {upplied by the election of the remaining governors. The ordinary officers are, a matter, preacher, regifler, treafurer, {chool-matter, &c. CHARTREUX, religious of the order of St. Bruno, called alfo CarTHUSIANS. < Cuartrevux, poudre des. See Kermes mineral. ‘ CHARTULARY, Chartularius, a title given to an an- cient officer in the Latin church, who had the care of char- ters and papers relating to public affairs. The chartulary prefided in ecclefialtical judgments, in lieu of the pope. In the Greek church, the chartulary was called chartophy- Jax ; but his office was there much more confiderable; and fome even diftinguifh the chartulary from the CuartoPpuy- Lax in the Greek church. CHARUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Afia, in that part of the Colchide which was to the right of the Phafis. dl Strabo fays, that the town of Sebaltopolis or Diofcuria, — was fituated near this river. | CHARWELL, in Geography, a river of England, which runs into the Thames, at Oxford. CHARYBDIS, a fuppofed whirlpool in the ftrait of — Mefiina, between the coat of Calabria and that of Sicily, and thought in ancient times to be very dangerous to navi- gators. According to the fables of the poets, Scylla (which fee) and Charybdis were two fea-monfters, whofe dreadful jaws were continually diftended to fwallow unhappy mari- ners; the one fituated on the right, and the other on the left extremity of the ftrait of Meflina, where Sicily fronts Italy. Thus Virgil defcribes them : : ~—i « Dextrum Scylla latus, levum implacata Charybdis Obfidet, atque imo barathri ter gurgite vaftos Sorbet in abruptum flu€tus, rurfufque fub auras Erigit alternos, et fidera verberat unda : At Scyllam ceecis cohibet fpelunca latebris Ora exertantem, et naves in faxa trahentem. Prima hominis facies et pulchro petore virgo Pube tenus ; pottrema immani corpore prittis Delphinim caudas utero commifla luperum.”” ZEn. lib. iti Faron the right her dogs foul Scylla hides ; Charybdis roaring on the left pretides, a ”- And in her greedy whirlpool fucks the tides. Then fpouts them from below ; with fury driv’n The waves mount up, and wath the face of heav’n. But Scylla from her den, with open jaws, The finking veffel in her eddy draws, CHA Then dafhes on the rocks: a human face, And virgin bofom, hide her tail’s difgrace ; Her parts obfcene below the waves defcend, With dogs inclo{?d, and in a dolphin end.” Dryden. Charybdisis fitvated within the ftrait, in that part of the fea which lies between a projeétion of Jand named * Punta Secca,’’ and another projection on which ftands the tower called “ Lanterna,” or the light-houfe; a light being placed at its top to guide veflels which may enter the har- bour by night. ‘The ancient and modern authors who have written concerning Charybdis, have all (Spallanzani ex- cepted) fuppofed it to be a whirlpool. Homer is the firft writer who has reprefented Charybdis as a montter which three times in a day drinks up the water, and three times emits it forth. “e Shoe Kacguh dus avarpfos2du perry vdupy Tess pty yore 0” cevinosy em” rccliy Tpis Javasporpda Agiov.’” Hom. Odyff. xii. Beneath Charybdis holds her boifterous reign ?Midft roaring whirlpools, and abforbs the main: Thrice in her gulphs the boiling feas fubfide, Thrice in dire thunders fhe refunds the tide. Pope. The defcription of Virgil, above cited, differs from that of Homer only in placing a deep gulph below. Strabo, Ifi- dorus, Tzetzes, Hefychius, Didymus, Euftathius, &c. con- cur in thefame opinion. The Count de Buffon adopts the “idea of Homer in full confidence, and places Charybdis among the moft celebrated whirlpools of the fea. ‘* Cha- rybdis,” fays he, ‘“ abforbs and rejects the water three times in 24 hours.’ Strabo tells us, (jib. vi.) that the fragments of fhips {wallowed up in this whirlpool are carried by the current tothe fhore of Tauromenium (the prefent Taor- mina) 30 miles diltant from Charybdis. In confirmation of this tradition, an amufing though tragical anecdote is re- lated of one Colas, a Meffinean diver, who had acquired, from his being able to remain a long time under water, the furname of ‘“Pefce’’ the fifh. It is reported, that Frederic, king of Sicily, who came to Meffina on purpofe to fee him, tried his abilities by throwing a golden cup into Charybdis, which, if he brought up, was to be the reward of his re- folution and dexterity. The hardy diver, after having twice -aftonifhed the {peétators by remaining for a long time under water, plunged into it a third time and appeared no more : but, fome daysafter, his body was found on the coat near Taormina. Spallanzani determined to inveltigate, by his own obfervation, the truth of the opinion which had been entertained with refpeé&t to Charybdis. _ It is diftant from the fhore of Meffina about 750 feet, and is called by the people of the country ‘“ Calofaro,”’ from xaos and Qezos, i. e. “ the beautiful tower,’? from the licht- houfe ereflied near it for the guidance of veifels. The phenomenon of the Calofaro is obfervable when the current is defcending; for when the current fets in from the north, the pilots call it the ‘ defcending rema,’’ or current ; and when it runs from the fouth, the “ afcending rema.”” The current afcends or defcends at the rifing or fetting of the moon, and continues for 6 hours. In the interval between each afcent or defcent there isa calm which lalts at leaft a quarter of an hour, but not longer than an hour. Af- terwards at the rifing or fetting of the moon, the current enters from the north, making various angles of incidence with the fhore, and at length reaches the Calofaro. ‘T‘his de- _ lay fometimes continues 2 hours. Sometimes it immediately falls into the Calojaro, and then experience has taught that CHA it is a certain token of bad weather. Spallanzani, appriled by the pilots that there was no danger in viliting the Ca- lofaro, approached it in a bark managed by fome expert ma- riners, who affured him of his fafety. When he obferved Charybdis from the fhore, it appeared like a group of tu- multuous waters, which became more exceffive and more agitated in his nearer accefs to it: but upon being carried to the edge he was convinced that what he faw was by no means a vortex or whirlpool. Hy drologilts teach us, that by a whirlpool in a runging water we are to underitand. that circular courfe which it takes in certain circumilances ; and that this courfe or revolution generates in the middle a hollow inverted cone, of a greater or lefs depth, the inter- nal fides of which have a fpiral motion. But nothing of this kind was perceived in the Calofaro. Its revolving’ mo- tion was circum{cribed within a circle of at molt s00 fect in diameter, within which limiis there was no incurvation of any kind, nor vertiginous motion, butan inceffant undulation of agitated waters. which fell, beat, and dafhed againt each other. Yet thefe irregular motions were fo far placid that nothing was to be feared in pafling over the {pot ; though his httle bark rocked very much from the continual agitation ; fo that the mariners were obliged con{tantly to make ufe of their oars to prevent its being driven out of the Calofaro. Subftances thrown into the ftream that were heavier than the water, fink and were no more feen; thofe which were lighter remained on the furface, but were feen driven out of the revolving circle by the agitation of the water. Spallanzani, thus convinced that there was no gulph under the Calofaro, becaufe in that cafe there would have been a whirlpool, which would have carried down into it the floating fubftances, founded the bottom with a plummet, and found that its greateft depth did not exceed 500 feet. From thefe facts he concluded, that at the time of his obfervation, there was no whirlpool in Charybdis ; though it might have been different when the fea was tempetiuous. In order to fatisfy himfelf concerning this cireumftance, he queftioned the pilots who had frequently feen Charybdis in its greatelt fury, and obtained from them the following account : When the current and the wind are contrary to each other, and both in their greateft violence, efpecially when the fouth wind blows, the {welling and dathing of the waves within the Calofaro are much more impetuous and extenfive. It then contains three or four {mall whirlpools, or even more, according to the degree of itsextent and violence. [fat this time fmall veffels are driven into the Calofaro by the cur- rent or the wind, they are feen to whirl around, rock, and plunge ; bnt are never drawn into the vortex. They merely fink when filled with water by the waves beating over them. When veffels of a larger fize are forced into it, whatever wind they have they cannot extricate themfelves ; their {ails are ufelefs ; and after having been for fome time toffed about by the waves, if they are not aflifted by the pilots of the country, who know how to bring them out of the couric of the current, they are furioufly driven upon the neighbounng fhore of the Lanterna, where they are wrecked, and thc greater part of their crew perifh in the waves. Spallanzani having evinced the erroneoufnefs of the opinion with refpect to Charybdis, that has been tranfmitted from Homer to the prefent time, further obferves, that Homer wasnot-exa@ with regard to the fituation of Charybdis. The ancient poet, probably mifled by the account which he had received from others, and not having had an opportunity of obferving it himfelf, places Charybdis near Scylla: the diitance from one of thefe rocks to the other_being an arrow’s flight, which does not at all accord with the prefent ftuation 3Z2 of C HA of Scylla, Although within the prefent certury the ftrait of Meffina has become narrower, yet we know from va- rious and unquettionable teltimonies that, long before this event, Charybdis was fituated where it is at prefent, on the fide of Sicily, a little beyond Meffina. Our ingenious writer proceeds to inquire what foundation there is for the proverbial faying, “ Incidit in Scyllam, cupiens vitare Charybdin ;:”” i.e. he who-endeavours to avoid Charybdis, dafhes upon Scyila; which proverb was applied by the ancients to thofe who, while they fought to fhun one evil, fell into a worfe. The Meffinele pilots informed him, that this misfortune, though not always, yet frequently happens, unlefs proper meafures are taken in time to prevent it. Ifa hip be extricated from the fury of Charybdis, and carried by a {trong foutherly wind along the ftrait, towards the northern entrance, it wil] pals out fafely ; but fhould it meet with a wind in a nearly oppolite dire€tion, it will become the {port of both thefe winds, and, unable to advance or recede, be driven in a middle courfe between their two directions, that is, full upon the rock of Scylla. if it be not immediately aflifted by the pilots. They added, that in thefe hurricanes a land wind frequently rifes which defcends from a narrow pafs in Calabria, and in- creafes the force with which the {hip is impelled towards the rock. If it be afked, how it happens that Scylla and Charybdis are now lefs dangerous than they were iu former times, as Scylla ftill remains fuch as it was in the time of Ho- mer, and Charybdis muft at prefent be more perilous be- caufe the ftrait of Meffina is become narrower; the anfwer is, that the difference arifes from the improvement of the art of navigation which, formerly in its infancy, dared not launch into the open fea, but only ventured to creep along the fhore ; buttime, ftudy, and experience, have rendered her more mature, better informed, and more courageous; fo that fhe can now pafs the widelt feas, brave the moft vio- fent tempefts, and laugh at the fears of her childhood. See Spallanzani’s Travels in the T'wo Sicilies, vol. iv. Thu- cydides (lib xi.), and fome other approved hiftorians, ufe the term Charybdis to fignify the whole ftrait betwixt Sicily and Calabria. Cuaryspis, a place of Syria, between Antioch and Apamea. Strabo fays, that the river Orontes is loft in this place, and that it rifes again to view about 40 {tadia below it. Cuaryenis is alfo a word ufed by Dr. Plott to exprefs certain openings which he fuppofes in the bottom of the fea, by which its waters are received and conveyed by a {ubterranean circulation to the origin of fountains and Springs. The fluxus mofchonicus, or maal/trome on the coat of Norway, is {nppofed to be owing to fome fuch fubterra- neanindraught ; and it is advanced alfo, that the Mediter- ranean fea could not be emptied of the valt quantities of waters which it receives, but muft overflow the land of Egypt, unlefs fwallowed by fome fuch charybdis, which is either in fome part of the bafon of that fea, or near the mouth of it;. 1m which cafe, it may be the occafion of that itrong under-current, defcribed by all thofe who have treated of this fea. An immenfe charybdir, placed near the ftrait’s mouth, may be hid under the immenfity of waters there ; but as it would abforb the deep waters continually, and that in large quantities, it would neceflarily caufe fuch an under-currenc there. See Vapour. Cuarysprs, in Mythology, was-a female robber, who, ac- cording to the fable, ftole the oxen of Hercules, for which fhe was {truck with a thunder-bolt by Jupiter, and turned into a whirlpool dangerous to ftrangers. CHASE, in Agriculture, is a word fometimes employed 8 CWA to denote a row ot rank of thorns, &c. Thus, in the planting of quick(fets, a fingle chafe fignifies a fingle row; and a double chafe a row planted below the firft, not immediately under« neath the upper plants, but underthe middle of intermediate {paces or vacant parts. Cuase, or Chace, in Law, is ufed for a driving of cattle to or from any place; astoa diltrefs, a fortlet, &c. Cuast, or Chace, in a general fenfe, denotes a great ex- tent of woody ground lying open, and privileged for wild bealts and wild fowl; the beatts of the chafe comprehending not only the buck, doe, fox, martin, and roe, but, in acom- mon and legal fenfe, all the beafts of the forelt. Co. Litt. 233. Achafe differs from a park in not being inclofed, and alfo in this particular, that a man may have a chafe ia another perfon’s grqund, as well as in his own; it being indeed the liberty of keeping beafts of chafe or royal game therein, protected even from the owner of the land, witha power of hunting them there. Bl. Comm. vol. it. 38. But if a man havea chafe within a foreft, and he kill or hunt any ttag, or red deer, or other bealts of the foreft, he is finable. 1 Jones’s Rep. 278. A chafe is of a middle kind, be- tween a foreft and a park; being ufually lefs than a forett, and not poffefled of fo many privileges; but wanting, v. gre courts af attachment, fwainmote, and juftice-feat. Yet itis of a large extent, and {tucked both with a greater diverfity of wild beafts, or game, and more keepers, than a park. Crompton obferves, that a forelt cannot be in the hands ofa fubjeét, but it forthwith lofes its name, and becomes a chafe ; in regard all thofe courts lofe their nature when they come into the hands of a fubjeét; and that none but the king can make a lord chief jultice in the eyre of the forett. By the common law, no perfon is at i:berty to take or kill any bealts of chafe, but fuch as hath an ancient chafe or park; unlefs they be alfo beats of prey. Yet the fame author adds, that a foreft may be granted by the king to a fubje&, in fo ample a manner, as that there may be courts equivalent to a court of attachment, fwain- mote, and juftice-feat. It is not lawful to make a chafe, park, or warren, without licence from the king under the broad feal. See Forest, Game, and Park. CuAse, beaflsof. See Beasts. Cuase, or Chace, wild goofe, aterm ufed to exprefs a fort of racing on horfeback, ufed formerly, which refembled the flying of wild geefe, thofe birds generally going in a train one after another, not in confufed flocks as other fowls do. In this fort of race, which is never ufed except in matches, the two horfes, after running twelve {core yards, had liberty, which horfe foever could get the leading, to mde what ground the jockey pleafed, the hindmoft horfe being bound to follow him within a certain dillance agreed on by articles, or elfe to be whipped in by the tryers or judges who rode by ; and whichever horfe could diftance the other, accord- ing to the interval fettled when the match was made, won the race. If the horfe which at the beginning was behind, can get before that which firft led, then he is likewife bound to follow, till he can either get before, or elfe the match be loft or won. for it was found inhuman and deltruétive to good horfes, when two fuch horfes were matched together. For in this cafe neither wasable to diltance the other, until they were both ready to fink under their riders, and often two very good horfes were both fpoiled, and the wagers forced to be drawn at laft. The mifchief of this fort of racing foon in- troduced the method now in ufe, of running only a cer- tain quantity of ground, and determining the plate or wager, by the coming in firlt at the polt, It is well known pe! is This fort of racing was not long in common ufe, - CHA this chafe fill preferves its name in a common proverb, and « that many people follow” it, ‘ without knowing’? that they do fo. ‘Cuase, in Sea-Language, fignifies a veflel purfued by another, apprehended or known to be an enemy. Hence, to chafe is to purfue a fhip; which’ is called alfo giving chafe. ‘ A veffel that:chafes another ought to have the advantage of failing ; becaufe, if the fhip that is chafed were as good a failer asthe chafer, fhe could never come up with her, if _ they manceuvered equally and at the fame time. It is there- fore ufelefs to chafe a fhip, with rc{pec to which you have not the fuperiority in fuiling, unlels it be found that fhe does not know how to take the benefit of her equality. In order,to afcertain whether or not your fhip fails quicker than your adverfary, you mutt get in the fame track, under the fame fails, and keep the fame courfe with the veffel you with to chafe, and fet her exactly with a compafs, If you fail beft, the chafe will foon be drawn a point more aft; but if fhe has the advantage, you will in a fhort time bring cher a point farther forward: if you fail equally, fhe will remain in the point you fet her at firit. In chafing at fea, the foliowing rules are to be obferved, as the fhip that is chafed is either to windward or leeward of the chafer. Wher the chafer is to leeward of the veffel he means to purfue, he ought to veer on the fame tack as the enemy, till he brings her to bear exaétly perpendicular to his courfe, if he has not already pafled that point: then tack, and continue the fecond board till he brings the chafe again perpendicular to the direction on which he is {landing by the wind, and he mutt then heave about again; always continuing the fame manceuvre, by tacking every time he brings the chafe perpendicular to his courfe on either board. In this: manner, the chafer will, by the fuperiority only of - his failing, join the other by the fhorteft method. You continue on the fame tack as the enemy, when firlt een, in order to lofe no time; becaufe you will always bring the fhip you are in chafe of right on your beam, when you have a fuperiority of failing, whatever may be the tack fhe is on, - provided you are careful not to pafs that point; but, if per- chance you fhould, you mutt get on the other tack with all poflible difpatch. The chafer heaves about as foon as the _ veffel he is in purfuit of is on his beam; becaufe fhe is, at this time, at the fhorteft poflible diltance, if he chafes on _ the fame tack, and fteers the fame courfe with the veflel -chafed. If the chafer runs on a different tack from the veffel chafed, he is {till to, tack when the latter is on his beam, becaufe the diltance is the lealt poflible between them on the different boards they hold. This mode is pre- ferable to all others; it not only being the fhorteft, but be- caufe you force the chafe to fly from you clofe upon a wind, _ prefling her more and more from the leeward, by never pafl- ing the point at which the diftance between the two veflels, in plying to windward, is the fhorteft poffible. The wea- _ ther fhip, which flies, will always be joined by the chafer, fince it is granted fhe does not fail fo well as the purfuing _veffel. It is therefore her advantage conttantly to keep one _courfe, without lofing time to heave about, as tacking can- not be fo favourable to her as to her adverfary, whofe fail- “ing is fuperior. If the chafer fhould miftakenly ftand on a long way, and tack in the wake of the chafe, the belt thing | fhe can do is to heave in ftays, and pafs to windward of him on the other tack, unlefs you fuppofe your veflel would have _alarge fuperiority. If the chafer perfilts in tacking in the wake _of the other thip, the chafe will be very much prolonged. When the fhip you wifh to chafe is to leeward, or when you are to windward of her, keep the fhip away, to CHA cut her off ; and, fteering continually on that courfe, you come at lat together at the point where the courfes run by the two veffels interfe& each other. This will be exa@ly executed by the chafing fhip, if, in the courfe fhe has chofen, fhe con{tantly keeps chafe in thefame degree of the compais as at the beginning of the purfuit. ‘This prin- ciple applies equally to all the courfes which the retreaung fhip {teers ; for overtaking can only be obtained by keeping ina ftraight line, which is the fhorteft poffible that can be drawn between any two points. If you take another courfe than that which keeps you in the fame point of bearing you were in with refpe& to the veffel purfued, at the beginning of the chafe, you would fail, by being cither too far a-head or too fara-ftern; that is to fay, if the chafer keeps his wind too clofe, he will be too much a-head, and confequent- ly prolong the chafe; and, if he keeps too much away, he will be too far a-ftern. Thefe are the only two confidera- tions to be regarded for the performance of this manceuvre ; confiderations which are eafily obferved, and corrected with an azimuth compafs; for when you fee that, at the end of a certain time, you bring the chafe more aft than the firlt point of bearing, it is evident you keep your wind too much: if, on the contrary, you draw her forward, it is a proof that you keep too much away. ‘Thefe errors are eafily corrected, by tteering, for the firft cafe, fo as to fee that the chafe is always kept exaétly on the fame degree of the compafs; and, for the fecond, you keep. your wind a little more, ull you fee that-you reft in the fame point of bearing with refpeét to one another. Then, it is evident you chafe by the fhorteft and moft certain method, fince you reach the chafe, in running on a ftraight line. The veffel that is to leeward, and chafed, ought to run in the courfe that will carry her molt immediately from the chafer. Some veflels have greater advantagein going large than others ; fome with the wind right aft; and others again are to be found which go belt clofe-hauled. Attention fhould there~ fore be paid to the known qualities of a fhip, in order to take the molt advantageous and moft convenient directions capable of effeCting a retreat. It is however almolt certain, that if the chafe does not fail at leaft at an equal rate with the chafer, whatever manoeuvre fhe may practife, fhe will at length be overtaken by a fkilful chafer adhering to prin- ciples. If the chafe be found right ahead, and fo the chafer be put to a ftern-chafe, then the bett failer fhall carry it, if there be fea-room and day-light. Being come up c'ofe with the chafe, endeavour to crofs her fore-foot ; and by that means you will both hinder her way, and avoid the fury of her ordnance (except thofe in her chafe), and ufe your own, if required, to more advantage; and that as well your chafe-pieces, at your firit getting up within reach, as your broad-tide and quarter-pieces, as you pals thwart her hawfe, and fcour her decks from ftem to ftern, If the makes away from you, ply your guns, as many as poflible, at her fails, yards, mafts, and general tackling ; and, being near, fpare not your cafe-fhot, or crofs-bar-fhot, to malze the greater damage. Cuase, fern, is when the chafer follows the chafed a- ftern, dire€ily upon the fame point of the compafs. To lie in a fhip’s fore-foot ina chafe, is to fail, and meet with her by the neareft diftance, and fo to crofs her in her way, or to come acrofs her fore-foot. AA fhip is faid to have a good chafé, when fhe is fo built forward on, or a-ftern, that fhe-can carry many guns to fhoot forwards, or backwards ; according to which, fhe is faid to have a geod forward, or good fern-cha/e. Cuase-guas, are fuch whofe ports are either in the head called bocw-cha/es (and then they are ufed in chafing of others); oF CHA ‘or in the ftern, called fern-chafes, which are only ufeful when they are purfued or chafed by any other fhip. Cuase of agun. See Cannon. Cuase afiragal, fillets, and girdle. See Cannon. Cuase-Lanp, in Agriculture, is fuch fort of watte land as was formerly in the ftate of chafe. ‘There are ftill large tracts of this fort of land in different parts of the kingdom, though much within thefe few years has been cleared and. brought into a ftate of cultivation. It has been obferved by the author of the Middlefex Agricultural Report, in {peaking of a traét of this fort of land, in the vicinity of London, that has lately been attempted to be brought into a {tate of improvement, that it abounded with trees and rufhes, which rendered it neceffary for the culti- vators to dig up the foil and ftock out the roots, before any of the ordinary operations of hufbandry could take place. Thefe were works which not only required, he fays, much labour to effect, but alfo a very large expenditure of money, for which there was no immediate profpect of return. Oats was the only article which found a ready fale. The very unufual and extraordinary fupply of ftack-wood and bavins, fo far exceeded the demands for thefe articles, that the price fell far below the woodman’s labour. Inexperienced farmers became alarmed at thefe circumftances, and in confequence fet themfelves about trying confined, partial, and penurious, experiments, certainly very ill-calculated to fucceed on a raw crude foil, which had from the earlieft ages been fhut up by a thick foliage in an excefs of damp, excluded from the be- nign influence of the folar rays, and every other power of evaporation. It is added, that the wood in the firft inftance, being only cleared away from fmall patches of land at a time, fuch cleared ground was neceffarily flill left fur- rounded on all fides by woods, which by the redundancy of damp they occafioned, continued the diforder under which the foil naturally laboured. Again, the ftocking up the roots, and digging the foil, as before-mentioned, would unavoid- ably bury a great part of the furface mould, which was by much the belt, and in its ftead turn upa worthlefs clay, a per- fect enemy to the whole vegetable world: or at leatt it would mix fo much bad foil with the fmall portion of good, as to produce together a new furface, certainly much infe- rior to the one deltroyed by this operation. It ought not therefore, he thinks, to excite furprite, that, ‘under all thefe difadvantages, the foil fhould, as it were fullenly and reluGiantly, yield back again even fo much as the feed fown. In fa&, it could not otherwife happen till fuch time as the woods being more generally cleared, the fuperabundant water drained off, and the exceflive damps evaporated, the foil fhould obtain a proper degree of drynefs. Nor even then could great returns be expected, without the application of fome ftimulating ingredient, as turf-afhes, lime, marl, &c. to corre&t the natural acidity and crudene({s of the foil. But in order to make it permanently productive, manure fhould have been dealt with a liberal hand. At length, however, the fire-wood being grubbed, and marketed in lefs quantities, increafed its price; and by the meney it produced opened the way for a more extended clearing of the foil. The half-yard wood, which was originally given as a recompence to the labourer for clearing the ground, now yielded to the proprietor feven fhillings a ftack; the fpikes twenty-four fhillings; the bavins, when drawn to town, from fixteen to twenty-four fhillings per hundred; and the {pray, being made up into what they called pimps, feveral fhillinga profit. The account between the proprictor and the labourer therefore now ftood thus, viz, ~fuppled with manure brought from town, (if nigh fuch CHA Sold by the Pro- Labourer. prietor for To one ftack of half-yard wood,) £. 5. do £. 5. da 14 feet long, 3 feet high,and3 }e 4 0 2°16 o feet wide - - = -J Ditto yard wood ditto - they. might find the mufk-ox, but they do not reeur to it as-an-article of fuftenance. They have- alfo s CHE alfo large hares, a few white wolves peculiar to their coun- try, and feveral kinds of foxes, with white and grey par- tridges, &c, Thebeaver and moofe-deer they do not find till they come within 60° of N. latitude ; and the buffalo is known to frequent an higher latitude to the weftward of their country. Thefe people find on the furface of the earth a beautiful variegated marble, which is eafily wrought, leaves a fine polifh, and hardens with time; it alfo endures heat, and is manufactured into pipes or calumets, as they are very fond of {moking tobacco, a luxury which was com- municated to them by the Europeans. . Their amufements are few. Their mufic is fo inharmo- ‘nious, and their dancing fo aukward, that they feldom practife either. They fhoot at marks, and play at the games that are common among them; but they prefer fleeping to any recreation, and their time is fpent either in procuring food or in refting from the toil that is neceflary for obtain- ing it. “Their difpofition is querulous; and they exprefs their complaints by aconftant repetition of the word ‘ eduiy,”’ it is hard, ina whining and plaintive tone of voice. They are extremely fuperftitious ; and almoft every action they perform, however trivial, is influenced by fome whimfical no- tion, Mr. Mackenzie never obferved among them any parti- cular form of religious worfhip; but as they believe in a good and evil {pirit, and a ftate of future rewards and punifh- ments, he thinks they cannot be altogether without reii- gious impreffions. The Chepewyans have been accufed of abandoning their aged and infirm people to perifh, and of not burying their dead ; but thefe, fays Mr. M., are melancholy neceffities which proceed from their wandering way of life; and they are by no means univerfal, In their own country they can- not bury their dead, becaufe the ground never thaws; but when they are in the woods, they cover them with trees. Befides they manifeft no common refpe& to the memory of their departed friends, by a long period of mourning, cutting off their hair, and never making ufe of the property of the deceafed. Nay, many frequently deftroy or facri- fice their own, as a token of regret or forrow. ‘The bar- rennefs of their country might be fuppofed to lead them to the horrid practice of cannibals ; but this is a fufpicion from which Mr. M. amply vindicates them. ‘ In all my know- ledge of them,” fays he, ‘I never was acquainted with one inftance of that difpofition ; nor among all the natives which T met with in a route of 5000 miles, did I fee or hear of an example of cannibalifm, but fuch as arofe from that irre- fitible neceffity which has been known to impel even the moft civilized people to eat each other.”? Mackenzie’s Voy- ages, &c. Introduction. CHE-PING, a town of China, of the third rank, in the province of Koei-tcheou ; 5 leagues W.of Tchi-yaen.—Alfo, acity of China, of the fecond rank, in the province of Yon-nan ; 410 leagues S.S.W. of Peking. N, lat. 23° 49’. E, long. 102° 24/. CHEPO, Cueroor, or St. CurisTovaAL DE CrEPO, afmall Spanith town of South America, in the country of Terra Firma, and province of Darien, feated on a river of the fame name ; 1 league from the fea, and 9 E. of Panama; N. lat. 10° 42’. W. long. 77° 50’. CHEPSTOW, a town of Monmouthfhire, England, is, feated partly in a deep hollow, and partly on the fteep fide of a hill, fhelving to the river Wy. This river makes a confiderable curve here, and at the diltance of about two miles, fouth-welt, unites with the Severn. The fituation and feenery of Chepftow are extremely picturefque and romantic, From fome cminences the malts and fails of CHE veffels feem to rife in the midft of an immenfe quarry ; which, with the town crouching in a deep dell, and rifing a precipitous hill, form a fingularly interefting mixture of buildings, veffels, cliffs, water, and woods. The natural features of this place are defcribed by Mr. Coxe in the fol- lowing terms: “ The eminences which tower over the town are thickly over{pread with wood; among which the rich groves of Piercefield rife confpicuous, ‘The romantic cliffs of the Wy are here extremely picturefque, particu~ larly the ridge which forms the left bank of the river be- low the bridge; it is lofty, perpendicular, of a concave fhape, and tinted with various hues; white, grey, red, and yellow are beautifully blended, while green is fuperadded by the foliage of the oak that fkirts the top and fhades the fides, or by large clufters of ivy ftarting from the crevices at all heights, and twining in all directions. The ponderous re- mains of the caltle form a grand and permanent feature in this diverfified {cenery ; they cover a large traét of ground, and ftretch along the brow of the perpendicular cliff which impends over the Wy.” The Romans probably occupied the fite of Chepftow as a pofition commanding for feveral miles the only paflage of the Wy, and we may infer from its name that it was not over- looked by the Saxons. But this part of Monmouthfhire, which was then included in the county of Glocetter, came, foon after the conqueft, into the poffeffion of the Normans, and the caftle of Eftrighoiel or Striguil, by which name Chepftow was then known, was ereéted by Wilhelmus Comes, who is fuppofed by Camden and Dugdale to be William Fitzofborn earl of Hereford. He was killed in 1070; and his third fon, the heir to this caftle, being doomed to perpetual imprifonment, it was probably tran{- ferred to the illuftrious houfe of Clare, in whofe pofleflion we find it in the reign of Henry I. Lfabella, the daughter and heirefs of Richard Strongbow, ‘earl of Pembroke, conveyed, on the death of her father in 1176, the caftle and manor of Scriguil, with all his other poffeffions, to her hufband William, earl marfhal of England, who, oa the death of king John, became proteCtor of the realm, and was created, in right of his wife, earl of Pembroke and Eftrigol or Striguil, By this illuftrious nobleman, who, in a period of warfare, exhibited the moft heroic prowefs, and in an age of rebellion the moft unfhaken loyalty, the tot~- tering crown of John was fupported, the confederacy of the barons who had {worn allegiance to the Dauphin was dii- folved, young Henry was fixed on the throne of hisanceltors, and his diftraéted country bleffed with peace. The Earl’s five fons dying without iffue, his eldeft daughter : Maud transferred the caltle and borough of Striguil to her huf- band Hugh Bigod earl of Norfolk. But their grandfon Roger having furrendered to the crown all the honors and eftates of his family, they were granted by Edward II. to his brother Thomas de Brotherton; after whofe death the caftle and manor of Chepftow defcended to the Mowbrays, and were fold by John, duke of Norfolk, to William Her- bert, earl of Pembroke, with whofe other eftates they were conveyed by marriage to Sir Charles Somerfet, and are now in the poffeffion of his defcendant.the duke of Beau- fort. The town of '\Chepftow was formerly fortified; and the : ruined walls,.which were ftrengthened by round towers, reach from’ the bank of the river below the bridge to the caltle, which, at one period, furpaffed, in extent as well as importance, any fortrefs.in this part of Great Britain. _ Its ruins ftand on a precipice which overhangs the welt bank of . the Wy; the northern fide, being built clofe to the edge, appears part of the cliff, and the ivy by which the walls are. overfpread, CHE overfpread, twines and clufters about the unwieldy frag- ments, and down the perpendicular fide of the rock: to- wards the land a moat defended it, and it was flanked with lofty towers. A very confiderable {pace is occupied by the area, which is divided into four courts: the firft contains the fhells of the kitchens, grand hall, and other numerous apartments; from the fecond, which is now a garden, a paflage leads into the third, and to a building called the chapel; there was formerly a communication from the third, which is alfo a garden, to the fourth, to which now the only accefs is by creeping through a fally-port-in the wall. The charaGteriilic ftyle of the architeQure appears, from a general furvey, to be Norman: the fhell feems to have been conftru€ted on one plan and at the fame period; but the other buildings have been altered and enlarged by later proprietors. Great importance attached to this for- trefs ducing the civil wars, when it was at firft’ garrifoned for the king, till colonel Morgan, aided by the mountaineers, took poffcflion of the town, and forced the cattle to fur- render. It was recaptured by the loyalifts under Sir Ni- cholas Kemeys, who, with only 160 men, made a coura- geous ftand againft the affaults of Cromwell; but after a Jaborious fiege, it was ftormed, and Sir Nicholas and forty of his brave adherents, perifhed in the attack. At the fouth-eaftern extremity of the firft court of the caftle is a tower, remarkable as the prifon of the celebrated regicide Harry Marten. An early affertor of republican principles, he zealoufly co-operated with Cromwell in the abolition of monarchy ; and on the trial of the king he fat as one of the judges. Irom the diffolution of the long parliament until the reftoration, he remained in obfcure retirement, when he furrendered on the king’s proclamation: he was arraigned and condemned for high treafon, but his fentence was com- muted for perpetual imprifonment, and he was removed to Chepftow caftle, where he was treated with great lenity, was allowed the poffeffion of his whole property, and the privilege of vifiting the neighbouring gentry. In the twentieth year of his abode here, an apoplexy terminated his confinement and life, at the age of feventy-eight. He was buried in the chancel of the church of Chepftow, where a ftone with an infcription of his own writing, was placed over his remains: but the zeal of the vicar not fuifering the monument. of a regicide to pollute the vicinity of the altar, it has fince been removed into the body of the church. Chepftow is about three miles from the paflage over the river Severn at Autt ferry; five from the new paffage at Black Rock ; fifteen from Monmouth ; fixteen from Bniftol, and 135 from London. The tide of the Wy flows with great rapidity up to the town. It frequently rifes at the bridge to 56 feet, and in January 1768 it arofe about 70 feet ; a phenomenon occa- fioned by the proje¢tion of the rocks at Beachley and Autt, which turns the tide with great violence into this river. The floor of the bridge, conftru&ed fimilar to that of Caerleon, is level; and was formerly fupported by wooden piers, about the height of 40 feet, which the counties of Glocefter and Monmouth jointly contributed to keep in repair. They remain in their original ftate on the Glou- ccfterfhire fide, but ftone piers have been fubftituted on the oppofite fhore. Part of it belongs to the county of Glo- ceiter, and part to Monmouthhhire. Chepftow contains no manufactories ; but fupplies Here- ford{hire and this part of Monmouthfhire with the neceffary imports by the Wy, and exports the native productions, which are principally timber, grain for the Briltol market, coal, grind and mill-ftones, iron, oak-bark, and cyder. CHE A confiderable foreign trade is carried on during pzace; and fome veffels are built here. An alien priory for Bene- diétine monks (of which fcarcely any traces remain) wes founded here foon after the conqueft, by one of the pro- prietors of the caftle.’ The parith church was part of the priory chapel, and difplays a curious fpecimen of Norman architelure. Its weltern entrance is a magnificent portal, enriched with the mouldings peculiar to the Saxon and Norman ftyles. In the neighbourhood are the remains cf feveral religious houfes. A pleafant eminence to the weft of the town was occupied by St. Kynemark’s priory ; the walis of which, {till vifible, enclofe the garden and yard of a farm-houfe, called St. Kynemark’s farm. The founda. tions of St. Lawrence’s chapel may alfo be traced. The traveller, in pafling to this fpot along the fhire Newton road, and along the fields, commands a fingular and beau- tiful profpe&t of Chepflow and its environs. The remains of feveral other chapels ftill exift. In the garden belonging to a houfe in Bridge-ftreet, is a well, remarkable for good water, which at high tide becomes perfeétly dry: a little before which it begins to fubfide, and foon after the ebb it returns ; neither wet nor dry weather affeGts it, but its in- ° creafe and decreafe regularly correfpond with the tide. The well, which is thirty-two feet deep, has frequently fourteen feet of water. About two miles north of Chepftow is Piercefield, a feat of much celebrity, and a juft theme of a defcriptive encomium with the tourilts and topographers of Mon- mouthfhire. ‘The grounds are extenfive, and embrace much diverfified {cenery of wood, lawn, rock, and river. Stretch- ing along the iriguous banks of the Wy, fromthe caftleat _ Chepftow, to a lofty perpendicular rock called the Wynd- i cliff, isa walk of about three miles in length: the profpe@s from which, and its accompanying fcenery, are defcribed i) in the following terms by Mr, Coxe. ‘ On entering the grounds at the extremity of the village of St. Arvans, and at the bottom of Wynd-cliff, the walk leads through plan- tations, commanding on the right a diftant view of the j Severn, and the furrounding country ; it penetrates into a thick foreft, and conduéts to the Lover’s Leap, where the " Wynd-cliff is feen towering above the river in all its height — and beauty, and below yawns a deep and woody abyfs. It ‘ waves almoit imperceptibly in a grand outline, on the brow. 2 of the majettic amphitheatre of cliffs impending on the Wy oppofite to the peninfula of Laneant, then crofles the park, ° runs through groves and thickets, and again joins the Wy, at that reach of the river which ftretches from Laneant to ; the caflle of Chepftow. From the Lover’s Leap the wall, is carried through a thick mantle of forefts, with occafional openings, which feem not the refult of art or defign, but the effect of chance or nature. This bow’ry walk is confo- nant to the genius of Piercefield; the fcreen of wood pre-_ vents the uniformity of a bird’s cye-view, and the imper- — ceptible bend of the amphitheatre conveys the fpeGator from one part of this fairy region to another without difco= covering the gradations. Hence the Wy is fometimes con- cealed, or half obfcured by overhanging foliage, at others” wholly expanding to view is feen fweeping beneath in a broad and circuitous channel; hence at one place the Se- vern f{preads in the midft of a boundlefs expanfe of country, and on the oppofite fide to the Wy ; at another, both rivers appear on the fame fide, and the Severn feems fupported on” the level fummit of the cliffs which torm the banks of the Wy. Hence the fame objcé&ts prefent themfelves in dif ferent afpects, and with varied accompaniments ; hence the magic tranfition from the impervious gloom of the forelt to open groves ; from meadows and lawns to rocks and precie pices, 5 CHE pices, and from the mild beauties of Englith landfcape to the wildnefs of Alpine fcenery.’? The houfe erected on this eftate is a magnificent pile of building, of freeftone, and ftands nearly in the centre of the park. Piercefield was long the property of the Waters tamily, till the year 1736, when it was fold to colonel Mor- ris, father of Valentine Morris, Efq. who afterwards pof- feffed it, and to whefe talte and liberality it is indebted for its chief artificial beauties, and its long eftablifhed celebrity. In 1784 it was bought by George Smith, Efg. who again fold it in 1794 to Colonel Wood, formerly chiet engineer at Bengal. ‘This gentleman has recently difpofed of Pierce- field to Wells, Efq. Yor the moft recent account of this feat, of Chepftow, and this county, fee Coxe’s ‘¢ Hiftorical Tour in Mon- mouthfhire.”? 2 vols. 4to. CHEQ,.Cuerir, or SHerRiFFE, the prince, or high- priefl of Mecca; fovereign pontiff of the Muffulmans; and owned as fuch by all the feéts into which they are divided. The grand fignior, fophies, mogols, khans of ‘Tartary, &c. fend him yearly prefents ; efpecially tapeftry, to cover Mahomet’s tomb, and tents for himfelf; for the cheq has a tent near the mofque of Mecca, wherein he lives during the feventeen days of devotion in pilgrimage to Mecca. ‘The tapeltry and tent are changed every year, and pieces thereof fent to the princes who furnifh new ones. His dominions are extenfive ; and his revenue is very con- fiderable, confifting of prefents made by the Mahometan princes, and pilgrims, to the-mofque of Mecca and Medina. See SHERRIFFE. The chegq fubfits all the pilgrims during the feventeen days of devotion; on which account he is every year fur- nifhed with a very confiderable {um of money from the grand figmior: the better to obtain this, he makes him believe, that there are conftantly, during this time, feventy thoufand pil- grims; and that, fhould the number fall fhort, the angels, in ‘form of men, would make it up. CHEQUETAN, or Secuataneio, in Geography, a town of North America, on the coalt of Mexico, in the pro- vince of Mechochan, 7 miles W. of the rocks of Seguetaneio. Between this and Acapulco towards the eaft is.a fandy beach, 18 leagues in extent, againft which the beating of the fea is fo violent as to prevent boats from landing; neverthe- lefs there is a good anchorage for fhipping at a mile or two from the fhore, during the fair feafon. The harbour of Chequetan, though hard to be traced, is very important to veffels that cruize in thefe {eas ; as it is the moft fecure in a vait extent of coaft, yields plenty of wood and water, and may be defended by a few men. When lord Anfon touched here, the place was uninhabited. _ CHER, a river of France, which rifes near Auzanic, in the department of the Creufe, paffes by Montlugon, Ainay- le-Vieux, St. Amand, Chateauneuf, St. Florent, Vierzon, Menetou, Villefranche, Chabris, Selles, St. Aignan, Montri- chard, Blere, &c. and joins the Loire a few miles below Tours. Cuer, a department of France, deriving its name from the river Cher, which traveifes a part of it, and bounded on ‘the north, by the departments of Loire and Cher, Loiret and Nievre; on the eaft, by that of Nievre, from which it is feparated by the Allier; on the fouth, by thofe of Creule, Allier, and Indre; and on the welt, by thofe of Indre, Indre and Loire, and Indre and Cher. This de- partment is formed of part of the province of Berry, and its capital is Bourges. The territorial extent comprehends 7385 kiliometres, or about 740,125 hectares, or 1,450;134 ‘Aquare acres; and is diftributed into three diitriéts, contain~ CHE : ing 29 cantons and 307 communes. The population was eftimated in the rrth year of the French era at 218,297 per- fons; its contributions to various purpofes amounted to 1,742,031 francs; and the expences charged upon it for ad- miniftration, juttice, and public inltru€tion, were 260,525 francs 79 cents. ‘ CHERA, a river of South America in the province of Quito, in Peru, pafling near Colan, and fupplying Paita with its frefh water. : CHERZUS, in Ancient Geography, a {mall town of Lower Egypt, fituate upon the Nile, from which a canal paffed to Alexandria, that ferved to difcharge the water of the lake Moeris. CHERAMIS, in Antiquity, a medical meafure. Ac- cording to Erotian on Hippocrates, it was the hollow of a fhell-fith called myax, and took that name from xpx0;, which fignifies a hollow place, It frequently occurs in Hippocrates, and feems not much different from the chema, which in Ga- len’s Exegefis is expounded by it. Cornavius alfo explains cheramis by the meafure of a CHema; and Calvus on ano- ther paffage expounds it by a pugil. CHERASCO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the prin= cipality of Piedmont, and capital of a county of the fame name, on the borders of that of Afti, feated on a mountainy. at the conflux of the Stura with the Tanaro. It is faid to have been built by fome inhabitants of Alba, Manzaon, Miana, &c. who were expelled their towns by the tyranny of their lords, and furrounded with walls. It was afterwards fortified in the modern manner with baftions, fofles, and out-works, by order of Chriftina of France, duchefs of Sa- voy. Since that time it has been confidered as the key and bulwark of the eftates of Savoy, being fituated on the fron- tiers of Piedmont, Montferrat, and the duchy of Milan, and {trong both by nature and art. It was at firft a republic, governed by its own laws, but profefling dependence on the emperors of Germany. Cherafco continued in this flourifh- ing ftate till the year 1260, when its allegiance was tran{- ferred to Charles I. of Anjou, king of Naples and Sicily ; and it remained fubje&t to that crown till the reign of Jane I. queen of Naples, when, left deftitute of her proteCtion, it was voluntarily furrendered to Amadeus VI. count of Savoy, and Jaques de Savoy, prince of Achaia. In a few yearsit became fucceffively fubje& to other powers, till at length it was pofleffed by Charles V., who gave it, in 1530, to Charles II. duke of Savoy, furnamed the Good, in confideration of his marriage with Beatrice of Portugal. After having been taken in the fame century by the Auttrians and the French, it was reilored by the peace of Cambray, in 1559, to Ema- nuel Philbert, fonof Charles. Victor Amadeus gave it the title of city, and made it the capital of a province and refi- dence of a governor. It has, together with the whole of Piedmont, at a late period, fallen into the hands of the Frenchs. See Pirpmont. Thistown is in the diocefe of Alli, and has 7 parifh churches, 4 within the walls, and 3 without.. The county, of which it is the capital, is about g miles in diameter; the land is fertile; the plains produce great plenty of corn, and the hills of various heights yield good wine for exportation. Itis 20 miles S.S.E. from ‘l'urin, and 15 miles E. from Saluzzo. N. lat. 44° 33’. E. long. 7° 41’. CHERAW Hitt, a mountain of North America, in the ftate of South Carolina; 4o miles N.N.E. of Queenborough. CHERAWS, a diltri@ in the upper country of South Carolina, bounded on the north and north-ealt by North Carolina; on the fouth-ealt by George-town diflri& ; and on the fouth-weft by Lynche’s creck, which feparates it from Camden diftri@. Its length is about 83 miles, and its breadth 63; and itis {ubdivided into the counties of Darling- 6 ton, CHE ton, Chefterfield, and Marlborough. By the cenfus of r791, the number of inhabitants appeared to be 10,706, of whom “618 were whites, and the reft flaves. _ It fends to the ftate leewflature fix reprefentatives and two fenators, and in con- junétion with George-town diftri& one member to Congrefs. “This diftrit is watered by Great Pedee river and other {maller {treams; on the banks of which the land is popu- loufly fettled and well cultivated. The chief towns are Gren- villeand Chatham. CHERBOURG, a fea-port town of France, in the de- partment of the Channel, and chief place of a canton in the dillrict of Valognes ; fituated at the bottom of a large bay, between Cape Barfleurand Cape la Hogue. ‘The place con- tains 11,389 and the canton the fame number of inhabitants. The terntory comprehends 174 kilometres and one commune. Before the revolution, Cherbourg was the feat of a governor and an admiralty. The chief employment of the inhabit- ants confilts in building {mall veffels, and manufa€uring woollen fluffs. Ta 1758 this town was taken and plundered by the Englith, the port deftroyed, and the fhips burned in the harbour. The French have always confidered this port as of great importance in the navigation of the Englifh Chan- rel; and they have expended immenfe fums on the ereétion of piers, deepening and enlarging the harbour, and ereéting fortifications. Veffels of 900 tons can be admitted in high- water, and in low-water thofe of 250 tons. N, lat. 49° 38’ 26". W. long. 1° 38’ ¥1”. CHERCHESENE, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the province of Curdiftan ; 62 miles S. of Kerkuk, CHEREF, or Suarir, a title aflumed by the emperors of Morocco. CHEREM, among the Jews, is ufed to fignify a {pecies of ANNIHILATION. The Hebrew word cherem fignifies properly to deffroy, ex- terminate, devote, anathematize. Cuerem is fometimes likewife taken for that which is con- fecrated, vowed, or offered to the Lord, fo that it may no longer be employed in common or profane ufes. ‘There are fome who affert, that perfons thus devoted were put to death ; whereof, they fay, Jephtha’s daughter is a memor- able example. Judg. xi, 29, &c. Cuerem is alfo ufed for a kind of excommunication in ufe among the Jews. See Nipput. CHEREN, in Ornithology, the Arabian name of the king-fifher, ALcepo J/pida. Cueren tabanan, in Geography, a town of Chinefe Tar- tary. N. lat.41°32’. E. leng. 119° 31’. CHERIBON, one of the four empires or kingdoms into which the ifland of Java is divided : the other three are Bantam, Jaccatra, and Soefoehoenam. Cheribon is under the dominion of three different princes, who are independent of the Dutch, and fovereigns in their refpective diftricts. Whullt the company poflefled power in the eaft, the princes of Cheribon were their allies, and bound, by treaty, to fell the whole produce of their territory exclufively to the com- pany, and not to permit any other nation befides the Dutch, to enter their dominions. For the due maintenance of which conditions, the company took care to guard and garrifon their fea-ports. The company, on former occafions, has ex- ercifed a kind of defpotic power over thefe princes; de- throning one, and eftablifhiag another in his room. An in- flance of this kind occurred in the commencement of the year 1769 ; when one prince was fet afide and banifhed to the ca{tle Victoria, in the ifland of Amboyna, and the elevated prince conftrained to furnifh a certain fum of money an- ually, for the fupport of his imprifoned predeceffor. CHERIC, in Ornithology ; the Gmelinian Motacilla Ma- I Cee dogafcarienfis 1s fo called by Buffon; named by Latham the white-eyed Warbler. CHERI-KIAMEN, in Geography, a port of Chinefe Tartary; 15 miles S.E. of Petonré Hotun. CHERI-OUJOU, a town of Chinefe Tartary ; § miles S. of Geho. ¥ CHERIPPE, an inconfiderable village of S. America, in lerra Firma, which farnifhes the weekly market of Pa- hama with provifions. CHERIWAY, in Ornithology. See Farco. CHERLERIA, in Botany, (fo called in honour of J. Henry Cherler, fon-in-law and affitant to John Bauhin), Hall. opufc. 300. Linn. gen. 570. Schreb. 775. Willd. $98. Juff. gor. Vent. vol. 3. 243. Clafs and order, de- candria trigynia. Nat. ord. Caryophyllee, Linn. Jufl. Vent. Gen.Ch. Cal. Perianth five-leaved ; leaves lanceolate, con- cave, keeled, ftriated, expanding. Cor. Petals none, Hall. Linn. Lam. Smith. (five, ftrap-fhaped, green, Segn.) Neca taries five, very {mall, emarginate fcales. Stam. Filaments ten; five attached to the fcales of the netary ; five alter- nating with the calyx-leaves, inferted into the receptacle be- tween the fcales. Pi. Germ fuperior, ftylesthree. Peric. Capfule egg-fhaped, twice as long as the calyx; three- valved, three-celled, with three feeds. Linn. Lam. &c. (one- celled, with many feeds, Smith.) Seeds angular. Eff. Ch. Calyx five-leaved ; neCtariferous glands five, emer- ginate ; capfule fuperior, three-valved. Sp. C. fedoides, Hall. Helv. tab, 21. fig. 3. Jacq. Auft. tab. 284. Lam. Illuft. tab. 379. Eng. Bot. 1212. (Lychnis Alpina; Pluck. Alm. tab. 42. fig. 8. Sedum montanum; Morif. Hitt. tab. 6, fig. 14.) Root perennial, long, fomewhat woody, much divided. Stems forming a tuft, an inch long, thickly befet with leaves. Leaves awl-fhaped, obtufe, three- nerved underneath. Flowers yellowifh, green, ere&t. Pe- duncles folitary, axillary, towards the top of .the ftem, one flowered, with two connate braétes about the middle. A native of moift places near the fummits of high moun- tains inthe highlands of Scotland, Carniola, &c. flower- ing in July and Auguft. Firft obferved in Great Britain by fome of Dr. Hope’s travelling pupils. CHERMANSICK, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the province of Natolia; 30 miles N.N.E. of Milets. q CHERMES, in Entomology, a genus of hemipterous in- feéis. The fnout is placed in the breaft, and contains three inflected briftles ; antenne cylindrical, and longer than the thorax ; wings four, deflected; thorax gibbous; potterior legs formed for leaping. There are many fpecies of the chermes genus, fome of which are peculiar to particular plants, while others inhabit a variety of plants indifcriminately. The females are fur- nifhed with a fharp tubular inftrument at the extremity of the abdomen, with which they pierce the leaves of the wil- low, afh, oak, fir, and other trees, in order to depofit their eggs beneath the furface, and by thofe punétures oc- fion the {wellings or excrefcences of various fizes, which are commonly known‘ by the name of tree-galls. Thefe galls contain the infant brood of chermes, both in the larva and pupa, as well as egg ftate: the larva has fix feet, and is ge- nerally covered with a kind of hairy or woolly fubftance, and the pupa is diftinguifhed by two protuberances of the tho- rax which contain the embryo wings. In the perfe& or winged {tate the chermes leap or {pring with great agility. Geoffroy, who names feveral of this tribe of infects Pfylla, ob- ferves, that both in the larva and pupa tate they eje& from the vent a fugar-like fubftance of a white colour, and much re- {embling Segn. tab. 4. | 3 CoHRE# _ fembling manna: fometimes this matter occurs in the form of fmall white grains upon the leaves of plants, and is often _ feen attached to the pofterior extremity of the infect’s body, The galls occafioned by thefe infeéts are ufeful for various purpofes. “Some late French writers comprehend the two Linnzan genera, chermes and coccus, under one, denominat- ed Kermes. a Species. Graminis. Found on grafles, particularly the aira flexu- | ofa, Linn. Inhabits Europe. , ~Uxmi. On the ulmi campefiris, Linn. Fn. Suec. Yound in the curled leaves of this tree. F Cerastit. On-the leaves of the cerafiuin wifcofum, Linn. Fn. Suec. Pyar. On the leaves of the pyrus communis, Linn. Fn. Suec. Chermes pyri of Degeer. This is ofa brownifh-green colour, with dufky fpots and bands; and has the wings {potted with brown. Sorst. On the Sarbus aucuparia, Fabr. Above varied with black lines and charaGters; beneath greenifh; thorax yel- ifh, with two dots in front, and four black lines behind. Persicz. On the amydgalus perfica, Fabr. Chermes _ perfice oblongus, Geoffr. Le kermés oblong du péicher. This is chiefly on the branches of the amydgalus pertica; the body is oblong and ferruginous. ; Catru#. On the flowers of caliha palufiris, Fabr. An- tenne black at the tip; thorax rufous with three black _ curves; wings white, with yellowifh veins anda brown dot. . Buxr. On the box, and other ever-greens, Fabr. &c. This is of a green colour, with fetaceous antenne, and the wings yellowifh brown. The punétures of this infect _ make the leaves bend in towards each other at their extre- _ mity, forming a hollow knob in which the larve are enclofed. Uerice. On the wrtica disica, Linn. Fn. Suec. This is of a green or fufcous colour with the fides of the abdomen fpotted with white. : Beturz. On the branches of the defula alia, Linn. Aunt. Ontheé betula alni, Linn. Chermes alni lanata vi- ridis, Degeer.. Vermis firctorius alni, Frifch. The anten- nz are varied with white and black; {nout white tipped with black ; body whitifh; wings white with brown veins. "Quercus. Onthe oak, Linn. Fn. Suec. / ¥Facr. On the fages /ylvatica, Linn. Pn. Suec. * Anietis. Onthebranches of pinus abies, Linn. fl.Cappon, *&e. Pfylla pallide flavefcens oculis fufcis, alis aqueis, Geoffr, Lnfedum tuberculi maricati arboris taxi, Frifch. Picea pumila, Ciuf, "Phis fpecics occafions by its pun€ture enormous fealy {wellings or protuberances at the end of the branches of the pine. F Sacicis. On various fpecies of /alix found in Europe, abr. Fraxint. On the fraxinus excelfor, Linn. black colour varied with pale yellow. Aceris. Onthe branches of acer platanoides, Linn. The body is yellowith, beneath green; tail awl-fhaped and “brownifh. : “Ficus. On'the ficus carica, Fabr. The body is brown; ~antennz thick and hairy ; wings with brown nerves. ~TLicuents. On various fpecies of lichens. Gmel. &c. This is of a fufcous colour dotted with black, and has the antenve 1 ger than the body ; the wings are {potted with brown. “Pint. Linn, Inhabits pines. It is not perhaps diftinct om C. abictis. “Castanea. Fufcous; antenne fetaceous and fmooth ; wings nervous, Geoffr. &c. Inhabits various plants. ~Rupra. Red; wings nervous, Geoff. Inhabits various ants. BeeVoL. VII. This is of a Gh & Prunt. On the prunus domeflicus, Scop. The abdomen is red, with dots, and lateral bands of brown. Cratzcr. On the crategus oxyacantha, Scop. The larva is of a plumbeous green, with a fold down the middle of the abdomen, Evonyai. On the cuonymus europeus, Scop. Colour black, legs pale. Senecionis. On the fenecio vulearis, Scop. The body is of a greenifh yellow colour ; the lait joint of the antennz is the thicketft. CHERMITES,. or Currnires, in the Natural Hiflory of the Ancients, a name given by mazy toa fpecies of very bright and white marble or alabaftcr, which feems to have been the fame with that called afterwards LyGpiInumM mar- mor. 7 CHERNIBS, derived from x2, the hand, and uxtw, ta wafo, in Antiguity, a veffel wherein people ufed to wafh their hands before they wert to attend religious fervice. CHERO, in Geography, a {mall ifland of European Turkey in the Archipelago. N. lat. 36° 53’. E. long. 25° 40!. “CHEROKEES, a nation of Indians in N. America, once powerful and flourifhing, but now declining. They refide in the northern parts of Georgia, and the fouthern parts of the ftate of Tenneffee ; having on the eaft the Apa- lachian or Cherokee mountains, which feparate them from north and fouth Carolina; on the north and weft the Ten~ neffee river ; and on the fouth the Creek Indians. Their country, extending weitward to the Miffilippi and north- ward to the Six nations, was furrendered, by treaty at Weit- miniter, in 1729, to the crown of Great Britain. The prefent line between them and the ftate of Tenneffce is not yet fettled. “A line of experiment was drawn in 1792 from Clinch river acrofs Holfton to Chilhove mountain; but the Cherokee commiffioners not appearing, it is called a line of experiment. ‘The complexion of the Cherokevs is brighter’ than that of the neighbouring Indians. ‘They are robult and weil made, and taller than many of their neighbours ; being generally fix feet high. Their women are tall, flen- der, and delicate. The talents and morals of the Cherokees are held in high eftimation. They were formerly a power- ful nation; but by their continual wars with the northera Indian. tribes, and with the whites, they are now reduced, as fome fay, to 1500, or, according to others, to 3000 war- riors; and they are becoming feeble and pufillanimous. They have 43 towns now inhabited. CHERON, Exizasetu-Soruia, in Biography, the daughter of Henry Cheron, painter in enamel, was born at Paris in 1648, and inftruéted by her father, who obferved her paflionate fondnefs for the art of painting, in dclign and colouring. Her improvement was very rapid, and fhe foon acquired great reputation by her performances; pars ticularly by her portraits, which, independently of their ftriking refemblance, were clegantiy difpofed, well-coloured. and neatly fnifhed; fhe alfo painted hiftory, and her por- traits were executed in the hiftorical flyle: fhe employed herfelf much in drawing from the antique, end excelled in copying the figures on gems. Her father was a Calvinifi ; but from her mother fhe received early impreflions in favour of the Catholic religion; and at a mature age fhe abjured Calvinifm, and thus facilitated her admiffion into the Aca- demy of Painting, in 1676, by the recommendation of Charles Le Brun. Her genius comprehended mulic and poetry, as well as painting ; and many of her compofitions in verfe were much efteemed by J. Bapt. Roufleau. Thefe produdtions obtained for her a feat in the Academy of Rico- vrati at Padua; and as fhe played well on the tute, and had 4G occafional CHE oceafional evening concerts, her houfe was frequented by perfons of talte and literature. At the age of 60 fhe mar- ned .M. Le Hay, engineer to the king, who was alfo ad- vanced in years; and foon after, viz. in 1711, died at Paris, arsed 63. This lady amuled herfelf with engraving : and we havea ferics of gems partly from her own delign, but mollly from the antique ; and of thefe, three were etched by herfelf, viz. Bacchus and Ariadne, Mars and Venus, ard Night feattering her poppies. She alfo engraved a “ Defcent from the crofs,”? and a ‘ Drawing book,”’ confilting of 36 prints in folio. D’Argenville. Pilkington. Strutt. Cueron, Louis, the youngeft fon of the preceding lady, was born at Paris in 1669; and having acquired the firt principles of painting in his own country, he was enabled by the liberality of his filter to vifit Italy and remain there 18 years. His modcls were the works of Raphae! and Julio Romano; but though he compofed with facility and drew correétly, he never attained the grace of the Italian matters; his heads having a ferocious air and his figures being too mufcular. As he adhered to the Calviniltic profeffion, he was obliged to leave France, and in 1695 he fought a re- fuge in England, where he found fome patrons, and parti- cularly the duke of Montagu. He was a man of enlarged ideas and alfo of corre&t morals; fo that he refufed to aint for a nobleman a licentious fubje&, He died at Pontos in 1713. He engraved with great tafte the following prints; from his own compolition; viz. ‘ St. Peter healing the lame man at the gates of the temple,” * The death of Ananias and Saphira,’’ and * St. Paul baptizing the Eunuch.” Pilkington. Strutt. CHERONZA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Greece in Beotia; formerly called Arne, and fituated in the envi- rons of Lebadeza. On the plains of Cheronza are two trophies, which are faid to have been ereted by the Ro- mans and Sylla, in commemoration of a victory obtained over the general of the army of Mithridates. The Thebans who perifhed in their conteft againtt Philip were buried near Cherone:, and over their tomb was placed a lion. The principal divinity of the Cheronaans was the fceptre which Vulcan made for Jupiter, called “the lance :’’ from Jupiter jt was transferred to Mercury, and at length it defcended to Agamemnon, and is celebrated by Homer. This deity had no temple, but a prieft waited on him, and daily facrifices were offered to him. CHERONNAC, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Charente; 15 miles S. of Confo- lent. CHEROPOTAMUS, in Zoology, one of the fynonyms of the hippotamus. CHEROY, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Yonne, and diftri&t of Sens; 10 miles W. of it. CHERRONESUS, or Cuerrura, in Ancient Geogra- Phy, a town of Africa in Libya. Steph. Byz.—Alfo, a promontory of Ajia Minor in Lycia.—Alfo, a town of Afia Minor, in the Doride, near the town of Cnidus. Id.—Alfo, a town of Spain near Sagonte. Strabo.—Alfo, an ifland in the vicinity of that of Crete.—Alfo, a port of Thrace, in the Euxine fea, between Apolloniades and Thyniades, ac- cording to Arrian.—Alfo, a town in the weftern part of the Tauric Cherfonefus, at the diltance of 20 flages from that of Bofphorus in the caftern part. It was alfo called ‘* Cher- fonefus’’ or * Cherfone.”” Pliny feys, that it was alfo called ss Megarice,”” and that it was made free by the Romans. Scylax reckons it in the number of the Greek cities, and Strabo makes it a colony of the inhabitants of Hera- clea of Pontus; and fays, that it was built by the Greeks CH E. on thé gulph of Carcinitis, now the gulph of Nigropoli, on the weit coalt of the Cherfonefus, It was freely furren. dered to Mithridates. Procopius fays, that it was the lalt frontier of the Roman empire; and thar the country be- tween the two towns was polleffed by the Huns. Peyfo- nel fays that the Cherfonites: were faithful fubje@s to the emperors of the eaft; and that they were governed by an officer called «* Proteron,’? who had a council of fenators or old men, denominated the fathers of the city; and that in procefs of time they fent them pretors. He adds, that they were very commercial, and poflefled the who'e trade of the 3lack fea. He moreover fays, that when Contftantius, who had employed the Cherfonites againft the Bofphorians, bes came emperor, he availed himfclf of their affiltance againit the Scythians, and in acknowledgment of their fervices granted them many exemptions and privileges. At length there was.a confpiracy of the Bofphorians againft the Cher- fonites, which was difcovered by a young woman calied ‘« Gycia,” te. whom were erected ftatues, upon the pedef- tals of which were infcribed an abitraGt of this adventure. CHERRONISO, in Geography, a town of European Turkey, on the N.E. coaft of the ifland of Negropont ; 25 miles E. of Negropont. ‘ CHERRY-rtree, in Botany. See Prunus Cerafus. This tree is called Cerafus, according to Servius, from the name of a city in Pontus, which Lucullus deftroyed ; and the fruit of it was brought by him to Rome, A. U. C. 680, and into Britain about 100 years afterwards, or A. 1). 55. Soon after it was fpread through molt parts of Europe. Cuerry, Barbadoes. See Matpicuia. CuHerry, Cornelian. See Cornus. Cuerry, Dwarf. See Lonicera. Cueray, Holtentot. Sce Cerastrus /ucidus. Currey, Winter. See Puysaris Alhehengi. Cuerry brandy, a drink made of brandy, with the addi= tion of cherries. The cherries commonly ufed for this purpofe, are of the black kind: with thefe, a bottle being half filled, is filled up with brandy, or fpirits. The whole is to be fhaken up- noe and then; and in a monih’s time it beeomes fit for ufe. To fweeten it, and improve the flavour, fome choofe te put in fugar, with a quantity of rafpberries. Cuerry-water is mace by bruiling 20 pounds of black cherries with the kernels, and drawing off by diitillation, with as much pure water as is fufficient for avoiding empy- reumay 20 pounds. This water has been formerly ufed asa vehicle in preference to other diitilled waters, and has been kept for this purpofe in the fhops. But it has been found by various experiments, that the kernels of cherries communi- cate to diflilled water a poifonous quality ; aud the water: has therefore been laid afide by both the London and Edin- burgh colleges. CuErry-qine is made by adding two pounds of fugar to. every two gallons of the juice of cherries. The liquor is afterwards put into a veflel to ferment ; and after flanding about two months in the cafk, is bottled off with a little {ugar for ufe. In Ruffia they make cherry-wine by crufhing about 5 or more vedros (each vedro being 133 pints) of mpe cherriesin a tub, fo that even the ftones are broken: and then adding 1, 13. cr 2 pounds of honey, anda quarter or half a quart of good brandy or wine, with fome yealt to make it ferment. When it has done fermenting, it is cleared of the yealt and poured into kegs or bottles, and then placed in a cool cellar. Wine and brandy are often omitted, and a greater quantity of honey ufed in lieu of it, by which the wine proves fufft- ciently: CH wiently flrong. The fame procefs is ufcd with other fruits. Cuerry-valley, in Geography,, a poft town of America, in the county of Otfego and {tate of New York, at the head of a creek of the fame name, about 12 miles N. E. of Cooperltown, and 18 foutherly of Conzjohary, 61 W. of Albany, and 336 from Philadelphia. It contains about 30 houfes, a Prefbyterian church,-and an Academy. The townfhip is very large, and extends along the caft fide of Orfego leke, and its outlet to Adiquatangie creek. By the ftate cenfus of 1796, it appears that 62g of its inhabitants -were electors. CHERSA, called alfo fecula, in fome medical writers, fignifies a root reduced to a farinaceous powder. This way of preparation fome condemn, as exhauiting the virtues of the drug, and rendering it good for nothing ; others defend it. CHERSJEA, earthy, from X=;705, earth; an epithet of the three {pecies cf asps, meutioned by Galen, and ZEgineta. CHERSETUM, in Old Cuftoms, is uled for chursheffet. See Cuurcu-Scor. CHERSEUS, in Ancient Geography, a river placed by Ptolemy in Pheenicia ; the mouth of which, according to him, lay between Dora and Czfarea of Strabo, which were towns of Paleftine. CHERSO, in Geography, an ifland of the Adriatic, on the coat of Croatia, about 150 miles in circumference. It is mountainous and ftony : neverthelefsit yields much wood, cattle, wine, oil, and honey. It belongs to the Venetians, who fend a nobleman as yovernor every two years, with the title of count or captain, who refides at the capital, fituated ja the centre of the ifland, which has the fame name, and contains about 2500 inhabitants. N. lat. 45° 10’. E. long. 14°26. CHERSON, or Kuerson, a town of Ruffia, in the rovince of Catherinenflaf, feated on the Dnieper, about 14 ‘yerlts below the mouth of the Ingulitz, anda little above the mouth of the Bog, inthe neighbourhood of the Liman, afwampy lake, the entrance of which is guarded by the fortrefs of Kinburn, and is about a mile over. This lake has depth fufficient for the reception of large veffels ; but they very quickly decay in it, as the water is frefh. The ancient city of Cherfon was fituated fome miles to the fouth-wett of the fpot, where the Ruflians have built Swaftopl. The pre- fent Cherfon was founded by Catharine II. in 1773; it is chiefly built of hewn ftone, and the completion of it was much accelerated by the a&tivity of Prince Potemkin. It was intended to be the principal mart for all the commodities of export and import ; but if an extenfive trade fhould take place in this quarter, the great depofitary forthe merchandize would be more conveniently fixed on fome fpot below the bar of the Dnieper; and 12 miles S. of Cherfon. In 1753 Cherfon contained 40,000 inhabitants within its walls : and from its dock were launched not only veffels for the purpofes -of commerce, but fhips of war deftined to ttrike terror into the Ottoman empire. A new town, however, called Nico- laiof, now the principal dock, was built by Potemkin, on the confluence of the Ingul and the Bog. The port and ‘city of Cherfon have not perhaps been equalled with regard to celebrity, profperity, and importance, if we confider its recent {tanding, by any colony of modern times. Artifans, manufacturers, and merchants, have poured into it from all quarters, and the time feems not to be dittant when it fhall rank as the fecond port in the extenfive empire of Ruflia. Its commerce was, if we may be allowed the expreffion. guaranteed and fecured to the emprefs by the cefhon of CHE Kinburn, which lies oppofite to Cczakow, at the mouth of the Dnieper. Cherfon is celebrated as the place where the empre{s Catharine prineipally refided during her memorable journey to the Crimea, when fhe took poffiffion of the pro- vinces cenquered from Turkey, and where fhe was vilited by the emperor Jofeph II. It is alfo on record as the place where the luftrious Mr. Howard clofed his career of humanity and benevolence on the 20th day of January 17gG0. It is diftant about 10 leagues from Oczakow and 2000 verits from Peterfburgh. N. Jat. 46° yo’. E. long. 32° 54’. CHERSONESUS, Xeezovncos; of Xzgzos, land, and mzos, ifland; which fignifices the fame, in Geography, as peninfula; or a continent almott encompafled round with the fea, only joining to the main land, by a narrow neck, or ifthmus. This term is ufed by the moderns, in gomplaifance to the ancients, who called all their peninfulas by this name: ac- cordingly fuch places as were hereby diftinguifhed among them retain the name among us: as the Cherfonefus of Peloponnefus, of Thrace, Cherfonefus Cimbrica, Aurea, &c. Cuersonesus Aurea, the golden Cherfonefe, in Ancient Geography, a peninfula delineated by Ptolemy as if it ftretched dire&tly from north to fouth, and having at its fouthern extremity Sabana Emporium, the latitude of which he fixes at three degrees beyond the line. To the eaft of this peninfula he places what he calls the Sinus Magnus, or great bay ; and in the moft remote part of it the ftation of Catigara, the utmott boundary of navigation in ancient times, to which he affixes no lefs than 84° of fouthern lati tude. Beyond this he declares the earth to be altogether unknown, and afferts that the land turns thence to the wett- ward, and ftretches in that direGtion till it joins the promon- tory of Praffum in Ethiopia, which, according to his opinion, terminated the continent of Africa. M. D’Anville, who has attempted to bring order out of the confufion in which this part of the geography of Prolemy is involved, affigns to the peninfula of Malacca the pofition of the golden Cherfo- nefe of Ptolemy; but, inftead of the direétion which he has given it, we know that it bends fome degrees towards the eaft, and that cape Romania, its foutbern extremity, is more than a degree to the north of the line. This geo~ grapher confiders the gulf of Siam as the great bay of Pto-~ lemy ; but the pofition on the ealt fide of that bay, corre- {ponding to Catigara, is a¢tually as many degrees to the north of the equator as Ptolemy fuppofed it to be fouth of the line. Major Rennell has given the fanétion of his ap-~ probation (Introd. p. 39.) to the geographical ideas of M. D’Anville, and they have been gencrally adopted. But M. Goffelin has lately publifhed ** The Geography of the Greeks analyfed, &c.’? in which he differs from M. D’An- ville, with refpect to many of his determinations. Accord= ing to M. Goffclin, the Magnum Promontorium, which M. D’Anville concludes to be cape Romania, is the point of Bragu (which fee), near to which he places Zaba, fuppofed by M. D’Anville to be fituated on the ftrait of Sincapura or Malacca. The Magnus Sinus of Ptolemy he maintains to be the fame with the gulf of Martaban, and not the gulf of Siam ; and the pofition of Catigara correfponds, as he at- tempts to prove, to that of Mergui, 2 conliderable port on the welt coalt of Siam. Thine or Sing Metropolis, which M. D’Anville removes as far as Sin-hoa in the kingdom of Cochin-China, is fituated, according to M. Goffelin, on the fame river with Mergui, and now bears the name of Tana-ferim. The Ibadii infula of Ptolemy, which M. D’Anville determines to be Sumatra, is, by Goffelin’s ar- rangement, one of that cluiter of {mall ifles which lie off 4Ga this CG. HUE this part of the coaft of Siam. M. Goffelin conceives, that the ancients never failed through the ftraits of Malacca, had no knowledge of Samatra, and were altogether unacquainted with the ealtern-ocean. With regard to the golden Cher- fonefe of Ptolemy in particular, he obferves that what chiefly charaéterizes it 13 the mouth of a large river, which there divides itfelf ito three branches before it joins the fea. ‘Vnefe channels appeared fo confiderable that each of them bore the name of a river, the Chryfoana, the Palandar, and the Attabas. It does not appear that Prolemy knew thie fource of this river, or that he had any knowledge of the interior of this country, as he does not determine the pofi- tion of any place. Without detailing the other arguments of M. Goffelin, we may obferve, that upon comparing Pto- lemy’s map with that of the country, there feems little rea- fon to doubt that the Golden Cherfonefe is the fouthern part of the kingdom of Pegu, which may be confidered as infulated. In the fouthern part of the Malayan peninfula, which has hitherto been regarded as the Golden Cherfonefe, the river Johris fo fmall a ftream, that it could never have {upplied the three important mouths noted by Ptolemy ; and his delineation of the country of the Sinz, ftretching along a wellern fea, palpably correfponds with Tana-ferim ; while M. D?Anville’s map fo mach centradicts that of Pto- demy as to place the fea on the eaft of the Sing, and pro- ceeding towards the north inftead of the fouth. Moreover, the rivers laid down by. Ptolemy, between the mouths of the Ganges and the Delta of the Golden Cherfonefe, amount to five; of which three appear in our maps, but we are ig- norant of the fouthern part of Arracan, which probably contains the other two. The three chief mouths of the Jrrawaddy, in the map of Mr. Dalrymple, fenfibly cor- refpond, even in the form and manner of divifion, with thofe in the Golden Cherfonefe of Ptolemy ; and the bay to the fouth of Dalla feems to be the Perimulicus Sinus of the Greek geographer, the {mall river to the eaft of which is that of Sirlan or Pegu. If the Malayan peninfula had been the Golden Cherfonefe of the ancients, the ancient geogra- pher could not have been wholly ignorant, as he feems to have been, of the ftraits of Malacca, and of the northern part of the great ifland of Sumatra. Many have thought, but without fufficient reafon, that the Ophir of Solomon was fituated in the Golden Cherfonefe. See Oruir. Cuerrsonesus Cimbrica, a peninfula of Europe to the north of Germany, fuppofed to have derived its appellation from the Cimbri who came from thence, amd now called Fut- land ; which fee. From this peninfula, bounded by the-ri- ver Elbe on the fouth, by the German ocean on the welt, and by the Baltic fea on the north and ealt, thofe people came into Britain, from whom the great body of the Englifh nation is defcended. When the unhappy Britons formed the fatal refolution. of calling in foreign auxiliaries to preferve them from that deftruétion with which they were threatened by the Scots and Picts, they could find none nearer than the inhabitants of that country, who were likely to afford them neceflary faccour and protection; for their neareft neigh- bours and natural allies, the Gauls, who fpoke the fame language, and profeiled the fame religion with themfelves, were in no condition to give them any affiftance; having been invaded, and almoft conquered by the Franks, another German nation. The country above-mentioned, to which the Britons direéted their views for relief in their diftrefs, was at that time inhabited by three nations, which were called Saxons, Angles, and Jutes; who fent armies into Britain, and here obtained fettlements. From thefe three nations the Englifh in general derive their origin; though Cone feveral other nations, particularly Danes and Normans, have fince mingled with them in very great numbeis. See ANGLEs, JuTEs, and Saxons. ; Cuersonesus Magnus, a port of Africa, in Marmarica, near the port called Phthia. Scylax places it oppofite to the ifle of Crete. The great Cherfonefus of Prolemy is fuppofed by fome to be the prefent Cape Raccallino in — the kingdom of Barca: fo called becaufe 1 forms a penin- fula. M. D’Anville places it on the coalt N.W. of Marmari- ca, at fome diftance S.E. from the promontory Drepanum. Cuersonesus Parva, a port or caltle of Egypt, men- tioned by Ptolemy and Strabo; and placed by the latter at the diftance of 70 ftadia S/W. from Alexandria, on a part of the coaft which formed a {mall promontory, Cuersonesus Taurica, Crimea, a contiderable peninfula of Europe, lying between the Euxine fea, the Palus Mzotis, and the Bofphorus Cimmerius; extending, according to Sir John Chardin, 61 leagues from ealt to weit, and about 35 from north to fouth; and joined to the continent by a nar- row iithmus about a mile broad. In very remote times this peninfula was governed by its own fovereigns. Its moft an- cient inhabitants were the Tauri, or T'aurofcythez, as Pliny and Ptolemy call them, and from them it derives its appella= tion. The mythologiits refer to thefe remote times the firlt voyage of the Grecks into Taurica. In procefs of — time the Greeks traded here and founded -cities. Mithri- — dates, king of Pontus, poflefled the peninfula, and it is faid, drew from it annually a tribute of 220,c00 meafures of prain, and 209,000 talents in filver.. It was conquered, by the Romans, and given by them to the kings of Bofphorus. Some of the ealtern tribes of Alia, known to us by the name of Huns, eltablifhed themfelves here, and many of them remained till the time of the emperor Julian. It’ af= terwards pafled to the princes of the family of Genghifkan. The cities of noce in former times were Taphre or Vaphrus — on the ilthmus, where Przekop or Precop now ftands Cherfonefus, or Cherfon; Theodofia, afterwards called Caffay but now known by its ancient name; Nympheum, Lagyra, and Charax, feated on the Euxine fea, and Panticapeum on the Bofphorus. See Crimea. , : Cuersonesus Thracie, the Cherfonefus of Thrace, a pen= infula enclofed on the fouth by the /2gean fea, on the weit by the gulf of Melas, and on the eait by the Hellefpont, and joined on the north to the continent by a neck of land, about 37 furlongs broad. In former times this peninfula — was feparated from the continent by a wall called in Greek «© Macronuchos.” The ifthmus, conneéting with the cons tinent, was, according to Herodotus, 36 ftadia ; according” to Strabo, 400. The length of the ifthmus, fays Herodotusy was 480 fladia; but Scylax fays, that it was 400. It con= tained the following cities, viz. Cardea, Agora, Panormus Alopeconnefus, Eleus, Seftus, Madytos, Ciffa, Callipolis, Lyfimachia, and Paétye. The Athenians were for fome _ time in poffefficn of this peninfula. By the counfel of the oracle at Deiphos, it is faid by Cornelius Nepos, they fent hither Miltiades, the fon of Cimon, at the head of a colony 5 but the account of Herodotus is different. The Dolonces he fays, a people of Thrace, had poffeflion of this peninfuia 5 but having carried on an unfavourable war with the Abfin- thians, they fent to confult the oracle. The Pythian commended their obtaining a colony, under the condué& of the firft perfon who offered them an afylum. According: ly having fent deputies to Athens, where Pififtratus reign. ed, they were hofpitably treated by Miltiades, the fon of Cypfelus, a rich and powerful man in that city. Upon their being thus kindly treated, they informed him what wa a CHE the opinion of the oracle, which they had confulted. Upon this, Miluades engaged a number of the Athenians to ac- company him to the Cherfouefus, and the Dojonces imme- diately invelted him with the fovereign power. He began his reign with erecting the wall which feparated the penin- fula from the continent. At his death, he bequeathed the fovercignty to-his nephew Stefagoras, who was aflaflinated ; and when this difaltrous event occurred, the Piliflratides fent Miltiades, the fon of Cimon, and brother of Stefagoras, to take poflcflion of the government of the Cherfonefus. At length the Athenians lolt this peninfula; and under the _, kings of Macedon, after Alexander, it belonged to Thrace, and made part of their kingdom. CHERSYDRUS, Kepovd}o;, an amphibious ferpent ; fo called, becaufe ic lives firt 1 watery places, whence it is called Aydrus ; after which it fhifts its habitation, and lives on dry ground, and thence has its compound appellation | cherfydrus. > CHERT, in Mineralogy. See Horn flone. CHERTOBALUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Upper Pannonie, fituated near the Danube. CHERTSEY, in Geography, atown of England, in the county of Surrey, fituated near the banks of the Thames; 20 miles W.S.W. of London. This town was formerly the fefidence of fome of the Saxon kings, and the firlt burial place of Henry VE. who was afterwards removed to Wind- for. Here was formerly an abbey, founded in 1664; of which, only part of the walls now remains. It hasa weckly market on Wednefday. CHERUB, or Cuerusim, a celeftial fpirit, which, in the Hierarchy, is placed next in order to the feraphim. The _word is formed of the Hebrew 5993, cherub; the plural whereof is cherubim. In Hebrew, this term is fometimes taken for a,calf or an ox. In Syriac and Chaldee, the word cherub fignifies-to till or plough, which is the work of oxen. It alfo denotes ftrong and powerful, implying the trength of an ox. According to Grotius, the cherubim were _ figures refembling a ae Bochart and Spencer think they were fimilar to the figure of an ox. Jofephus merciy fays, that they were extraordinary creatures, whofe figure was unknown to mankind. Clemens of Alexandria is of opinion, that the Egyptians imitated the cherubim of the Hebrews in their {phinxes and hierotlyphical animals. The figure of _ the cherubim was not always uniform, fince they are differ- ~ ently defcribed in the fhapes of men, eagles, oxen, hons, _ and in a compofition of all thele figures put together. Mofes ” likewife calls thefe fymbolical or hieroglyphical reprefenta- tions, which were reprefeuted in embroideries upon the veils of the tabernacle, cherubim of coltly work. Such were the fymbolical figures which the Egyptians placed at the _ gatcs of their temples, and the imayes of the generality of _ their gods, which were commonly nothing but itatucs com- _ pofed of men and animals. The two cherubim that covered the mercy-feat are repre- _fented by Mofes as extending their wings on both. fides, and looking upon one another with their faces turned to- _wards the mercy-feat, which covered the ark. It would ~ afford our readers little inftruCtion or entertainment to intro- ~ duce in this article the fanciful conjectures of tne Hutchin- fonians, with regard to the form or import of the Hebrew _cherubim ; or to detail the refult of the refearches of Mr. - Parkhurit in his Hebrew lexicon on this fubjeét, who has “minutely traced in the cherubic figures emblems or reprefen- “tations of the three perfons in the Trinity. That the che- ‘rubim were hieroglyphic or emblematical figures, compofed f the various parts of different animals, is unqueftionable. tach cherub had four heads or faces ; viz. thole of a man, CHE of allion, of an ox, and of an-eagle.’ Their bodies, at Jeaft in the upper part, refembled the human form. ‘The prophet Ezekiel deferibes the cherub as having four wings: the feraph of Lfaiah had fix wings. They had four hands or arms; and their lower part from the rim of the belly down- wards was compof-d either of human thighs, legs, and feet, to which were appended behind, the body and hinder legs of an ox, or, more probably, the body and four legs of an ox, out of which the human part feemed to rife, fo that the whole below the rim of the beily was in the form of an ox, and that above this divifion was human. As to the fervices which they were defigned to perform, it has been fuggetted (fee Fragments annexed to the lait edition of Calmet’s Dic= tionary) that, as the vifion of Ezekiel and alfo of Ifaiah was that of the likenefs of a moveable throne or chariot of im- menfe fize, in which the conduétor was {uppofed to fit, the wheels annexed to it were fuch-as were joined_to the royal travelling or military thrones of the Perfian kings, and the four cherubim occupied the places of four horfes for draw- ing this capacious machine. As to the eyes in the wheels and the cherubim it has been. conjeétured, that they were {pots or itreaks embellifhed with brilliant colours. After all the fuggeltions and conje€tures of ingenious and learned pertons, it {till remains’ to be determined, what thefe emblematical figures were intended to reprefent. It is certain that they are very ancient, and that they have been adopted in other countries befides that in which they were originally introduced. | Symbolical figures refembling cherubim embellithed part of the palace of Perfepolis; and they are thus deferibed by Sir John Chardin. In the front of each pilafter is a fizure of mon- {trous fize, whofe head and feet ftand out in whole relief, and make the front of the pilaiter. The relief is two inches high. Thofe figures, which look towards the plain, have their faces fo mutilated, that it cannot be known, whether they reprefented horfes, lions, rhinocerofes, or elephants. Thofe figures which look towards the mountains are more entire; aud reprefent monitrous creatures, whofe body is,e. g- that of a winged horfe, with the head of a man covered with a high cap, having a crown upon it. The figures delineated by Chardin have at lealt three parts of the cherubic compo- fition, the bird, the ox, and the man. Cueru8, in Heraldry, a child’s head between two wings, or between three pair of wings. We fhall here obferve, that the word, Q\93, formed of 5, or 9D, as, and 545, or N27, @ child, denotes as a child. CrHeERuBIM, was alfo the name of an ancient military order in Sweden, otherwife called the order of Seraphim. It was inflituted by Magnus IL. in 1334, in memory of the fiege laid to the metropolitan city of Upfal, and abolifhed by Charles IX. upon the change of religion which happened in Sweden: but it was revived Feb. rith, 1748, by Frederic I. king of Sweden. It took its denomination from the golden figures of cherubim, whereof the collar of the order was compofed. Vhe abit of the order is a white fatin jacket, trimmed with black lace, and lined with black ; white breeches, thoes, and ftockings, trimmed with black, and black ribbons; a black fatin {hort cloak lined with white, and a black cape, trimmed with black lace; a hat of biack fatin, bound with white, having on the left fide four white oftrich feathers, and in the middie one black feather. Upon the left breaft of the cloak is a itar of 8 points embroidered in filver; and upon the jacket on the fame fide is the like ftar, fomewhat lefsin ize. ‘The collar of the order is compofed of eleven golden heads of Seraphs, with wings expanded, and 11 blue patriarchal crofles, enamelled in gold, all joined with chains of aie the CHE the lat. To the collar is fufpended the enfign of the order: viz. a {tar of 8 points, enamelled white, the centre blue, with the arms of Sweden, and the initial letters I, H. 5. ; ever the H. a crofs; the arms enclofed with 4 heads of Seraphs, as in the collar; in thearms, under the bottom crown, the paffion-nails. The Seraphs heads are between the double points of the ftar, and over the upward points is the regal crown of Sweden, by which it is pendaxt to the collar. The enfign is alfo pendant to a bread fky-blue watered mbbon, worn fcarf-wife, and brought over the right fhoulder, and under the left arm. CHERUBIN, Father, of Ovlears, in Biography, an aflronomer and philofopher, concerning whom litle is known.- He flourifhed about the year 1650. Having acquired a competent knowledge of the languages, he was admitted a capuchin friar in the convent at Orleans. His large work, entitled, “ Dioptrique Qculaire,’’? on the theory, ufe, and mechanifm of telefcopes, is adorned*with engravings of inftruments d-figned by himfelf, ard was printed at Paris 1671, fol. Another work, /fuppofed by fome to be an en- largement of the former, and entiticd, La Vifion Parfaite,” was publifhed in 2 vols, fol. in 1677 and 1681. Moreri. CHERVES, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Charente ; one league N.W. of Cognac. CHERVEUX, a town of ‘France, in the department of we Two Sevres, and diftrict of Niort; 24 leagues N.E. of it. CHERVIL, in Botany. See Scaxpix cerefolium, Cum- ROPHYLLUM /y/vefire, and TAMULENTUM. CHERUSCI, in Ancient Geography, a powerful people of Germany, who were fituated near the Hercynian forett. They had the Cauchi to the fouth, and were feparated from the Catt: by the foreft Baceni. Tacitus and Cefar men- tion them. CHESAPEAK, in Geography, one of the largeft and Fafclt bays in the United States. Its entrance is nearly E.N.E. and S.5.W. between Cape Charles, N. lat. 37° 12', and Cape Henry, N. lat. 37°, in Virginia, 12 miles wide ; and it extends 270 miles to the northward, feparating Virgin'a from Maryland. Jts breadth is from 7 to 18 miles, and general depth about 9 fathoms: it affords many con- venient harbours, as well as a fafe and eafy navigation. It has many fertile iflands, particularly along the eaftern fide, and fome on the weltern fhore. A number of navigable rivers, and other ftreams, difcharge themfelvesinto it: the chief of which are Sufquehannah, Patapfeo, Patuxent, Po- towmack, Rappahannock, and York, all which are large and navigable. . This bay has alfo many excellent fifheries of herring and fhad, as well as of very goodcrabsand oytters. It is the refort of [wans, and of a {pecies of wild duck, called “« Canvafback,”” much admired for ite richnefs and delicacy. In a commercial view, Chefapeak bay is of very confiderable advantage to the neighbouring ftates, and particularly to Virginia. CHESELDEN, Wittiam, in Biography. By the affiltance of Mr. Bowyer’s biographical anecdotes, we are enabled to give a pretty diftin@ account of the life of this celebrated furgeon and anatomift. He was of a refpetable family in Rutlandfhire, and born at Burrow-on-the-Hiil, in Leicefterfiire, in the year 1638. After fuch acquirements in Latin, as might be picked up at a neighbouring grammar- {choo}, he was put apprentice, in 1703, to Mr. Wilkes, a furgeon at Leiceiter, and at the end ef his apprenticefhip, he came to London, and was admitted a pupil in St. Thomas’s hofp:tal, under Mr. Ferne, whom he afterwards fucceeded. Zn anatomy he was inftruéted by Cowper, at whofe houfe he relfided. The progrefs be made under thefe preceptors CHE was fo confiderable and rapid, that he eommenced ledturer in furgery and anatomy as early as the year 1711, when he was only 22 years of ave. “The fame year he was ele&ted fellow of the Royal Society. In 1713, he publifhed his <‘ Anatomical Defcription of the Human Body,” in Svo. with plates, to which were added fome fele€t cafes in fur- gery, and a fyllabus of his leétures. Chefelden had the pleafure of feeing this work pafs through fix editions, each more improved than the former one. To the fourth and fub- fequent editions the author added an appendix, in which he gave a fhort hittory of the operation of cutting for the {tcne in the bladder. He performed the operation in the manner recommended by Dr. James Douglas, on nine patients in St. Thomas’s hofpital, with fuccefs ; but failing in fome fubfequent trials, he reforted to the mode recom- mended by Rau, which he fo much improved, that the firft 27 patients, whom-he cut by that method, all recovered. Notui-hftanding the candcur with which Chefclden had acknowledged the improvements made by Dr. Douglas in the method of performing the high operation, yet he did not efcape cenfure: an anonymous pamphlet, fuppofed to have been written by the Douglafes, being addreffed to him, under the title of “ Lithctromus caftratus.’? But his character, both as a lithotomilt and as a furgeon in general, was too well eftablifhed to be injured by fo fecble an attack, To the fame edition of his anatomy he added fome curious ob- {ervations, made by apatient, who had been blind from his in- fancy, and whom he reftored to his fight. The cafe was firft publifhed in the Philofophical TranfaGtions. In 1729, he was elected a corre{ponding member of the Royal Aca- demy of Sciences at Paris; and in 1732, he was made foreign aflociate to the Royal Academy of Surgery, then newly intlituted. He had before been appointed principal furgeon to queen Caroline, to whom he dedicated hie {plendid work on the bones, publifhed in 1733, in folio. The bones are ‘given on a large fcale, and are beautifully, and the large ones correctly, delineated. Some errors in delineating the fmall bones of the head, drew upon him the cenfure, much too fevere, of his opponent and rival, Dr. Douglas. In 1738, Mr. Samuel Sharp dedicated to him his treati{vson the operationsin furgery, acknowledging the great improvements he had made in the art. Chefelden had the year before been appointed furgeon to Chelfea hofpital, to which place he retired, to enjoy a comparative flate of Jeifure, from the hurry and buftle of public pra@tice. Be- fides the works we have mentioned, fome of his lucubrations on fubje&ts of anatomy and furgery, were publifhed in the Philofophical Tranfactions, and he furnifhed 21 valuable plates, and fome ufcful obfervations, to Gataker’s tranflation of Le Dran’s treatife on the Operations in Surgery. To- wards the end of the year 1751, be was feized with a ftroke of pulfy, which induced him to go to Bath, where he appeared for a time to have received [ome benefit, but this was of fhort duration, as he died in a fit of apo- plexy, vn the rith of Apnil, in 1752, aged 64 years. Chefelden was ftrongly attached to his profeffion, and was always ready with his advice, and affifiance, to young practitioners. He was of a focial and chearful difpotition, and among other acquaintance, was intimate with Mr, Pope, who appears to have had a great ellcem for him. To his patients he was tender and humane, and he is faid to have fclt-a confiderable deprcffion of fpivits, when about to per- form an operation, but this never proceeded fo far as to oc- cafion any wavering, or unfteadiness of his hand, which the fuccefs of his practice, and the high charaéter he enjoyed, abundantly teltify. It was probably to cure himfelf of this weakne(s, that he became a frequent attendant at the places 8 where C.H E where prize-fighting and other athletic exere!fes were per- formed. With fo mach acknowledged ability, that there fhould be mingled fome portion of vanity, and being allowed to decide on fubjeéts or furgery, that he fhould fometimes expect the fame attention to be paid to his opinion, on fub- jects with which he was not fo well acquainted, fhou!d ex- cite no furprize. Some tories of the kind, which we fhall not contribute to propagate, have been handed down. He left only one child, a daughter, who had been married to Charles Coates, M. D. of Woodcote, in Shropfhire, member of parliament for Tamworth, in Staffordfhire. She became a widow in 1748, and removed to Greenhithe, in the parifh of Swanfcombe, in Kent, where the died feveral years after her father, leaving no iffue, CHESELETH-Tuasor, or Carrua, in Ancient Geography, a town of Judea, in the tribe of Zabulon, Jofhua gaveit to the Levites of this tribe, who were of the family of Merari.. [t was fituated on the fide of Mount ‘Tabor. Eufebius and Jerom call it Cafalus or Exalus, and place it ro miles E. from the S.WW. part of Diocelarea. CHESHAM, in Geography, a {mall bat populous town of England in Buckinghamfhire, fituated in a pleafant and fertile valley, and confiting of three ftreets, which are principally occupied by flioc-makers and lace-makers, and the mauufa@turers of wooden articles, in the re- fpeftive branches of round, hollow, and Tunbridge ware. The turnery goods produce a confiderable fum an- nually ; and the number of thoes made every week has been computed at athoufand pair. The inhabitants are for the molt part diffenters; and the town has 4 places of worfhip, belides the parifh church. There is alfo a free-fchool for the education of the children of the poor. Chefham has a weekly market on Wedaefday. It is 29 miles W.N.W. from London. CHESHIRE, one of the weftern counties of England, was included by the Romans in the divifion named Flavia Cefarienfis; but on the final departure of that people from the ifland, it reverted to the Britons, who continued in pof- {effion till about the year 607, when it was conquered by Ethelfrith, the Saxon king of Bernicia, who defeated the army of Brochmael Yfcithroc, king of Powys, near Chef- ter. -On this occafion, Ethelfrith is faid to have flain 3200 defencelefs monks, whom Brochmacl had called from the neighbouring monaltery of Bangor, and flationed on a neighbouring hill, that they might affit him with their prayers. It was afterwards wrefted from Bernicia by the eas, and continued a part of their kingdom till the reign of Egbert, who united it with the other Saxon {ates under one government. Canute the Dane, who obtained this divifion of the kingdom by h’s famous partition treaty with Edmund Ironfide, invefted the adminiltration of this county in the earls of Chefter; three of whom enjoyed that dignity prior to the conqueft; Leofric the fon of Leofwin; Algar, his fon; and Edwin, fon of the latter; in whom ended the race of the Chefhire earls of Saxon blood. On the conquelt, the provinces of Britain which had hitherto been governed by a few great men, were divided into lefler portions, and dillributed as rewards among the followers of the Norman king. Chethire was beitowed on Gherbod, a hant Fleming; and after himon Hugh de Aurange, bet- er known by the name of Hugh Lupus. To him the narch delegated a fulnels of power; made this a county latine, and gave it {uch a fovereign jurifdiction, that the jent earls kept their own parliaments, and had their pwn courts of law, in which any offence againi the dignity ithe {word of Chefter was as cognizable as the like of- e would have-been at Weltminiter againft the dignity of CHE the royal crown; for William allowed Lupus to hold this county ‘tam liberé ad giadium, ficut ipfe rex tenebat An- gliam ad coronam.”” The fword with which he was invetted is {till to be feen in the Britifh Mufeum, inferibed Hugo Comes Celtrie, As foon as Lupus was firmly eftablifh: ¢, he began to exert his regal prerogatives. He formed his parliament by the creation of eight barons, who were oblized to pay him attendance, and to repair to his court to yive it the greater dignity. They were bound in ail wars between this county and Wales, to find, for every knight’s fee, a horfe-with caparifon and furniture, or two without furniture, for the divifion of Chehire. Their knights and freeholders were to have’ corfelets and hubers geons, and were to defend their lands with their own bodies. This fpecies of government continued from the congnett till the reign of Henry III., a period of 171 years, when in 1237, on the death of John Scot, the feventh earl of the Norman line, without male iflue, Henry took the earldom into his own hands, and gave the daughters of the late earl other lands in lieu ; unwilling, as he faid, that fo great an inheritance fhould be pareclied out among diltaffs. The king beltowed the caunty on bis own fon Edward, who did not affume the title, but afterwards conferred it on his fon Ed- ward of Cacrnarvon. Since that time the eldeft fons of the kings of England have always been earls of Chefter as well as princes of Wales. he palatinate was governed by the earls of Chelter as fully and independently for nearly three centuries after this period, as it had ever been by the Nor- man earls; but Henry VIII. by authority of parliament, made it fuhordmate to the crown of England. Yet not- withttanding this reftraint, all pleas of lands and tenements, andall contraéts within the county, are to be heard and deter- mined in it ; and all determinations out of it are deemed void, “ etcoram non judice,” except in cafe of error, foreign pleay, andforeign voucher; and for no crime buttreafon can an in- habitant of this county be compelled to be tried out of it. Thus being folely under the juni{diGtion of its owa earls, and confidcred in a certain degree as a feparate kingdom, re~ prefentatives to the national parliament were never fent, ci- ther for the fhire or city, till the year 1549, the third of Edward VI., when upon the petition of the inhabitants, two members were fummoned from each, Chefhire is bounded on the north by the rivers Merfey and Tame, which feparate it from Lencafhire; on the ealt by the conties of Derby and Stafford, the divifion between which is chiefly marked by a chain of hills and by the rivers Goyt and Dane. The fouthern fide unites with Shropthire and Flintfhire; and the weftern border is fkirted by Den- bighthire, Flinthhire, and the efluary ef the Dee. The di- mentions of the county are eltimated by Mr. Wedge, in the “* General View of the Agriculture of Chefhire,”? at about twenty-two miles and a quarter, on a medium, in width, and nearly forty miles in length from W.S.W. to E,S.E. Its form is rather oval, with two projecting necks of land; one about twenty miles in length, and fix in breadth, run. ning out into the Irifh fea, between the eftuaries of the Dee and Merfey, and called the Wirral. The other forms part of Macclestield hundred, and extends about fifteen miles in length from Stockport, between the counties of Derby and York; but rarely exceeds four miles in width. Alfred di- vided this county into feven hundreds, exclufive uf Chefter which is a county in itfelf; it contains one city, twelve towns, 670 villages, about 35621 houfes, and 191,751 inha~ bitante. Chethire is in general a flat country, though fome eonfi- derable hills rife wear its eaftern borders, and conne& with thofe of Derbythire and Staffordthire. ‘Thefe ex. Acad CHE tend about ‘twenty-five miles in length from Congleton to the north-ealtern corner of the county. An in- terrupted ridge of high ground alfo croffes it from north to fouth, on the weltern fide, beginning near Frodf- ham, where a bold promontory overhangs the Merfey. After croffing the large tract of heath, called Delamere Forelt, it exalts itfelf in the towering rock of Beelton, near the middle of the county. About Macclesfield are a few other hiils, and fome on the Shropfhire fide. Another chain runs north and fouth through the peninfula of Wirral. The reft of the county is nearly level; and the principal part of it confifts of arable, meadow, and pafture land. A variety of foil is found in this county; but clay, fard, black moor, or peat, feem to predominate ; and the under foil is commonly clay, or marl. The red grit rock is the mott prevalent {tone of the county, and of this molt of the towns and villages are built. here are few large woods in the county; yet, as the generality of farms abound with hedge-rows, a confiderable quantity of timber is produced, and particularly a great number of oak-trees, from which the tanners derive afupply of that invaluable antifeptic, oak bark. Chefhire was formerly diftinguifhed for its numerous yeomanry ; and though they have decreafed for the lalt hundred years, they are {ti.l very confiderable. In the vi- cinity of manufaGuring towns, and particularly on the borders of Lancafhire and Yorkthire, many parcels of land have been purchafed by tradefmen and appropriated to {mall farms ; but the greateft portion of the county is retained and cultivated by gentlemen who refide on their own eltates. The evil of congregating farms has in a limited degree ex- tended into Chethire ; and the poff-flions that furnifhed fup- port, and gave independence, to feveral families, have been thus‘confined to one. The tenure is aimoft univerfally freehold ; yet in the manors of Macclesfield, Halton, and fome others, there are a few copyholds, or what may be denominated cuflomary freeholds, paying fires and rents certain. Leafing for lives, which was formerly a very con- ftant and genera! practice, is vet continued by a few land- holders ; but the moft common term of leafes is eleven years, with a reitrition on the tenant to a certain quantity of ullage (ufually about one-fourth of his farm) and a particu- lar rotation of crops. The extent of farms is, on the average, from 150 to goo acres; but fome few contain upwards of 500. The Dairy is the principal object of attention with the Chefhire hufbandman; yet it is rather a fingular fact, that though the county has for many ages been famed tor its cheefe, it was formerly as celebrated for its wheat. Strabo and Pliny have affirmed, that cheefe-making was introduced into this country by the Remans; but this is improbable, from various circumitances ; and we are certain that the Ro- man armies on the continent received a great fupply of cheele from this country foon after they had fecured its poffeffion. The quality and flavour of Che/bire cheefe ave almott univer- fally known ; yet as few perfons, comparatively fpeaking, are acquainted with the procefs of itsmanufaCture, we fhall give a brief detail of the chief particulars: A dairy farmof one hun- dredacresis ufually divided in the following proportions: from ten to fourteen acres of oats, from fix to eight acres of fal- low-wheat, and the like quantity of fummer fallow ; the re- mainder 's appropriated to patture and hay, the latter occu- pying about twelve acres. The judicious dairy farmer is more attentive to the fize, form, and produce of the udder of his cows, than to any fancied beauty of fhape. Utility to him is preferable to fafhton. ‘This confideration induces him to be fcrupulous in the breeding and rearing of calves, and in the management of his cows during the winter and ~taken twice or thrice from the vat, to place frefh cloths, pa _ maining in the prefs two or three days, it is next conveyed 5 18's fummer feafons. The annual quantity of cheefe made from each cow varies from 50 to 5oolb. and upwards; the’ pro- duce being governed by the nature of the land, theZquality’ of the palture, the feafons, and the mode of wintering the {tock. On the. whole. the average produce may be ftated at about 2oolb. from each animal. The’quantity of milk, ac-_ cording to this eltimation, yielded daily by each cow, during the milking feafon, is about eight quarts, which is commonly fuppofed to produce one pound of cheefe. The Chefhire cheefe is generally made with two meals’ milk; though’ often, towards the latter end of the feafon, which continues’ nearly twenty-two weeks, with four, five, or fix: for as the cheetes are ufually made very large, it is neceflary to have a - fufficient quantity of milk to make one ata time; though in fome of the dairies two are made in a day. The moft common fize for a cheefe is fixty pounds; a weight fet) ceptible of every excellence to be found in the cheefe of this, county. Itis ufual to preferve the evening’s milk till the next morning, when it is {kimmed, heated, and incorporated with the new milk ; and after being mixed in a large tub, together with the cream, the dairy woman puts in a proper quantity of rennet ard colouring, and then leaves it for about» an hour and half to coagulate or curdle. The colouring? fhould be Spanifh arnotto ; but, from the high price of thaw article, an adulterated colouring is often {ubftituted. In making cheefe of the belt quality, the milk ufed is as-pure’ as it comes from the cow, not robbed of any cream; though the praétice of making a certain quantity of frefh ‘butter weekly, frequently occafions an appropriation of that creamy to the churn which properly belongs to the cheefe-tub After the cheefe is ‘* come,” or when the mulk 1s properly coagulated, the dairy-maid breaks the curd into very fma particles, which are then left to fubfide, and the wh {kimmed off. This procefs is repeated till the whey is nearly expelled, when the curd is placed in a vat, end occafionally {prinkled with falt. Some dairy women ufe about thre handfuls to a cheefe, and make it a rule to put the greatefe _ quantity near the middle. The vat is filled very full, and the whey repeatedly fqueczed out before it is placed in the prefs; as it is very material to expel all the whey, and alfo to keep the vat quite full of curd. The cheefe is commonl off the edges, and turn it ; and fometimes it is immerfed in hot whey, which is fuppofed to harden its coat. After re tothe falting houfe, where it is placed in a falting-tunnel ¢ tub, in which. it continues about three days more, and is next placed on the benches for about eight days, being well falt all over, and turned every day. After this procefs it i turned twice daily for fix or feven days, and then wafhed ix warm water, and wiped dry with a cloth; and when d fmeared over with whey butter, and placed in the warme part of the cheefe-room, where it is left to affume its prop age and confittence. The principal mixeral pradoGions of Chebhire are /a/t ai coal. OF the latter, a confiderable quantity is found on th ealtern fide, and fome is obtained from the hundred of Wirra The former is more abundant in this copnty than in any oth part of England. The immenfe trade carned on in this artielé and vaft revenue derived from it, render it an objeé& of co fiderable local and national importance. The principal falt works are at Nantwich, Middlewich, Winsford, and Nort! wich. See Nanrwicu and Sacr. : q The cotton bufinefs, next to the manufacture of falt, feen to be the moft confiderable. ‘This flourifhing branch of trai has lately been extended from Lancafhire, and fome of t bordering counties, over many parts of Chefhire. Exclufi CHE of thefe; manufactures of leather, ribbon, thread, gloves, but- tons, and fhoes, are carried on at Nantwich, Macclesfield, Congleton, Kautsford, and fome other places. : Mottof therivers and ftreams which wind through thiscounty direé&t their currents northward, and empty themfelves into the Merfey or the Dee. The former divides Chefhire from Lancafhire for a courfe of nearly 60 miles, about 35 of which, from Liverpool to the mouth of the river Irwell, are navigable for veffels of confiderable burthen. The Merfey derives its fource frem a conflux of {mall ftreams at the jundion of the county with Derbyfhire, and flowing in a ' wetterly direGtion, receives in its courfe the waters of the Goyt, the Tame, the Bollin, the Irwell, and the Weaver. After its junction with the latter, it {wells into a broad eftuary, and taking a north-weiterp courfe, foon unites with the Ith channel. The Dee was held in great veneration ‘by our Britifh anceftor’, and its waters regarded as facred and purifying. It derives its origin in the mountainous GiftriG of Merioneththire, and after forming the large lake of Pemble-mere, pafles through a feries of very piCturefque and grand fcenes, and approaches the weflern border of this county, to which it forms a boundary from Worthenbury to Aldford. It then pafles on to Chefter, whofe walls it nearly encircles, and afterwards flows to the welt, through an artificial channel, which was formed, at an immenfe ex- pence, by a body of gentlemen, called The River Dee Com- pany. This river alfo forms a large fandy eftuary between the county of Flintand the hundred of Wirral, and joins the Irih fea about 14 miles N.W. from Chetter. The Weaver, deriving its fource from Ridley Pool, clofe to Cholmondeley Hill, pafles the towns of Nantwich, Minfhull, Weaver, Winsford, and Northwich, where it is joined by the Dane, from the northern parts of-Staflordfhire, and two or three ~ other ftreams from the central parts of the county. Hence it proceeds to Wareham, Acton-Bridge, and Frodfham, where it falls into the {welling bafon of the Merfey. The _ Weaver receives feveral tributary ftreams in the courfe of its progrefs; and from Winsford to Frodfham it has been rendered navigable by means of various locks. See Canav. Several other rivers meander through this county, the princi- pal of which are the Goyt, the Bollin, the, Dane, and the Whirlock. Chefhire alfo abounds with broad fheets of water, denominated meres, lakes, and pools. The principal are Oak-Mere, Rofthern-Mere, Mere-Mere, 'l'attow-Mere, Comber-Mere, Broad-Mere, and Bag-Mere; Petty-Pool, Rookery-Pool, and Ridley-Pool. Mott of thefe waters abound with fifh. The county is interfeQed by portions of four canals, which allow a very conftant and cheap intercourfe between the towns of Chefter, Liverpool, Manchetter, the north of England, Staffordfhire, Shropfhire, and adjacenc counties. Sce Cana, , __ The diocefe of Chefter comprehends all Chefhire and Lancafhire, and various parts of We{tmoreland, Cumberland, Yorkthire, Denbighthire,and Flintfhire, and is divided into ‘two archdeaconries. Chefhire returns four members to _ parliament, viz. two for the fhire, and two for the city of Chefter: pays feven. parts of the land-tax, and furnifhes the “militia with 560 men. Gower’s Sketches towards a Hiftory of Chefhire. Leigh’s Natural Hiflory of Lancafhire and Chefhire. . Cuesuire, acounty of America, in New [ampfhire, on the E. bank of Conneticut river, bounded on the S. by the ‘ftate of Maffachufetis, on the N. by Grafton county, and ey Hillfborough county onthe IE. It contains 34 town- ips, the chief of which are Charleftown and Steine, and 428,772 inhabitants, including 16 flaves. me Vox. VII. CHE Cutesuire, a townhhip in the county of Berkthire and. ftate of Maffachufetts, famous for its good cheefe; 140 miles N. wetterly from Bofton.—Alfo a townfhip of New- Haven county inthe ftate of Conne@icut ; 13. miles N. of New-Haven city, and 26 S.W. of Hartford. It contains an epifcopal church and academy, and three congregational churches. CHE-SINEN, a town of China of the third rank, in the province of Chen-fi; 15 leagues N.W. of Hin-ngan,. CHESINUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of European Sarmatia. Ptolemy. CHESIUM, a {mall town of Afia Minor, in Jonia. Steph. Byz. CHESLEY, in Geography, atown of France, in the de- partment of the Aube; 9 miles S.E.of Ervy. CHESLON, in Ancient Geography, atownof Palettine, in the tribe of Juda. CHESNE. See La Cuene. Cuesne, Anprew Du, in Biography, called “ the Fa- ther of French Hittory,”’ was born in 1584, at Ile Bouchard, in Touraine. His hiftorical and geographical refearches were very various, and his produ@tions, conlidering that his life was not very extended, were aftonifhingly numerous. In thefe he «ppears rather the diligent and laborious compiler, than a judicious writer. His premature death in 1640, was occafioned by an accidental injury. He wrote ** A Hiftory of England,’? 2 vols. fol. 1634 ; “« A Hiftory of the Popes,” 2 vols. fol. 1633; “ A Hif- tory of French Cardinals 3°? “ The Genealogies of feveral great Families of France,” 7 vols. fol.; “ Hiftory of the Dukes of Burgundy,” 2 vols. 4to. ; A Bibliotheque of Authors who have written on the Hiftory and Topography of France.”? He was alfo the editor of the works of feve- ral cther authors, as Abelard, Pafquin, &c.; and he iffued propofals for printing a large colleGtion of French hifto- rians, in 24 vols. fol of which 2 volumes, comprifing the period from the origin of the nation to the time of Hugh Ca- pet, were publifhed in 1636; and other two volumes, in the prefs at the time of his death, together with a fifth, bringing the Hiftory down to Philip the Fair, were pub- lifhed by his fon, Francis du Chefne, who was alfo a learned man. Moreri. Cresne, or QueEsne, called alfo QUERCETANUS, an eminent practitioner and voluminous writer in medicine, which he praétifed fuccefsfully many years in Germany, was born in the county of Armagnac in Gafcony, about the middle of the fixteenth century., Applying himfelf to the ftudy of medicine, particularly of chemiftry, in which he acquired a confiderable proficiency, he was admitted to the degree of Doétor at Bafle, about the year 1573. In the latter part of his life, he removed to Paris, and was madeone of the phyficians in ordinary to the king, Henry IV. As he affeéted great myftery, and was a profefled admirer and follower of the doétrines of Paracelfus, he drew upon himfelf the cenfures of many of his cotemporaries; among them, Riolan was one of the moft formidable of his oppo- nents. We alfo find Guy Patin, who flourifhed fome years at Berlin, treating his doftrines with great feverity, and in faét, whatever popularity his works might enjoy in the life- time of the author, they are long fince defervedly forgotten, Haller has given the titles of them, and analyfes of the prin- cipal of theircontents. The moft celebrated among them, which paffed through the greate{t number of editions, is his Pharmacopeea Dogmaticorum reftituta, pretiofis, fele&if- que Hermeticorum Floribus illuftrata. Gi fle Hefs. 1607. This is faid to have been recommended by Boerhaave to his pupils. Schroder, in 1643, publifhed 2 volume, in quarto, 4H under CHE under the title of Quercetanus redivivus, containing an abridgment of his docirines. He dicd at Paris in 1609. Haller. Bib. Eloy. Did. CHESNEAU, Nicuoras,.a phyfician of Touloufe, was born at Marfeilles, where he took his degree of Door in Medicine, in the early part of the feventeenth century. He appears to have had alarge fhare of praétice in his profef- fion, and was author of feveral ufeful publications, ‘The principal of them is his ** Obfervationum Medicinalium Libri quingue. Quibus accedit ordo Remediorum alphabeticus ad omnes fere morbos con{criptus,”’. &c. 8vo. Pariflis, 1672. This work has paff=d through feveral editions, and in 1719, was printed at Leyden in 4to. Haller has given an abridged account of its contents. Amid{t fome infignificant and fome incredible accounts of cures, there are contained in it many uleful praGical obfervations. Haller Bib. CHESNUT, in Botany.. See Facus caftanea. Cuesxut, horfe. See ZEscutus hippoerfanum. Cuesnur Ail, in Geography, a townlhip of America, in the county of Northampton and ftate of Pennfylvania. Cuesnurt creek, a branch of the Great Kanhaway, in Vir- ginia, where it crofles the Carolina line. Here, it is faid, are iron mines. Cuesnut ridge, part of the Alleghany mountains, in Penn- fylvania, weftward of Greenfborough. CHESS, an ingenious game performed with little round pieces of wood, on a board divided into fixty-four fquares ; where {kill and addrefs_are fo indifpenfably requifite, that chance has no place; and a perfon never lofes but by his own fault. Sarafin has a precife treatife on the different opinions of the origin of the Latin /eacchi ; whence the French echecs, and our chess, is formed. Menage is alfo very full on the famehead. Leunclavius takes it to come from the ufcoches, famous Turkifh robbers. P. Sirmond from the German Sfeackhe, theft ; and that from calculus. He takes chefs to be the fame with Judus /atrunculorum of the Romans, but miftakenly. This opinion is countenanced by Voffius and Salmafius, who derive the word from calculus, as ufed for fatrunculus. Some derive it from the Hebrew 9°D, /éas, Sepes, whence vallare, vallavit; &F Pyy\y, mut, mort, mortuus ; others again from DiMY, ook, lufus, and PAD, mori ; whence chefs and che/s-mate. Fabricius fays, a celebrated Perfian aftronomer, one Schatrenfcha, invented the game of chefs ; and gave it his own name, which it ftill bears in that country. Niced derives it from /chegue, or xegue, a Moorifh word for lord, king, and prince: bochart adds, that /chach is originally Perfian, and that /chachmat, whence our check-mate, in that language, fignifies the king is dead. The learned Hyde has undertaken to fhew, from un- doubted authorities, that this game was firlt invented in India, and pafied from thence to Perfia before the year of Chrift 576, and from Perfia to Arabia. He adds, that the antiquity of this game is traced much higher, or to the middle of the fecond century, in an Irifh chronicle, the au- thenticity of which is doubtful. And he fhews, that /Lah, ~ 4. €. rex, was aterm much in ufe among the orientals, whillt engaged in this play, and that they ufed it to caution the king againft any danger; and hence the Europeans and others have denominated the game /Lachiludium and /hahilu- dium, and in Englith chef, from this circumftance.. He alfo derives the word mat from the Perfic manit, laffatus ef? ; and fays that it was ufed in play; when any of the men was fixed fm its place, or taken captive. See Hiltoria Shahiludti apud Syntagma Differtationum, &c. Hyde, editum a Doéiore Sharpe, vol. ii. p. 1. &c. Sir William Jones concurs in opinion with the learned _ epic poets, in their defcriptions of real armies. CHE Hyde, and afcribes the invention of this game to the Hin- doos. ‘* If evidence were required to prove this faSt,”? fays this excellent writer, whofe knowledge of the eattern lan- guages, combined with indefatigable induftry in’ his re- fearches, and a correé&t judgment and tafte, gives a kind of decifive authority to his opinion, (See Afiatic’ Refearches, vol. i.) «we may be fatisfied with the teftimony of the Perfians ; who, though as much inclined as other nations to appropriate the ingenious inventions of a-foreign peopie, unanimoufly agree, that the game was imported from the weft of India in the 6th century of our era. It feems to have been immemorially known in Hindooltan by the name of * chaturanga,”’ i.e. the four angas, or members of an army; which are thefe, elephants, horfes, chariots, and foot Soldiers ; and in this fenfe the word is frequently ufed by By a natural corruption of the pure Sanfcrit word, it was changed by the old Perfians into chatrang; but the Arabs, who fcon after took pofleffion of their country, had neither the initial nor final letter of that word in their alphabet, and confe- quently altered it further into /Latranj, which found its way prefently into the modern Perfian, and at length into the - diale&ts of India, where the true derivation of the word is — known only to the leaned. Thus has a very fignificant word in the facred language of the Brahmins been tranf- formed by progreflive changes into axedrax, facchi, echecss chefs ; and, by a whimfical concurrence of circumftances, has given birth to the Englifh word check, and even a name to the Exchequer of Great Britain.” It isconfidently afferted, that Sanfcrit books on chefs exift in Bengal; but Sir William had feen none of them when he wrote the memoir which we have quoted. He exhibits, how- ever, ade(fcription of a very ancient Indian game of the fame kind, but more complex, and in his opinion more moderns than the fimple chefs of the Perfians. This game is alfo called “* Chaturanga,” butmore frequently “Chaturaji,” or the four kings, fince it is played by four perfons reprefenting as many princes, two allied armies combating on each fide, - The defcription is taken from a book called **Bhawifhya Pu- ran ;”? in which the form and principal rules of this fa&titious warfare are thus laid down: ‘‘ Eight fquares being marked on all fides, the red army is to be placed to the eaft, the green — to the fouth, the yellow to the welt, and the black to the north. Let the elephant (fays the author of the Purana) ftand on the left of the king ; next to him the horfe; then the boat ; and before them all, four foot-foldiers; but the - boat muft be placed in the angle of the board.” «* From this paflage (fays the prefident,) it clearly ap- pears, that anarmy with its four angas muit be placed on each fide of the board, fince an elephant could not ftand, in any other pofition, on the left hand of each king ; and Rad- hacant (a Pandit) informed me, that the board confited, like ours, of 64 fquares, half of them occupied by the forces, and hali vacant. He added, that this game is men- tioged in the oldeft law-books, and that it was invented by the wife of aking, to amuafe him with an image of war, while his metropolis was befieged in the fecond age of the warl A fhip or boat is abfurdly fubftituted, we fee, in this complex game for the “ rat*h,” or armed chariot, which the Bengal efe pronounced “rot’h,” and which the Perfians chang: into ‘¢rokh ;”” whence came the rook of fome European n tions ; as the vierge and fol of the French are fuppoled to be corruptions of ferze and fil, the prime minifter and elephan' of the Perfians and Arabs.” As fortune is fuppofed to have a great fhare in’ decidi the fate of a battle, the ufe of dice is introduced into th game to regulate its moves ; for (fays the Puran) * if cing C1H Ess. be thrown, the king or a pawn mutt be moved ; if quatre, the elephant; if trois, the horfe; and if deux, the boat. The king pailes freely on all fides, but over one {quare only ; and with the fame limitation the pawn moves, but he advan- ces ftraight forward, and kills his enemy through an angle. “The elephant marches in all directions as far as his driver pleafes; the horfe runs obliquely, traverfing the fquares ; and the fhip goes over two fquares diagonally.”” The ele- phant, we find, has the powers of our queen, as we are pleaf- ed tocall the general or minifter of the Perfians; and the fhip has the motion of the piece to which we give the unac- countable appellation of bifhop, but with a reftriGtion which mutt greatly leffen its value. In the Puran are next exhibited a few general rules and fuperlicial direGtions for the condu& of the game. Thus, ‘© the pawns and the fhip both kill and may be voluntarily killed ; while the king, the elephant, and the horfe may flay the foe, but muft not expofe themfelves to be flain. Let each player preferve his own forces with extreme care, fecur- ing his king above all, and not facrificing a fuperior to keep an inferior piece.’? Here (fays the prefident) the commente- tor onthe Puran obferves, that the horfe, who has the choice of eight moves from any central pofition, mult be preferred ~ to the fhip, which has only the choice of four. But this ar- guinent would not have equal weight in the common game, where the bifhop and tower command a whole line,and where a knight is always of lefs value than a tower in aétion, ora bifhop of that fide on which the attack is begun. ‘ Itis by the overbearing power of the elephant (continues the Puran) that the king fights boldly ; let the whole army, therefore, be abandoned in order to fecure the elephant, The king mult never place one elephant before another, unlefs he be com- pelled for want of room, for he would thus commit a danger- ous fault; and, if hecan flay one of two hottile elephants, he mut deftroy that on his left hand.” All that remains of the paflage which was copied for Sir William Jones relates to the feveral modes in which a partial fuccefs or complete victory may be obtained by any one of the four players; for, as ina difpute between two allies, one of the kings may fometimes affume the command of all the forces, and aim at a feparate conqueft. Tirlt, «* When any one king has placed Himfelf on the fquare of another king (which advantage is called ‘finhafana” or the throne) he wins a ftake, which is doubled, if he kill the adverfe monarch when he {eizes his place ; and, if he can feat himfelf on the throne of his ally, he takes the command of the whole army.’”_ Se- condly, ‘* Ifhe can occupy fucceffively the thrones of all the three princes, he obtains the viGtory, which is named ‘‘chatu- raji;’? and the {take is doubled if he kill the laft of the three, juit before he takes pofleflion of his throne; but if he kill him on his throne, the ftake is quadrupled. Both in gaining the “finhafana’’and the “chaturaji” the king mutt befupport- ed by the elephants, or by all the forces united.” Thirdly, «* When one player has bis own king on the board, but the king of his partner has been taken, he may replace his cap- tive ally, if he can feize both the adverfe kings; or if he can- not effe& their capture, he may exchange his king for one of them, again{t the general rule, and thus redeem the allied prince, who will fupply bis place.’ his advantage has the name of “nripacrifhta,” or recovered by the king. Fourthly, “« 1f a pawncan march to any {quare on the oppolite extre- mity of the board, except that of the king or that of the fhip, he aflumes whatever power belonged to that fquare.”’ Here we find the rule, with a flight exception, concerning the advancement of the pawns, which often occalions a molt doteretling (truggele at our common chefs; but itappears that, ir the opinion of one ancient writer on the Indian game, this privilege is not allowable when a player has three pawns on the board ; but, when only one pawn and one fhip remain, the pawn may advance even to the {quare of a king ora fhip, and ailume the power ofeither. Tiithly, According to the people of Lanca, where the game was invented, ‘there could be neither victory nor defeat if a king were left on the plain without force ; a fituation which they named ‘“caca- cafhvha.”? Sixthly, ‘* If three fhips happen to mect, and the fourth fhip can be brought up to them in the remaining angle, this has the name of ‘*vrihannauca ;” and the player of the fourth feizes all the others.” The account of this game in the original Sanfcrit is in verfe, and there are two or three couplets ilill remaining, fo very dark, either from an error in the manufcript, or. from the antiquity of the language, that Sir William Jones could not underftand the Pandit’s explanation of them, and fuf- pects, that even to him they gave very indiftin& ideas. It would be eafy, however, he thinks, if it be judged worth while, to play at the game by the preceding rules; and a little practice would perhaps make the whole intelligible. The Honourable Daines Barrington, in his elaborate ‘ Historical Difquilition on the Game of Chefs,” (See Ar- chxologia, vol. ix.) afferts, and maintains the claim of the Chinefe as inventors; though, he fays, Hyde inclines againtt it, chiefly becaufe they have fome additional pieces, which differ from ours, both in their form and powers. This fingle circumftance, he thinks, is by no means conclufive ; becaufe, in all countries where any game hath been of long continuance, che players will make innovations, though ia fubltance it remains the fame. Du Halde cites a Chinefe treatife, by which it appears that it is the favourite game of that country,and, as fuch, isfometimes depicted uponChinefe paper. Indeed, in China, it makes a confiderable part of the education of their females, and feems to take the place of dancing among us. ‘The origin of this game has been traced to China, in a letter from Eyles Irwin, Efg. to the Earl of Charlemont, publifhed in the 5th volume of the Tranfactions of the Royal Ivifh Academy. During a long refidence in the Eaft Indies, where the game of chefs is ge- nerally fuppofed to have originated, Mr. Irwin has often heard of its exiftence in China; though on a different foot- ing, as well in refpe&t to the powers of the king, as to the afpeét of the field of battle. A tradition of this nature ob- tained among the Brahmins, who excel in this game. When a young Mandarin was fhewn an Englifh chefs-board, he in- formed Mr. Irwin, that the Chinefe had a game of the fame nature; and he {pecified. the difference that fubfilted in the pieces and the board. Upon farther inveftigation of the fubjeét, the young Mandarin, named Tinqua, brought a Chinefe MS. which contains an account of the origin of the game of chefs in that country. From this MS. it appears, that 379 years after the time of Confucius, or 1965 years ago, Hung Cochu, king of Kiangnan, fent an expedition into the Shenfi country, under the command of a mandarin, called Hanfing, to conquer it. After one fuccefsful cam- paign, the foldiers were put into winter quarters; where, finding the weather much coider than what they had been accultomed to, and being alfo deprived of their wives and families, the army, in general, became impatient of their fituation, and clamorous to return home. Hanfing, upon this, revolved in his mind the bad corfequences of comply- ing with their wifhes. The necefflity of foothing his troops, and reconciling them to their polition, appeared urgent, in order to finifh hic operations in the enfuing year. He was a man of genius, as well as.a good foldier ; and having con- templated fome time on the fubjeét, he invented the game of chefs, as well for an amufement to his men in their va- 1H. 3 cant CHESS. cant hours, as to inflame their military ardour, the gare being wholly founded on the principles of war. The ftra- tagem fucceeded to his wifh. The foldiery were delighted with the game, and forgot, in their daily contelts for vic- tory, the inconveniencies of their poft. In the fpring the general took the field again, and, ina few months, added the rich country of Shenfi to the kingdom of Kiangnan, by the defeat and capture of its king, Choupayuen, a fa- mous warrior among the Chinefe. On this conquelt Hung Cochu affumed the title of emperor, and Choupayuen put an end to his own life in defpair. From the above extraG from the Concum, or Chinefe an- nals, it appears, that the inftitution of this game forms a principal era in the Chinefe hiftory ; fiance, by the conqueft of Shen, the kingdom was firft connected in its prefent form, and the monarch affumed the title of emperor. Mr. Irwin obferves, that the confined fituation and powers of the king, refembling thofe of a monarch in the earlier parts of the world, countenance the fuppofition of the Chinefe origin of chefs; and that, as it travelled weftward, and defcended to later times, the fovereign prerogative extended itfelf, until it became unlimited, as in our ftate of the game. The agency of the princes alfo, in lieu of the queen, points out the nature of the Chinefe cuftoms, which exclude females from every kind and degree of influence and power; and thefe princes, in the paflage of the game through Perfia, were changed into a fingle vizier, or minilter of ftate, with the enlarged portion of delegated authority that exifts there ; inltead of whom, the European nations, with their nfual gallantry, adopted a queen on their board. ‘The river between the parties is expreflive of the general face of this country, where a battle could hardly be fought, without encountering an interruption of this kind, which the foldier was here taught to overcome; but, on the introdudtion of the game into Perfia, the board changed with che dry na- ture of. the region, and the conteft was decided on terra firma. Moreover, with the Indians, this game was defign- ed by a Brahmin, to cure the melancholy of the daughter of arajah. But with the Chinefe, it was invented by an expe- rienced foldier, on the priaciples of war; not to difpel love- fick vapours, or inftruét a female in a {cience that could nei- ther benefit nor inform her ; but to quiet the murmurs of a difcontented foldiery, to employ their vacant hours in lef fons on the military art, and to cherifh the fpirit ef conqueit in the bofom of winter quarters. Its age is traced by the Chinefe a@tually on record near two centuries before the Chrittian era; and among the numerous claims for this no- ble invention, that of the Chinefe, who call it by way of diltin&tion, Chong-Ke, or the royal game, feems to Mr. Irwin to be indifputable. In Thibet and the Birman empire, as well as throughout Bengal and Hindooitan, the game of chefs is held in high cfti- mation. The board ufed by the Birmans, as we learn from Symes’s Embafly to Ava, (vol. it. p. 289) is exaétly fimilar to ours, cantaining 64 {quares,and the number of their troops the fame, 16 on each fide; but the names, the power, and the difpofai of them differ effentially, the king and his mi- nifter (a queen being never introduced by the orientals) are mounted on elephants; thefe are defeuded by two caitles, two knights on horfeback, two officers on foot, and eight foot foldiers ; the forces of each party are arranged in three lines, by which eight f{quares remain unoccupied ; none of the pieces poflefs equal force with our queen: and this re- itrited operation renders the Birman mode of playing more complex and difficult than ours. The Birmans affirm that it isa game of high antiquity, and that it is acknowledged aod authorized by their facred writings, although every play of chance is prohibited. The name of this game, viz. «© Chedreen,”? bears fome refemblance to the name which is given to the game in moft other parts of the world. Col. Symes infers from this detail, that chefs was invented in India, according to the opinion of fir William Jones, and thar it is not of Perfian origin. Others may probably con- cur with the honourable Mr. Barrington, Mr. Irwin, &c. in deducing it from the long civilifed empire of China, and tracing its progrefs weftward through Thibet and Hindooftan to Perfia. If indeed this molt interefting game had been known in Perfia, whilft Alexander or his fucceflors continued there, they would undoubtedly have introduced it into Greece, and its name would certainly have been tranfmitted to us, together with its pieces and their moves. Chefs is unqueftionably a very ancient, as it has beena very general, game. The opinion maintained by fome learned writers, and which has much prevailed, afcribes the invention of it to Palamedes at the fege of Troy. Molt of the paflages relied upon in proof of this opinion may be found in Stephens’s Thefaurus, Art. Ilsozos, or pebble. Mr. Barrington fays, that he has examined all thefe paf- fages, and that he can venture to affirm, that none of them relate to chefs, becaufe there is not the moit diftant ailufion to the putting of the enemy’s king in fuch a fituation that he cannot be extricated, which is the great obje@ of each player. From a line in the firlt book of the Odyffey it has been inferred that Penelope’s fuitors amufed themfelves with this game before the gates of Ulyffes’s palace. The game played by Penelope’s fuitors, and called was imprifoned ad dietam. ‘his was an ironical term, expr. ffive of the fultenance allowed, ‘which, on the firft day, was three morfels of the worlt bread; on the fecond three = Vor. VII. draughts of water out of the next puddle ; and fo alternate- ly till the fufferer died. This AAdam’s death being certi« fied, the ftatute for prefling was made, as being lefs hor- rible than flarving. The fuperior wifdom and humanity of modern times have again altercd the law, and a refufal to plead is now confidered the fame as pleading guilty. The walls round Chefler are, in circuit, one mile three quarters, and one hundred and one yards. They are the only ertire {pecimens of ancient fortification, thofe of Carlifle excepte.’, in Great Beitain, but are now only preferved for the puv- pofes of recreations. ‘The continued walk on the top af. fords a great variety of profpe@. * The Welth mountains, the Chefhire hills of Broxton, and the infulated rock of Beefon, crowned with its calftle, the rich flat interpofed, aud the perpetually changing views of the river,” are the moft prominent and itriking objets in this favourite tour, ‘The expence of the repairs is defrayed by certain impotts, called murage-duties, colleéted at the cultom-houfe, on all merchandize brought from beyond fea into the port of Chefter. The whole annual duty is about 2col., “great part of which arifes from Irth linens, though the fum levied is only two-pence for one hundred yards., The gates were anciently under the protection of the Earls of Shrewfbary, Oxford, and Derby, and the principal magillrates of the city: the guard was maintained by tolls, exacted from ftrangers at each entrance. ‘The Norman earls invelted Chetter with great privileges, which were confirmed by Henry IIL. in whofe reign us government affumed the form of a regular corporation. ‘The fucceeding fovereigns grant= ed various charters and immunities. ‘The date of the lat charter is 1676, temp. Charles II. The corporation of Chefter confifts ofa mayor, recorder, two fheriffs, twenty - four aldermen, and forty common-councilmen, two of wifom are leave-lookers, whofe office it is to inform of all perfons exerciling trades within the city without being freemen. The two fenior officers are murengers, or receivers of the murage-duties, for repairing the walls; and two are trea- furers, who are generally next in fucceffion to the mayor. There are likewife a {word-bearer, mace-bearer, and other inferior officers The principal charitable inftitution 4s the Blue-coat School, which is fituated near the north gate, aud was founded, in 1706, by Bifhop Stratford, and endowed for. the complete maintenance of thirty-five boys for four years: a fufficient fum was allowed to bind them appren= tices at the expiration of that time. Warious alms-houtcs are difperfed through the city : the chief of thefe is for forty decayed freemen, aged fixty years or upwards, who are al- lowed 4l. annually, and a gown every third year, The in- firmary is a handfome ftructure, fituated in an airy fpot, on the welt fide of the city. Chelter is diftinguifhed as a fort of provincial metropolis, being a place of occafional refi- dence to many of the gentry of the neighbouring counties. The only manufacture of confequence is that of gloves, which are made in valt numbers, chiefly by women. Ad- ditional employment is fupplied by a {mall manufactory of tobacco-pipes, an iron-foundery, fnuff-mills, and fome eita- blifhments for fhip-building. The latter bufinefs is carried on to great advantage ; many veflels, from 100 to 5co tons, being built yearly. Thefe, in point of ftrength and beauty, are reckoned as complete and durable as thofe built in any port in the kingdom: the materials are entirely of Britith oak. A fhot manufa@tory was hkewile eftablifhed in 1801. The maritime bufinefs of Chefter chiefly contifts of the Infh and coafting trades. Great quantities of linen cloth are im- ported from Ireland; and, for the better accommodation of the merchants, a new hall was erected in the year 1778: this is a handfome {quare brick building, incloling a {pacious area, and containing 111 fhops. Belides linen, the com. re modities CHE rmodities imported are, wood, hides, tallow, feathers, but- ter, provifions, and other articles, from Ireland ; groceries, front London; timber, hemp, flax, iron, and tallow, from the Baltic; kid and lamb-fkins, from Leghorn ; fruit, oil, bariila, and cork, from Spaie and Portugal ; and from the latter, a large quantity of wine. The exports are, coal, lead, lead-ore, calamine, copper-plates, cait-iron, and vatt quantities of checfe, with which veffels are laden at ftated times for London from the large cheefe warehoufe on the river.’ The limits of the port extend, on the Chethire fide of the Dee, to the end of the Wirral ; and on the Flinthhire fide to the mouth of the river Clwyd 5 yet the number of fhips is but {mall in proportion to the extent of the com- merce. The port of Chetter was much improved during the lat century. The great breadth of the eftuary of the Dee, and the comparative {malinefs of the body of water flowing through it, rendered it liable to be choked up with the fand brought in by the tide ; and this gradually fo in- creafed, that in the year 1674, veflels of twenty tons could fearcely reach the town ; and (hips of burthen were obliged to lic under Nefton, ten miles lower, which was the origin of that aflemblage of houfes on the adjacent fhore, called Park.Gate. In that year a plan was formed by Mr. An- drew Yarrenton, to make a new channel for the river, and at the fame time to recover, by embankment, a large tract of land from the fea. Between the years 1730 and 1750, a company was eftablifhed to execute this project ; and differ- ent powers were granted from time to time by parliament ; but the firft operations were fo expenfive, that many fub- fcribers were obliged to fell their hares at go per cent. lofs: but the concern, by that means falling into the hands of fewer and wealthier perfons, was at length nearly effected. A fine canal was made, protected by vait banks, in which the river is confined for the {pace of ten miles, with fuch a depth of water as to allow veffels of 350 tons to come up to the quays at {pring tide. The crofs embankments made at the fame time, have preferved a confiderable quantity of land from the fea; and flourifhing farms now occupy the {pace that was formerly bare fand, covered every tide by the water. Two ferries acrofs the canal, or New River, preferve the communication with the oppofite counties of Wales. The-population of this city, in 17S1, was found to be 14,860; of which 6339 were males, and 8521 fe- males: and, by various calculations from the bills of mor- tality, its proportional healthinefs appears confiderably to exeeed that of moft other towns in England: for which, independent of the falubrity of the air, two efpecial caufes may be affigned; the fituation of the buildings on a dry fand-itone rock, and the far lefs proportion of poor inhabit- ants, than that of places where manufaétures are the chief fupport. Under the a& of 1801, the number of inhabitants returned was 15,052, of houfes 3194. Chefter is fituated 384 miles N.W. from London; has markets on Wednef- days and Saturdays. Among the more eminent natives of this city, were Dr. William Cowper, a phyfician, who made fome colleGions towards a hiftory of Chefter, and publifhed a few tra&s on the fubje@&: the Rev. John Down- ham, author of the Chriftian Warfare; and thofe diftin- guifhed mathematicians, Edward Brerewood and Samuel Molyneux ; the former, born 1565, had the honour of be- ing the fir Grefham profeffor of aftronomy ; the latter, born 1689, devoted great attention to the fame fcience, and to the improvement of telefcopes ; he was alfo fecretary to George II. when Prince of Wales, and afterwards a com- mifftoner of the admiralty. ‘Pwo newfpapers are publifhed weekly at Chefter. A concife Hiftory of the County and City of Chefter, 12mo. 1791. Aikin’s Defcription of the CHE Country roend Manchefter, 4to. Pennant’s Tours in Wales, and Tour from Chefter to London. Cnester, a townfhip of Nova Scotia, in Lunenburgh county, in Mahone bay, firft fettled by a few families from New England. ‘The road from this place to Windfor is 25 miles.—Alfo, a {mall plantation of Lincoln county, ia the diftri& of Maine; 9g miles from Titcomb—Alfo, a townfhip of Hampfhire county, in the ftate of Maflachufetts, adjoining Weittield on the E. and about 20 miles N.W. of Springfeid. “It coutains 177 houfes, and 1rsg inhabitants. —Alfo, a large and pleafant townfhip of Rockingham county, in New Hampthire; 21 miles in length, with a lake on the weft fide, the waters of which flow into Merri- mack river. ‘his townfhip was incorporated in 1722, and contains 1902 inhabitants, chiefly farmers. It is fituated on the E. fide of Merrimack river, 14 miles N.W. of Haver- hill; 35 W. by S. from Port{mouth, and 6 N. from Lon- donderry. This is a poft town, and contains about 60. houfes and a congregational church.—Alfo, a townfhip of Windfor county, in the ftate of Vermont, 11 miles W. by S. from Charlettown, in New Hamphhire, containing 98 inhabitants.—Alfo, a borough and poft-town in Pennfyl- vania, and the capital of Delaware couaty; pleafantly fituated on the welt fide of Delaware river, near Marcus hock, and 13 miles N.E. of Wilmington, and contains about 60 houfes, a court-houfe, and 2 gaol. The firlt colo- nial affembly was convened here in December, 1682. This place is the refort of much company from Philadelphia, the metropolis, diftant 20 miles by water, and 15 N.E. by land, in the fummer feafon. It was incorporated in Decem- ber, 1795, and is governed by two burgeffes, a conftable, a town-clerk, and three affittants.—Alfo, a county in Peunfyl- vania, W. of Delaware county, and S.W..of Philadelphia ; about 45 miles long, and 30 broad; containing 33 town- fhips, of which Wett-Chefter is the fhire town, and 27,937 inhabitants, of whom 145 are flaves. In the northern paris of this county is found iron ore, which employs fix forges, and producing about 1000 tons of bar-iron aanually —Alfo, a court-houfe in South Carolina, 22 miles S. of Pinckney court-houfe, and 58 N.W. of Columbia.—Alfo, a navigable river on the eaftern fhore of Maryland; rifing two miles within the Delaware ftate from two fources, Cyprus and Andover creeks, which unite at Bridge-town; purfuing its courfe nearly S.W. after pafling Chefter S. nearly three miles, when it receives S.E. creek, and 15 miles further in. a S.W. dire&tion; and difcharging itfelf into Chefapeak bay, at Love point. At its mouth it forms an ifland, and by achannel on the E. fide of Kent ifland communicates with Eaftern bay. It is propofed to cut a canal, about 31 miles long, from Andover creck, 13 mile from Bridge- town, to Salifbury, on Upper Duck creek, which falls into the Delaware at Hook ifland.—Alfo, a fmall town in the county of Shannandoah and ftate of Virginia, fituate on the point of land that is formed by the junction of Allen’s, or North river, and South river, which form the Shanrandoah ; 16 miles 3. by W. from Wincheiter. N. lat 39° 2”. W. long. 78° 22’.—Alfo, a county of Pinckney diftiG, in South Carolina, lying in the S.E. corner of the diltné on Wateree river, and containing 6866 inhabitants, of whom 5866 are whites, and 938 flaves. It fends two reprefentatives, but no fenator, to the tate legiflature —Alfo, a town in Cum- in Cumberland county, Virginia, fituate on the S.W. bank of James river; 15 miles N. of Blandford, and 6 S. of Richmond. CHESTERFIELD is a large but irregularly built town, fituated on the weft fide of the river Rother, in Derbythire, England. Its name decidedly implies that it originated : | ' | 7 CHE originated from a Roman ftation ; as all places whofe appel- lations begin or terminate with ‘ Chefter”? were occupied by the Romans during their refidence in Britain. The Rev. Mr. Pegge, in the 12th vol. of the “ Archzologia,”’ obferves, that the Roman road from Derby to York paffed this way ; and that the fortrefs, or camp, was on the hill called T'apton or Topton, but diftinguifhed in feveral ancient writings by the name of Caltle-hiil. Chelterfield, at the time of the Norman Survey, appears to have been of fo [mall importance as to be noticed in Domefday Book only as a bailiwick, belonging to Newbold, which is now a {mall hamlet at a fhort diftance to the north. After this period, it rapidly increafed, both in fize and population: achurch, erected here towards the end of the eleventh century, was given by William Rufus to the cathedral at Lincoln. In the reign of king John, the manor was granted to William de Briwere, or Bruere, his particular favourite, through whofe influence with the king the town was incorporated, and an annual fair of eight days continuance and two weekly markets obtained. The Stanhopes derive the title of earl from this town. Chetfterfield has been particularly diftin- guifhed from a battle fought here in 1266, temp. Hen. III. between Henry, the king’s nephew, and Robert de Ferrers, earlof Derby. After the difcomfiture of the barons at Everfham, this earl bound himfelf by an oath to a for- feiture of his eftate and honours, if ever he joined their party again: but after fome proceedings in the parliament held at Northampton in 1265, which were obnoxious to the barons, he, in the fpring of the enfuing year, again affembled his followers in his caftle at Duffield, and, being ftrengthened by feveral diffaffe@ted nobles, advanced and took po at Chelterfield ; where he was furprifed by the forces of Henry, and, after a fevere confi, defeated and taken prifoner. The church, which is faid to have been dedicated in the year 1232, is a {pacious handfome building, in the form of a crofs, but more particularly remarkable for the appearance of its {pire, which rifes to the height of 230 feet ; and is fo fingularly twifted and diftorted, that it feems to lean in whatever dire€tion it may be viewed. An hofpital for lepers was founded in this town previous to the tenth of Richard J., and continued till the time of Henry VIII. Here was alfo a guild, dedicated to St. Mary and the Holy Crofs: feveral other guilds are mentioned in ancient writings belonging to the corporation: from the chapel of one of them, called St. Helen’s, the grammar-{chool is fuppofed to have received the name Chapel-fchooi, by which it is generally known. This fchool was founded in the reign of ‘queen Elizabeth, and was formerly the largeft in the north of England: both the mafter and ufher are clergymen. The prefent fchool-houfe was ere&ted in 1710. In the market-place, a neat town-hall was bnilt a few years ago, under the direétion of Mr. Carr of York: on the ground- floor of which is a gaol for debtors, and a refidence for a goaler; and on the fecond floor a large room for holding the feffions, &c. Several alms-houfes have been endowed in different parts of the town. The charter, granted by king John, has been confirmed and enlarged by feveral fucceeding fovereigns. The government of the town till the reign of Elizabeth appears to have been exercifed by an alderman and twelve brethren ; but the charter of incorpora- sion granted by her, vefls it in a mayor, fix aldermen, fix brethren, and twelve capital burgeffes ; who are affilted by a town clerk. By an enumeration made in 1788, it was found that Chefterfield contained Sor houfes, and 3626 in- habitants. Since that time its fize and population have increafed, as appears from the returns under the late act, by which the number of houfes was afcertained to amount 80 go, and of refidents to 4267. The fupport of the lat- CHE ter is principally derived from the iron-works of the town and vicinity, and the manufa@ture of ftackings. Some ad- ditional employment arifes from three potteries for coarfe earthen-ware ;. from a carpet manufactory ; and from the making of fhoes, of which a large quantity is annually fent to the metropolis. Chetterfield is 150 miles N.W. from London. CHESTERFIELD, a townfhip of America, in the county of Hamphhire, and ftate of Maffachufetts, 14 miles N.W. of Northampton, containing 180 houfes, and 1183 inhabit- ants.—Alfo, atownfhip in Chefhire county, New Hamphhire, on the eait bank of Conneticut river, having Wefimoreland to the north, and Hinfdale tothe fouth. This townfhip was incorporated in 1752, and contains 1905 inhabitants. It lies about 25 miles S, by W. from Charleftown, and about 90 or 100 W. from Portfmouth. Wet river moun tain in this townfhip has frequently alarmed the inhabitants with explofions and columns of fire and {moke; and in two places the rocks bear marks of having been heated and cal- cined.— Alfo, a county: in South Carolina, in the dillri€t of Cheraws, in the N. Carolina line; 30 miles long, ard 29 broad.—Alfo, a covnty in Virginia, fituated between James and Appamatox rivers, about 30 miles long, and 25 broad; containing 14,214 inhabitants, of whom 7437 are flaves.— Alfo, an inlet on the weflern fide of Hudfon bay, in New South Wales, upwards of z00 miles in length, and from 10 to 30 in breadth; full of iflands. CHESTER-LE-STREET is pleafantly fituated in a valley to the weft of the river Wear, andcn’the Roman mi- litary way leading to Newcaltle. It is fuppofed by Cam- den to be Condercum of the Romans; by the Saxons it was called Cuneagefter, and under that name became the parent of the fee of Durham; as it is only 5 miles north of Durham, and 10 fouth of Newcattle, lying immediately on the high road, and in the neighbourhood of numerous coal works, it has rifen to importance, and promifes to become ftill more important: its ancient and modern hiltory will, therefore, be not uninterefting. In 882 the body of Sc. Cuthbert was firft removed from Holy Ifland, the ancient Lindisfarne, and, after a variety of misfortunes to his followers, was carried to a fettlement appointed for them by the interpofition of fuch mira- cles as a conjurer of the prefent date would refufe to own. Thefe, however, bifhop Eardulf pretended were fufficient to {top the wanderings of the religious party which attended the body, and whillt the place afforded a fecure afy- lum to the facred remains, thefe, in their turn, procured a rcfpectability and reverence for the fituation. Eardulf died in 900. Eighteen of the laft years of his life were fpent in Chefter-le-ftreet. The faint becoming afterwards an obje& of more general devotion, Athelftan, iu the roth year of the pontificate of Wigred, who fucceeded Eardulf, vifited the tomb in his expedition to Scotland, enriched the church by a multitude of gifts, and ordered, fhould he fall in the undertaking he was entering upon, that his body might be buried as near the relics as poffible. In 947 Sexhelme ufurped the bifhopric; but fo addi¢ted was he to the -love of riches, that he oppreffed not only the pcople, but the very perfons who were officiating in the facred du- tics. Weare told by Symeon, that the bifhop was admo- nifhed by dreams again{t practices fo debating to his holy funétions, and thofe vilions were fo deeply imprefled upon his mind, and were attended with fuch afflictions of body, that at length he retired from the fee in the greateft dif- trefs, and was not retlored till he got without the }imits of St. Cuthbert’s ‘* circle of power.’? In the year 995, the fee, which had been enjoyed by Chefter, was removed from it, perhaps for ever ; the remains of St. Cuthbert, with every 41a other CBE other facred relic, as well as all other kinds of riches, were removed. The inceffant troubles which dillurbed the province of Northumberland from the time the fee was fet- tled at Chetter, gave little opportunity for the progrefs of lite- rature, arts, fciences, or manufactures. The bifhops too, whilit they were ftudions of miracles, appear to have left good works and real piety out of their view. Archite¢ture had made few improvements, for the cathedral of Lindif- farne, from whence the relics of St. Cuthbert had been orizinally tranfported, was built of ftone, though the mo- nalteries of Jarrow and Monkwearmouth were alfo ereéted with the fame materials. Yet with all its fplendour of prieftly miracles, and princely homage, that of our prefent fabj-& ftill remained of wood. All the lands between the Tyne and the Wear, comprehending the prefent county of Durham, were in the poflefficn of thefe ecclefiaftics, and obtained the title of “ Saint Cuthbert’s Patrimony,” (after “the example of St. Peter’s Patrimony at Rome) and the inhabitants were reconciled to the cla'm, by the idea that they were confequently freed from every fort of military cuty except that of fighting in defence of their patron faint. Nothing particular in the hiftory of this place occurs, until the re-aflumption of the bifhopric by Egelric, at which time it is faid by Symeon, that when the workmen were digging a deep foundation for the new church of Chefter, a very great treafure was difcovered, hidden, it was prefumed, by the officers of: the avaricious Sexhelme, who being obliged to abfcond, lefc it there; but it is very probable it was a more ancient concealment ; be that as it may, the bifhop removed it to Peterborough, and withdrew himfelf from the fee to that place. Unlike, however, the generality of prietts of that day, he employed the treafure upon objets, not of munificence only, but of general utility, as bridges, caufeways, and other public accommodations ; it is there- fore no wonder this good man fhould be perfecuted by the reftof theclergy. In 995, the {ee being removed to Dur- ham, this place loft its confideration and weight, and it is only lately that it has obtained a new importance. The prefent chureh is a handfome ftone edifice, with a nave, fide ales, and tower; the bale of the latter is of a {quare form, but above the roof of the church it affumes an oGtagonal fhape apparently more modern, and is terminated by a very elegant {tone fpire, fecond only to that of Reyton, (a village up the Tyne) in the north of England. The entire height is 156 feet. The interior of the church is neat, and well preferved ; it contains a fingular arrangement of monuments, with effigies of the deceafed anceftors of the noble family of the Lumleys. The deanery houfe, now the feat of the ancient family of Hedworth, commands a fine view of Lum- ley caltle, and is furrounded by excellent meadow grounds. The manor of Chefter deanery is copyhold, belonging to the bifhop, and its jurifdiGtiion is very extenfive: it has a coroner, and gives name to the ward. The townfhip, as returned under the late aét, contains 1662 inhabitants, and 259 houfes; moft of the latter are of ftone, and they are chiefly arranged in one flreet, nearly a mile in length. CHESTERTOWN, a poft town of America, and the eapital of the county of Kent, in Maryland, feated on the welt fide of Chefter river, 16 miles S.W. of George town, 38 E. by S. from Baltimore, and 81 5.W. of Philadelphia ; aad containing about 140 houfes, a church, college, court- houfe, and gaol. The college was incorporated in 1782, by the name of Wafhington; and in 1787, it had a permanent fund of 1250/. a year fertled upon it by law. N. lat. 39° 12'. W. long. 75° 57’. CHESTNUT. ‘Sce CuEsnur. CHEST-ROPE, ina hip, is the fame with the gueft or gift-rope, and is added to the boat-rope whea the boat is ‘without inferting it in the text; and they wrote one word fome drifted logs have formed a fhoal which it would CHE towed at the fern of the fhip, to keep her from thearing, 1. ¢. from {winging to and fro. CHEST-TREES. See Cuess-trees. CHESULLOTH, in Ancient Geography. LETH. CHETA, in Geography, a river of Siberia, which runs into the Charanga. N, lat. 70° 20’. E. iong. 107° 296’— Alfo, ariver of Ruffia which runs into the Enifei. N. lat. 69°. 40%. EE. long. 85° 14’. CHET-CHEOU-OUEI, a town of China, in the province of Hou-quang; 702 miles S.S.W. of Peking. N. lat. 30° 16’. E. long. 108° 54’. CHE-TCHING, a town of China, in the'province of Quang-tong ; 8 leagues W-S.W. of Hoa.—Alfo, a town of China, of the third rank, in the province of Kiang-fi ; 30 leagues S.E. of Ki-ngan. i CHETECAN-HEAD, a cape on the weft coalt of the ifland of Cape-Breton. N. lat. 46° 40°. W. long. 60° 45’, CHETIB and Keri, in Biblical Literature, the one derived from 5$)3, to write, and the other from. $4" p, to read, are terms frequently ufed by Jewilh authors to ex- prefs the difference between the reading of the MSS. and that of the printed copies of the Old Teftament. The Chetib is the word adopted in the text, and is marked with a {mall circle above it, which refers to a.different reading in the margin, named the Keri, commonly dittinguifhed by the letter 4op) 5. and fometimes written in Rabbinical cha- raGiers. Thefe different readings are fuppofed to have been inferted by Ezra and the other 119 men of the great fyna- gogue. With regard 1o the introduction of the ert and chetib, the celebrated R. Dav. Kimchi obferves, that dur- ing the captivity, the facred books were loft or difperfed, and wife men, who excclled in the knowledge of {cripture, were dead. Hence it happened, that the men of the great fynagogue, who reftored the law to its former ftate, found varieties in different books, and emsloved the knowledge they poffeffed in adjufting them. ut in thofe inftances, with regard to which their knowledge failed, they wrote one word, without pointing it, or wrote it in the margin, See CHEsE- in the margin, and another in the text. fert. General. p. ro. CHETIMACHAS rork, in Geography, an outlet of the river Miffifippi in Louifiana, about 30 leagues above New Orleans, which, after running in a foutherly direétion about § leagues from that river, divides into two branches, one of which runs fouth-wefterly, and the other fouth- eafterly, to the diftance of 7 leagues, when they both dif- charge their waters into the Mexican gulf. On the Che- timachas, fix leagues from the Miffifippi, there is a {ettlement of Indians of the fame name; and thus far it is uniformiy 100 yards broad and from two to four fathoms deep, when the water is loweft. At its mouth in the Miffifippi Kennieott’s Dif not be difficult to remove; and the Indians fay that no impediment to navigation occurs between their vil- lage and the gulf. ‘The banks are higher than thofe of the Miffifiippi, and fo elevated in fome places as never to be over- flowed. The produétions are the fame as thofe of the banks of the Miffifippi; but the foil, from the extraordinary fize and compaéinefs of the cancs, is fuperior. By proper attention the molt profperous and important fettlements in that colony might be formed upon its banks. Cuerimacuas, grand lake of, a lake of Lovifiana, near the mouth of the Mifiippi, 24 miles long, and g broad Lake de Portage, which is 13 miles long, and 12 broad, communicates with this lake at the northern end, -by a ftrait } of a mile wide. The country bordering on thefe lakes CHE Jakes is low and flat, producing cypref,li ve and other kinds of oak ; and on the ealtern fide the land between it and the Chafalaya river is divided by a great number of navigahle ftreams, occafioning as many iflands. Nearly cppofite to an -ifland, ata {mall diflance from the fouth-ealtern thore of thelake of Chetimachas, there is an opening which leeds to the fea, about 150 yards wide, and having 16 or 17 fathoms of water, CHETRAN, a town of Arabia, 6 miles fouth of Kalaba. CHE-TSIEN, a city of China, of the firft rank, in the province of Koci-tcheou, $75 miles S.S.W. of Peking. N, Jat. 27° 30’. E. long. 107° 44’. CHE-TSUEN, atown of China of the third rank in the province of Se-tchuen; 30 miles N.E. of Mao. CHE-TSUNG, a city of China, of the fecond rank, in the province of Yun-nan; 340 leagues $.S.W. of Peking. N. lat. 24° 56’. E. long. 103° 38’. CHETT EA, in Ancient Geography, a maritime town of Africa, in Marmarica; fituate, according to Ptolemy, in the nome of Libya. CHETTENHAYM, in Geography, a townfhip of Ameri- ca, in the caunty of Montgomery, and ftate of Pennfylvania. CHEVAGB, or Cuirrace, in Law, formed of the French, chf, head, according to Bratton, tiguifies a tribute by the head; or a kind of poll money, anciently paid by -fuch as held lands in villainage, or otherwife, to their lords, in acknowledgment. he word feems alfo to have been ufed for a fum of money yearly given to a man of power, for his patronage and pro- tection, as to a chief, head, cr leader: but lord Coke fays, that itis a great mifprifion for a {ubj-ét to take fums of money, or other gifts, under the name of chevage, in this fenfe of the term. Co. Litt. 140. In the firlt fenfe, Coke obferves, there is ftill a kind of chevage fubfifling in Wales, called amatyr; paid to the prince of Wales forthe marriage of his daughters ; anciently by all, now only by fome. Lambard writes it chivage. Vhe Jews allawed to live in England, long paid at after chevage, or poll-money: viz. threepence per head, as ap- ears by Pat. § Ed. I. par. 1. CHEVAGNES, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Allicr, and chief place of a canton, in the diltri& of Moulins, 9 miles eaft of it. The place contains 850, and the canton 6873 inhabitants: the territory in- cludes 370 kiliometres, and 11 communes. CHEVAL, in Zoology. Sce Equus Caballus, horfe. Cuevar marin. Sce Hippopotamus amphibius. Che- val marin is alfo the name given to the Syngnathus hippo- campus, by Bellon. Cueva de Bois, in Military Language, a wooden horfe. It is commonly formed of two planks nailed to treftles, on -which the French ufed to put their horfemen when they withed to punifh them for fome flight offence, as well as girls of a debauched and bad life, when they were found with the foldiers. Cuevar de Frift, in Fortification, a large piece of wood, or beams, generally from 15 to 18 feet long, ftuck full and traverfed with wooden pins or {takes from 5 to 6 feet long, -pointed and armed each of them with iron at both ends. /Chevaux de frife are made ule of for {topping up breaches, and fecuring the avenues or pafflages to a camp againt{t the sinroads both of infantry and cavalry ; for rendering the paf- Mage along gullies, ravines, and narrow places impracticable. They are fometimes mounted on wheels with artificial fires to roll down in an affauit on the affailants, and at other times they are ufed initead of retrenchments, as alfo in front of ditches in lieu of adatis. On the medalof Licinius, is found a kind of cheval de frife, made with fpikes interpofed ; berving to exprels a fortified camp, CHE CHEVALER, in the AZanege. A horfe is faid to che- valer, when, in paflazing, upon a walk or a trot, his far fore-leg crofles or over-laps the other fore-leg, every fecond time or motion. CHEVALERIE.. This ward fignified formerly what was afterwards and is now called robicfle; and took its ori- gin from this cireumftance, that the principal exercifes of the nobles were war, jutts, and tournaments, which were carried on or performed by them on horfeback. Chevalerie has, perhaps properly enough, been diftinguifhed into four kinds; namely, La militaire, La regulaire, L’honoraire, and La Sociale, La chevalerie militaire, was that which was acquired by arms, and was a mark of dillinétion that was con- ferred with the obfervance of feveral military ceremonies, as the girding of a {word ov him who was honoured with the title of chevalier, the putting of gilded fpurs on him, the recommending to him the punétual and manly fulfilment of the duties and functions of his profeflion, and fo forth. La chevalerie regulaire was that order of chivalry or knight- hood in which one engaged to wear a certain habit, and to carry arms for the defence of religion, and the proteétion of pilgrimages to holy places, &c. La chevalerie honoraire was that order of chivalry or knighthood which princes beftowed on each other, and oa the firtt and favourite feigniors of their courts. La chevalerie fociale was only a particular conf{titution of people who aflociated themfelves under that title tor dit- ferent purpofes. CHEVALET, in Fortification, an aflemblage of feveral pieces of timber for fupporting a bridge of fafcines or planks, to enable a body of troops to crofs a {mall river. Chevalets are alfo ufed for bridges of communication in the ditch of a fortified place between detached works. Cuevacet d’armes, in Military Language, a fort of bell- tent, that was formerly ufed in the French [ervice. It was conical and fomewhat refembled the wigwam of an Indian. CHEVALIER, Antony-Ropotrn, Le, in Biogra- phy, a learned French Proteftant, was born in 1507, at Mont- champs, near Vire in Normandy, and ftudied Hebrew firlt at Paris under Vatable, and then at Oxford under Fagius. He was tutor in the French language to princefs, afterwards queen Elizabeth, and remained in England til the death of Edward VI. He then removed to Germany, and having married the daughter-in-law of Tremellius, he perfected himfclf in the oriental language under his direction. From Strafburg, whither he was invited in 1559, he went to Ge- neva; where he taught Hebrew, and publifhed an improved edition of Pagninus’s Vhefaurus. He afterwards fettled at Caen, but the civil wars obliged him to take refuge in Eng- land, and was kindly received by queen Elizabeth. However, as foon as the termination of the religious differences at Caen allowed of it, he returned thither; but the fatal day of St. Bartholomew again expelled him ; and in his voyage to Eng- land he was feized with a diforder, which terminated: his life at Guernfey, where he was landed, in 1572, at the age of 65. He tranflated from Syriac into Latin the * Targum Hierofolymitanum,” and St. Paul’s epiftle to the Galatians; and his accurate Hebrew grammar, entitled ‘* Rudimenta, Hebraice Linguz,” 4to., was printed at Wittemberg ia 1574. He had undertaken a bible in four languages, but died before it was finifhed. More:i. Gen. Biog. Cuevacier, formed of the French cheval, horfe, and that of the Latin cavallus, in a general acccptation, fignities a knight or horfeman. T'rom the moft remote period of modern hiftory the title of chevalier has been very eminent aud of high contideration. The noviciate neceflary for arriving at it was long and trop. blefome. CHE blefome. It was requifite, in order to obtain it, to pafs through the firft.or principal degrees that conferred nobility, and to be irreproachable in point of morals and behaviour, as well as in point of bravery and courage. The admiffion or reception of a chevalier was very auguft and magnificent ; it was accompanied by a degree of pomp altogether extraor- diary. It even atfraGted the prefence of ftranger kings and emperors, whofe children were not born chevaliers, and cou'd not be received as fuch, but fubjeé to the formalities preferibed for efquires and gentlemen. When all thefe things began to decline and get into difufe, fovereigns cita- blifhed different orders of chivalry. See the articles Ecu- ver, and Orvres de chevalerie militaire. Iv is ufed, in Heraldry, to fignify any cavalier, or horfe- man armed at all points; by the Romans called cataphraéus EQuES, now out of ufe, and only to be feen in coat armour. Cuevarier, in Ornithology, chevalier aux pieds rouges of Buffon. See Scororax calidris, the red-fhavk. Cuevacier of Fern. Surin, the {pur-winged waterhen. See Parra jacana. Cuevarier vert, of Buffon. Bengal water-rail. CHEVALIERS d'armes, ou chevaliers fervans, form the third rank in the order of Malta. See the article Srr- VANS d'armes. Cuevaciers errans, knights errant. Thefe were wor- thies, who were conitantly wandering along the roads and ways in fearch of fine adventures and giving challenges and defiances. CHEVAN. See Curan. CHEVANCY Le Cuareav, in Geography, a town of the Netherlands, in the duchy of Luxemburg, about 12 ‘yniles from Montmedy. CHEVANTTIA, in our Old Law Writers, is ufed for a loan or advance of money upon credit. CHEVAUX a Frife. See Cueva de Frife. Cuevaux bien drefés, in Military Language, horfes well broken. See Cavarier and Cavarry. Curvaux de troupes lépéres, the horfes of light troops. ‘They ought to be as weil conditioned as the horfes of the heavy cavalry, though they may not be fo tall and power- ful, They fhould however be neat, aétive, and light, as the duty and employment of thofe, who mount them, are to ha- rafs the enemy inceffantly, and to drive him before them when they have an advantage over him; as alfo to render a retreat long and troublefome when the enemy ts fuperior. Cuevaux legers. This was a corps of cavalry confitt- ing of 209 men called maitres (matters), who formed part of the guard of the kings of France. It is remarked, to the honour of this corps, that they never lolt either their kettle- drums or ftandards. It owed its formation to Henry IV., and was originally compofed of men of arms of Navarre. CHEVECHE, in Ornithology, Grande Chevéche of Buffon, one of the fynonymous names of the Short-eared Owl, Staix brachyotos. The great Brown Owl, Starx Ulula, is alfo called Grande Chevéche by fome French authors. CHEVELLE, a term ufed by the French Heralds to ex- prefs a head where the hair is of a different colour from the ret of the head. CHEVERNY, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Loire and Cher; 7 miles S. of Blois. CHEVET du canon, in Gunnery, a billet, block, or quoin, fufficiently ftrong for fupporting the breech of a cannon. CHEVET du mortier, a wedge placed between a mortar and its bed or carriage for elevating it with. CHEVETAINE, a Military Term. The French cavalry as well as infantry were anciently conducted by chevetaines, See Rarius bengalenfs, CHE that is to fay, captains or connetables, who held not their commands for life, but by commifiion during the continuance of a war or of a particular expedition. CHEVILLE d’ofut, in Gunnery, an iron bolt or pin, which ferves to bind together the whole of a gun-carriage by traverfing or running acrofs through it. Thofe tat have iron buckles, hafps, or ttaples, are called chevilles a oreilles. Cuevitve Ouvrigre, a large nail or bolt, by means of which the limber is placed below the carriage of a piece of artillery. : CHEVILLES de travaux militaires, artillery nails o different fizes, to {uit the purpofes for which they are ufed. CHEVILLON, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Upper Marne, and chief place of a canton in the diftriét of Wafly. The place contains 856 and the canton 5105 inhabitants; the territory includes 1374 kilio- metres and 15 communes. CHEVILLY, a town of France. CHEVILS, or Kevexs, in Ship-building. See Kevets. CHEVIN, a name ufed in fome parts ot England for the chubb. See Caritvo, and Fisuine. CHEVIOT Hitus, in Geography, bills of England in the county of Northumberland, near which was a free chafg, called Cheviot, curruptly ‘‘ Chevy Chafe,’’ the {cene of the encounter between the Piercies and the Dougiafles, celebrat- ed in the ancient popular fong : 6 miles from the borders of Scotland, and 18 S. of Berwick. Thefe hills forma regular ridge, running from the S.W. where they join thofe of Gal- lowzy ou the N.E., and itretching from near Berwick to the Solway frith, conititute a kind of natural rampart between the two kingdoms. ; CHEVIRE’, a town of France, in the department of the Mayne and Loire; 5 miles N.W. of Bauge. CHEVISANCE, in the Law of England, is faid to be an agreement, or compofition, or bargain between acreditor and debtor; but it feems chiefly to denote an indirect gain, in point of ufury, &c. In our flatutes it is often mentioned, and moft commonly ufed for an unlawful bargain or con- tra. See the ftatutes againft ufury, anno 12 Anne. In the flat. 13 Eliz. c. 7. itis ufed fimply in the fenfe explain- ed by Dutrefne, for making contraéts. : The word is faid to be derived from the law French che- vir, to come to the end, ov finifh any thing; in the fame fenfe as the modern French ule achever. CHEVITI4& and Cuevisex, denote in Mem. Ang}, heads of ploaghed lands. CHEVRE, a crab or gin. A machine for raifing ftones, large pieces of timber, and pieces of artillery. See Cras and Gin. CHEvRE, in Zoology, the goat among French writers; Cuevere /auvage of ‘Vavenier is the Caucafan Ibex. See Capra Agagrus. , CHEVREGNY, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Aifne, and diflrit of Laon; 5 milcs S. of it. CHEVRES, atown of France, in the department of the Charente; 18 miles E. of Angoulefme. CHEVRETTE, in Ariillery, an engine to raife guns or mortars into their carriages ; it is made of two pieces of wood © of about four feet long, ftanding upright upon a third, which is fquare: they are about a foot afunder, and paral-— jel, and are pierced with holes exatily oppofite to one another, — having a bolt of iron, which being put through thefe holes, higher or lower at pleafure, ferves with a hand-fpike, which takes its poife over this bolt, to raife any thing by force. CnrevrettTE, and CHevreupt, in Zoology, the name — iven by French writers to the Roe. See Cervus Capreolis. CHEVREUIL, the name under which Du Pratz de- fcribes” t L CHE feribes the Cervus wirginianus. CuEvreuie is likewife the French name of the Roe, Cervus capreolus. CHEVREUSE, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Seine and Oife, and chief place of a-can- ton, in the diitri& of Verfailles; 8 miles S.W. of it. The place contains 1730 and the canton 10,326 inhabitants; the territory includes 210 kiliometres and 21 communes. CHEVRON, or Cueveron, in Heraldry, one of the honourable ordinaries of a fhield, formed otf two-fold lines laced pyramidically, and reprefenting two rafters of a Eoviasancd together, without any divilion. Tt defcends from the chief towards the extremities of the coat, in form of a pair of compaffes half open. ‘Chus, he bears cules, a chevron argent. Sze plate, Heraldry. ‘The chevron is the fymbol of proteétion, fay fome ; or of conttancy, according to others: fome fay, it reprefents the knight’s {purs; others, the head-attire of prieftefles; others, a piece of the lift, or the barrier or fence of a park, When it is alone, it fhould take up the fifth part of the field, according to Leigh; and according to others, a third art: when it is accompanied with any other bearings, its breadth mutt be adjufted thereby. It is borne divers ways ; fometimes in chief, fometimes in bafe, fometimes enarched, fometimes reverfed, &c. The chevron is fometimes charged with another chevron, one third of its own height. ‘Two chevrons are allowed in the fame field, but no more: when they exceed that number, they are called chewronwi/e, or chevronels. There are chevrons of feveral pieces. The diminutions of the chevron are the chevronel, which is half the chevron, and a couple clofe, which is in fpace half the chevronel. See CHevronex and Coup e-elofe. A chevron is faid to be aba/ed, when its point does not ap- proach the head of the chief, nor reach farther than the mid- dle of the coat ; mutilated, when it does not touch the ex- tremes of the coat; coven, when the upper point is taken off, fo that the pieces only touch at one of the angles; broken, when one branch is feparated into two pieces ; couch- ed, when the point is turned towards one fide of the efcut- cheon; divided, when the branches are of feveral metals, or when metal is oppofed to colour; and inverted, when the point is towards the point of the coat, and its branches to- wards the chief. A coat is faid to be chevroned, when it is filled with an equal number of chevrons, of colour and metal. Counterchcevroned, is when it is fo divided, as that colour is oppofed to metal, and vice verfa. Per Cutvron, or Party per CHEVRON, is when the field is divided by only two fingle lines, rifing from the two bafe points, and mecting in a point above, as the chevron does. ~CHEVRONEL, a diminutive of chevron; and, as fuch, only containing half a chevron. Morgan and Guillim tell us, that when there are more than five chevronels in a coat, they fhould be called couple-clofes; but Edmondfon fays, that if there are 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 ina coat, and they are placed at equal diftances from each other, they ought to re- tain their name of chevronels ; but in cafe they are placed in-pairs, then, and then only, thcy are to be called couple- clofes. The fame writers alfo aflert, that a.chevron between two chevronels. fhould be termed.‘‘ A chevron between two couple-clofes ;” but Edmundfon is of opinion, that a chev- run cottifed, ora chevron between two chevronels, would be a truer blazon, and much better underitood. » CHEVRONNE, or. CuEvronny, fignifiee the. parting of the fhield, feveral times chevronwife: Gibbon fays, chep- ronne of fix. CHEVROTAIN, in Zoology, Buffon. calls the Muils CHE of Guinea, Mofchus pygmeus of Erxleben, Chevrotain des. Indes Orientales. See Moscuus pygmaus: CHEVROTINE, in Military Language, a leaden ball of a fmall diameter, of which there are fomctimes from 66 ta 166 to a pound. CHEVROTTER, in French Mufic, is aterm given, in derifion, by muficians to a bad fhake: when a finger, in- ftead of a rapid vibration on two diltinG founds at the dif- tance of a whole tone ora femi-tone, flutters only on one and, the fame note. ‘The Italians call this pretended kind of. JSbake, toffe di capra, “a goat’s. cough.” Ea:ly in the 17th, century, before finging had been much cultivated, while a true fhake was little kuown, it was common to write down, and even to print, an iteration of the fame note ata clofe, as a grace, when a real fhake was afterwards required, as at a cclofe in F: This appears in the Sefle Mufiche of Claudio Seracini of Sienna, printed and publifhed in 1624. We fhould. have fuppofed this to have been the caprice of an individual, had we not found it elfewhere; but the fame monotonous trill. occurs, exprefled in notes, not only in fongs of this period, but is recommended to the practice of ftudents in finging, by the celebrated Caccini, in his Nuove Mufiche, printed at Venice, 1615. CHEUX, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart- ment of Calvados, and diltri€& of Caen; two leagues W.of it. CHEWASE, a town of America in the Tenneflce go- vernment; 24 miles S.W. of Tellico. CHEWING dalls, in Farriery, a fort of balls contrived for horfes to chew, not {wallow at once; not intended as. food, but as incentives to appetite; and on other medicinal occafions very ufeful tothe creature. The receipt now molt efteemed for thefe balls is this: take liver of antimony, and of affa foetida, of each one pound; wood of the bay-tree, and juniper wood, of cach halt a pound ; pellitory of Spain, two ounces: let all thefe be powdered together; then add as much fine grape-verjuice as is neceflary to make the whole into a pafte. This is to be formed into balls of about an ounce and a half weight, which are to be dried in the fun, Thefe are the cheqwing-balls, and areto be ufed one at atime in the following manner. ‘The ball is to be wrapped up in a linen rag, and a thread is to be faftened to this, in {uch a man- ner that it may be tied to the bit of the bridle, and kept in the mouth: when the bridle is taken off, the horfe will im- mediately eat; and when one ball is confumed, another is to be tied up, and put in its place, till the intent is an- {wered. CHE-YAM-HOEI-HOTUN, in Geography, a town of A\fia, in the kingdom of Corea ; 437 miles E.N.E. of Peking. CHEYNE, Georce, in Biography, a.native of Scot- land, where he was bornin the year 1670, was at firft intend- ed for the church, but attending the lectures-of Dr. Archi- bald Pitcairne, he became a profelyte to his doctrines, and determined on praétifing medicine. Having taken his de- gree of doGor, about the year.1700, he came to London, and foon after publifhed his theory of acute fevers, in which he attempts to explain the do¢trine of fecretion, on mecha- nical principles, His next work, on fluxions, was publifhed in 5705, and procured his eleétion into the Royal Society. Arrived at a maturer age, he calls this ajuvenile produGtion, and acknowledges it was juftly cenfured by De Moivre, to whom, and.to Dr. Oliphant, he makes au apology in the 3 preface GHEE preface to his “ Effay on Health and long Life,” for having treated their cenfures with rudenefs. This was foliowed foon after by his ‘* Philofephieal Principles of Natural Religion,” containing the elements of natural philofophy, and the proofs for natural religion, arifing from them. This was dedicated to the earl of Roxburgh, for whofe ufe it appears to have been wnitten. AsCheyne was a voluptuary, the difpofition to corpulency, which he inherited from nature, had fo increafed, by the time he attained a middle age, that he was become unwieldy, {hort-breathed, and kctharg'c; alarmed at.thefe appearances of abroken conttitution, he determined on altering his mode of living, to which he juitly attributed the evil; accordingly he confined himfelf to a milk and vegetable diet, and fubmit- tvd to a total abflinence from fermented liquors. The ex- periment fueceeded, and he was foon relieved from the molt diftrefling fymptoms of his complaints. Struck with the benefit he had received, he publifhed in 1722, an “ Effay on the true Nature and due Method of treating the Gout,” to- gether with the nature and quality of Bath waters, and the pature and cure of moft chronic difeafes. As he had refided for fome years, during the fummers, at Bath, and drank the waters, he attributed much of the benefit he had received to them. te . His next publication, which appeared in 1724, was his famed ‘* Effay on Health and long Life,” 8vo. In this he inculcates the neceffity of a ftri€t regimen, particularly in the article of diet, both in preventing and in curing difeafes. Tt was dedicated to Sir Jofeph Jekyll, matter of the rolls, who had been under the author’s care. In the preface the author gives an account of his former works, which he cen- fures, where faulty, with great freedom. He is particularly fevere on his own condu@, wherever he has treated other writers with levity or difrefpect. Although fo much beneiited by an abftemious conrfe of jiving, he had not been able, it feems, to continue it, after his complaints were fubdued ; he once more therefore be- came a free liver, and indulged himfclf in wine, and other luxuries, but finding his complaints returning, he had again recourfe to a milk and vegetable diet, and with fuch manifeft advantage, that he continued it for the remainder of his life, which was extended to the year 1742, when he died at Bath, being 72 years of age. He had feveral years before, viz. in 1733, publithed his “ Englith Malady,” or treatife on ner- vous difeafes of every kind, as fpleen, vapours, lownefs of fpirits, hytteric and hypochondriac difeafes, which be thought were more frequent, if not confined, to this coun- try. This work became very popular. In it is contained a candid and judicious »arrauve of the author’s cafe, which may be read with advantage, particularly by perfons who, by intemperance, have impaired their health. For the titles and accounts of a few other produions, fee Halter’s Bib. Med. and the Gea. Biog. from which much of the above is aken. . 3 CHEZE, La, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the North Coalts, and dittri& or Loudeac ; 14 league S.E. of it. ; CHEZERY, a town of Savoy, c:ded to France in the year 1760. CHEZY wv’ Ansave, or Cuezy-sur-Marne, a town of France, in the department of the Aifne, and chief place of 3 canton in the diftrié&t of Chateau Thiery ; 14 league S.S.W. of it. The place contains 1286 and the canton 11,938 inhabitants ; the territory includes 2524 kiliometres and 20 communes. CHIA Terra. See Terra Chia. CHIABRERA, Gasaist, in Biography, a celebrated CHE Italian poet, was born at Savona in 1552. He paffed his elementary ftudies at Rome, and was received into the Ro- man college. He was a youth of urbounded paffions, and was concerned in many difputes, one of which forced him to become an exile for many months.’ He at length found means to appeale all animofities, and dewoted himfelf to his literary purfuits. He was firlt noticed on account of fome Latin verfes, but he afterwards turned his talents to Italian poetry, of which he became a voluminous and highly ad- mired author. His reputation as a poct caufed him to be invited to the courts of feveral princes. By Ferdinand I. grand duke of Tufcany, he was munificently rewarded on ac- count of verfes eompofed for a dramatic exhibition given to the prince of Spain, and for others written in honour‘of the marriage of the princefs Mary, who became queen of France. Charles Emanucl, duke of Savoy, prefied him to refide at Turin ; and on his refufal, made him magnificent prefents, and liberally paid his expences whenever he'vilited that capi- tal. Vincent Gonzaga. duke of Mantua, was another of his patrons, aed affigned him an annual penfion. But nothing conduced fo much to his reputation as the notice taken off him by the cardinal Barberini, himfelf a poet ; who not oniy addrefled to him an ode, but when pope, under the title of Urban VIII. honoured him with a brief filled with praifea and high compliments. The republic of Genoa, of which he was a fubjeét, conferred on him many honours and privi- leges, one of which was that of being covered when he ad- dreffed the ferene college. Chiabrera lived univerfally re- {pected to the age of 86; he married a wife at 50, but left no children. Asa poet he filled up the interval between the molt flourifhing and declining ages of Italian poetry. He aimed at originality, and ufed to declare, tnat, like his’ countryman Columbus, ‘* he was refolved to find a new world, or perifh in the purfuit.” This is perhaps to be chiefly underftood of his lyrical produ€tions, in which, it is faid, that he naturalized the graces of Anacrcon and the fublime flights of Pindar. He enriched the Italian verfe by the in-" troduction of various new meafures. He was likewile an elegant profe writer; his “ Familiar Letters’ poffefs the’ graceful eafe fitted to that fpecies of compofition. A col- lection of his moft efteemed poems was publithed at Rome,’ in 3 vols. in 1718. 7 CHIACA, or Craca, in Ancient Geography, a piace of Afiain Armenia, between Dafeufa and Méinténe It had a Roman garrifon, according tothe Notitia Impeni. CHIAGORAS, a river of Africa, confidered by the ancients as one of thofe which contributed to forum the Nile. : CHIAJA-Becu, or Krays-dey, among the Turks, an officer whofe duty or bufinefs is to ferve the Aga of the Janizaries in quality of firft maitre @hotel in the name of al the corps. See Kiaya-dey. % Curtaya-Boch, or {ccoud lieutenant general, is the thi general officer of the Janizaries. He yields in nothing t the {econd general officer or firft lieutenant general, who i called Seymer Bafy, in point of privilege, authority, am command. Som: judgment may be formed of the g power of the Aga, or chief of the Janizanes, from rights and authority of this fecond lteutenant general, is captain of the richeft company, namely that of Bo Dary’s, and governs it defpotically. He is heir to fuch« his foldiers as die without children aud parents, and beftows at his pleafure on his fubaltern or fubordinate o the governments of the cities of war or the offices Kellurs. CHIAIS, a fe& of Mongvis or Moors, inhabi Surat in the Ea Indies, wo, as well as the med Peri a, CHI Perfians belonging to the fame clafs, do not confider Abubeker, Omar, and Ofmyn as the lawful fucceflors of Mahomet, but as ufurpers; efteeming Ali, the fon-in-law of Mahomet, as the perfon who ought to have immediately fucceeded to the place of the prophet ; whereas the Turks, who are called ‘* Sunnites,’”? or “ Sonnites,” believe the con- trary. This difference of belief is the caufe of an irrecon- cileable hatred between thefe people, which is encouraged and cherifhed by the princes on both fides. See Suites. CHIALISH, in Geography, called alfo Yulduz, and by the Turks Karafhar, or the black city, a town of Little Bucharia. CHIAMETLAN, a province of North America in Mexico, bounded on the north by Culican, on the eaft by the Zacatecas, on the fouth by Xalafco, and on the welt by the Pacific ocean. It is faid to be 37 leagues from north to fouth, and as wide from eaft to weft. The foil is fertile; many mines of filver are found in the country ; and it pro- duces a great quantity of honey and wax. The native Indians are well made and warlike. The river St. Jago dif- charges itfelf into the fea here; N.W. from the point of St. Blas. The chief town is St. Sebaftian.—Alfo, a town of Mexico in the province of the fame name; 325 miles N.W. of Mexico. N. lat. 23° 40’. W. long. 105° 1’. Curametvan-J/lands, a clutter of {mall iflands in the Pacific Ocean, near the coaft of Mexico. N. lat. 22° 20%. W. long. 104° 26’. CHIAMPA, a {mall maritime country of Afia, bounded on the north by the defert of Cochinchina, on the eaft and fouth by the Indian fea, and on the welt by Cambodia, from which it is feparated by a ridge of mountains. Mr. Pennant, after M. d’Anville, calls this tract Ciampa ; and Sir George Staunton (Emb. vol. i. p. 364.) fubftitutes Tifi- ampa, and fays that it appears from the fea, as a fandy tract interfeGted with rocks. Mr. Pennant informs us from an old French narrative, that the people of this country are call- ed Loyes ; and are large, mufcular and well made, and have a reddifh complexion, rather flat nofe, and long black hair ; their drefs is very flight. The king refides at Feneri, the capital: and was tributary to Cochin-china. The produc- tions of the country are cotton, indigo, and bad fiik. Their junks are well built, and much employed in fifhing. CHIAN Marble. See Marstre. CHIANA, in Geography, a river of Italy, which joins the Tiber, about ro miles S. of Orvieto. CHIANNI, a town of Italy, in the duchy of Tufcany ; 16 miles E.S.E. of Leghorn. CHIANTLA, a town of Mexico, in the province of Chiapa; roo miles S.E. of Chiapa dos Efpagnols. CHIAOUS, among the Turks, are officers in the corps of Janizaries. They are of three kinds or defcriptions, and are diltinguifhed by different furnames. The firft of thefe is the bas-chiaous, who as captain of the fecond Oda, or com- pany, has the charge of regiltering thofe who enter into the _corpsof Janizaries. He receives them by taking them by the car and giving them a cuff. He inflicts punifhments on the guilty, and ranges the foldiers in a line, when the Aga is going to pafs, in order that each of them may have it in his power to blefs him, by repeating fome words of the Alcoran, This bas-chiaous commands two others, who are fubordinate to him, each of whom is called Porta-chiaous. Neither of thefe is a captain, but rather a fert of lieutenant or cap- tain-lieutenant. But their duty is to caufe the fentences of the captains againft delinquent foldiers to be carried into execution, Tor the foldiers of that corps have the fingular privilege of being judged by their own proper ‘officers, or thofe of their own companies. It is alfo the Vout. VII. CHA duty of the l’orta-chiaous to dire the order of march for the infantry, and more efpecially to falute the firlt with hands joined when it pafles before the general. Every das- chiaous then, or captain of a company of Janizaries, has two captain-licutenants, or lieutenants under his orders. : Curaovs, anofficer in the grand fignior’s court, doing the bufinefs of an ufher. The word, in the original Turkifh, fignifies envoy. He bears arms offenfive and defenfive, and has the care of prifoners of diftin@tion. His badge isa ftaff covered with filver; and he is armed with a {cimiter, bow, and arrows. The emperor ufually choofes one of this rank to fend as embaflador to other princes. ‘The chiaous are under the direGtion of the chiaous-bafchi, an officer who affifts at the divan, and introduces thofe who have bufinefs there. CHIAPA, in Geography, a province of Mexico or New Spain in North America; bounded on the north by the province of T'abafco, on the fouth-eaft hy Vera-paz, on the fouth by Guatimala, on the fouth-welt by Soconufco, and on the weft by Guaxaca. It is about 85 leagues from eaft to weft, and its breadth, where it is narrowelt, is about 30, and in fome parts nearly 100. This country abounds with forefts of pine, cyprefs, cedar, oak, walnut, and wood vines; with aromatic gums, balfam, liquid amber, tacamahaca, copal, and other articles, that yield excellent balfams; and alfo with corn, cocoa, cotton, and wild cochineal ; together with fruits of various kinds, as pears, apples, quinces, &c.; and achiotte with which the natives colour their chocolate. Chi- apa has alfo a great variety of cattle; and it is particularly famous for a fine breed of horfes, in fuch eftimation, that they fend their colts to Mexico, at the diftance of 500 miles. This province teems with beatts of prey, and alfo with foxes, rabbits, and wild hogs. In the hilly parts, more efpecially, are {nakes of different forts, fome of which are faid to be 20 feet long, others of a red colour, and ftreaked with white and black; which the Indians tame and even coil round their necks. The inhabitants of this province are of a fair complexion, courteous in their difpofition and manners, well fkilled in mufic, painting and mechanics, and refpeétful to their fuperiors. ‘The country is well watered ; its principal river is Chiapa, which running from the north through the country of the Quelenes, falls into the fea at Tabafco. This river enables the Chiapefe to carry on a confiderable trade with the neighbouring provinces, which confifts chief- ly in cochineal and filk ; and of the laft commodity the wives of the Indians manufa@ure handkerchiefs of all colours ; which are purchafed by the Spaniards and fent to Europe. Chiapa is reckoned by the Spaniards as one of their poorett provinces, becaufe it has no mines or fand of gold, nor any harbour on the South fea, yet in fize it is inferior to none except Guatimala. To the Spaniards it is of great import- ance, becaufe the ftrength of their.empire in America very much depends upon it; and it may be eafily entered by the river T'abafco, Puerto Real, and its vicinity to Yucatan. Cutara, the name of two towns in the above province : the one is fometimes called ‘ Cividad Real,’’ or the royal city, and the other ‘* Chiapa de los Indos,’’ inhabited by Spaniards. The former is a bifhop’s fee, and the feat of the judicial courts. It is delightfully fituated ina plain, fur- rounded with mountains, and almoft equally diftant from the North and South feas, and 100 leagues N. from Guati- mala. The bifhop’s revenue is Sooo ducats a year. The town is neither populous nor rich ; and the Spanifh gentry who refide in it are proverbially proud, poor, and ignorant. It has feveral monafteries, a cathedral of elegant ftrnGure, about 400 Spanifh families, and a fauxbourg, containing about 100 Indian families. The city is governed by magif- 4K trates Crm trates chofen among the burgeffes of the town, in confe- quence of a peculiar privilege granted to them by the king of Spain. The principal commerce of this place is cocoa, cotton, and cochineal. N. Jat. 17°. W. long. 96° qo’. The other town, called * Chiapa de los Indos,” belong- ing to the Indians, is the largeft they have in this country, and lies in a valley near the river Tabafco, about 12 leagues N.W. of * Cividad Real.’”? The celebrated Bartholomew de las Cafas was the firlt bifhop of Chiapa. See the biographi- cal article Casas. ‘The town ts large and rich, with many cloilters and churches ; and no town has a greater number of Indians valuing themfelves on their rank than Chiapa. On the river they have feveral boats, with which they often exhibit fea-fights and -fieges. In the environs are feveral farms well ftocked with cattle, and fome fugar plantations. Wheat is brought hither from the Spanifh Chiapa; and of this they make hard bifcuit, which the poorer Spaniards and Indians carry about and exchange for cotton, wool, and fuch trifling things as they want. In this town there are about 20,0c0 Indians. The heat of the day is extreme, but the nights are cool. CHIAPPEN, in Mythology, an idol of the favages in the valley of Tunia, near Panama; being their Mars, or god of war. Before they fet out for battle, they facrifice flaves and prifoners in honour of him, and befmear the body of the idol with the blood of the vidtims. In moft of their enter- prifes they confult Chiappen; and they previoufly undergo a penance for two months, abltaining from the ufe of falt and all commerce with women. CHIARENZA, or Crarence, in Geography, a town of European Turkey, on the weit coait of the Morea, not far from the Mediterranean, near the river Sillus; once a confiderable place, but now almolt ruined ; 84 miles S.W. of Livadia, and So W. of Corinth. CHIAREZZA, Jtal. Clearnefs; a Mufical Term, one of the molt effential requifites ina mufical compofition. ‘The definition of good mujfic, by that {pirited and inventive vocal compofer, Galuppi, more frequently called Buranello, though fhort, is very comprehenfive. it confilts (he told the author of the Prefent State of Muafic in France and Italy) in vag- hezza, chiarezza, e buona modulazxione. Clearne/s in mufic is a very different quality from clearne/s in literature. In profe, verfe, or reafoning, vivd voce, when a thought has been prefented in the moft appropriate terms, exempt from all extraneous matter, but accompanied with the acceflories neceflary to its developement, and intelligibility, it is clear ; endeavouring to be too concife occafions obfcurity, and in trying to be clear, we become diffufed : Brevis effe laboro, Obfcurus fio. In literature, the greateft fecret of the art, is not the faying all that may be faid, but to let that be clearly con- ceived which is not faid. It is totally different in mufic: the moment we become diffufed, we ceafe to be clear; fo that as the oppofite to clearne/s in literature, is ob{curiiy ; the oppofite to clearnefs in mufic, is confution. A mufical idea, apart from all expreffion, is not an ope- ration of the mind. It arifes from a kind of inftin&, or, if you pleafe, from a fentiment which tafte only direéts; and juft as it fprings from the head of the mufician, it is received by the audience, without the leaft obfcurity. We {peak here of fimple melody. But if harmony is added to it, each part increafes complication, obfcures the principal idea, and it is then that clearnefs is wanted. Each phrafe in mufic fhould have a character, and this character arifes from the melody. If the accompaniment 2 Cin to this melody forms another melody of a different charafter from the principal part, and is interefting, to which fhould we attend? there will then be a confufion. To make ufe of a term in painting, upon thefe occafions, when there are many melodies in motion at once, we fhould aim at ¢ranfparency; the feveral parts fhould be heard through each other, M. Framery, in the Encycl. Meth., has extended this ar- ticle, and pointed out the leveral caufes of confufion and ob- {curity ; one of which he fays, and pcrhaps with truth, js the prefent rage for modulation, which deltroys the unity of melody, and cails off the attention from the melody to the harmony ; breaks the chain of thought, and drives from the mind the original motive, and like fauce that is too acid, or too {weet, totally deftroys the flavour of the principal viand. See Transparency, Meropy, Moputation, CHaRGE, and Lasourep AccoMPANIMENT. Though clearne/s is a common epithet, and well under- {tood in common things, it is peculiarly neceflary to be ex- plained as applied to mufic. In compofitions of many parts, when the principal melody is net dillurbed by the too great complication or ativity of the fubordinate parts; when not only the principal melody is heard through the reft, but that every part carrying on a particular defign, can be diftin- guithed without confufion ; here it is that the word tran/- parent might be ufefully admitted into the mufical technica. However numerous the parts, the principal, the beft or molt intereltiny melody fhould be refpected, to whatever part it may be afligned. When many defigns are carried on at the fame time, as in double fugues with counter {ubjects, in writing which, as the compofer’s tafk is different, fo 1s that of the hearer; as the {cience of the one is on the itretch, lo is the attention of the other. The compofer fhould never forget the place and the audi- ence for which heisat work. In produétions for the church, where tranquillity and profourd attention are fuppofed to reign, learning and complication are more likely to be under- ftood than in a theatre, where the intereft of the drama, the beauty of the poetry, the geftures of the aétors, and the pomp of reprefentation, all confpire to attract the attention of the audience from the labours of the mufical compofer. Thefe confiderations not only furnifh an apology for a thin {core in opera fongs, but render it an object of praife. Clearnefs in dramatic mufic is fo much more neceffary than in that of the church or even chamber, as the objects that diftra&t the attention of the audience are more nu- merous. CHIARI, Fasrizzio, in Biography, a painter and en- graver of confiderable reputation in his profeffion, was born at Rome in 1621, and died in 1695. He made feveral etchings from Pouffin, which, though flightly executed and incorrectly drawn, manifeft the hand of a mafter ; among others are the following, viz. ‘* Mars and Venus in a Land. fcape,’”? “* Venus and Adonis,” and ‘ Venus with Mercury and feveral children.’”? Strutt. Cu1ari,Guisepre or Josepx,an eminent hiftorical pain= — ter, was born at Rome, in 1654, and having ftudied the arts — of defign under Galliani, placed himfelf under the celebrated Carlo Maratta, whofe ftyle he copied and with whom he fo in- gratiated himfelf, that he was entrufted to finith feveral of his” pictures and defigns, and recommended to other employment. — As he advanced in reputation, he was engaged in many great hiftorical works for churches and palaces, while he exercifed © himfelf in fancy compofitions. His pictures, in which he — exhibited delicacy of touch, an agreeable tone of colouring, © and elegance and correctnefs of drawing, have been be 7 ; igh CHI high eftimation. What he wanted in genius, fays Mr. Fu- feli, he ftrove to fupply by induftry, moderation, and judg- ment. Hedied at Rome in 1727. Cuiart, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the Breffan, between Brefcia and Crema; 12 miles W. of Breicia. CHIARO Scuro, & Osscuro, among Painters. Crair obfcure. CHIAROMONTE, in Geography, a town of Sicily, in the valley of Noto; 25 miles W. of Syracufe. CHIASCIO, a river of Italy, which runs into the Tiber, near Torfciano. CHIASELLIS, a town of Italy, in the country of Friuli, belonging to the ftate of Venice; 7 miles W. of Palma-la-Nuova. : CHIASMOS, in Ancient Greek Medical Writers, is the concourfe or mecting of any two things under the form and figure of a crofs, or the letter X chi, whence it is named. The adverbs xsas:, and xersws, fignify the fame thing: thus the optic nerves are faid to meet xsassxws, fo as to crofs each other. CHIASTOS, the name of a bandage in Oribafius, fo called from its refembling a crofs, orthe letter X. Curiastos, in Rhetoric, the fame with what is otherwife called diallelos. CHIAVAN, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the pro- vince of Ghilan ; 120 miles N.W. of Refhd. CHIAVARI, a town of Genoa; 15 miles W.N.W. of Brugnato. CHIAVENNA, Counry or, a country of Swifferland, in alliance with the Grifons, fituated at the foot of the Rhetian Alps, N. of the lake of Como; about 8 leagues long and 6 wide. This county is fertile in wine and paftures; the inhabitants raife a confiderable quantity of filk, but not corn fufficient for their wants, which they procure of their neizhbours for cattle, wine, and filk. ‘The inhabit- ants are Catholics, and dependent in {piritual matters on the bifhop of Como. The county of Chiavenna came under the fovereignty of the Grifons at the fame time and in the fame manner with the Valteline. During the war of the Valteline, it frequently changed its mafters; but at the peace of Milan, was finally reftored to the Grifons. It is ruled, like the other provinces, by a Grifon governor, under the name of commil- fary, whofe power in fome inftances is lefs limited than that of the judges of the Valteline. ‘I'he criminal court of jultice -is formed by the commiffary and the afleffor, who is appointed by the commiffary, from three candidates nominated by the county. He mutt attend all examinations, concur in order- ing torture for the conviction of a criminal, be prefent when itis infli&ed, and ratify the final fentence ; but asthe affeflor owes his place to the commifiury, and hares in his exactions, heisa mere cypher, and feldom ventures to exert his right of interpofing a negative. This circumftance renders the courts of juftice in Chiavenna more uniformly iniquitous than even thofe ofthe Valteline; for the clofe union between the com- miffary and affeffur almoft precludes a chance of redrefs, and gives unbounded fcope to oppreffion. ‘The mode of pro- ceeding eftablifhed in this court of jultice is fimilar to that of the Valteline, which fee. In civil caufes the commiflary re- ceives 5 per cent. of the contefted property, and an appeal ‘from his decifion may be {ubmitted to the fyndicate. _ Curavenna, the capital of the above county, is fituated at the foot and upon the. fide of a mountain, and contains about 3000 perfons. The ishabitants carry on but little commerce. ‘lhe principal article of exportation, excepting the {tone-pots called ‘* Lavezzi,” is raw filk, of which the whole country produces about 3600 pounds. A manufac- ‘ture of filk ftockings, the only one in the towa, has been See . CHI lately eftablifhed. The neighbouring country is covered with vineyards ; but the wine is of a meagre fort, and only a {mall quantity of it is exported. The great fupport of Chiavenna is the tranfport of merchandife ;—this town being the prin- cipal communication between the Milanefe and Germany, and from hence the goods are fent either by Coire into Ger- many, or through Pregalia and the Engadinas into the Ty- rol. A duty is laid by the Grifens upon all the merchandife which paffes through Chiavenna; but it is fo fma'l, that the whole cuftoms, including thofe in the Valteline, are farmed for 17,C00 florins, or about 1260/. per annum. The principal object of curiofity in the environs is the for- trefs in ruins, feated upon the fummit of a rock, which over- looks the town, once celebrated for its almofl impregnable ftrength. The ttrongelt part of the fortrefs was conftruéted upon an infulated rock, rent, as fome fuppofe, from the con- tiguous mountain, by a violent convulfion of nature. Others fuppofe that the feparation of this rock was the work of art, and afcribe it to the order of Galeazzo Vifconti, in 1343. The length is above 250 feet, the height about 200, and the greateft diftance from the adjoining rock about 20. Clofe sathgne is a rock of afbeffos. Coxe’s Travels, &c. vol. iii. CHIAULSA, a town of Mexico, in the province of Tlaf- cala; 20 miles S. W. of Puebla de los Angelos. CHIAVORIO, a town of Germany, in the duchy of Carinthia; 8 miles S. of Tarvis. CHIAUSI, among the Turks, officers employed in exe- cuting the vizirs, bafhaws, and other great men; the orders for doing which the grand feignior fends them wrapped up in a black cloth, onthe reception of which they immediately erform their office. See Cutaovs. CHIBARA rar Kiamen, in Geography, a poft of Chi- nefe T'artary ; 6 leagues N. of Geho. CHIBI, in Zoology, the name of the domeftic cat in Pa- raguay, according to Mr. d’Azara, in his hiftory of the quadrupeds of that country. It is alfo called by others mbaracaya. CHIBIGOUAZON, or Msaracaya-covazou, the great cat, the name by which the people of Paraguay diftin- guith the ocelot, according to M. d’Azara. 4 CHICA, or Cuicua, liquor ufed by the Indians of South America, in the provinces of Quito, Peru, &c. in the times of the Incas, and ftill very common. The me- thod of making it is this: they fteep the maize in water till it begins to {prout, and then fpread it in the fun, where it is thoroughly dried; after which they roaft and grind it, and of the flour they make a decoétion of any {trength at pleafure. It is then put into jars or cafks, with a propor- tional quantity of water. On the fecond or third day it be- gins to ferment, and when that fermentation is completed, about two or three days more, they deem it fit for drinking. It is reckoned very cooling; and it is alfo inebriating. Among other medical properties that are afcribed toit, they fay itis diuretic; and to the ufe of this liquor the Indians are fuppofed to be indebted for their being ftrangers to the ftrangury or gravel, CHICABEE, in Geography, a mountain of N. America, in the ftate of New England. CHICAL, in Zoology. According to Haflelquift this is the name of the common jackal in Turkey. CHICALY, or Cuicary-cuicaty, in Ornithology, a bird very common in the woods of the ifthmus of Panama. It is defcribed by Wafer, (Dampier’s Voyage) as a bird of great beauty. Bachelier alfo fpeaks of it (Voy.-aux Indes Occidentales), The note of this bird, according to thefe writers, approaches that of the cuckow; but fharper, 4Ke and Omi! and more rapid. The plumage is elegantly diverfified with a variety of lively colours, as red, blue, &c.: the tail is long, and the bird carries it in a ftraight direGtion like the cock. {t lives on wild fruits, inhabits trees, and is rarely feen on the ground. Some ornithologifts have imagined this to be a {pecies of Ara, but the true genus does not appear to be correétly afcertained. piss CHICAMA, in Geography, a river of South America in the kingdom of Peru, and jurifdiGion or intendancy of Truxillo; the water of which is diltributed to the adjacent country by canals, and ferves to render them productive, in great plenty of fugar-canes, grapes, and fruits of different kinds, both European and Creole, and particularly maize. From the banks of the river Lambayeque to Choco, fugar- canes flourifh near all the other rivers; but none of them equal in goodnefs or quantity thofe near the river Chi- cama. CHICANE, or Cuicanery, in Law, an abufe of ju- diciary proceeding, tending to delay the caufe, and deceive or impofe on the judge, or the parties. Some derive the word from ciccum, the fkin of a pomegra- nate ; whence the Spaniards formed their chico, little, flender 5 chicane being converfant about trifles. j The French call folicitors, attorneys, &c. gens de chi- cane. Cuicane is alfo applied in the fchools, to vain fophifms, diftinétions, and fubtilties, which immortalize difputes, and obfcure the truth: as, the chicane of courts does juf- tice. CHICANES de fofie, chicanery of the ditch or foffée, in Military Language, very ferious and fometimes very bloody contrivances, itratagems, and attempts between the befiegers and the befieged, when the former endeavour to make themfelves matters of the covert-way and the ditches. Be- fides intrepidity and refolution on the part of both, a good deal of coolnefs, intelligence, and invention 18 required in thofe who conduét, on fuch occafions, either the attack or defence. The night is generally chofen for fuch enter- rifes. CHICANGA, or Cuacanca,in Geography, a kingdom of Africa, which was formerly a part of the country of Monomotapa, rich in gold mines. Itis called “ Manica” from the principal town, which is fituated on the river Sofala, in S. lat. 20° 15’. E. long. 28°. : CHICAPEE, or Cuircxasee, a {mall river of North America, in the {tate of Maflachufetts, which rifes from {e- veral ponds in Worcefter county, and running S.W. unites with Ware river, and 6 miles farther it. difcharges itfelf into the Conneticut at Springfield. CHICAS, Cuicuas, or TariyA, a jurifdiction of South America, in the audience of Charcas, and belonging to the archbifhopric of Plata, about 3o leagues S. of Plata; the greateft extent of which is about 35 leagues. This is now a province of the new viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres. ‘The temperature of this diftri@ is various, fome parts of it being hot and others cold; and hence it has the advantage of pro- ducing corn, fruits, and cattle. This country every where abounds in mines of gald and filver; and efpecially that part called Chocayas. Between this province and the country inhabited by wild Indians, runs the large river ‘Tipuanys, the fands of which, being mixed with gold, are wafhed like thofe of the river Caravaga. The gold mines in Chicas and Tarija, by the ftatement of Helms,»are 4; the filver mines 5; and it has 1 lead mine. . CHICCAMOGGA, a large creek of North America, which runs north-wefterly into Tenneffee river. Its mouth is © miles above the Whirl, and about 27 S.W. from the 6 CHI mouth of the Hiwaffee, N. lat. 55°18’. The Chiccamog ga Indian towns lie on this creek and on the bank of the Tenneflee. See Cuickamaces. CHICHA. See frsso. CHICHACOTTA, a poft on the frontier of Bootan, in the track from Bengal to Tibet ; which was rendered famous by being an obje@ of conteft between the Britifh troops, and the people of Bootan, in the war carried on upon their fron- tier in the year 4772. As a fortification, it was then, as it is at this day, a large oblong fquare encompafled by a high bank, and thick ftockade. The Bootans defended it with obftinacy, and a battle was fought in its vicinity, in which they difplayed much perfonal courage ; though itwas impofli- ble they could lon contend againtt the fuperior advantage of firelocks and cannon over matchlocks, the fabre, and the bow. But though they were compelled to give way, they made Chichacotta, for a confiderable time after, a pott of dan- gerand alarm, which the Britifh troops were obliged alter- nately to poflefs and relinquith, till they were finally driven back, and purfued beyond Buxadewar or Paffaka. It was reflored at the clofe of the war, and now conftitutes the Bootan frontier. The houfe in the fort, to which captain Turner was condu&ed in his embafly to Tibet, was of a totally different conitruction from any in Bengal. "The firft apartment, to which the afcent was by a wooden ladder, was elevated about 8 feet from the ground, and fupported on forked props: bamboos, refting on the forks, ferved as beams: the floor of one room was formed by mats of fplit bamboo, that of the other by pieces of plank from 3 to 6 feet long, and 1, or 14 broad, hewn by the axe, and laid on beams of fir. A prop rofe from the center of the ground- floor to the roof, which was of thatch; and the fides of the room were encompafled by fplit bamboos, interwoven lattice- wife, fo as to leave interitices for the admiffion of light and air. ‘The apartments were divided by reeds placed upright, confined at top between two flat piec :s of bamboo, and refl- ing at bottom in a groove. In the whole fabric there was no iron ; the thatch was very low, proje@ing confiderably be- yond the walls; fo that the rooms were equally defended from the rain and fun. —_N. lat. 26° 35’. E. long. 89° 35’. Turner’s Embafly, &e. p. 19. CHICH’E, a town of France, in the department of the Two Sevres, and the diftrit of Thouars ; 6 miles S.E. of Breffuire. CHICHEROBE, a town of America in the ftate of Georgia ; 20 miles N. of Tugeloo. CHICHESTER, a city of Suffex in England, is'raifed on the fite of a Roman ftation, on ground a little elevated in the midit of a very level tra& of country. The four prin« cipal ftreets, which are tolerably wide, and paved, branch off at right angles from the center of the city, in lines bearing direct towards the four cardinal points of the com- pafs. At the end of each of thefe ftreets was formerly a fortified gateway : but thefe have been deftroyed, and of the ancient embattled wall which formerly environed the city, only fome portions remain. The principal of them is on the north fide, where a fpacious terrace was raifed about the year 1725. This being covered with fine gravel and fhaded by a row of lofty elm trees, affords an ornament to the city, and a pleafant promenade to the inhabitants. The whole ~ circumference of this place within the walls is about 422 perches, or 6963 feet, embracing an area of between 100 and ror acres of Jand. That Chichefter was a Roman ftation appears evident from the termination of its prefent name, and from feveral relics peculiar to the Romans that have been found here at different times. In the year 1727 a teffellated pavement was CHI! was difcovered near the epifcopal palace; and Mr, Hay, in his recent Hiftory of Chichetter, fays it was the refidence of the Roman. propretor, and that a heathen temple was ere¢t- ed here. Ona place called the Revile, near the city, are the veltiges of a large encampment, the earth-works of which, according to Mr, Hay, extend about three miles in length, by one in breadth; but the Chicheiter guide ftates with more probability that it is an oblong {quare, of about half a mile in length, and half as much in breadth. The Roman name of this ftation was Regni or Regnum, During the Saxon dynafly the name was changed to Cifla-cetter, from Ciffa, a king of the South Saxons, who, af- tera long reign of 74 years, died A.D. 577. From this eriod Ciffa-cefter continued the feat of «he monarchs of this diftriG for above 300 years, and was attacked at different times, by the kings of Weffex, and by the piratical Danes. At the Roman conqueft, there were, according to the domef- day book, one church and above 100 dwelling houfes within the walls; and foon after that event, Hugh de Moutgo- mery was created by the conqueror, earl of Chichefter and Arundel. To fecure himfelf in thefe poffeffions he raifed caftles, and augmented the fortifications of the former place. Camden ftates that Chicheiter was taxed at this time with 15 /. per annum for the king, and ro/. forthe earl. The latter having obtained leave of his monarch to eftablifh a fee in his newly acquired town, granted the whole fouth welt quarter of it to Stigandus, who was the twenty-fecond ab- bot or bifhop of Selfea, and the firft of Chichefter. It ap- pears that two or three churches were erected here, and fuc- ceffively dettroyed, before the prefent cathedral was founded. This is ftated by Mr. Hay to have taken place during the relacy of Bithop Seffrid, who, ‘ affifted-by fix other pre- tes, confecrated the church on the feccnd of the ides (i. e. the 12th day) of September A. D. 1189.” (Hiffory of Chi- chefter, 8vo. p. 417). Judging from the ityles of archi- tecture which prevail in this building, and from fome auxili- ary circumitances, we fhould rather coincide with dean Lit- tleton, in attributing to bifhop Ralph the “ greateft part of the infide walls of the nave, choir, and tranfept.’”? This bifhop was inftalled in 1091; he began the church in 1115, and died in 1123. He fignalized himfelf not fo much for his build- ings, as for his energy and {pirit in refifting the papal en- croachments which were then attempted to be made under the legation of Cardinal de Crefoa, whofe fhameful exit from thig kingdom is noticed, and jultly reprobated by Hume, Henry, &c. in their hiftories of England. Bifhop Ralph appears to have been liberally affilted in the progrefs of his eathedral by Henry I. In the year 1187, a devaftat- ing fire deltroyed nearly the whole city of Chichefler ; and the wood work with fome other parts of the cathedral was confumed, or confiderably injured. This damage was, however, repaired by Bifhop Seffrid and his immediate fuc- ceflfors ; one of whom was the famous bifhop Poore, who was tranflated from this fee to that of Sarum in 1217, where he exerted and difplayed his knowledge of, and talte for, archi- teCtural {cience in defigning the prefent magnificent fabric at thelattercity. It is extremely probable that the principal additions of Chichefter cathedral, which are eafily diftin- guifhable by pointed arches and their correfponding decora- tions, were completed about this time. ‘The fpires of this, and that at Salifbury are traditionally faid to have been built by the fame perfon, and their general refemblance feems to guftify the conclufion. Both of thefe are, however, of a date much later than any other parts of the fabrics, but are both trifling variations of that ftyle which prevailed during the Jong and pious reign of Henry III. when the artificers and ecclefiaftics were animated by the fame enthufialtic ardour CHI of emulation. The ornaments of the interior of this cathe- dral, the ftalls of the choir, and the taltelefs paintings on the ceilings, appear to have been executed in the time of bifhop Sherburn, who was iranflated to this fee in 1508. This pre- late was employed many years by Henry VII. in a diplo- matic capacity, and he is faid to have brought into England an Italian artift of the name of Bernardo, who was commil- fioned to produce an hiltorical painting on large pannels of oak, and which were to occupy both fides of the fouth tranfept of Chichefter cathedral. It was intended to repre- fent the founders and benefa@tors of the church. ‘This pic- ture, or thefe pictures, though .extremely bad as works of art, are very curious fpecimens of early portrait painting, and may perhaps be confidered among the earlieft examples of the kind in this country. The ealt end of this cathedral has totally loft its original charaGter: as the chapel of the virgin is converted into a library beneath which are large vaults for the Richmond family, and for that of Wadding- ton; alfo a cemetery for that of Millar. A large number of monuments is affixed to different parts of the cathedral, many of which are not only ugly in themfelves, but are highly injurious to the ftability and beauty of the building. One monument among thefe deferves particular notice, as 2 memorial to genius, and a fpecimen of Englifh talent. This was creéted by a fub{cription raifed among the citizens, to commemorate the name and charaéter of Collins the poet, who was a native of this place. ‘The monument is by Mr. Flaxman, who has difplayed his ufual tafte and talent in its defign and execution. Here are fome other marble monu- ments by the fame artift. The fize, &c. of Chichefter ca- thedral may be eftimated by the following meafurements. From eaft to weft, 410 feet; crofs aifles, or tranfept from north te fouth, 131 feet; breadth of body and aifles at the weft end gi feet; height of the central tower and! fteeple 270 feet, which is 134 feet lefs than that of Salifbu- ry ; height of towers at welt end 95 feet, and of another tower, which ftands on the N.W. fide of the church, 107 feet; height of the roof, or vaulting 61 feet. The four fides of the cloifters are refpeétively 120, 100, and 108 feet. The walls of the city inclofe fix parifhes: and without the walls are two other parifhes. Betides the churches here is a fine ancient market crofs, a guildhall; a market-houfe, and council chamber, a work-houfe, a theatre, a cuftom-houfe, the bifhop’s palace, a free {chool-houfe, and fome chapels. The crofs, an elegant o¢tangular ftruéture, highly orna- mented, was built by bifhop Story, who was advanced. to this fee in 1475. ‘¢ There is a degree of grandeur in the de- fign, and elegance of execution in this crofs, fuperior to any other ftruéture of the fame clafs in England.” A Plan with details, &c. of it is given in the ArchiteCtural Antiquities of Great Britain, vol. i, gto. The guildhall is a f{pacious ancient building, fituated in a retired. part of the city: here was a nunnery, founded by William dean of Chichetter, in the reign of Henry II. It is now converted into an hof- pital under the patronage of the dean and chapter, and is fupported by revenues from feveral valuable eftates. With in its walls is a neat chapel. The bifhop’s palace is a large pile of building, and the gardens are {pacious. ‘The river Havant nearly encircles the city, and is navigable for {mall veffels: but the quay or harbour is about two miles from thecity walls. In the reign of king James J. an act was ob- tained to widen and deepen the river up to the city; but this has not yet been effected. Chicheiter fent members to parliament in the twenty- third year of Edward I.; and by charter granted, in the reign of James IL.. A.D, 1685, it 1s governed. by a mayor, recorder, CH recorder, and 33 common councilmen. It fends two mem- bers to parliament, who are eleéted by the inhabitants pay- ing fcot and lot, and certain freemen, in al] amounting to about 620 voters. Befides the mayor, who is ele¢ted from the aldermen, here are four juftices of the peace, before whom Hetil mayor moft of the petty caufes and litigations are tried. Here are two weekly markets, on Wednefday and Satur- day: and every Wednefday fortnight the market is very large. Here are*alfo five annual fairs. This city is 62 miles S.W. from London: and contains 831 houfes, and 4744 inhabitants. Hay’s Hiltory of Chichetter, 8vo. 1804. About two miles and half N. of Chichefter is the village of Lavant, near which is a feat belonging to the duke of Richmond, who has another at Rawmere, and another at Goodwood, about 4 miles from the city. Four miles N.E. of Chichefter is Weft Stoke, the cheerful refidence of lord George Lenox. A fhort diftance hence is We/ Dean the feat of Lord Selfea. Cuicuester, Upper and Lower, two townfhips of Ame- rica, in the ftate of Pennfylvania, and county of Dela- ware. Cuicuester, a {mall townfhip of Rockingham county in New Hampfhire, about 35 miles N.W. of Exeter, and 45 from Portfmouth. It lies on Suncook river; was incorpo- rated in 1727, and contains 491 inhabitants. CHICHICHOCO, a mountain of South America, in the province of Quito, being a branch of the fnowy moun- tain of Carguairato, and one of the ftations in the Cordille- ras of the Andes, where the Spanifh aftronomers fixed a fig- nal in meafuring the degree of a meridian. Whilft they were in this ftation, an earthquake occurred, which reached 4 leagues round the country. CHICHICTLI, in Ornithology. Lam. CHICHILTOTOTL, the Mexican name of the filver- beaked tanager, tanagra bec d’ argent of Sonnini. CHI-CHOW, in Geography, an ifland of the China fea, not far from Formefa, which in reality conlitts of .two {mall iflands clofe to each other. The fouth coalt of this ifland, on Dalrymple’s chart, is in N. Jat. 22° 13’, but by the obfervations of captain Marchand, who anchored in the Solide under this ifland, its S. coaft-isin N. lat. 22° 4’ or 5’. CHICHLEY, Henry, in Biography, an Enghth bifhop, born of obfcure parents at Higham Ferrers, in Northampton- fhire. He was educated at Winchefter {chool, from whence he was admitted at New college, Oxford, where he took the degree of door in civil and canon law. He was after- wards chaplain to Robert Medford. bifhop of Salifbury, by whom, in the year 1402, he was promoted firft to the arch- deaconry of Salifbury, and in two years afterwards to the chancellorfhip of that diocefe. His various talents brought him into notice, and he was employed by Henry IV. and V. in varions important negociations. He was {ent embal- fador to pope Gregory XII. to congratulate him on his advancement to the papacy; the bifhopric of St. David’s becoming vacant during his abfence, he was promoted to that fee by the pope, who confecrated him with his own hands. In 1414, he was tranflated to the fee of Canter- bury. The commons having addrefled the king to feize upon the revenues of the church, archbifhop Chichley em- ployed his talents to divert the ftorm. He advifed the clergy to grant the king a large fubfidy, and then enflamed the ambition of the monarch to lay claim to the provinces of France which had belongedto his predeceffor. He wentoverto France with the king, and on his return before his fovereign, See Srrix chichiah. CH? he caufed abundance of proceffions to be made for obtaining the favour of heaven upon his arms, and, at the many fynode which he held, exhorted his brethren to open their purfes freely in fupport of fo juft and neceflary a war. He was fre- quently with the king in his camp, and was prefent with him at Paris after the furrender of that capital. In 1421, he crowned queen Catherine in London, and during that year he baptized prince Henry, who, when he came to the crown, ever treated him with a fort of filial refpe&t. During the minority of that prince he was nominated firlt privy- counfellor, but never exhibited any inclination to engage in matters of ftate, confining himfelf to his ecclefiaftical func- tions. He founded a noble college and large hofpital at his birth-place, and endowed them with ample revenues, which were confiderably augmented by his two brothers, who were aldermen of London. In 1426, pope Martin V. ex- hibited fome tokens of difpleafure againit the archbifhop for having vigoroufly oppofed certain encroachments made by the fee of Rome. The prelate was obliged to make his conceffions before he could be reftored to favour. He was a liberal benefactor to the univerfity of Oxtord, and was the founder of the college of All-Souls, one of the noblelt foundations in the univerfity. He likewife difplayed much munificence by contributing large fums in adurning and im- proving the cathedral at Canterbury, and for building Croy- don church, and the bridge at Rocheiter. ‘This prelate, who was greatly refpected, died in 1443, and was buried in a monument which he had himfelf ereled in Canterbury cathedral. CHICINCE, in Geography, a town of Lithuania; $ miles N. of Rohaezow. CHICK Pea, in Botany. See Cicer. CHICKAHOMINY, in Geography, a {mall navigable river of America, in Virginia. Atits mouth in James river, 37 miles from Point Comfort, in Chefapeak bay, is a bar, which has only 12 feet water at common flood-time. Veffels of fix tons burden may go 32 miles up the river. CHICKAMACOMICO, a creek of America, in the fiate of Maryland, and county of Dorchefter, which runs foutherly between the towns of Middle-town and Vienna, and difcharges itfelf into Fifhing bay. . CHICKAMAGES, a denomination given to part of the Cherokee nation of Indians in America, which occupies five villages on the Tenneffee river. See CuiccamMocGA. CHICKASAW, an American creek, which falls from the Eaft into the Wabath, a little below fort St. Vincent. —Alfo, a river which difcharges itfelf into the Miffiippi, on the eaft fide, ro4 miles N. from the mouth of Margot and 67 S.W. of Mine-au-fer. ‘The lands here are excellent, and covered with a variety of ufeful timber, canes, &e. This river may be afcended, during high floods, upwards of — 30 miles, with boats of feveral tons burden. } Cuickasaw Bluff lies on the eaftern bank of the Miffi- » fippi, within the territories of the United States, in N. lat. 35°. In 1795, the Spaniards fuddenly built a {trong fort in this place ; but it was given up by a treaty of 1796. ) CHICKASAWS, a famous nation of Indians, who inha- bit the country on the ealt fide of the Miffifippi, on the head branches of the Tombigbec, Mobile, and Yazoo rivers, in the N.W. corner of the ftate of Georgia, and N. of the | country of the Cha&aws. This territory is an extenfive plain, tolerably well watered from fprings, and of a pretty - good foil. They have feven towns, the central one» of which is in N. lat. 34° 23’. W. long. 8y° 30’. The num= ber of perfons, formerly occupying this dittrict, was reckoned to be 1725; and of thefe 575 are faid to have been wate riors. ‘ CHICKEN, A CHI CHICKEN, in Ornithology, the young of the gallinaceous order of birds, and efpecially of the common hen. Chickens Fequire no meat for two days after they are hatched: and they are firit fed with {mall oat meal, dry or fteeped in milk, and the crumbs of white bread: andas they acquire ftrength, with curds, cheefe-parings, &c. Green chives chopped with their food will preferve them from the rye, and other difeafes of the head : and care fhould be taken to furnifh them with a proper fupply of clean water. In order to have fat crammed chickens, they fhould be cooped up when the hen forfakes them, and fed with wheat-meal mixed with milk, and made into a palte : this dict will fatten them in about a fortnight. See Cock, Fowr, and Hartcuine. CHICKEN-POX, in Medicine. See Varicera. CHICKWEED, in Botany.See Avstne and ARENARIA. CuickxweeD, Baflard. See Buronia, Cuickween, Waiter. See CaurirricueE. CHICLANA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the province of La Mancha; 22 miles N. of Ubeda. CHICOCKA, in Myéhelogy, an idol of the African negroes, fuppofed to be the guardian of the dead. His ftatue, compofed of wood, is erected near their burial- laces. CHICOMUZELDO, in Geography, a town of Mexico, in the province of Chiapa; remarkable for a cave which has a narrow entrance, but is fpacious within, having a ftagnant lake, of clear water, two fathoms deep towards the banks. CHICOMXEN, a town of America, in the ftate of Maryland ; 38 miles S.S.W. of Annapolis. CHICORACEOUS, in Botany. M. Vaillant divides plants with compofite flowers into three clafles or families ; the cynarocephalous, the corymbiferous, and the chicoraceaus. CHICOREE, in Conchology, the name given. by the French colle&tors to a variety of fhells which are furnifhed with foliated proceffes, asin the Murex ramo/us of Linneus. The colleGtors in this country diftineuifh the fame kind of thells by the general appellation of endives, which literally have the fame meaning as the French chicorée. With fcienti- fic colleGtors fuch indefinite terms are not however adopted, as fhells of very different genera are comprehended under this title, although the greater number of them are murices. _CHICOVA, in Geography, a kingdom or diftri@ of Africa, having on the north, Butua; on the weft, Bororos; and on_the fouth Mocaranga, called Monomotapa. This ingdom is reported by travellers to abound with filver mines. The capital of the fame name.is {eated on the river Zambezi, which inundates the country like the Nile, except inthe month of April. S. lat. 15° 40’. E. long. 29° 30!. CHICOYNEAU, Micuet, in Biography, a native of Blois, ftudicd medicine at Montpellier, and was admitted doctor in that faculty on the 6th of October, 1652. In 1659, on the death of James Durant, he fucceeded to the rofeflorfhip of medicine ; to this polt was foon afterwards added, thofe of anatomy and botany, with the fuperintend- ance of the royal botanical garden, much to the regret of his brethren, who were {ufficiently mortified, Aftruc relates, to find a young man occupying fuch important polls, which had hitherto been beftowed as rewards for age and merit. Their oppofition however did not prevent his being n after made chancellor and counfellor of ftate. Know- ing the enmity of his opponents he was careful, by diligence in the difcharge of his duties, to render their efforts to get him difpoffefled of his offices, ineffectual. Chicoyneau be- came blind towards the latter part of his life, which was ex- tended tothe year 1702. He had three fons, one of whom nly, his fecond fon, furvived him. HICOYNEAU, Francis, was born at Montpellicr, in CHI 1672. ln March, 1693, he was made doftor in medicines and his father had intereft fufficient to prociire hom the re- verfion of the feveral offices he held on his death, and pet appointed his fubftitute, to perform ti when from lofs of fight he was rendered incapable of exe: ing them. The diligence he ufed in performing the duties pofed on him, and the fuavity of his manners, gained him the efteem both of his colleagues and pupils. As he had diitinguifhed bimfelf equally as a pratitioner and teacher in medicine, he was appointed one of the phyficians who were fent to Marfeilles, in the year 1720, to affift in putting a ftop to the dreadful ravages of the plague, which in the end almoit depopulated that city; M. Chirac, his father- in-law, who was firft phyfician to the regent, having re- commended him as qualified for that office. The attention and zeal he fhewed in this fituation, gave complete fatif- faction to the inhabitants, and was rewarded on his return to Montpellier, by a pention; and in 1731, on the death of M. Chirac, he was chofen to fucceed him as firtt phyfician to the king ; he was alfo made counfellor of ftate, and ho- norary member of the Academy of Sciences. He died in 1752, being 80 years ofage. In 1721 he publifhed * Obfer- vations et Réfections touchant la Nature, les Evénements, et le Traitement de la Peste de Marfeilles,” 12mo0. It was the jvint work of himfelf, and Meffrs. Verny and Deidier, who had been joined with him in the commiffion. Its prixcipal trait 1s the opinion contained in it, that the plague is not contagious. Influenced by that opinion they had boldly entered the apartments of the difeafed, and fortunately efcaped infetion; but the confiderce thence infpired, proba- bly contributed m fpreading the difeafe, and making it more general, by inducing the inhabitants to negle& feparating the fick from the healthy. Having received orders from the king to colleét the opinions of different phy ficians on the plague, and particularly all the fa&s and obfervations that had been publifhed on the fubje& of the plague at Mar- feilles, he publifhed his colleGtion under the title of §'Traite des Canfes, des Accidens, et de la Cure de la Pefte, avec un re- cueil d’ob{ervations, et un detail circonftaucie des précau- tions qu’on a prifes pour le fouvenir aux befoins des peuples’ aflligés de cette maladie, cu pour le prévénir dans les lieux qui en font ménaces.” Paris, 1744, 4to. This work is drawn up with candour, and is valuable from the number of ufeful facts contained. His fon, Cuicoyneau, Aime Francots, born in 1699, was made doétor in medicine at Montpellier im 1722. After receiving the rudiments of his education under his father, he went to Paris, and was farther inftru@ed by his grand- father, Chirac, Du Verney, Winflow, and Vaillant. Re- turning to Montpellier, he was firlt made demonftrator in botany, an office he filled with fuch credit, that he obtained the reverfion of the places occupied by his father, and fup- plied his place when he was at Marfeilles, and afterwards, on his being appointed phyfician to the king. As he was particularly attached to botany, which he cultivated with zeal, he fet himfelf with diligence to repair and almolt re- new the botanical garden, which had been founded by Henry IV. His father having procured him the of- fice of counfellor in the court of aids, he applied him- {elf to the ftudy of the law, and with fuch fuccefs that he was foon enabled to difcourfe on the fubjeé&ts which came before him in that department as readily as on thofe in me- dicine. He was an elegant Latin f{cholar, and his oration$ were admired for the purity of the language, as well as for their neatnefs and perfpicmty. But all thefe good qualities were foon loft to the world, as he died in 1740, aged only 38 years, Haller’s Bib, Eloy. Di& .Hift. Gen. Biog. CHICQUERA, Guties of tl Im-= CAF, CHICQUERA, in Ornithology. See Farco Chiquera, CHICUALTI, the name of a kind of fnipe found in the mountainous parts of India; the exaét fpecies is not diftin@ly known: perhaps the fame with the Nodua canora of Nieremberg, the Indian name of which according to that author is Chicuatli. Its beak, he fays, is long, black, and flender; its head is marked with undulated ftreaks of yellow near the eyes; the breaft and belly of a whitifh co- lour, and the throat with fome black feathers intermixed with white ones; the back variegated with black, yellow, and grey. his bird is found principally among the moun- tains, where it generally runs on the ground. It is eafily bred in cages, and feeds indifcriminately on various kinds of food. CHIDNEI, in Ancient Geography, tae name of an an- cient people who inhabited the vicinity of the Euxine fea. CHIDRIA, a place in the Thracian Cherfonefus, whi- ther fome of the Athenians, after the defeat at AX gos-Po- tamos, made their efcape. CHIEF, a term denoting head, or a principal thing or perfon. The word is formed of the Vrench, chef, head. We fay the chief of a party ; the chiefof a family, &c. Agamemnon was the chief of the Greeks who befieged Troy. The Romans fometimes refufed triumphs to their victorious general, becaufe the conduét of the chief was not anfwerable to his fuccefs. The abbeys that are chiefs of their order are all regular; and it is there the general chap- ters are held. Cuter baron. See Barons and Court of exchequer. Cuter, in Heraldry, isthe upper part of the efcutcheon, reaching quite acrofs, from fide to fide. The arms of France are three golden fleurs de lys, in a field’azure ; two in chief and one in point. Cuter is more particularly ufed for one of the honourable ordinaries, drawn horizontally acrofs the face of the fhield, and containing the uppermoft third part of the efcutcheon. Plate, Heraldry. “When the efcutcheon is cut in ftone, or in relievo, the chief ftands out prominent beyond the reft; and is fuppofed to reprefent the diadem of the ancient kings and prelates; or the eafque of the knights. It is frequenly without any ornament; fometimes it is charged with other bearings; fometimes it is of a colour of metal different from that of the coat. The line that bounds it at the bottom is fometimes Airaight, fometimes indented, engrailed, embattled, lo- zenged, &c. Thus, fay they, the field is gules, a chief argent, &c. Again, he bears, gules, a chief crenelle, or embattled, argent. Sometimes one chief is borne on another; exprefled by a line drawn along the upper part of the chief; when the line is along the under part, it is called a fillet. The firft is an addition of honour, the fecond a diminution. The chief is faid to be abafed, when it is detached from the upper edge of the coat, by the colour of the field which is over it; and which retrenches from it one-third of its height. We alfo fay a chief is chewroned, paled, or bended, when it has achevron, pale, or bend, contiguous to it, and of the fame colour with itfelf. A chief is faid to Be orted, when the two thirds at top are of the colour of. the field, ard that at bottom of a different colour. Curer, in. By this is underftood any thing borne in the chief part, or top of the efeutcheon. Curer juflice, in Law. See Justice. Cuter jufticiary of England. See Jusricrary. Curer Jord, denotes the feudal lord, or Jord of an honour, on whom others depend. Cur, holding in, or tenants in. SeeCariteand TENURE: CHI Cuter pledze, isthe fame as headborough, which fee. Cuter point. See Point. Cuter ren's, Redilus capitales, in Law, denote the rents of freeholders of manors ; called alfo guit-rents, quieti redi- tus, becaufe by them the tenant gets quit and free of all other fervices. See Quit-rents and Rents. CHIEFTAIN, the chief leader, or general of an army ; or the like. CHIELETFA, in Geography, atown of European Turkey, in the Morea, nearthe gult of Coron. It was taken by the Venetians in the year 1685. CHIELSEVISCH, in Jchthyslogy, one of the names un- der which Renard deicribes the chetodon dux, which fee. CHIEM-SEE, in Geography, a lake of Germany, in up- per Bavaria, about 14 miles long and 5 broad; fometimes {tyled the fea of Bavaria. It contains feveral iflands, parti- cularly Herrenward and Frawenward ; the former being the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of Saltzburg, founded in the 17th century. CHIEN pe Mousauer. See the article Serpentin. CHIEN-VOLANT, in Zoology, the name under which Daubenton defcribes the great ternate bat, ve/pertilio vam- pyrus, which fee. CHIENGTUENDEN, the Perfian name of the rhi- noceros, according to Pietro della Valle. CHIENTO, in Geography, a river of Italy, in the Ec- clefiaftical State, which runs into the Adriatic, between Fermo and Recanati. CHIERI, a town of Piedmont, feated on the declivity of a hill, in a pleafant country, where the air is foft and falubrious : the hills on the north and eaft are covered with’ vines, and thofe on the wett and fouth prefent to view fruit- trees of various kinds: the land is fertile, and the inhabit- ants are induitrious, and employed in manufa@tures of cloth and filk. The ancient name of this town was ** Che- rium,” or * Carium ;””? and by the French it is called ® Quiers.” Frederic Barbaroffa deftroyed it by fire in 1154, but it was foon after rebuilt. It is encompaffed by an ancient wall, defended by towers, with a fofle ; and for- merly had a fortrefs, called ‘* Rochetta,” which was de- molifhed in the 16th century. It has fix gates, and four — grand f{quares or palaces, many churches, and religious houfes, though it has only two parifhes within the walls, — and one without: 6 miles E. of Turin. N. lat. 44° 45’. E. long. 7° 39'. CHIERS, La, a river of France, which runs into the Meufe, between Mouzon and Sedan. CHIESA, La, a river of Italy, which runs into the Oglio at Caneto, in the Mantuan territory. j CHIETI, a city of Naples, and capital of the province ~ of Abruzzo Citra, the fee of an archbifhop, ere&ted by pope Clement VII.; 75 miles E.N.E. of Rome. N. lat. 429 ) 22°.) Ev long: 14°. t CHIETTA, La, a town of France, in the department of the Jura and diltri@ of Orgelat; 11 miles N.E, of it. — CHIEVRES, a town of France, in the department of Jemappe, and chief place of a canton, in the diltri& of Mons. The place contains 2083, and the canton 12,520 } inhabitants: the territory includes 130 kiliometres ana 2 communes. : CHIEUTI, a town of Naples, in the province of Capi- danata: 13 miles S.S.E. ot Termola. CHIFFIR, or Currier, according to Libavius, in the + preparation of the philofopher’s ftone, is called /apis animalis, as the mineral is called chaos mincrale. Johnfon fays, th the chifir minerale is by fome interpreted go/d, but that he rather takes it to be any fulphur of the metalline kind. ; CHIFFLE CG. Ht CHIFFLET, Joun James, in Biography, equally ce- lebrated for his political and for his medical lucubrations, was born at Befanegon, the 12th of January, 1588. Hav- ing received {uch education as his native city could afford him, and been introduced to the ftudy of medicine by his father, who was in high reputation there, he went to Paris, and, in facceffion, to Montpellier, Padua, and other of the principal fchools, diligently attending the leéiures of the profeffors in the different branches of medicine. In 1614 he returned to Befangon, and was appointed phyfician and counfellor to the city, in the place of his father, now far ‘advanced in years, His reputation increaling, he was fent onan important miffion to the arch-duchefs [fabella-Clara- Eugenia, governefs of the Low Countries, and performed his commiffion with fo much fkill, as to attach that princefs to him, who retained him as her phyfician in ordinary. Some time after, he was fent by his miltrefs to Philip 1V. of Spain, who made him his phyfician, and engaged him to write the Hiltory of the Order of the Golden Fleece, He alfo wrote the Hiftory and Antiquities of Befangon, which was pub- hfhed at Lyons in 1615, 4to.; but the work which has been molt noticed, was his Vindicie Hilpanice, in which he attempts to prove that the race of Hugh Capet does not defcend in the male line from Charlemagne, and that the female branch of the houfe of Auftria precedes it. This work gave great offence; the rather, that Chifilet, being a Frenchman, fhould fet up the houfe of Auttria before that of his native fovereign. He was anfwered by Blondel, Le Tanneur, and other writers, who treated him with great afperity, which he was not backward in returning. uit- ting Spain, he was appointed phyfician to Cardinal Ferdi- nand, who had fucceeded Ifabeila as governor of the Low Countries in 1633. He enjoyed the fame poft under the arch-duke Leopold, and his fucceffor, and died there in 1660, aged 72 years. He wrote alfo de Ampulla Re- meuri, laughing at the fable of the holy vafe of oil, ufed in the coronation of the kings of France, and publifhed a collection of treaties of peace between France and Spain. His writings, in this way, were collected and publithed at Antwerp, in folio, in 1659. His principal works in medi- ‘cine were, Singulares ex curationibus et cadaverum fectioni- bus obfervationes. Paris, 8vo. 1611.” He fuppofes many difeafes to be produced by the influence of the ftars. There are neverthelefs fome ufeful and valuable obfervations in this volume. “ Pulvis febrifugus orbis Americani ventilatus. Lo- rain, 1653, 4to.”? Intermittents that had been ftopped by taking the Peruvian bark, frequently, he fays, return, and with increafed violence: he therefore diffuades from ufing it. He had three fons, an uncle, and three brothers, who were all writers, and diftinguifhed for learning and abilities. Haller, Bib. Med. General Biog. CHIFFRER, French, in Mufic, to figure a bafe, to ndicate the chords in thorough bafe, and point out the har- eny of a compofition to an accompaniment on a harp, ute, or keyed inftrument. CHIFUNG, among the Chinefe, the name of an herb ound about Canton, by which the failors pretend to know low many ftorms wiil happen every year. ‘his they com- ate from the number of knots or joints ; and from the dif- ances of the knots from the root, they determine what nth the florms will fall in. CHIGGARON, in Geography, a river of Afia, which SMfes in Perfia, and runs into the Cafpian fea, a little to the orth of Amol. _CHIGG RE, a fmall narrow valley of Africa, in the de- ert of Nubia, clofely covered up and furrounded with bar- pn and pointed rocks. ‘The wells iv this valley are ten in Vou. VII, ¢ Ht number ; and the narrow gorge which opens to them is not ten yards broad. The fprings, however, are very abund- ant, and furnifh a grateful fupp'y to thofe: who travel in this dreary and fandy defert, where they are found. When- ever a pit is dug fiye-or fix feet, it is immediately filled with water. The principal pool is about forty yards {quere, and five feet deep ; but the beft tafted water iffues from the cleft of arock, about thirty yards higher, on the weft fide of the narrow outlet. This valley is the haunt of the wandering Arabs; particularly of the Bifhareen of the tribe of Abon Bertran, who, though they do not make it a ftation, be- caufe there is no pafture in the neighbourhood, yet find it one of the moft valuable places of refrefhment, on account ofits great quantity of water; being alfo nearly half way, when they drive their cattle from the borders of the Red fea to the banks of the Nile; as well as in their expeditions from fouth to north, when they leave their encampments in Barbary to rob the Ababdé Arabs on the frontiers of Egypt. N. lat. 20° 58! 30”. E. long. 34° 30’. CHIGNAC, Saint-Pierre de, a town of France, in the department of the Dordogne, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri€t of Périgueux. The place contains 536, and the canton 8547 inhabitants: the territory includes 2424 kiliometres and 16 communes. CHIGNECTO, a town of Nova Scotia, on the coat of the bay of Fundy. Cuicnecro Channel, the north-weftern arm of the bay of Fundy, into which Petitcodiac river falls. The {pring tides rife here 60 feet. CHIGY-/ur-Vame, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Yonac; 24 leagues E.S.E. of Sens. CHIHEMECOMET, or Cuicx-minock-cuminocx, an ifland on the coaft of North Carolina, between Roanoke ifland and the northern entrance into Pamlico found. CHI-HING, a town of China of the third rank, in the province of Quang-tong; 6 leagues S.W. of Nan- yong. CHIHOHOEKY, an Indian nation confederate with the Lenopi or Delawares, who inhabited the weftern banks of Delaware river, anciently called by their name. ‘Their fouthern boundary was Duck creck, in Newcaftle county. CHIKAGO, a river that difcharges itfelf into the S.W- end of lake Michigan, where a fort formerly ftood. Here the Indians have ceded to the United States, by the treaty of Greenville, a traét of land fix miles {quare. : CHILACOTHAG, a town of America, in the territory N.W. of the Ohio, beautifully feated on the Scioto river, about 40 miles from its junétion with the Ohio. This town, though it began to be eftablithed about the year 1797, is already become a confiderable place. Scioto ufed to be the moft dangerous part of the weflern country for Indians, and travellers paffed it with terror. The fettlements are now wonderfully extended and {cattered over the whole country. CHILAN, or Cuitvan, a jurifdiGion of South Ame- rica in the kingdom of Chili. ‘Che capital, of the fame name, is a {mali place, though it has the title of city; the number of familics not exceeding two or three hundred, con- filting mottly of Indians, as there are few Spaniards among them, Chilan is 75 miles N. of Conception CHILAPAN, a town of New Spain, in the country of the Cobuixcas. Between this and Tcoiltylan is an entire mountain of loaditone. CHILARA, a river of Naples, which runs into the Candelaro. CHILBLAIN, in Surgery, isa local diforder arifing from cold. When the body is expofed to cold, it aéts in a more 4L immediate CHILBLAEIN, immediate manner upon its furface, where it firft excites a kind of eryfipelatous inflammation of the fkin, which becomes red and painful. When the operation of the cold is violent aud long continued, the fkin becomes pale and infenfible, an uncommon degree of anxiety and lamguor is produced, and at lalt an unconquerable inclination to fall afleep: which, if the patient does not refift it with all his pewers, brings on a complete afphyxia and infenfibility, that finally terminates in death. Perfons, who are obliged to expofe themfelves to extreme cold, ought, therefore, in order to avoid the impending danger, particularly te fhun the immoderate ufe of fpirituous liquors, to keep themfelves conftantly in mo- tion, never ftand or fit ftill, or reft themfelves in any man- ner whatever; and as foon as they perceive Janguor and inclination to fleep come on, they fhould exert their ftrength to the utmott, in order to accelerate their motions, and preferve the circulation of blood in the extreme arteries. Asa frozen limb may be recovered and revived by warming it, the fame may alfo be done with the whole body, when it has been apparently deprived of life by the operation of cold. In the latter cafe, however, it is not fufficient to warm the body, but the vital motions muft alfo be reftored. When, therefore, any of thefe ations ftill fubfift in the heart and larger veffels of a body that has been frozen, they com- municate themfelves, as foon as the body is warmed, to the other parts of the fyftem, and the patient is reftored to life. But when all the vital aGtions have entirely ceafed, and the blood in the heart itfelf is congealed, the body may indeed be thawed, but fcarcely reftored to life. And as this cir- cumftance can never be forefeen, by the furgeon, he ought never to omit trying every poffible means for reltoring the patient’s life; nor fhould he be induced to relinquifh the attempt by the long duration of the afphyxia (or ftate of infenfibility) as frozen bodies, that have remained for four and even fix days apparently lifelefs, have in fome inftances been reftored to life. See article Aspuyxta. It is neceflary however, that the warming of a frozen body or limb fhould be performed in a very gradual manner. For when a limb that has only been expofed to a violent degree of cold, (without being actually frozen,) is fuddenly warmed, it becomes affected with the mott violent inflamma- tion, {wells to a great degree, becomes red and bluc; and in- tolerable pungent and thobbing pains are produced in it. The confequences, when in a flizhter degree, are chilblains : in a more violent degree, real inflammation, effufion of the fluids into the cellular fubftance, and fuppuration: fuppofe it be in the lungs, for example,acough and catarrh will enfue ; in the fingers, paronychia or whitloe, &c. But when alimb that is actually frozen is fuddenly warmed, the fame fymp- toms appear in a more violent degree, and mortification {peedily and inevitably enfues. Of a fimilar kind and origin are the changes that take place in the whole body of a perfon who fuddenly goes into a very warm place after having been previoufly expofed to extreme cold. The fkin fwells and becomes red; a burning and pricking fenfation is felt ; red {pots appear, which proceed fiom fmall extravafations of blood ; languor, vertigo, fyncope, hemoptyfis, anxiety, inflammation of the lungs, &c. are produced, all in confe- quence of the fudden relaxation of the furface of the body and lungs, and the viokn: influx of the fluids into the veflels of thofe parts. When a perfon frozen to death is fud- denly warmed, all hopes of reftoring him to life are annihi- lated, and putrefaction fpeedily enfues. The beft method of warming a frozen limb gradually isto rub it with fnow, till it recovers its powers of fenfation and motion ; but this muft be done with caution, for fear of deftroying its continuity, which may eafily happen when the partis not fupported by 2 bone, for example, the tip of the nofe and ears. Or it may be fufficient to plunge the frozen part into ice-cold-water ; and in order to keep the water fufficiently cold, lumps of ice fhould now and then be thrown into it. When the powers of fenfation and motion have been completely reftored, we may wath the part with cold brandy, or oil of turpentine, camphorated fpirits, hartfhorn drops, and fuch like ftimulating fluids; or we may apply ele&rical fparks, upon which it generally foon recovers its natural warmth. When this has been done, it is very ferviceable to adminiiter fome gentle diaphoretic remedy, fuch as warm tea or wine-whey; to lay the patient in bed in a chamber without a fire, and to let him remain there for two or three hours, tilla gentle perfpiration takes lace. When a frozen limb has been too fuddenly warmed, and is very much fwelled, painful, red, blue, nay even black, and to all appearance already gangrenous in feveral places ; it may neverthelefs fometimes ftill be completely reftored, and all the above mentioned fymptoms removed, by plung- ing it immediately into ice-cold water. But it mutt be fuf- fered to remain in the water, till after all the fymptoms have difappeared; upon which we may rnb it, as above-mentioned, with brandy, &c. and gradually warm it. This treatment now and then fucceeds in cafes where it could fearcely have: been hoped for. No benefit, however, can be expeGed from: it, when it has been fo long deferred, that mortification has: already actually taken place, which muft then be treated in the ufual manner. See GANGRENE. The body of a perfon who has been frozen muft be treated! in the fame manneras a fingle member. He mutt be brought into a cold chamber, laid in f{now, or in a veffel filled with: ice-cold water, with his nofe and mouth above the furface : the neceffary caution fhould be alfo ufed; let any frozem part might break; and in this fituation he is fuffered to re- main till he begins to exhibit figns of life. As foon as thefe are obferved, {trong ftimulants and fternutatories are to be applied to his nofe; air mult be blown into his mouth; tobacco-f{moke fhould be injeGed into the rectum; the fauces are to be irritated with a feather, a cloth dipped in cold vinegar and camphorated fpirits is to be laid over the pit of the ftomach, &c. If the jaws are firmly clofed, they mutt be rubbed with the above mentioned {pirituous and ~ ftimulating remedies. When the body has thawed, and more figns of life appear, the patient mult be taken out of the water, rubbed with water or brandy, lefs cold than the former, and brought gradually into a warmer atmofphere $ gentle fudorifics are alfo to be adminiftered, for example, am infufion of lemon and orange-peel with a little vinegar; and after he has been carefully wiped dry, he muft be laid in bed, where he fhould remain ull a gentle perfpiration eomes on. If, after he has been revived, a violent inflammatory fever comes on, it is neceflary to draw blood from the arm, When the patient {till remains infenfible; when his face and the veins of the neck are fwelled, fo that an apoplexy is to be apprehended, the jugular vein muft be opened. IE after he has been revived, any part of the body exhibits ap- pearances of being ftill frozen, continuing rigid, hard, ine flexible and without fenfation ; we mutt cover or rub fuch part with fnow, or with cloths dipped in cold water, till its powers of fenfation and motion are reftored ; but on n0_ account, ufe hot applications to it. | Chiiblains are topical inflammations, which produce fymptoms more or le{s troublefome in proportion to the vio- lence of the inflammation, In its flighter degree, a chilblain is a {welling attended with a moderate rednefs of the skin, which produces a fenfation of heat and itching, and pd ome CHILBLALN. fome time fpontancoufly difappears. In a more violent degree, the {welling is larger, redder, and fometimes of a dark blue colour; and the heat, itching, and pain are fo violent, that the patient cannot ufe the part. In the third degree, {mall veficles arife upon the tumour, which burtt and produce an excoriation; foon becoming an ill-con- ditioned ulcer that fometimes penetrates as deep as the bone, difcharges a thin acrid fluid, and generally proves very obftinate. In the moft violent degree, the inflamma- tion goes on to mortification, which is frequently diltin- guifhed by veficles filled with blood that appear upon the _ tumour. Chilblains feem moft frequently to arife from the fudden application of heat to a part that has been expofed to cold; and, vice verfa2, from the fudden expofure of a part, that has previoufly been heated, tothe cold. Hence they frequently appear upon thofe parts which are molt expofed to fudden tranfitions from one degree of temperature to another; for example, the nofe, ears, lips, hands, and feet. They are more certainly produced, when the part which is fuddenly expofed to cold is not only warm, but at the fame time moift and fweating. Sometimes appearances much refem- bling chilblains, are left behind in limbs that, after having been frozen, have been reftored to fenfation and motion ; ef- pecially if they have not been treated with proper caution. Chilblains are more apt to be produced, the more fenfible and tender the fkin is, and the lefs it is ufed to the cold: ‘hence the people moit frequently afflicted with them are chil- dren, young perfons, women, thofe who have been bred up in a delicate manner, and are ufed to keep themfelves unnaturally warm ; or thofe who avoid expofure to the free air, and fweat much on the feet. But even when none of thefe caufes are prefent, fome weakly perfons are extremely fub- je& to chilblains, and in them their production feems to be favoured by fome peculiar morbid predifpolition. Chilblains almoft always make their appearance in the win- ter. During the fummer they difappear, but return the fuc- ceeding winter. Some perfons are attacked with them in the autumn, and fome not till the {pring. With fome they con- tinue only a few weeks, with others during the whole win- ter. When they are violent, they frequently deprive the pa- tient of the ufe of the affeéted limb ; and even excite a fever, by which the patient is confined to his bed. Suppurating chilblains frequently penetrate to the bone, and produce caries, and fometimes death. Suppurating chilblains are Sola long habit) converted into a kind of iffues ; nature thus accuitoms herfelf to the difcharge and irritation, which at length are fuppofed to be neceflary to health. The moft certain means of guarding againit chilblains, confifts in ufing the {kin to a moderate degree of frition, and hardening it; in not expofing onefelf to heated rooms, ‘or keeping the body too warm; in adapting the quantity and kind of cloathing to the ftate of conftitution, fo as to avoid extremes, either in fummer or winter; in wafhing the body frequently with cold water; in ufing onefelf to regu- dar exercife in the open air, even in all weathers; and in ‘taking efpecial care not to go fuddenly into a warm chamber, ‘or very near the fire, out of the cold atmofphere. A chilblain, in the firft and fecond degrees, isa pure topi- al inflammation; which, however, cannot be removed by the general antiphlogiftic remedies, but requires means adapted to its peculiar nature. Amongft the various reme- dies of this kind, there is none which always proves fucce(sful : ene remedy cures one patient, another remedy fucceeds with arother. In relaxed and feeble habits, {pirituous applications are yenerally ferviceable ; and in rigid conttitutions oily and emollient fubflances, All thefe remedies, indeed, only re- ' move the chilblains for the time, and do not prevent their re. turn the enfuing winter. When the inflammation is fo vio- lent as to excite feverifh fymptoms, the application of leeches and internal antiphlogiftic medicines are often neceffary ; but leeches applied to the affected part are particularly fervice- able in fuch cafes. One of the moft effeGtual remedies againft chilblains in the milder degrees, is water reduced to the freezing point of temperature. The affected part fhould be dipped in it feve- ral times in the day, and kept there till the heat and itching abate, or the chilblain entirely difappears. After the part has been bathed in this manuer, it fhould be well dried by rubbing it with a coarfe cloth ; then covered with leather or flannel, or a diachylon platter, and carefully guarded againft the external air. Inftead of water, we may alfo ufe {now, with which the affeted limb fhould likewife be rubbed for fome minutes feveral times in the day, till the chilblain difappears. With fome perfons, who are not ufed to expofure to the cold, who have very irritable fltins, or who are much inclined to cough and colic pains, the application of cold water and fnow does not agree, and with fome it even increafes the in- flammation ; fo that we mult be guided in a certain meafure by its effects. Expofing the part affe&ted to an extreme heat and aétually fcorching it, has now and then -proved effica- cious; but it is too painful to be prudently adopted, asa general practice. In one cafe, in which the pains were not relieved by the application of cold water, ({ce Richter’s Chirurg. Biblio- theck.) Mr. Schneider ufed a bath of quick-lime, in which the patient was directed to hold his hands for the {pace of half an hour every morning and evening; after which the ulcerated hands and fingers were dreffed with an oimtment, confifting of fev. cervin. ol. Jaur. & ol. terebinth. {pread up- on linen. As foon as the mortified part had feparated, and the remaiving ulcer was clean and fenlible, he dreffed it with Goulard’s cerate, till the cure was completely accomplifhed. The bath was prepared by plunging a piece of quick-lime, about the fize of a man’s filt, into four quarts of boiling water, and ftirring it till the water was reduced to a luke- warm temperature. In fome cafes, ol. petrz. ol. terebinth. butter of cacao, fev. cervin. balf. Peruvian. balf. capaiva, either alone or mix ed with the yolk of eggs; a cataplafm of rotten apples, or brnifed houfe-leek, or frefh turmps bruifed with eggs and myrrh; or an ointment of hog’s lard, olive oil, yellow wax, and pitch melted together ; or frozen turnips, f{craped and fried with linfeed oil ; or {quills applied with hot of or fort turpentine, &c. have been found very ferviceable. Thefe re- medies are partly applied freth twice a day, and-partly rub- bed into the affeéted limb, if it be not ulcerated. In other cafes, ftrengthening and altringent remedies prove more ferviceable ; and in Germany it is common to employ Theden’s vulnerary wath, which is particularly fer- viceable when the chilblaivs {well as the froft fets in. This remedy is applied cold to the part, which is kept for fome days conftantly moiftened with it. Perfons who are fubjec to annual attacks of chilblains, may guard themfelves again{t them by wafhing their feet and hands every morning and evening, during the autumn, with this mixture; only it is faid to be inadmiflible with thofe who have arthritic tumours upon their limbs, as thefe might thereby be repelled. It has alfo been recommended to wafh the chilblains with water boiled with flour and muttard-feed ; alfo with marine acid, diluted in water; with hot {alt water; fpirits of wine, or foap liniment; the fumes of hot vinegar, a decoction of turnip peel in water with a fixth part vinegar: the lower orders of people employ hot urine, either alone or with lime-water, &c. , 4 a CHT &c. Thefe remedies are to be applied to the affeted part feveral times in the day : after they have been ufed, the part mult always be well dried, and guarded againft the external air, by means of gloves, or focks of thin leather, worlted, or flannel. Sometimes all thefe remedies are of no fervice, un- Jefs the patient abftains from ufing the affected limb. Por the cure of fuppurating chilblains, an appropriate ftrengthening regimen, and a courfe of medicines, will be ge- nerally required. See Uncer and GanGrene. CHILBY, in Ichthyology, fometimes /chilby, the Arabian name of a fifth found in the Nile, which is figured and defcribed by Sonnini in his Travelsin Upper Egypt. This is a fifh of the filure genus, Silurus mytus of Forfkal; Silurus myflus, pinna dorfali unica, radtis fex, cirrhis o@o, Artedi and Linn. Haffelquift alfo defcribes it. Sonnini obferves, that it is not fuch bad cating as fome other fifhes of the Nile. This writer has nothing to add to the Linnzan defcription above quoted, and for which Linnus was in- debted to Haffelquift, except that the upper jaw of the chilby has two rows of little fharp-hooked teeth ; that the lower jaw has but one row of thofe recurved teeth; and that it is all over of a pretty uniform blackifh grey colour, deeper above the lateral line than below, with a few tinges of red on the nofe, and at the bafe of the peétoral, anal, and caudal fins ; and laftly, that the iris of the eye is of a zolden colour. Sve Sirurus my/lus. CHILCA, in Geography, a town of South America, in the vice-royalty of Peru, archbifhopric of Lima, and jurif- digtion of Canete, is fituated about 10 leagues from Lima, and celebrated for its faltpetre, of which gunpowder is made in that city. It has alfo a good fifhery, together with plenty of fruits, pulfe, and poultry, which fupply a large trade between the jurifdition of Canete and the capital. Solat.-129-31/..) Waslong.) 46° 5/. CHILCANAUTHLI, in Ornithology, the Mexican name of the St. Domingo teal, anas dominica: called alfo coleanauhtl. CHILD, a word of Saxon origin, meaning the young offspring of the human fpecies, and exprefling relation to parent. We fay Naruravchild, Legitimate child, Putative child, Basrarp child, Avorrtive child, PosrHumous child, &c. Dr. Derham computes, that marriages, one with another, produce four children, not only in England, but in other parts alfo. See Marriace. It is well known that children, for fome time after they are born, fee but very imperfeétly ; and M. Petit, (Ac. Paris, 1727. H. p. 14.) after taking a great deal of pains to inveftigate the caufe of it, found it to be owing in part to the thicknefs of their cornea, and the fmall quantity of their aqueous humour. Not that the mere thicknefs of the cornea could have this effeét ; but becaufe the thicknefs is owing to its not being well ftretched, and confequently, having wrinkles and inequalities on its furface, which oc- cafion an irregular refraction of the light. On the fame ac- count alfo the cornea has not a fufficient degree of convexity to bring the pencils of rays to a focus foon enough. All thefe defe&ts, he fhews, are remedied by the increafe of the aqueous humour. M. Petit afcribes this imperfection of fight in infants to their eyes being compreffed by the fluid in which they are immerfed in the womb. He alfo gratified his-curiofity by inquiring into this circumftance re{peCling various new-born animals, as dogs, cats, rabbits, calves, and hogs; and he found in all of them that the cornea was thick and flaccid, and the aqueous humour not fufficiently copious, It is poflible, that, kefides the {mall quantity, CHI and want of tranfparency, which fome writers alfo mention in the aqueous humour, vifion in new-born infants may be obflruted by the remains of the membrana pupillaris, which isa production of the xvea, and clofes the pupil in the foetus. Dr. Jurin obferves, (fee Effay upon Diftin@ and Indif- tinét Vifion), that in children the pupil is ufually more dilated than in grown perfons. This is eafily feen; for in grown perfons the pupil feldom appears equal to the breadth of the ring of the uvea on either fide of it ; that is, is feldom equa! to one-third of the breadth of the cornea, and is often much lefs, efpecially ina good light. But in children the dia- meter-of the pupil {earcely ever appears fo little as one-third of the breadth of the cornea, and often exceeds half that breadth. The reafon of this, Dr. Jurin apprehends to be, that in children the cornea is extremely flexible, fo as to be very eafily bent by its mufcular ring into any curvature that ts neceilary for feeing diftinétly in reading, and confequently, their pupil has lefs occafion to contraét for diftinét vifion. Children can read at a much nearer diltaice than grown perfons; for which two reafons are affizgned; viz. that their eyes are {maller, and the leaft diftance at. which any eye can fee diftinétly is proportional to the length of the eye; and alfo their cornea, being very flexible, is eafily accommodated to a lefs diftance ; and at a lefs diftance the print appears larger, and is more eafily read than at a greater. Bartholine, Paré, Licetus, and many other writer, give an account of a petrified child, which has feemed wholly in- credible to fome people. The child, however, which they defcribe, is {till in being, and is kept as a great rarity in the king of Denmark’s mufeum at Copenhagen. The woman who went big with this, lived at Sens in Champagne in the year 1582; it was cut out of her belly, and was univerfally fuppofed to have lain there about twenty years. That it is a real human fetus, and not artificial, 1s evident to the eye of any obferver; and the upper part of it, when examined, is found to be of a fubftance refembling the gypfum or ftqge of which they make the plafter of Paris; the lower part is much harder; the thighs and buttocks being perfect ftone, of a reddifh colour, and as hard as common quarry- ftone: the grain and furface of this part appear exadtly like that of the calculi, or ftones taken out of human blad- ders: and the whole fubftance examined ever fo nearly, aod felt ever fo carefully, appears to be abfolute ftone. It was carried from Sens to Paris, and there purchafed by a gold- {mith of Venice; and Frederick III., king of Denmark, purchafed it at Venice of this man for a very large fum, and added it to his colleGion of rarities. See Dr. Pricitley’s Hift. of Vifion, &c. 4to. p. 157. Phil. Tranf. N° 285. p- 1400. See InranTs. Child, as we have already-obferved, is a term that denotes relation to a parent; and this relation devolves on children correfponding duties. There is an interval of eight or nine years, between the dawning and maturity of reafon, in which it is neceflary to fubje&t the inclination of children to many reftraints, and dire&t their application to many employ- ments, of the tendency and ufe of which they cannot judge: for which caufe, the fubmiffidn of children during this period muft be ready and implicit, with an exception, however, of any manifeft crime which may be commanded them. After they have attained to manhood, if they continue in_ their father’s family, they are bound, befide the generale duty of gratitude to their parents, to obferve fuch regulation of the family as the father fhall appoint ; contribute their labour to its fupport, if required ; and confine themfelves to fuch expences as he fhall allow. After . CHI After children have attained to manhood, and have left their father’s family, their duty to parents is fimply that of gratitude ; in kind not different from that which we owe to any other benefaétor, but in degree fo much exceeding other obligations, as a parent has been a greater benefa€tor than any other friend. The fervices and attentions, by which filial gratitude may be teftified, cannot be diftin@ly enumerated. It will thew itfelf in compliances with the will of parents, however contrary to the child’s own tafte or judgment, pro- vided it be neither criminal nor totally inconfiftent with his _ happinefs: in a conftant endeavour to promote their enjoy- ments, prevent their wifhes, and foften their anxieties, in {mall matters, as well as in great ; in affifting them in their bufinefs; in contributing to their fupport, eafe, or better accommodation, when their circumftances require it ; in af- fording them our company, in preference to more amufing engagements ; in waiting upon their ficknefs or decrepitude ; in bearing with the infirmities of their health or temper, with the peevifhnefs and complaints, the unfafhionable, negligent, anltere manner, and offenfive habits, which often attend upon advanced years: for where mut old age find indul- gences, if it do not meet with it in the piety and partiality of children? In all contelts between parents and children, and more efpecially thofe that occur in relation to marriage, or the choice of a profeffion or bufinels, it is the parent’s duty to reprefent to the child the confequences of his choice and conduc ; and this fhould be done with fidelity, moderation, and candour. Parents, however, are forbidden to interfere, where a trutt is repofed perfonally in the fon ; and where, con- fequently, the fon was expected, and by virtue of that ex- pectation is obliged, to purfue his own judgment, and not that of any other; as is the cafe with judicial magiftrates in the execution of their office ; with members of the legiflature in their votes; and with eleCtors, where preference is to be iven to certain prefcribed qualifications. In thefe and fimi- Er cafes the fon may afliit his own judgment by the opinion and advice of his father ; but his own judgment ought finally to determine his condua&. The duties of children to their parents arifes from a prin- ciple of natural jultice and retribution. For to thofe, who gave us exiltence, we naturally owe fubjetion and obedience during our minority, and honour and reverence ever after: they, who proteéted the weaknefs of our infancy, are enti- tled to our proteGtion in the infirmity of their age; they who by fuftenance and education have enabled their off- {pring to profper, ought in return to be fupported by that offspring, in cafe they need affiftance. The Athenian laws "carried this principle into practice with a fcrupulous kind of ‘nicety ; obliging all children to provide for their father, when fallen into poverty: with an exception to fpurious children, to thofe whole chaftity had been proltituted by ‘confent of the father, and to thofe whom he had not put in any way of gaining a livelihood. Our laws agree with thote -of Athens with regard to the firft only of thefe particulars, the cafe of fpurious iffue. In other cafes the law does not hold the tie of nature to be diffolved by any mifbehaviour of the parent ; and, therefore, the child is equally juftifiable in defending the perfon, or maintaining the caufe or fuit of a ‘bad parent as a good one ; and is equally compellable, (tat. "43 Eliz. c. ne if of fufficient ability, to maintain and pro- vide for a wicked and unnatural progenitor, as for one who has fhewn the greateft tendernefs and parental piety. » The duty of children to their parents was thought wor- thy to be made the fubje& of one of the ten commandments ; and, as fuch, is recognized by Chriit, together with the reft “of the moral precepts of the decalogue, in various places of ‘the gofpel, ‘Lhe fame divine teacher’s fentiments concern- CHI ing the relief of indigent parents appear fufficiently fram that manly and deferved indignation, with which he repre- hended the wretched cafuiltry of the Jewith expolitors, who, under the name of a tradition, had contrived a method of evading this duty, by converting, or pretending to convert, to the treafury of the temple, fo much of cheir property, as their dittreffed parent might be entitled by theirlaw todemand. Obedience to parents is enjoined by St. Paul to the Ephetians (ch. vi. 1.), and alfo to the Coloffians (ch. iii. 20.) upon two principles, the diftint ftatement of which fhews that moral reCtitude and conformity to the divine will were, in hisapprehenfion, the fame. By the Jewith law, difobedi- ence to parents was, in fome extreme cafes, capital. Deut. xxi. 18. Paley’s Principles of Moral, &c. Philofophy, vol. i. ch. 11. Blackft. Comm. vol. i. p. 453, &c. See Parent. See alfo Epucarion. Cuitp, Dr. Wirxiam, in Biography, according to Ant. Wood, was a native of Briftol, and difciple of Elway Bevin. In 1631, being then of Chrilt-church College, Ox- ford, he took his degree of bachelor in mufic ; and, in 1636, was appointed one of the organifts of St. George’s Chapel at Windfor, in the room of Dr. John Munday, and foon after one of the organifts of the Royal Chapel at White- hall. After the reftoration he was appointed chanter of the King’s Chapel, and one of the chamber muficians to Charles II. In 1663, the univerfity of Oxford conferred on him the degree of doGtor in mufic, at an aét celebrated in St. Mary’s church. Dr. Child, after having been organilt of Windfor chapel 65 years, died in that town, 1697, at go years of age. In the infcription on his grave-ftune, in the fame chapel, it is recorded that he paved the body of that choir at his own expence; he likewife gave 20/. towards building the town-hail at Windfor, and 5o0/. to the corpora- tion to be difpofed of in charitable ufes, at their diferetion. The following epitaph is alfo on his arave-ftone in St. George’s chapel : Go happy foul, and in thy feat above Sing endlefs hymns of thy great Maker’s love. How fit in heavenly fongs to bear a part ! Before well praétis’d in the facred art ; Whilft hearing us, fometimes the choir divine, Will fure defcend, and in our confort join; So much the mufick thou to us halt given, Has made our earth to reprefent their heaven. His works are ‘* Pfalms for Three Voices,” &c. witha con- tinued bafe either for the organ or theorbo, compofed after the Italian way, London, 1639. ‘* Catches, Rounds, and Canons,” publifhed in Hilton’s “ Catch that Catch can,?? 1652. ‘ Divine Anthems and Compofitions to feveral Pieces of Poetry,’? fome of which were written by Dr. Thomas Pierce of Oxford. Some of his fecular compofi- tions likewife appeared in a book entitled ‘* Court Ayres,” printed 1655, which will be mentioned hereafter. But his principal produétions are his fervices and full anthems, printed in Dr. Boyce’s collection, His iervice in E minor has fomething more varied and interefting, in the modula- tion, than there is in moft of his other works; and in his cele- brated fervice in D major, there is a glow of rich harmony, which, without any great compafs of genius or fetence, is ex~ tremely pieafing, the more fo, perhaps, from being compofed in a key which is more perfeétly in tune than molt others on the organ. His full anthems are not without imagination and fire, p.97, (Boyce. vol. ii.) “and upon onr folemn feaft- day, &c.’’ the modulation and contrivance are admirable to the end of the anthem. His ftyle was fo remarkably eafy and natural, compared with that to which choirmen haa been accultomed, that it was frequently treated by them with de- , rilion. CHI tifion, Indeed, his modulation, at prefent, is fo nearly mo- dern, as not to produce that folemn, and, feemingly, new ef- fe& on our ears, whicli we now experience from the pro- du@tions of the fixtee:th century. There are feveral inedited and valuable compofitions by Dr. Child preferved in Dr. Tudway’s manufcript ‘‘ Col- leGion of Englifh Church Mufic,’? Bnt. Mufcum. Cuixp-birth, the act of bearing a child. See Birra and Lasovur. CuiLp-wit, a power to take a fine of a boud-woman un- lawfully gotten with child; that is, without confent of her lord. Every reputed father of a bafe child, got within the manor of Writtel in Effex, pays to the lord, for a fine, 3s. 4d. where it feems, child-wit extends to free, as well as bond-women.— Quicungue fecerit child-wit, archiepifcopus aut totam, aut dimidiam emendationis partem habebit, quietum effe de child-wit. Du-Cange. CHIDERMASS Day, called alfo Innocents’ Day, an anniverfary featt of the church, held on the 28th of Decem- ber, in memory of the children of Bethlehem, maffacred by the order of Herod. CHILDREN, Charity. PITAL. CuirprEN, expofing of. See Exrosine. CuitpREN, naming of. See Name. CuiLprEN, overlaying of. This is a misfortune which frequently happens ; to prevent which, the Florentines have contrived an inftrument called arcutio. CHILHOWEE, in Geography, a town of America, in the Tenneflee government ; 25 miles S. of Knoxville. CHILI, an extenfive, rich, and fertile country of South America, reaching from the frontiers of Peru to the {traits of Magellan, terminating towards the eaft partly on the frontiers of Paraguay, from which it is feparated by unin- habited defarts, and partly on the government of Buenos Ayres with the intervening pampas, or extenfive and level plains, and bounded on the weft by the Pacific ocean. On the north its boundary is the defart of Atacama, or Atta- cama (which fee), extending So leagues between the pro- vince of the fame name, being the laft of Peru, and the valley of Copoyapo, or Copiapo, the firft in Chili: on the eaft it is feparated by the ealtera branch of the Andes from Cuyo, in the vice-royalty of La Plata, and the favage tribes ; on the fouth, by barren mountains and regions covered with fand and {now ; and on the weft, as we have already faid, by the South Sea, extending from 27° nearly, the latitude of Copiapo, to 53° jo’. Its length is computed at 1260 geographical miles, and its breadth, which depends on the diftance of the Andes from the ocean, is from 24° to 32° about 210 miles, from 32° to 37° 120 miles, and thence to the ifland or iflands of Chiloe, about 300 miles. If we com- prehend within its extent the Andes, Chili may be fuppofed to contain about 378,000 fquare miles. Of this extenfive and interefting country little or nothing was knawn til about the middle of the 15th century. At that period the native Chilefe were divided into 15 tribes, each of which was governed by its own chief. About the year 1450, the Inca Yupanqui, the roth emperor, altured by the enchant- ing account given of this country, undertook the conqueft of it, and profecuted the enterprize with fuch fuccefs, that he fubdued the feveral nations inhabiting the vallies of Copiapo, Coquimbo, and Chili; but having eftablifhed his dominion in fome of the northern diftriéts, his progrefs farther fouthward was vigoroufly oppofed by a confederacy on the part of the gallant and high-{pirited inhabitants, who were determined to maintain their independence; and the Peruvian army was defeated. The Chilefe, however, who were fubdued, and thofe who remained free and independent, See Cuarity-/chool and Hos- CHI purfued the fame mode of life. They cultivated their lands with maize, potatoes, yucas, and other native plants; they encouraged the breed of the camel and fheep, which fupplied them with flefh for food, and with wool for cloath- ing ; and they are faid to have had at this time hogs and hens, befides other bealts and birds, which belonged to their country. But though they feemed to have advanced from a patloral to an agricultural ftate, their inftruments of huf- bandry were mean and unwieldy. Their villages confifted of {cattered huts; and their chiefs, who were probably raifed to this dignity on account of their wealth, poffeffed mercly a power of direétion, and not of coercion. The right of property was acknowledged ; the field that was cultivated belonged to him who beftowed labour on it, and defcended to his children. Their looms refembled thofe of the Europeans, though of rucer fabric, and they were ac- quainted with the procefs of manufaéturing earthen ware. From their mountains they extracted gold, filver, copper, tin, and lead; and of a mixture, like bell-metal, they formed axes and other inftruments ; although thofe in more general ufe were made of bafalt. It has been fuygefied that they were acquainted with the ufe of iron; but thts fai feems to be doubtful. They were not ftrangers to falt, both foffil and that produced from water by evapora- tion: they fixed their dyes by means of an aluminous ltone, called “ polauva ;”? they prepared thread for cords and neta from one of their plants; and they poffefled canoes of dif- ferent forts. In numbers, it is faid, they could exprefs one thoufand, and they had prons or the Peruvian guipos, a bun- dle of threads of various colours, with different knots te exprefs contraéts or events. The native Chilefe, bein generally of a mild charaéter, as Molina cited by Mr. Pin- kerton fuggefts, may probably have proceeded from the ifles of Polynefia; though their colour is brown, tinged with red or copper, whereas that of the Polynefians is generally olive. The language of the Chilefe, which is faid radically to differ from the Quechua, or Peruvian, is remarkably rich and harmonious, and from the vocabulary, formed by Molina, it is capable of exprefling moft natural objeéts, and even abftraét terms. It effentially differs, however, from the other American languages, not lefs in its words than ia its ftruéture. The Araucans, the prefent pofleflors of nearly one half of Chili, and celebrated for their valour in refilting the progrefs of the Spaniards, may be confidered as the genuine reprefentatives of the ancient Chilefe. The beautiful traét of country which they inbabit extends from the river Biobio north to that of Valdivia fouth, and is bounded on the ealt by the Andes, and on the weft by the ocean. Thefe people derive their name from the province Arauca, which is the fmaileit of their ftate ; and they are alfo diftinguifhed by the appellation of ‘ Aucas,’’ or free- men. Without furpaffling the -ufual fize, they are generally robult, well-formed. and of a warlike afpe&t. The face is nearly round ; the eyes {mall, but lively and expreflive ; the nofe fomewhat flat; the mouth well made, with white and uniform teeth ; the legs mufcular and elegant, and the feet {mall and flat. They have naturally little beard, and take p2ins to extra&t it: and they alfo eradicate the hair from other parts of the body. The hair of the head, which they preferve, is black and abundant, and they bind it up ina knot. Many of their women are handfome; particularly ~ thofe of Boroa. ‘They live to the advanced age of 70, 80, and even 100 years, without any perceptible decay of mind or body. ‘Their mental qualities correfpond to their bodily vigour; and they are characterifed as intrepid, patient of the fatigues of war, prodigal of their lives in defence of their country, ardent lovers of liberty, in defence of which they are ready to make any facrifrce, jealous of honour, courteous, CHILI. eurteous, hofpitable, faithful to their engagements, grate- ful for benefits, generous, and humane towards the van- quifhed. Thefe excellent qualities, however, are tarnifhed with the vices incident to favage life ; fuch as drunkennefs, floth, felf-confidence, and a pride which leads them to treat other nations with contempt. The drefs of the Araucans, who are a military people, is fhort, wholly made of wool, and generally of a blue colour. The cloathing of the women is modeft and fimple ; though fometimes fet off with artificial ornaments. Their hair is parted into flowing treffes, and the head adorned with falfe emeralds, or with the green ftone called ‘ gliauca,” which they highly value. They alfo ufe necklaces and bracelets of glafs beads, ear- rings of filver in a {quare form, and numerous filver rings on the fingers. Polygamy is almoft univerfal ; and their houfes are con{truéted fo as to admit the number of wives which the owner can entertain: but their furniture is plain, and fuch as is merely adapted for ufe. Their habitations are generally difperfed over the country, and fituated near the rivers ; but cities are regarded by them as prifons. Their political arrangements are fuited to their difcrimi- nating character. The whole*territory of Araucana, from north to fouth, is divided into four parallel tetra-chies ; almoft equal in fize, and denominated the maritime, the plain, the upland, and the mountainous. Each of thefe is {ubdivided into five provinces, and each province contains nine diftriéts. The mountainous tetrarchy is poffefled by the Puelches, formerly allies to the Araucans, but now united with them. The government is ariftocratical; and they have three orders of chiefs, viz. ‘ Toquis,’’ from togut, a judge, who’ prefides over each tetrarchy, and are independent of each other, except that they confederate for the general good ; ‘* Apo-ulmens,”’ or grand chiefs, who go- vern the provinces ; and “ Ulmens,”’ who prefide over the dif- tricts, and acknowledge no fuperior, except on occafions of war. The diftinétion of a toqui is an axe of porphyry or bafalt. Thofe of the other two orders have ftaffs headed with filver; the apo-uimens being diftinguifhed by a ring of the fame metal round the middle of the ftaff. All thefe dignities are hereditary, in the male line, and fole order of primogeniture. The abfolute power is vefted with the ba- rons, who decide important bufinefs in a general dict, called the “ Aucacoyag,” or aflembly of freemen. This congrefs is commonly held in a fpacious meadow. Their laws, de- f{eending to them by tradition, are called ‘* Admapu,”? or cuftoms of the country. No two dignities are allowed to concentrate in the fame head; and if a family fail, the vaf- fals exercife the right of electing another: nor are they attached to the glebe, as in the feudal fy{tem, or conftrain- ed to any perfonal fervice, except in time of war. ‘T’ributes and taxes are unknown, as each chief lives on his own eflate; nor are they refpected as fuperiors, but merely as the firlt among equals. Although many crimes are punifhed with death, yet a compofition may be entered into with the re- lations. he ulmens are the legitimate judges of their vaf- fals. Whenever war is refolved on by the great council, the commander in chief is feleéted from the toquis ; who in- flantly affumes the axe of ftone, as the fymbol of his au- thority : all the other chiefs take oaths of obedience ; and the people, though at other times unruly, become fubmif- five to their military fovereign. Heralds are fent to the confederate tribes, and to the Indians in the adjacent dif- triéts of the Spaniards ; and the badges of thefe heralds are bundles of {mall arrows bound with a red thread, and their fecrecy is equal to their diipatch. The general fignifies to the tetrarchs the number of troops that are requifite, and it is divided among the apo-ulmens, who demand the contin- - gent from each ulmen, As every Araucan is a foldier, the levy is eafily raifed: and the army generally amounts to 5 or 6000, exclufive of a body of referve. It confifts both of cavalry and infantry : the former are armed with lances and fabres, the latter with pikes, or clubs having iron {pikes. Each regiment of infantry is compofed of 1000, and each company confifts of 100: and they have all their particular banners, befides the common badge of the nation, which is a ftar. Under their ufual drefs they wear a cuirafs of lea- ther; and of this leather, which they have a peculiar mode of hardening, they make helmets and fhields. ‘They have not difcovered the art of making gun-powder. On the march the infantry is mounted, but they difmount before a battle. Each foldier carries his provifion of parched maize, which is fteeped in water. Their camp is well formed and guarded. In battle, the cavalry forms two wings, and the infantry occupy the centre, in diftiné battalions or divifions ; a clubman and a pikeman placed alternately compofing the files. ‘The toqui addreffes a pathetic difcourfe to the army, exhorting them not to permit the facred flame of freedom, bequeathed by their anceftors, to expire. They then ad- vance with loud fhouts, generally attacking the Spanifh centre, and, with their clubs, notwith{tanding the enemy’s artillery, they often make terrible havock, The booty is equally divided among the captors, without any preference of the officers, or even of the general. The prifoners re- main flaves, till exchanged or ranfomed ; and fometimes, though very feldom, ‘one is facrificed, to pacify the manes of the flain. ‘Treaties are formed in a kind of council, held in a meadow near the river Biobio. The fymbol of peace isa branch of the cinnamon tree; and an Araucan orator difcufles, in the Chilefe language, the motives of the war, and the means of future harmony. As foon as this fpeech is interpreted, the Spanifh governor or prefident replies ; and the articles being revifed, are ratified with a facrifice of Chilefe camels. The prefident then dines in company with the toqui and chief ulmens, to whom he makes the ufual prefents, in the name of his fovereign; and thefe are re- peated on the arrival of every new prefident. The Araucans acknowledge a fupreme being, the author of all things, who is called * Pillan,”? or the Spirit; and they exprefs, by various epithets, his refidence in heaven ; his being the foul of all creation; dreadful from his thun- der: the architeé} of the univerfe ; omnipotent, eternal, and infinite. ‘They alfo hold, that the affairs of worlds are ad- miniftered by inferior fpirits, of various rank and power. The Mars of the Araucans is Epunameen; and Meulen is a beneficent god, and lover of the human race. They admit an evil priociple, Guecuby, the author of calamity and deaths and fubordinate to Meulen are many genii, who attempt to counteraét the machinations of Guecubu. Thefe genii are male and female ; and the latter are fuppofed to ferve the men. Conceiving that the fpiritual lords refemble the ul- mens, and would defpife any attempts of mortals to praife and honour them, they have neither temples, idols, nor priefts: and they offer no facrifices, except during ende- mial maladies, or on a treaty of peace. However, they often addrefs prayers to Pillan and Meulen. Chriftianity is tolerated in the country of the Araucans, and the miffion- aries are well received; but the number of profelytes is {mall. Thefe people are very attentive to omens and dreams; and the braveit Araucan warrior will tremble at the fight of anowl. ‘They confult their magicians in all affairs of mo- ment; and are firm believers in apparitions. They admit the immortality of the foul, and fuppofe that, after death, the foul paffes to the weft, to a place or country called “« Galceman,” where, according to fome, delights abound 2 for C,H LF. for the good, and the bédare-putithed by privation: but, according to others, all fouls will enjoy pleafures; punith ments,. like er'mes, being fhort avd tranfitory. They watch the dead all night, and, on the third day, carry the body to the cemetery of the family, which is commonly fituated ina wood.or upon a hil. The bier is furrounded by wo- men, who affect to weep 3 and another {preads afhes behind, in order to prevent the return of the foul to the houfe. When the body is fet down, warlike weapons are placed round it; and if it be that of a female, her ornaments; te gether with plenty of food, and vafes of liquor, often cyder or wine, that there may be no want on the journey into the other world. After teking leave of the dead, with many lamentations, and wifhing a happy journey, the body is covered with earth, or with ftoncs, in the form of a pyra- mid, over which they pour copious ftreams of cyder. They farther believe, that an old woman foon arrives, in the form of a whale, to carry the foul asrofs the ocean, where another old woman guards the Elyfian ficlds, and fometimes exacts an eye, when the paflenger cannot fatisfy her de- mands. The occupation and pleafures of the future life re- main the fame; and the hufband, if he choofes, may have his wife again; but there are no children, becaufe it is the abode of the dead. There are alfo wars and battles; and armies, meeting in the air, caufe thunder and hghtning. Vhe Araucans have an idea of a great deluge; during which many were faved on the mountain * Thegtheg,’”? which can float in water. This idea, Molina fuggelts, has arifen from the earthquakes and volcanos, fo common in their country ; for, during the terrors excited by a fevere earth- quake, they fill run to the mountains, with provifions, in hope of efcaping, if the fea fhould overwhelm their coun- try. Tine year of the Araucaus is folar, and commences on the 22d of Decembcr, immediately after their fummer folftice ; and it is divided by the foilticein June into two parts. They have 12 months of 30 days, and 5 intercalary days. They have 4 feafons, each of 3 months; and they divide the day into 12 parts, Gof light and 6 of darknefs. The hours of the day are diftinguifhed by the height of the fun; and thofe of the night by the pofition of the ftars. Conftella- tions are alfo marked ;-the Pleiades being ftyled that of /ix from the molt apparent ftars, and the Antar¢tic that of four. The milky way is called the tlreet of the fable, becaufe the altrocomers of the country rejeét certain popular tales cons cerning it. They diftinguifh the planets, and believe them to be inhabited. The Araucans, though they have little or no idea of the fpeculative {ciences, cultivate rhetoric, poe- try, and medicine ; to the purity of their language dnd to the eloquence of their public fp-akers they pay great atten- tion. ‘They accuftom themfelves much to a figurative and allegorical {tyle, and their difcourfes abound with apologues and parables. Strong and lively images, bold figures, frequent allutions and fimiles, novelty and force of expreflion, and pa- thetic fentiments, concur to form their poetry, which is chiefly employed in celebrating the a€tions of their heroes. ‘Their Jines confift of 8 or sx fyliables; and their poems are all in blank verfe, with an occafional, though very rare, admiffion of rhyme. Of phyficians there are 3 clafles; the empirical, who are belt, have fome knowledge of the pulfe, and ufe of herbs; thofe who believe that all difeafes proceed from infects; and ozhers who afcribe them to witchcraft, and thus occafion the death of innocent perfons; they have alfo perfons who can fet broken bones and cure wounds. With regard to their mode of carrying on trade, we fhall obferve, that as the ufe of money is not known, exchange is the only mode of commerce. Their. foreign trade confifts chicfy in cloaks and éattle, which are ex» changed with the Spaniards for wine and European articles. In their intercourfe with Europeans they are proud and af- {uming; and they themfelves expe to be treated with great ceremony and refpeé& ; whilft they are duly fenfible of be- nefits, they are eager for vengeance on their encmies, In their difcrimination of different familics, they ufe names and furnames. Polygamy, as we have already faid, is univerfal, and a man may buy as many wives as he can maintain; but an old batchelor is regarded with contempt as an enemy of the flate. Marriage 1s a very fimple rite; being a kind of amicable rape, as the hufband feizes the bride unexpectedly, while fhe alf-€ts to cry out for afliance. Her friends then’ pafs to his honfe, and after a feltival, receive the nuptial pre fent; to the firft wife, however, particular honour is ren-~ dered, while the reft are regarded as mere concubines. The. hufband indicates his preference by ordering one, during fupper, to prepare the bed; the others fleep in the fame chamber, which no ftranger is permitted to enter; ftrangers being lodgedin tents ata diftance. All the wives pay great re{peét to their hufbands. The Araucan women are diltin- guifhed by neatnefs and cleanlinefs in their houfes and in: their own perfone. The bath is univerfally ufed both by men and women; bat the latter refort to feparate places proteAled by fhade and folitude. On the day of parturition, they take the new born infant to the river, wath both it and them-- felyes, an'd return to their bufinefs without inconvenience; no bandages are ufed for their infants, they are placed in) — hanging cradles upon thin fkins, and covered with a cloth, and they are rocked by means of a cord which hangs from the cradle, fo that the mothers are not interruptcd in their bufinefs; the infant is foon able to take care of itfelf. The education of children is reftricted to horfemanthip, the ufe of arms, and the praétice of {peaking their language with: elegance. Faults are feldom noticed; nor do the Araucans ever chattife, becaufe, in their opinion, punifhments can only produce falfchood or cowardice. ‘Uhe food of the Araucans eonfilts mottly of grain or pot-herbs varioufly drefled; but maize and p»tatoes are the mott efleemed; they ufe little meat or fith, and inftead of bread they have a kind of light cake or potatoes. Their drink confifts of various kinds of beer and cyder; and they are fond of wine, which they pros cure from the Spaniards. The matter and his family eat at the fame table, which is covered with earthen-ware and gobs lets of horn or wood. They light their fire by turning one~ {lick rapidly on another. Although in private they are fru- gal, yet on folemn cccafions they {pare no expence in their repafts; and then fermented liquors are freely taken. Muficy dancing, and gaming, conflitute their principal amufements, Their mufic is bad, and their fongs harfh and hideous; but their dances are more cheerful and harmonious. ‘The wo- men, however, dance apart from the men. Their games are both fedentary and gymnaftic. From time inimemorial, it is faid, they have known the game cf chefs, which they call ‘comican ;’’ the young are fond of wreftling, the race, and a kind of tennis. But their favourite games of the gymnattic kind are the ‘* peuco,” and the “ palican; ” the firtt reprefenting the fiege of a fortrefs, when 12 or more perfons forma circle and place a boy in the middle of it whom the affailants endeavour to feize, but feldom fneceed; the latter refembles a battle, 30 or more players attempting to drive the ball within their bounds, and this game wi fometimes laft half a day. Having enlarged on the difpofition and manners of t Araucans, becaufe théy are a people hitherto fo lit known, although Dr. Robertfon in his ‘‘ America,’ an Peroufe in his voyages, and fome others havevery tranfientl mentio x 4 CHILI ; mentioned them, we fhall clofe this part of the article Chili with obferving, that the Pulches of the mountains, now united with the ftate of Araucana, are move rude and favage than the other inhabitants. Their name fignites eaftern men: their ftature is tall, and they are fond of the chace, fo that they often change their habitations, aud de- tach colonies to the eaftern fides of the Andes, as far as the lake Naguelgapi, and the fhores of the Atlantic, io the plains of Patagonia. By the Araucans the mountaineers are highly efteemed on account of their bold fervices in war, and their inviolable fidelity in adhering to the confederacy. The valour of the Araucans, and their love of liberty and independence, have been fignally manifefted on a variety of occations; not only in their early contefts with the Peru- vian Ineas, but in their refiltance to the hoftile attacks of the Spaniih invaders of their territory. Soon after their fubjuga- tion of Peru, the Spaniards, allured by the fame of the opu- lence of Chili, commiffioned Diego de Almagro to attempt “the conqueft of it. Accordingly, in 1735, he marched from Cuzco,and, after lofing many [ndians‘and a conSderable num- ber of Spaniards, who perifhed with cold in paffing over the Cor- dillera Nevada, as well as with fatigue and famine, he arrived at Copiapo, where the Indians immediately fubmitted. Thus encouraged, he proceeded to the conguelt of other nations, which had never acknowledged the Peruvian Incas. In his progrefs he met witha vigorous oppolition; as the Chilefe foon recovered from their firft furprize, aud uot only de- fended themfelves with obftinacy, but attacked their new enemies with more determined valour and _ fierce- nefs than any American uation had hitherto difcovered. he Spaniards however continued, amidit merealing difficulties and conflicts, to penetrate into the country, and colleé&ed confiderable quantities of gold; but they were fo far from thinking to make any fettlement ‘amidit {uch formidable neighbours, that, in {pite of all the experience and valour of their leader, the final iffue of the expedition ftill remained extremely dubious, when they were recalled from it by an unexpeéted revolution in Peru. (See the biographical article ALmaGro.) In the year 1541 the fcheme of invading Chili was again refumed, and the com- ‘mand of the expedition for this purpofe was conferred by ‘Pizarro on Pedro de Valdivia; and, notwithftanding the fortitude of the natives in defending their poffeffions, the made fuch progrefs in the conqueft of the coun- ‘try, that he founded the city of St. Jago or Santiago, which {till remains the capital of the country, and thus commenced the eftablithment of the Spanifh dominicn in that province. In 1548 he was promoted to the govern- ment of it by the prelident of Peru. Valdivia, after having exhibited many difplays both of courage and military fill, was cut off in 1553, together with a conliderable body of troops under his command. T'rancifco de Villagra, Valdivia’s lieutenant, by his fpirited conduct, checked the natives in their career, and faved the remainder of the Spaniards from deftruétion. By degrees, all the champaign country along the coalt was fubjecied to the Spanith dominion. Several colonial towns were ellablifhed by the Spaniards, which the Araucans have repeatedly taken and deftroyed. The frontier banks of the river Bio- bio are lined with fortreffes. At the peace of 1773, after a war which had coft the Spanith treafury 1,700,000 dol- lars, the Toqui of the Araucans infifled on having a refident minifter at the city of Santiago, and the Spaniards relu¢tant- ly complied. The mountainous country, however, is {till poffeffed by the Puelches, Araucans, and other tribes of its original inhabitants, who are formidable neighbours to the Spaniards, and with whom, during the courfe of about three /Vor. VII. centuries, they have been obliged to maintain almoft perpe- tual hoitility, fufpended only by a few intervals of iufecure peace. That part of Chili, to which the Spaniards are reflrifted, and which may properly be deemed a Spanifh proviace, is a narrow diftrict, extending along the coatt from the defart of Atacama and the river Biobio, and divided into 13 provinces, viz. Copiapo, Coquimbo, Quillota, Aconcagua, Melipiila, Santiago, Rancagua, Colchagua, Mauli, Itata, Chillan, Puciacay, and Huilquilema. The Spaniards alfo poflefs port Valdivia, in the country of the Cunchis the archipela-’ go of Chiloé; and the ifland of Juan Fernandez. Don George Juan and don Antonio de Ulloa, in their voyage to South America, inform us, that the captain-generalfhip of Chili comprehends four particular governments, viz. the major-generalfhip of the kingdom of Chili, to which belongs the military government of the frontier towns and fortrefles, along the banks of Biobio, which are Arauco, the {tated re- fidence of the general, Santajuana, Puren, Los Angelos, Tucapel, and Yumbel; Valparaifo; Valdivia; and Chiloé, which fee refpeétively : and the following 11 jurifdidtions, viz. Santiago, Rancagua, Colchagua, Chillan, Aconc2zgua, Melipilla, Quillota, Coquimbo, Copiapo and Guafco, Men- doza, and La Conception; which fee. The prefident, go- vernor, or captain-general of Chili, to whole government Spanith Chili is fubjeé, refides in the city of Santiago, exer- ciling, except in time of war, ‘independent authority, and directing all military affairs; the three great officers of the kingdom, viz. the camp-marfhal, ferjeant-major, and com- miffary, and alfo the four governors of Chiloé, Valdivia, Valparaifo, and Juan Fernandez, being fubje& to his or- ders ; as prefident and governor-general, he adminilters juf- tice, or prefides in the court of audience in Santiago, which is divided into two halls, the civil and the criminal, with a regent, judges, fifcal or royal procurator, and a protector of the Indians. In cafes where the property exceeds 10,000 dollars, an appeal lies to the fupreme council of the Indies. There are alfo tribunals of finances, of the papal bull, and of vacant lands; and the confulate, or tribunal of commerce, which is a new inftitution in the Spanifh colonies, is indes pendent of all others. The provinces are governed by pre- fects or corregidors, commonly named by the captain-gene- ral, he inhabitants are formed into regiments of militia; befides which there is alfo a body of regular troops. In the town of Conception, there is a regiment of cavalry, and another of infantry, to watch the Araucans; and the city of Santiago maintains fome troops of dragoons for its police and defence. Spanifh Chili is divided into two extenfive archbifhoprics, thofe of Santiago and Conception, both fuffragans of the archbifhop of Lima. The cathedrals are ferved by canons ; and at Santiago the holy, or rather infamous, office of the inquifition, has acommiffary and various fubalterns. There are no convents, except at Santiago and Conception. This province has derived confiderable advantage from the liberty of commerce obtained in 1778; and its population has fince that event been ‘augmented. Before that period, the cultivation of the country, though fingularly fertile and produ@tive, had been fhamefully negicted by the Spaniards. A great part of it remained unoccupied ; and in its whole extent, there were not above $0,000 white inhabitants, and about three times that number of negroes and people of a mixed race. ‘The Spanifh inhabitants have, for the molt part, migrated from the northern provinces; and they are intermixed with a few Englifh, French, aud Italians. They are defcribed by Molina, cited by Pinkerton, as “well made, intrepid, incapable of treafon or meannefs, vain, libe- 4M ral, GH Bed val, ardent, fond of pleafure, fagacions, obfervant, ingeni- ous, docile,”? and only wanting inflructive books and fcien- tific inftruments. The noble arts, however, are negleéted by them, and mechanics are imperfeétly underftood. The drefs of the men is generally French, and that of the ladies after the fathion of Peru; but the Chilefe ladies wear longer gowns, and have a more modell air. The common people have adopted the Araucan drefs as being molt convenient. Difperfed through a wide coustry, and unreflrained by village magittrates, they enjoy their l:berty, and lead a happy and tranquil life, amidit the pleafures of the delicions climate. l'hey are fond of gaiety, mufic, and poetry. Vhe language generally {fpoken in Chili is Spanith; but the country people, who refide near the Araucan frontier, ufe the Araucan or Chilefe language. As they are almoft always on herle-back, and enjoy the benefit of a falnbrious air, they are healthy and robuft. The midland country is plain, but the maritime part of Chill prefents three chaims cf hiils parallel to the Andes, which is here about 120 miles in breadth, abounding with fiupendous breaks and precipices, but interfperfed with vales and excelient paftures that are watered by {treams and caf- cades defcending from the rocks. The higheft mountains of the Chilefe Andes are’ Manfla, at 28° 45’; Tupun- gato, at 33° 24’; Defcabefado, at 35°; Bianquillo, at 55° 4’; Longavi, at 35° 30’; Chillan, at 36°; and Corco- bado, at 43°. Molina did not meafure their height; but the Spaniards and Chilefe fuppofe them to be more than 20,000 feet above the fea. The four feafons are as regular in this country as they are in Europe; but as it ties in the fouthera hemifphere, their order is inverted. Spring be- gins on the arft of September, furnmer in December, au- tumn in March, and winter in June. From the beginning of {pring to the middle of autumn, the fy is always ferene, chiefly between 24° and 36° lat: ; fhowers feldom falling during that period. The rains begin in the middle of Apnil, and laft till the end of Auguft ; varying in quantity and con- tinuance in the northern and fouthern diftr:éts. ‘Chunder is icarcely known, excepton the Andes; fnow does not fall in the maritime provinces ; but’on the mountains from April to November it is perpetual, and prevents the paflage over them, except at Midfummer. In Chili, in general, no river is frozen, and the cold feldom exceeds the freezing mark of Reaumur’sthermometer. Through the whole kingdom the dews are copious in {pring, fammer, and autumn. On the other fide the Andes, the N.W. wind, called ‘ Sonda,” is more fuffocating than the Scirocco of Italy ; but in the coun- tries of Peru and Chili no fuch eff:& is perceived. About the middle of the day a breeze often rifes from the fea, and lafts two hours, fo that it is called the clock of the peafants. Fiery meteors are frequent; but the aurora bo- realis feldom appears. In Chili volcanoes abound. One that was terrible by the convulfions and devaftation it occa- fioned, occurred at Petorea on December 34,1762. ‘There are only two other volcanges in this province, which do not belong to the chain of the Andes; a fmall one rear the river Rapel, which eje&s only fmoke, and the great volcano of Millarica, near a lake of that name in Araucana. This flaming mountain is feen at the diftance of more than 150 miles, and appears ifolated ; but it is thought to be joined with the Andes, which is at a {mall diftance. The fummit, burning day and night, is covered with fnow ; but the fides, to the extent of 14 miles, are fhaded with enchanting forelts, watered by innumerable cryflalline flreams. Earthquakes are little known even in Copiapo and Coquimbo, where fub- terranean noifes are often heard, asin Tucuman. Slight earthquakes are felt three or four times in the year; but “8, only five of any confequence have occurred fince the entrance of the Spaniards: of which the moft remarkable were that of 1730, which in July buried the city of Conception, and that of 1751, which utterly deftroyea the fame city, and was accompanied with a globe of fire, which darted from: the Andes to the ocean: however, on this occafion, only feven perfons perifhed; there being in Chili always a warnings noife, or vibration of the air, and the fhocks are horizontal, not explofive, The rivers of this country, though fometimes confiderable, have but a fhort courfe from the Andes tothe ocean. There are feveral lakes, both frefh and falt ; the two largeft being in Aracauna, viz. the Lauquen or Villarica, about 72 miles in circuit, with a beautiful conic hill in the centre ; and the Nahuelgapi, about 80 miles in circumference, having an ifJand in the centre, crowned with beautiful trees, and giving rife to a river of the fame name, which runs towards the Ate lantic, while frem the firlt Springs the river Tolten, which jos the Pacific. The country abounds with mineral waters and falt rivers, afcribed by the Araucans to the beneficence of their god Meulen. The climate of Chili is the moft delicieus in the New _ World, and is hardly equalled by that of any region on the face of the earth. ‘Though bordering on the torrid zone, it — never feels extreme heat, being fcreened on the ealt by the Andes, and refrefhed on the welt by cooling fea-breezes, "The temperature of the airis fo mild and equable, that the Spaniards give it the preference to that of the fouthern pro- vinces in their native country. Inftances oceur_ in this coun=_ try of furprifing longevity. A Spanifh knight attained the age of 106 years, without knowing ficknefs ; and he had by two wives 28 fons. Some of the creoles have arrived at the age of 104, 107, and 115. — It is alfo faid that the women are fruitful in an extraordinary degree, and that twins are — common. A Frenchman who died in 1764, lcft by one — wife 163 defcendants. The fertility of the foil correfponds — with the benignity of the climate, and is wonderfully accom= _ modated to Kuropean produétions. he moft valuable of © thefe, corn, wine, and oil, abound in Chili, as if they had been native to the country. The foil, even that part of it | which has been long in tillage, is fo little degenerated ve producing fucceflive crops, that no manure is neceffary. The grain, as fome fay, yields from 109 to 150; but bya more moderate and juft eftimate, as it is ftated both by Ma lina and in Peroufe’s voyage, from 60 to 70 in the midland country, and in the maritime 40 or 50. Many of the plants of Chili are the fame with thofe of Europe, and almoft all the pot-herbs and fruits of that continent flourifh there. The northern provinces produce the fugar-cane, the fweet- petatoe, and other tropical plants. Maize is common and abundant ; the magu is a kind of rice, and the tucaa fpecies of barley, both of which were cultivated before the arrival of the Spaniards. Peas and potatoes were alfo well known to the Chilefe. Of the latter they have 30 different kinds: and it is even conjeétured that this valuable root was Grit brouzht into Europe from this country. The large white | {trawberry of Chili is now known in Englifh gardens. Many of its plants are valuable as dyes, and others as medici i The gentian is peculiar to Chili. The vira-vira expels the | ague ; the payco is excellent for indigeftion. Wild tobacco , abounds in Chili. The beautiful flowers and fhrubs are ine finite. Incenfe, not inferior to that of Arabia, is pros — duccd by a fhrub, diftilling tears of a whitifh yellow, » and of a bitter aromatic tafte. The trunk of the puwi fupplies — excellent cork; the /a/ola kali is plentifel on the fhores; and Chili produces feven kinds of beautiful myrtles, oned which yieds an excellent ftomachic wine preferred ftran - CH ftrangerg to any mufeatel. The eu/en furnifhes a tea, which js known as a vermifuge. An acacia of the province of Quillota yields a balfam, that is ufed in the cure of wounds ; and the pa/qui is efteemed, asa febrifuge, fuperior to the- Pe- ravian bark. The ca/fia fena grows on the banks of the rivers Maypo and Salvia. Of 97 kinds of trees, that diverfify the beautiful forefts of Chili, only 13 lofe their leaves in winter. Cypreffes, pines, and red and white cedars grow in the val- lies of the Andes; the red cedars, particulariy in the ile of _ Chiloé, are of an enormous fiz+. fo that from 7co to Sco arifing from feeds depolited by the birds : vw _re-vilit the plains. planks, 20 feet long, may be cu. from one tree. The cin- ‘amon tree, that yields what is called winter’s bark, 1s re- garded as facred by the Araucans, who prefent it as a token of peace. Beautiful woods cf various colours are fupplied dy the Chilefe fores. Wines, though none appear to be native, fiourith admirably well: they are found in the foretts, on the confines of the river Mauli, they are three or four feet high, and fup- ported by flakes; but further to the fouth they are left loofe on the fides of the hills. The belt wine is that which is ob- tained from the banks of the river Itata, and is commovly called wine of Conception; it is red, generous, of an ex- cellent flavour, and equal to the bet in Europe. Maulcatel wines are alfo excellent. The vintage is April and May, All the other European fruits attain the greatelt perfec- tion. Of the zoology of Chili, Molina has given an ample ac- count. Oyfters of an exceilent kind are found near Coquim- bo; and the rocks of Chiloé furnifh the pholas. There are alfo many kinds of lobiters and crabs. Among the infcGs is the locuft of Africa. | Bees abound in the fouthern pro- vinces. Reptiles are rare; but the fea fupplies 76 kinds of fith, all excellent and falutary. pearon the fhores of Araucana. Of land and aquatic birds the different {pecies amount to 135; and the fea-fowl are in- numerable. Of thefe feveral retire in {pring to the forefts of the Andes for propagation, and on return of winter they The Americai oftriches appear in great “numbers in the vailies of the Andes, and efpecially near the grand lake Nahuelgapi. The egys, of which the female lays from 40 to Go in the fand, yield, each of them, about two pounds of good food; and the feathers are ufed for plumes, parafols, fans, &c. The condor is alfo found in this country. Molina reckons 36 fpecies of quadrupeds in Chili; and it is obferved, that mott of the European ani- mals have improved in this delicious climate and fertile coun- try. Thecelebrated Spanith theep have not lott any of their diltinguifhing qualities: the horned cattle are larger than thofe of Spain; and the breed of horfes furpaffes both in beauty ‘and fpirit the famous Andalufian race, from which they fprung. ~ Nor has nature exhautted her bounty on the furface of the earth: fhe has ttored its bowels with riches. A!l the argillaceous earths mentioned by Wallerius are found here, ‘exclufive of the bole of Lemnos; and Molina adds five forts to thofe already defcribed. Of metallic earths, according ‘to his arrangement, there are mountain-blue and green, Native cerufe, ore of zinc, with brown, ycHow, and red ‘ochres. Among the rocks are flate, hone, green talc, ftea- tite, afbeftos, amianthus, gold and filver mica; and the talc “ealled Mufcovy glafs is found in large plates, and ufed for windows. Limettone, marble, and gypfum, are plentiful. Belides ftatuary marble, Chili affords the black, greenith, “and yellow ; and two mountains of Copiapo and Mauli are altogether compofed of marble of different colours, and “difpofed in regular ftrata from thé bottom to the top. “Molina alfo mentions a great variety of fluors, yellow, The feals, called fea-cows, ap-- ILI. green, and blue, called falfe topazes, emeralds, and fapphires. The Andes alfo afford fine alabafter, and large plates of felenite, ufed by the inhabitants of San Juan in the windows of their churches. Of filiceous ftones, there are quartz, flint, and rock cryftal. Here are alfo free-ltone and grind- {tone, fome common agates, and jafper red, green, grey, white, and variegated. Rock-cryftal occurs of different colours, called falfe ruby, topaz, jacinth, emerald, &c. One real emerald, fays this author, was found in Coquimho, and a topaz in the province of Santiago. A little hill, N.E. of Talca, isalmoft wholly compofed of beautiful amethyits, ina kind of grey quartz. ‘T'urquoifes are found in Copiapo ; and beautiful breccias, porphyries, and granites occur in the Andes. Rock-falt is abundant; and is often cry fallized in cubes-of various colours. Sal ammoniac is common near the volcanoes; and nitre abounds in Coquimbo. The country is fupplicd with different kinds of alum or bitumen, and all the vitricls. Aracuana furnithes jets and coal is fupplicd by various-parts of the kingdom. The province of Copiapo comprehends two mountains of cryftallized ful- phur; and the fame {Mbftance abounds in all the Andes. Pyrites of feveral kinds and under various forms are found in feveral places. OF the femi-metals, this country yields arfenic, cobalt, bifmuth, zinc, antimony, and mercury, both virgin and cinnabar. Chili contains mines, many of them very rich and productive, of lead, tin, iron, filver, and gold. The chief filver-mines are thofe of the provinces of Santiago, Aconcagua, Coquimbo, and Copiapo; but the molt ccle- brated is that of Ufpallata, fituated on the eaftern mour- tains of the Andes, in the province of Aconcagua; fuppofed to extend to Potoli, through a fpace of 840 geugraphical miles ; difcovered in 1635, negleGed till 1762, but fince wrought to great advantage. However, of all the metals, gold is the mof abundant in Chili; fo that there is not a mountain or a hill, which does not more or lefs produce it, and accordingly, it is found in the foil of the plains and the fand of the rivers. The gold is reckoned the purelt in the world, being generally found of 22 carats, and often of 234 carats. The molt confiderable mines of gold now wrought in Spanifh Chili are thofe of Copiapo, Guafco, Coquimbo, Petorea, Ligua, Tiltil, Putaendo, Caren, Alhue, Chibato, and Huillipatagua ; all which, except the three laft, which have been recently difcovered, have, ever fince the conquett of the country, yielded a conftant and confiderable produce. The gold of the mines of Chili, paying the royal fifth, amounts to about four millions -of dollars annyally ; of which a million and a half are coined at the mint of Sant- iago. The commerce of Chili employs 23 or 24 fhips from 45 to 600 tons each, and in return for the grain, wine, fruits, provilions, tallow, leather, wood, copper, &c. fent to Peru, it receives iron, cloth, and linen made at Quito, hats, bays, of which there are manufactures in Chili, fugar, cacao, {weetmeats, tobacco, oil, earthen ware, and all kinds of Eu- ropean goods. In regard to the firft of thefe fubje&ts of inquiry, it is certain that the heat which is generated in the combuttion -of the fuel exifts under two perfeétly diflinét and different forms. One part of itis combined with the fmoke, vapour, and heated air which rife from the burning fucl, and goes off “with them into the upper regions of the atmofphere, while the other part, which appears to be uncombined, or combined only with light, is fent off from the fire in rays in all direc- ‘tions. With refpect to the fecond fubject of inquiry, it is highly probable that the combined heat can only be com- ‘municated to other bodies by actual contact with the body with which it is combined; and with regard to the rays which are fent off by the burning fuel, it is certain that ‘they communicate or generate heat only when and where ‘they are ftopped or abforbed. In pafling through air which ‘is tran{parent they certainly do not communicate any heat to it; and it feems highly probable that they do not com- ‘municate heat to folid bodies by which they are reflected. _ A queftion which naturally prefents irfelf here is, what roportion does the radiant heat bear to the combined heat ? ‘Though that point has not been determined with any con- fiderable precifion, it is, however, certain, that the quantity of heat which goes off combined with the imokc, vapour, and heated air is much more confiderable, perhaps three or four times greater, than that which is fent off from the fire fm rays: and yet {malls the quantity is of this radiant Theat, it is the only part of the heat generated by the com- ‘buition of fuel ia an open fire-place which ever is, or, in- ‘deed, ever can be employed in heating a room. The whole of the combined heat efcapes by the chimney, and is totally ft; and no part of it could ever be brought into a room from an open fire-place, without bringing along with it the fmoke with which it is combined. _ : + It is, therefore, of the higheft importance to determine om the greateft quantity of radiant heat may be generated Gn the combultion of the fuel, and how the largett propor- ion of that quantity may be brought into the room. Now i quantity of radiant heat depends very much opon the ‘management of the fire, or upon the manner in which the elis confumed. When the fire burns bright much radiant at will be fent off from it; but when it is fmothered up ry little will be generated, and, indeed, very httle com- ned heat that can be employed to any ufeful purpofe ; poft of the heat produced being immediate!y expended in Biving claiticity to a thick denfe vapour or imoke, which ill be feen rifing from the fire; and the combuition being y incomplete, a great part of the inflammable matter of fuelsbeing merely rarefied and driven up the chimney, thout being inflamed, the fuel will be walted to little rpofe. During this time no heat is communicated to the 3 and what is ftill worle, the throat of the chimney being occupicd merely by a denfe yapour, not pofleffed of any confiderable degree of heat, and confequently, not having much elalticity, the warm air of the room finds lefs difficulty in forcing its way up the chimney and efcaping, than when the fire burns bright: and it happens not unfre- quently, efpecially in fire-places ill conftru@ted, that this current of warm air from the room which preffes into the chimney, crofling upon the cnrrent of heavy fmoke which rifes flowly from the fire, obftrus it in its afcent, and beats it back into the room: hence it is, that chimnies fo often fmoke when too large a quantity of freth coals is put upon the fire. To caufe as many as poffible of the rays, as they are fent off from the fire in ftraight lines, to come directly into the room, it will be neceflary, in the firft place, to bring the fire as far forward, and to leave the openmg of the fire-place as wide and high as can be done without inconvenience ; and fecondly, to make the fides and back of the fire-place of fuch form, and of fuch materials, as to caufe the direét rays from the fire which {trike againft them, to be fent into the room by refleGtion in the greateft abundance. Now, it will be found, upon examination, that the bet form for the vertical fides of a fire-place, or the covings, as they are called, is that of an upright plane, making an angle with the plane of the back of the fire-place of about 135 de— grees. According to the old conftru@tion of chimnies, this angle is go degrees, or forms a right angle; but, as in this cafe the two covings are parallel to each other, it is evident that they are very ill contrived for throwing into the room, by reflection, the rays from the fire which fall on them.. The next improvement will be to reduce the throat of the chimney, the immoderate fize of which is a molt effential fault in their conftru&ion; for, however good the forma-- tion of a fire-place may be in other refpects, if the open- ing left for the paflage of the fmoke is Jarger than “is ne- ceflary for that purpole, nothing can prevent the warm air of the room from efcaping through it; and whenever this happens, there is not only an unneceflary lofs of heat,. but the warm air, which leaves the room to go up the chim- ney, being replaced by cold air from without, produces thofe drafts of air fo often complained of. But though thefe evils may be remedied, by reducing the throat of the chimney to a proper fize, yet, in doing this, feveral confi- derations will be neceflary to determine its proper fituation. As the fmoke and hot vapour which rife from a fire natu- rally tend upwards, it is evident that. it will be proper to place the throat of the chimney perpendicularly over the fire; but to afcertain its moft advantageous diltance, or how far above the burning fuel it ought to be placed, is not fo eafy, and requires feveral advantages and difadvantages to be balan-- ced. Asthe fmoke and vapour nfe in confequence of their being rarefied Ly heat, ana made lighter than the air of the furrounding atmofphere, and as the degree of their rarefa@tion is in preportion to the intenfity of their heat, and as this heat is greater near the fire than ata diftance from it, it ia: clear, that the nearer the throat of a chimney is to the fire, the ftronger will be what is commonly called its draught, and the lefs danger there will be of its {moking, or of duit coming into tke room when the fire is ftirred. But, on the other hand, when a very ftrong draught is occafioned by. the throat of the chimney being very near the fire, it may happen that the influx of air into the fire may become fo {trong as to caufe the fuel to be confumed too rapidly. This however will very feldom be found to be the cafe, for: the throats of chimnies are in general too high. In regard to the materials which it will be molt advan~ tageous to employ. in the contruction of. fire-places, little difficulty CHIMNEY. difficulty will attend the determination of that point. As the object in view is to bring radiant heat into the room, it is clear that that material is beft for the conftru€ion of a fire-place which refleéts the moft, or which abforbs the leaft of it, for that heat which is abforbed cannot be reflected. Now, as bodies which abforb radiant heat are neceffarily heated in confequence of that abforption ; to difcover which of the various materials that can be employed for confiruét- ing fire-places are beft adapted for that purpofe, we have only to find, by an experimerit very eafy to be made, what bodies acquire leaft heat, when expofed to the dire rays of aclear fire; for thofe which are leaft heated evidently abforb th¢ leait, and confequently refle& the moft radiant heat. And hence it appears that iron, and in general metals of all kinds, which are well known to grow very hot when expofed to the rays projected by burning fuel, are to be reckoned among the very worft materials that it is poffible to employ in the conftruétion of fire-places. Perhaps the beft materials are fire-f{tone and common bricks and mortar. Thefe fubttances are fortunately very cheap, and it is not eafy to fay to which of the two the prsterence ought to be given. When bricks are ufed, they fhould be covered with a thin coating of plafter, which, when perfectly dry, fhould be white-wafhed. he fire-ftone fhould likewife be white- wafhed, when that is ufed; and every part of the fire-place which does not come into aétual conteG with the burning fuel fhould be kept as white and clean as poffible. We fhall now proceed to defcribe particularly, with the affitance of figures, the improvements of Count Rumford. Fig. t. Plate XLI. of Architedure, is a plan of a fire-place on the old conftruétion; fig. 2. an elevation, and jig. 3. a fec- tion of the fame. Fig. 4. a plan; fig. 5. an elevation, and fig. 6. a {c&tion of an improved fire-place. The bringing forward of the fire into the room, or rather bringing it nearer to the front of the opening of the fire- place, and the diminifhing of the throat of the chimney, be- ing two objeéts principally had in view in the alterations of fire-places recommended, it 1s evident that both thefe may be attained merely by bringing forward the back of the chimney. It will then remain to be determined how far the back fhould be brought forward. ‘This point will be limited by the neceffity of leaving a proper paflage for the {moke. Now, as this paflage, which in its narroweit part is called the throat of the chimney, cught, for reafons before ftated, to be immediately or perpendicularly over the fire, it is evident that the back of the chimney fhould be built perfectly upright. To determine therefore. the place of the new back, nothing more is neceflary than to afcertain how wide the throat ct the chimney ought to be left. This width is determined by Count Rumford from numerous ex- periments, and comparing all circumftances, to be four inch- es. Therefore, fuppofing the brealt of the chimney, or the wall above the mantle, to be 9g inches thick, allowing 4 inches for the width of the throat, this will give 13 inches for the depth of the fire-place. The next confideration will be the width which it will be proper to give to the back. This, in fire-places of the old conftruGion, is the fame with the width of the opening in front; but this conftruGion is faulty, on two accounts; firlt, becaufe the covings being parallel to each other, are ill contrived to throw out into the yoom the heat they receive from the fire in the form of rays ; and, fecondly, the large open corners occafion eddies of wind which frequently difturb the fire and embarrafs the {moke in its afcent, in fuch a manner as to bring it into the xoom. Both thefe defeéts may be entirely remedied, by diminifhing the width of the back of the fire-place. The width which in moft cafes it will be beft to give it, is one- third of the width of the opening of the fire-plece in front. But it is not abfolutely neceffary to conform rigoroufly to this decifion, nor will it always be poflible. Where a chim- ney is defigned for warming a room of moderate fize, the depth of the fire-place being determined by the thicknefs of the brealt to 13 inches, the fame dimenfions wouid be a good fize for the width of the back, and three times 13 inches, or 3 feet 3 inches, for the width of the opening in front, and the angles made by the back of the fire-place, and the fides of it, or covings, would be juft 135 degrees, which is the beft pofition they can have for throwing heat into the room. In determining the width of this opening in front, the chimney is fuppofed to be perfe@ly good, and well fituated. If there is any reafon to apprehend its ever {moking, it will be neceffary to reduce the opening in front, | placing the covings at a lefs angle than 135 degrees, and ~ efpecially to diminifh the height of the opening by lowering — the mantle. If from any confideration, fuch as the wifh to accommodate _ the fire-place to a grate or ttove already on hand, it fhould f be wifhed to make the back wider than the dimenfion recom= | mended, as for inftancé, 16 inches ; it will be advifable not to exceed the width of 3 feet 3 inches for the opening in front, as in a very wide and fhallow fire-place, any fudden motion of the air in front would be apt to bring out putts of {moke into the room. : The throat of the chimney being reduced to four inches, — it will be neceflary to make a provifion for the paflage of a chimney f{weeper. This is to be done in the following © manner. In building up the new back of the fire-placey _ when this wall is brought up fo high that there remains no : more than about ro or 11 inckes between what is then the top of it and the underfide of the mantle, an opening or — door-way, 1¥ or 12 inches wide, mutt be begun in the mid- die of the back, and continued quite to the top of ic, which — according to the height that it will commonly be neceflary _ to carry up the back, will make the opening 12 or 14 inches high, which will be quite fufficient for the purpofe. When — the fire-place is finifhed, this door-way is to be clofed by a few bricks Jaid without mortar, or a tile or piece of ftone con-_ fined in its place by means of a rebate made for that purpofe _ in the brickwork. As often as the chimney is fwept, the chimney fweeper removes this temporary wall or ftone, whic is very eafily done, and when he has finifhed his work, he again puts it in its place. Fi The new back and covings may be built either of brick= work or of ftone, and the {pace between them and the old back and covings, ought to be filled up to give greater folidity to the ftraciure. This may be done with loofe rubbifh or pieces of broken bricks or ftones, provided the work be {trengthened by a few layers or courfes of bricks laid in” mortar; but it will be indifpenfably neceffary to finifh t work where thefe new wallsend, that is to fay, at the top o the throat.of the chimney, where it ends abruptly in the open. canal or flue, by a horizontal courfe of bricks w fecured with mortar. It is of much importance that th fhould terminate in this manner; for were they to be flo outward and raifed in fuch a manner as to {well out the up extremity of the throat of the chimney in the form of 4 trumpet, and increafe it by degrees to the fize of the fi of the chimney, this conitruétion would tend to afhift t winds which may attempt to blow down the chimney, forcing their way through the throat, and throwing t fmoke backward into the room. _ The internal form of the breaft of the chimney is alfo matter of great importance, and which ought to be parti CHIM WE Y. larly attended to. The worft form it can have is that of a vertical plane or upright flat, and next to this the worlt form is an inclined plane. Both thefe forms canfe the current of warm air from the room which will, in fpite of every precau- tion, fometimes find its way into the chimney, to crofs upon the current of {moke which rifes from the fire in a manner mo! hikely*to embarra{s it in its afcent and drive it back. ‘The current of air which, pafling under the mantle, gets into the chimney, fhould be made gradually to bend its courfe up- wards, by which means it will unite quietly with the afcend- ing current of fmoke, and will be lels likely to check and impede its progrefs. [his is to be effected by rourding off the infide of the breaft of the chimney, which may be done by athick coating of platter. Plate XU1. of Architedure, fir. 1. The plan of a fire-place on the old contlrugtion; A B, the opening of the fire-place in front ; C D, the back of the fire-place ; A Cand B D, the covings. Fig. 2, fhews the elevation or front view of the fame fire- lace. Fig. 3. This figure fhews how the Gire-place, reprefented in fig 1, is to be altered, im order to its being improved. A B is the opening in front, C D the back, and A C and B D the covings ot the fire-place in its original flate. a é its opening in front, 7& its back, and ai and b& its covings after it has been altered; ¢ ts a point upon the hearth upon which a plumb fufpended from the middle of the upper part of the breaft of the chimney falls. The fituation for the new back is afcertained by taking the line ¢ f equal to4 inches. The new back and covings are reprefented as being built of bricks, and the fpace between thefe and the old back and covings as being filled up with rubbifh. Fig. 4. Vhis figure reprefents the elevation or front view of the fire-place, fig. 3, after it has been altered. The lower art of the doorway left for the chimney fweeper, is fhown in this figure by dotted lines. Fig. 5. This figure thews the fe€tion of a chimney fire- place and of a part of the flue of the chimney on the old con- itruétion. ais the opening in front, 6c the depth of the fire-place at the hearth, d the breatt of the chimney, d¢ the throat of the chimney, and df ge a part of the flue. Fig. 6, thews a {eétion of the tame chimney after it has been altered : £/ is the new back of the fire-place, /i the tile or ftone which clofes the doorway for the chimney {weeper, di the throat of the chimney narrowed to 4 inches, a the old mantle, and 4 the new mantle formed under it to diminifh the height of the opening of the fire-place in front, the new mantle being backed with plafter to make the infide of a pro- er form. When the breaft or wall of the chimney in front is very thin, it may happen, that the depth of the fire-place deter- mined according to the preceding rules may be too {mall. Thus fuppoling the brealt to be only 4 inches thick, which is fometinies the cafe, particularly in rooms fitvated near the top of a houfe, taking 4 inches for the width of the throat, will give only 8 inches for the depth of the fire-place. In ‘this cafe, it would be proper to increafe the depth of the fire-place at the hearth to 12 or 13 inches, and to build up “the back perpendicularly to the height of the top of the grate, and then floping the back by a gentle inclination for- ‘ward, bring it to its proper place dire¢tly under the back part of the throat of the chimney. ‘This flope, though it “ought not to be tooabrupt, yet fhould be quite finifhed at the height of 8.or 10 inches above the fire, otherwife it may perhaps caufe the chimney tofmoke; but when it is very “near the fire, its heat will enable the current of rifing {moke “to overcome the obftacle which this flope will oppofe to its © Vor. VII, afcent, whicli it could not fo cafily do, were the flope fituated at a greater diftance from the burniag fuel, There is one important circumitance re{pecting chimney fire-places deftgned for burning coa's which remains to be examined, and that is the grate. Although there are few grates that may not be ufed in chimnies, altered or con- ftrugted on the principles recemmended by Count Rumford, yet they are not by any means all equally well adapted for that purpofe. Thofe whofe conflruétion is moll fimple, and which of courfe are the cheapeit, are beyond compariton the bett on all accounts. Nothing being wanted but merely a grate to contain the coals, ard all additional apperatus being not only ufelefs but pernicious ; all complicated and cxpen- five grates fhould be laid afide, and fuch as are more Lmple fubfituted in their room, The proper width for grates in rooms of a middling fize, will be from 6 te 8 inches, and their length may be diminifhed more or lefs éecording to the difficulty of heating the room, «rhe feverity of the weather. But where the width ofa grate 16 not more than 5 inches, it will be very difficult to prevent the fire from going out. It has been before obferved that the ufe of metals is as much as poffible to be avoided in the conftruétion of fre-places, it will therefore be proper always to line the back and fides of a grate with fire ftone, which will caufe the fire to burn bet- ter and give more heat into the room. Smoke in its paffage through a chimney depofits a great part of the foot, with which it is loaded, upon the fides of the Aue, which caufes danger from fire, and is befides apt to fall backivto the room, It is thercfore frequently necef fary to have the flues cleaned. ‘T’o effect thir, various ex- pedients have been reforted to, but that moft commonly adopted is the ufe of climbing boys, who eicend within the chimney and {weep down the foot. ‘The evils of this dif- agreeable and unwholefome occupstion to thofe eugaged in it, are geucraliy acknowledged, and of late years the public attention thas been direéted to this fubject, and premiums offered for the difcovery of methods whicn inrzht be fub- {tituted to a practice fo offenfive te humanity. In the year 1802 a number of pebhie-fpirited and wealthy perfons afficiated for this purpole, avd offered conhicerable premiums to thofe who might invent and bring into prac- tice, a method of cleanfing chimnies by mechanical mieans that fhould fuperfede the neceflity of climbing boys. Veetiays themfelves, perhaps, inadequate to the tafk of carrying their laudable intentions into full execution, they apphed to ti Society for the encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, &c.’’ in the Adelphi, requeiting them to engage in it, and to offer premiums on the fubject. In confequence of this application the fociety cflered their gold medal to the per- fon who fhould invent the most effeétual mechanical or other means for cleanfing chimnics from foot, and obviating the neceffity of children being employed within the flues. Ina few months there were five candidates for this premium, whofe feveral inventions were put to the telt of experiment upon chimnies not lefs than 70 feet high. One of the in- ventions confifted of a fet of brufhes with pullies and weights, which were to be let down from the top of the chimney ; but as the objeé was to find an apparatus to cf- fe the purpofe from the infide of the houfe, thas was deem- ed unfit to accomplifh the views of the fociety. Another gentleman propofed the plan of throwing gravel up tlie chimney by means of condenfed air; the machine was tried, and deemed wholly inadequate to the purpofe. A third apparatus confifted of elaltic rods of whalebone and cane, with a bruth at the end of the upper one, which was found to anfwer only in fhort and ftraight chimnics. The next cou- filted of Jaths feveral feet long, which locked into mee oLucry 40 Ca TM WEY. other, and on the upper one was fixed an elallic expanding brach, which, in its afcending and contracted ftate, occupied a fpace of only fix or eight inches, but which was to be opened, when forced to the top of the chimney, by means of a itring attached to it the whole length of the rods. After many experiments before divers perfons appointed to examine its merits, this was given up as incilcctual to the parpofe required, The only remaining apparatus was in- verted by Mr. George Smart, the patentee of a method of making hollow malts for fhips: to him, after along feries of practice, in which he has been almoft uniformly fuccefsful, the gold medal was adjudged; .he has received alfy, we beliéve, fome other premiums for his invention. As his method is now praétifed by feveral perfons in and near the metropolis, we fhail give a particular account of it, with re- ferences to an engraved plate. The prtacipal parts of the machine are a bruth, fome rods or hollow tubes, that faflen into each other, by means of brats fockets, and a cord for con- necting the whole together. The brufh confilts of four fan-fhaped portions (fee Plate Chinmey-fqweeping, figs. 1 and 2) which are fo hung upon hinges, that in afcending the chimney, the brufh may take up as {mall a {pace as poffible, aud in defcending, 1 may foread out and {weep the fides of the fluz ; by a contrivance exactly like that which is adopted in the common umorella, the bru(his prevented from falling down into its contracted form: fig. £ reprefents it expanded, and in fig. 2 it is fhewn jn its contraéted ftate. The fubftance made ufe of in general for the brufh is what is called whifk. he rods reprefented by a, b,¢, d, ef, Ke. figs. 1, 2; and 5, are hollow tubes with a metal focket, at the lower end ; fome of the fock+ts havea ferew in them for the purpofe of confining the cord after it has been duly ftretched, and preventing the rods from fepa- rating (fee fig. 2.) The upper end of the rods are either with or without ferrules, and taper to admit of a fmall motion within the fockets. ‘I'he rods are about thirty inches long, and the cord runs from the top of the brufh through all the rods, and when drawn tight keeps the whole mzchine toge- ther. Fig. 3, reprefents the cloth to be placed before the chimney opening, and a bar of deal or other wood, with a flide on it, fixing it to different fized openings. Jig. 4,is a bar or bars made to flide out, like a telefcope flide, with a {crew to fix it at different lengths, for clofing the fides of the cloth to the jambs of the chimney picce. Fig. 5, exhibits the ma- ehine raifed up the chimney with the man working, he being on the outfide of the cloth, through which there is a {mall flit or opening to admit the tubes paffing. ig. 6, a part of the apparatus, confilting of a {mall poft and pulley, fixed on a board for the purpofe of more eafily drawing the cord ; tight before it is made faft with the {crew. ; The method of uling the machine is this: Having afcertained, by looking up the chimney, what is the direction of the flue, the cloth is then to be fixed before the fire-place, with the horizontal bar, siz. 3, and the fides to be clofed with two upright bars like fg. 4. The bruth is introduced through the opening of the cloth, which opening is then to be buttoned, and one of the rodsis to be paffed up the cord into the focket on the lower end of the rod which fupports the brufh; the other rods are in like manner to be brought up one by one in fueceffion, till the bruth is raifed fomewhat above the top of the chimney, obferving to keep the cord conttantly tight, and when thofe rods which have a {crew in the focket are brought up, they are to be placed on the purchafe ; the cord is to be put round the pulley and drawn very tight, and {crewed down, by which all therods above will be firmly conne@ted together, and the whole may be regarded as one Jong flexible rod. In pulling the ‘iio down, the edges ‘have been ufeful to the community, and we wifh to fee ia of the brafh flriking againk the top of the chimney, will caufe it to expand, and there being a {pring to prevent its contrating again, it will bring down the foot with it. In drawing down the machine, the perfon fhould grafp with his left hand, the rod immediately above that which he is fepas rating with his right hand, to prevent the upper ones from fliding down too toon. The rods as they are brought down, are to be laid carefully one by one in as {mall a com- pafs as poflible, and arranged hke a bundle of fticks. ‘This machine has been found ufeful in extinguifhing fires in chimnies ; for that purpofe a coarfe cloth is to be tied over the bruth, dipped in water, and then paficd up in the manner directed. After three years experience, Mr. Smart’s. machine has been found ina great meafure, to anfwer the purpofes for which it was intended ; in the courfe of feveral thoufand trials it is afcertained that not more than one or two chimnies, at molt, in a hundred, has relifted the paflage of the brufh. It is, however, of importance to obferve that the invention cannot be deemed ina tate of perfection ; foor from fome coals adheres fo ttrongly to the fides of the chim- ney and chimney pot, that no brufh wili of itfelf bring it down, fo that after a confiderable time it may be expected that means muft be found to ferape off the foot as the climbing boys now generally do. We with theretore that fych an addition to the apparatus could be deviled, as fhould remedy this defect: it is well known that one caufe of the {moking of chimnies is from the circumitance of the top of the chimney pot being clogged with foot that ad- heres to the upper edge, which it is certain Mr. Smart’s bruth has in many inilances failed to remove. He has done much to obviate an evil long complained of ; an evil thar has deprived of health, and eventually of lif, a multitude af perfons in their youth, that might for a long courfe of years eS — ee a ae a a his hands, the invention, fo honourable to his talents, ren- dered ftill more ufeful by being more perreét. He has ate tained, with regard to making his bruth afcend the chimney, all that can be expected, and inttead of bringing up infants toclimb the fiftieth or hundredth chimney which on account of the dire€iion of the flue no apparatus caa be made toal cend, other means may: be adopted, fuch as, ft. By having a fixed apparatus at the top, with a chain defcending cown. the flue, and a bru‘th annexed to it; for which purpofe two patents were taken out in the year 1593, one by Mrs. Bell of Hampitead, and o:e by Mr. Davis, of Bloomfbury. Or 2dly, By the method pra¢tifed at Edinburgh, and other places in the northern parts of the united kingdom, of let- ting down a weight attached to one end of a cord, witha bufh of holly tied at the other end, which by means of a perfon at the top and another at the bottom of the chimney is worked up and down tili the foot is thoroughly cleanfed away. CHiMNEY-Szveepers, regulations .concerning. By fat. 28 Geo. III. .c. 48. the church-wardens and overfeers of the poor of any parifh, with the confent of two juftices, may bind any boy of the age of 8 years and upwards, who is chargeable to the parifh, to any perfon following the trade of a chimney {weeper, till he fhall attain the age of fixteen years. No matter fhall have more than fix apprentices at one time ; nor let out his apprentices to hire to any oth perfon for the purpofe of {weeping chimnies; nor caufethem to call the ftreets before feven 1a the, morning, nor afte! twelve at noon, between Michaelmas day and Lady day ; 1 before five in the morning, nor after twelve at noon the re of the year. Every matter fhall caufe his name and place o abode to be engraved on a brafs plate, to be fixed upon th front of a leathern cap, which he fhall provide fer cach ape prentice a C Hi rentice, who fhall wear the fame when he is out upon his duty. Thefe regulations are enforced by penalties of not more than rol. and not lefs than 51. The law is fo tender with regard to thefe generally frien-llefs children, that it has appointed a particular form of indenture, by which the matter covenants to find his apprentices cloaths for his daily eccupation, and other cluaths for his ufe when he is not em- ployed at his work and for Sundays: he covenants alfo to fee that he is properly cleanfed from all foot and filth once @ week, and be required te attend public worfhip in the drefs adapted for the purpofe. _ Cuimxey, in Geagraphy, « town of the ifland of Ceylon, y4 miles S.E. of Candy. CutmNey-jambs, are the fides of a chimney, ufually ftand- ing out perpendicularly, fometimes circularly from the back ; on the extremities whereof the mantle-tree refts. CHIMNEY-moncy, or hearth-moncy, a tax impofed by ftatute 13 and 14 Car. Lf. c. io. expreffing, that every fire-hearth, aud ftove of every dwelling, or other houfe, within England and Waies, except fuch as pay not to church and poor, fhail be chargeable with two fhillings per ann. payable at Michacl- Ynas and Lady-day, to the king and his heirs. But this tax was declared to be an oppreffion and badge of flavery, and acccrdingly abolifhed by itat. 1 W. and M. c. 10. and the Wwindow-tax eltablifhed in its room. See Fuace and Wis- DOW-TAX. Cuimney-fiece, in Building, a compofition of certain mouldings, ef wood or ftone, ftanding on the fore-fide of the jambs, and coming over the ma:tle-tree. CHIMOS, in Ancient Geography, a maritime vil age of Evyot, on the borders of the Marzotide nome. Ptolemy. CHIMPANZEE, in Zoology, the Angola ape, fimia troslodytes of Blumenbach, fatyrus indicus of Tulpius, &c. This animal very nearly approaches the orang-outang, but in the opinion of molt zoologitts is fpecilicaliy diftinst. It is, according to Blumenbach and Gmelin, diflinguifhed among other particulars by having the body fmooth, except the back and fhoulders, which are hairy ; the head is alfo of a fomewhat conic form, and the bedy brawny, or remarkably mufcular. The true orang-outang has the body entirely covered with hair, the haunches efpecially, and the hair oa the fore arms is placed in a reverfed dire€tion. In the year 1738, one of thofe chimpanzees was bronght over into Eng- Jand by the captain of a fhip in the Guinea trade ; it was of the female fex, and was two feet four inches high: it natu- rally walked ere&t. It would eat very coarfe food, and was fond of tea, which it drank out of a cup with milk and fugar, as we do; it flept in the manner of the human {p%cies, and in its voice made fome imitation of the human fpeech, when te {peak very haftily, but without any articulate found. lie males of this {pecies are reprefented as very bold’; they will fight a man though they fee him armed. Their difpo- fitions are extremely lafcivious, infomuch as to render it un- fafe for women to venture into the woods alone ; itis affirm- ed that the female’ negroes are often furprifed and over- powered by thefe difguttful animals. The chimpanzee fhewn in London in 1738 was only about twenty months old, and was of a docile difpofition: the parent had it in her arms when fhe was attacked by the Moors in Angola, and would not part with it till the was killed by one of their fpears. “This full-grown female was five feet high. CHINA, in Botany, Amicinenfis, Rumph. See Smivax zeylonica. Cua radix, Bauh. Pin. See Smitax China. bs Jpuria nodofa, Bauh. Pin. See Smicax pfeudo- ina. Cusna, in Hifory and Geography. The word China is ¥e Capi well known to the people whom we call Chinefe ; but tlre mott learned among them never apply it to themfelves or their country. They with to be defcribed as the people of Han, or of fome other illuftrious family, by the memory of whofe actions they flatter their national pride; and their country they call Cdwm-cue, or the central kingdom, repre- fenting it in their fymbolical charaGers by a parallelogram exa@ly b'f{eGed ; at other times they diltinguith it by words that mean all that is valuable upon earth. It is difficult to give any account that fhall be fatisfatory as to the origin of the Chinefe. Four opinions have been advanced, ail of which have been peremptorily afferted rather than fupported by argument and evidence. By a few writers it has been urged that they are an original race who have dwelt for ages, if not from the firft creation of things, in the land which they now poffefs : by others, chiefly the miffionaries, it is alleged that they fprang from the fame ftock with the Hebrews and Ar.bs: a third aflertion is that- of the Arabs themfelves, and of M. Pauw, who contend that they were criginally ‘Tartars, defcending in wild clans from the fteppes of Imaus ; and a fourth isthat of the Brahmins, that the Chinas, fo they call them in Sanferit, were Hindus of the military, clafs, who, abandoning the privileges of their tribe, rambled in different bodies to the north-eaft of Bengal; and forgetting, by degrees, the rites and religion of their anceftors, eftablifhed fcparate principalities, which were afterwards united in the plains and vallies which are row poffefled by them. Sir William Jones has examined each of thefe claims with great care and attention, and he obferves, that, ‘¢ in fupport of an opinion, (viz. that the Chinefe and Hindus were the fame people), which I offer as the refult of long and anxious inquiries, 1 fhould regularly proceed to examine the lan- guage and letters, religion and philofophy of the prefent Chinefe, and fubjoin fome remarks on their ancient mo- numents, on their feiences and their arts, both liberal and mechanical ; but their fpoken language not having beca preferved in the ufual fymbols of articulate founds, mutt have been for many ages in a continual flux; their letters are merely the fymbols of ideas ; their popular religion was imported from India in an age comparatively modern ; and their philofophy feems yet in fo rude a ftate as hardly to deferve the appellation ; they have no ancient monuments from which their origin can be traced; their {ciences are wholly exotic; and their mechanical arts have nothing in them charateriltic of a particular family; nothing which any fet of men in a country fo highly. favoured by nature might not have-difcovered andimproved. They have, indeed, both national mufic and national poetry, and both of them beautifully pathetic ; but of painting, fculpture, or archi- tecture, as arts of imagination, they feem to have no idea. Inftead, therefore, of enlarging feparately on each of thofe heads, I fhall briefly inquire how far the literature and re- ligious practices of China confirm or oppofe the propofition which I have advanced.” In the courfe of this inquiry, he finds that the Buddha of the Hindus is unqueftionably the Fo of China; but the great progenitor of the Chinefe is alfo named Fo-hi, where the fecond fyllable fignifics a vidim. Now the anceitor of that military tribe whom the Hindus call the Chandravanfa, or * children of the moon,”’ was, according to their legends, Baddha, or the genius of the planet Mercury, from whom, in the fifth degree, defcended a prince, named Druhya ; whom his father, Yayati, fent in exile to the eaft of Hindoftan, with this imprecation, ‘may thy progeny be ignorant of the Veda.” The name of the banifhed prince cannot be pronounced by the modern Chinefe ; and though fir William Jones does not affert that the laft fyllable of it has been “402 changed C HA N'A changed into Yao, he obferves, that Yao was the fifth in defcent from Fo-hi, or at leaft the fifth mortal in the firft imperial dynalty ; that all Chinefe hiftory before him is confidered by the Chinefe themfelves as fabulous ; that his father, Ti-co, like the Indian king, Yayati, was the firft prince who married feveral women; and that Fo-hi, the head of their race, appeared, fay the Chinefe, in a province of the weft, and held his court in the territory of Chin, where the rovers mentioned by the Indian legiflators are fup- pofed to have fettled. Another circumftance in defence of this opinion is, that the mother of Fo-hi was the * daughter of heaven,”’ furnamed * Flower-loving 3’? and, according to the Chinefe mythology, as the nymph was walking alone on the bank ofa river, with a fimilar name, fhe found herfelf fud- denly encircled by a rainbow; foon became pregnant, and was delivered of a fon, called «* Sui,” or the * Star of the Year.”’ According to the fyitem of the Hindus, the nymph Rohini, who prefides over the fourth lunar manfion, was the favou- rite miltrefs of Soma, or the Moon, among whofe numerous epithets we find one anfwering to “ Delighting in a fpecies of water-flower that bloffoms at night ;” and their offspring was Buddta, regent of a planet, and called alfo from his parent Rauhbineya, or Saumya. Sir William Jones fhews alfo, that the opinions of the Chinefe and Hindus are in many refpeéts fimilar: they both believe this earth to have been wholly covered with water, which they defcribe zs « flowing ABindantly, then fubfiding, and feparating the higher from the lower age of mankind ;’”? and that the divifion of time, from which their poetical or fabulous hiltory begins, jut preceded the appearance of Fo-hi on the moun- tains of Chint. Though the religion of Confucius was pure, and worthy of a great mind, contending for the exilt- cence of a Supreme God, and giving a demonitration of his being and providence from the exquifite beauty and perfec- tion of the celeftial bodies, and the wonderful order of nature, in the whole fabric of the world; yet the people of China, in general, had an ancient fyftem of ceremonies and fupertitions, which the government and philofophers appear to have encouraged, and which has an apparent affinity with many parts of the oldeft Indian worfhip. They believed in_ the agency of genii, preliding over all things, of which, like the Hindus, they reckoned five.. To thefe they offered victims on high places with ceremonies, and in a language very like thofe ufed by the Brahmins. M. Le Gentil ob- ferved, he fays, a ftrong refemblance between the funeral rites of the Chinefe, and the fraddha of the Hindus: and M. Bailly, the celebrated French aftronomer, after a very Jearned inveftigation, concludes, that, “ even the puerile and abfurd ftories of the Chinefe fabulifts contain a remnant of ancient Indian hiftory, witha faint fketch of the firft Hindu ages.” After a very elaborate difcuffion, in all the parti- culars of which we cannot follow him, fir William Jones fays, that the feveral circumftances of literature and religion teem colle€tively to prove, as far as the queltion admits of proof, that the Chinefe and Hindus. were originally the fame people, but having been feparated nearly: four thoufand years, have retained few {lrong features of their ancient con- fanguinity, efpecially as the Hindus have preferved their old language and nitual, while the Chinefe very foon lott both; and the Hindus have conftantly intermarned among themfelves, while the Chinefe, by a mixture of Tartariaa blood from the time of their firft eftablifhment, have at “Yength formed a race diftinet in appearance from Indians and ‘Partars. Mr. Barrow, who has vifited China, and feen much of the anbabitants, and to whofe excellent account of his travels ja this country we fhal! have occaiion frequently to refer, does not agree with Sir William Jones with regard to the ori- ginof the Chinefe. He admits feveral of the fats adduced: by M. Bailly and others: he allows that the Hindus, like the Chinefe, have always fhewn a remarkable predileQion for the number nine: that the two nations refemble one another in the obfervance of the folltitial and equinoGtial® facrifices ; in making offerings to the manés of their ancef- tors ; in the dread of leaving no offspring behind them, to pay the accultomed obfequies to their memory; in obferving eight cardinal or principal points of the world; in the divi~ fion of the zodiac, and in a variety of other coincidences ; which the late Mr. Bryant accounts for, by fuppofing the Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, aed Indians, to be derived from one ftock, and that fome of thefe people carried their religion, and their learning into China; but he fays their. phyfical charaGter is a fufficient proof ihat the Chinefe do not owe their origin to the fame ftock as the Hindus. The {maileye, rounded at the extremity next the nofe, inftead of being angular, as is tne cafe in that of Europeans, its oblique- inftead of horizontal pofition, and the flat and broad root of Hindu, the Greck, or the Roman; and belong more pro- perly to the natives of Tartary. There are fcarcely in naturec two of the human fpecies that differ more widely than a Chi- nefe anda Hindu, ting afide the difference of colour ; but the Mantchoo, ar deed all the other Tartar tribes border- ing upon China, ardly to be diftinguifhed from the Chinefe. The colour, the fame eyes, and general turm: of countenance prevail, om the continent of Afia, from the tropic of Cancer to the Frozen Ocean. The peninfula of Malacca, and the valt multitude of iflands fpread over the eaftern feas, and inhabited by Malays, as wellas thofe of Japan and Livou-kieou, have clearly been peopled: from the fame comn tock. Having given this account of the difs ferent conjectures refpe€ting the origin of the Chinefe, we proceed:to confider the Situation and extent of China. In the laft> century, the- Chinefe emperors extended this wide empire over many- weltern countiies, fo that it may be now confidered as reaching from thofe parts of the Pacific Ocean called the Chinefe and: Japanic feas, to the rivers Sarafou and Sihon in the weft, a- {pace of 81°, which, taking the medial latitude of 30°, will amount to nearly 4200 geographical, or 4900 Britifh miles. From N. to S. this vait-empire may be computed from the~ Uralian mountains, lat. 50°, to the fouthern part of China, about lat. 21°, being 29° of latitude, that is, 1740 geogra- phical, or nearly 2030 Britifh miles. This empire coniifts- of three principal divifions ; that of Chiza proper; the ters ritory of the Mandshucs and Mongu!s. on the north and well; and laftly, the fingular and interetling region of Tibet 3 with the firlt of thefe we are at prefent concerned, referving.. the others to their proper places in the alphabet. . China proper extends from the great wall in the north to the Chinefe fea. inthe fouth, about 1140 geographical, or 1300 Britifh miles. The breadth from the fhores of the Pa- cific ocean to the frontiers of Tibet may be computed at 1330 Britifh miles.. In fquare miles the contents have been eftimated at 1,297,999, and in acres at 830,719,360. On the eaft and fouth the boundaries are maritime, and to the north they are marked by the great wall and the defert of © Shamo, the confines with Tibet on the weft feem to be chiefly indicated by. an ideal line, though occafionally more ftrongly marked by mountains and rivers;.paticularly ac- cording to M. D’Anville by the river Yaton, which falls into the Kian-ku, the country of Sifan lying between Tibet and China, on the fouth of the Eluths of Kokenor. 9 As China extends from the fecond to the fifth climate, . us RTT Se toca =e se a Spaces ls a a sy he CHINA, its temperature mult vary accordingly. The difference of the length of its days is little more than four hours; the longettin the moft northern parts, being about fourteen hours and three quarters; and the fhorteft, in the m@it fouthern, about ten hoursand three quarters; and the night proporti- onable. It is, however, generally reckoned very moderate, except only towards the north, where the co:d is extremely piercing, not fo much from its northern fituation, as from ridges of moutains that interfect thofe parts, and are vaftly high, and moltly covered with deep {nows. Iven in thote parts which lie under the trepics, the winds that blow thi- ‘ther from the large and mountainous parts: of Tartary ren- der the weather exceedingly cold and piercing, during the three, and fometimes four, winter months. The fouthern parts, on the other hand, muit be fuppofed to be very hot and dry ; but thefe heats are the more eafily borne, by the help of their grottoes, groves, and cooling fhades; to thefe they retire during the heat of the day; at which time there 1s the fame univerfal filence, and ceflation from bufinefs, as if it were midnight. In thefe fouthern parts there is neither froft nor {now ; but they are much troubled with ftorms, and violent rains, about the time of the cquinoxes; all the reft of the year is crowned with a ferene fky, and a moft delight- ful verdure. Upon the whole it mait be adnatted, that where nature has been moft unequal in the diltribution of her gifts, Chinefe induftry has fupplied the defe€ts. It has‘in fome inftances levelled whole ridges of mountains in parti- cular provinces, and raifed the land-in others. By providing proper fences again{t exceffive colds in fome, and heats and droughts in others, and by varying their agriculture, accord-- ing to the different foils and climates, every {pot almolt of that vatt territory produces enough to maintain its inhabi- tants, rendering the whole country delightful, populous, healthy, and opulent. Progreffive Geography. The progreflive geography of China, as known to the wetlern nations, is not of ancient date, whether with M. D’Anville we fuppofe the Sinzto have been in Cochin-China, og with Goffelin plece them in the weftern part of Siam. The mott ancient external relation which we poflefs, is that of the two Mahometan travellers in the ninth century, who furprife us with accounts of barba- rifm and cannibelifm little to be expected: but the Arabs are fo fond of fables, that implicit credit may be fafely with- held from feveral paffages. Yet thefe travellers impart high ideas concerning the Chinefe empire, and mention Canfu, fuppofed to be Canton, as a city of great trade, while the emperors relided at Camdan, which feems to be the city alfo called Nanking, or the fouthern court, in contra- diftinGion from Peking, or the northera court. ‘This wide empire, continued, however, obfcure to the inhabitants of Europe, t'll the travels of Marco Polo appeared, in the end of the thirteenth century. Yet the work of this traveller jremained fo unknown, that pope Pius IJ. in his defcription of Afia, is contented with the more imperfect account by Nicola Conti, a Venetian traveller of his own time, who vi- - fired Cathay. Haitho the Armenian, who wrote his book ou the Tartars about the year 1306, begins with an account ef, Cathay ; and Oderic. of Portenau defer bed his voyage to China in i318. Sir John Mandeville vifited China about 1240; and Pegoletti gave direGtions for the route in 1385, But in the following century there feems to have been a fttange and unaccountable intermiffion of intercourfe and re- arcn, if we except the travels of Nicola Conti above m:n- tioned ; and fo perifhable was the knowledye acquired, as to Lave efcaped even a learned pontiff. Aftey this relapfe of darknefs, the rays of more genuine and authentic knowledge wi gradually emerged by the difcovery of the Cape of Good’ Hope, and the fubfequent enterprizes of the Portuguefe. Hifiory. The Chinefe as a nation pretend to an antiquity beyond all credibility; they carry their hillory back many) mitlions of years before the period afligned by the Scriptures to the creation of the world. According to the Chinefe hif- tories, the firlt monarch of the ‘whole univerfe, that is, of China, was called Puon-ku, which is a word denoting the highelt antiquity. Puon-ku was fucceeded by 'Vienchoang, which fignifies the emperor of heaven ; to this monarch they afcribe the invention of letters. He was fucceeded by ‘Ti- hoang, the emperor of the earth, who is faid to have been fkilled in aftronomy; to have divided the day and night ; appointing ehirty days to make the period of one moon; and he fixed the winter folftice to the eleventh moon. Tihoang was fucceeded by Ginc-hoang, fovereign of men, wlio fhared the government with nine brothers. Thefe are faid to have taught their fubjeéts to build houfes, cities, &c. The reigns of thefe four emperors make up but one of what the Chincfe called 4i, “ages”? or “ periods.” of which there Were nine before Fo-hi, who is acknowledged, by the moft: fenfible writers, to be the founder of their empire, but the regular hiftory begins with Yan. The Chinefe biftorians of this country have reckoned | twenty three dynalties, of which the firft included F'o-hi and his eight fucceffors down to Sheen. The others, together with the number of emperors belonging to each family, and - the years they reigned, are as follow : Dynatties. Emperors.- Years, ro Ea yocuepatisubkeltest « Bee 2. Shang - - 28 - 64.4 3. Chew - - a 2 873 4- Tfin-al-Chin. - 4 - 43 5- Han . . 25 - 429 6: Hew-han - - 2 - 44 7. Tzin, or Chin 2d 15 - 155 8. Song, or Soun - 5 - Sy 9. , Tzi, or Chi - 5 - 2g io. Lyang - - 4 - Ga iz. Chin-al-Kin - 5 e 32 12. Swi, Soui - 3 “ 29 13. Tang Tam - 20 - S9 14. Hew-lyang - 2 - 10 15. Hew-tang - 4: - 13 16. Hew-tzin - z ~ 1X 17. Hew-han - 2 - 4 18. Hew-chew - 3 - 3) 1g. Song,or Soum - 18 . 319 Zo. Ywen - - 9 - 89 21. Ming, or Mim -- 17 - 247.6 22. Tzin, Chim ° 2 ss 53 The moft interefting particulars of the Chinefe hiflory relate to the incurfions of the Tartars, who at lalt conquer- ed the whole empire, and who itil continue to hold the fovervignty ; though by transferring the feat of empire to Peking, and. by adopting the Chinefe langrage, manners, and cultoms, Tartary feems rather to be incorporated with China, than the conqueror of it. Thefe incurfions began very early, even in the time of Shun, the immediate fuc- ceffor of Yau above mentioned, when the Tartars were re- pulfed and driven back into their own territories. From time totime, however, they continued their invafions, and the northern provinces of China were often ravaged by the Tartars in their neighbourhood. About the year before Chri 213, Chi-hoang-ti having fubdued all the princes of CHINA. the different provinces, became the emperor of China, with the pofleffion of unlimited powers. He divided the whole empire into thirty fix provinces; and finding the northern parts of his dominions greatly haraffed by the invafions.of the neighbouring barbarians, he fent a formidable army againit them, which drove them far beyond the bound- avics of China: and to prevent their return he built the famous ftont-wall which feparates China from Tartary. After this, bciag elated with his own exploits, he formed a deliyn of making pofterity belicve that he himfelf had been the firft Chincfe emperor that ever fat on the throne: for this purpote, he ordered all the hiltorical books and records, which. contaiued the fundamental laws and principles of the ancient government, to be burned, that they might not be employed by the learned to repel his authority, and the changes which he propofed to introduce into the monarchy. He 33 even faid, on this occalion, to have caufed four hun- dred of the literati to be burnt, together with their books. In the tenth century of the Chriftian wra, the Kitan, a peo- ple of Eattern Tartary, made incurfions into the country, fubdued a part of the empire, and eitablifhed a government of their own in gt6, Thirty years after this, Mingt-fong, the emperor of China, was attacked by his brother-in-law She-king-tang, and was by him deprived of his crown and life. _Sne-king-tang affumed the title of emperor under the name of Kaut-fu. But the Kitan general refufed to ac- knowledge him, except on the condition of his yieldmg up to the Tartars fixteen cities in the province of Pe-cheli, which is the moft northern province of China, This fub- miffion ferved only to inflame the avarice of the Kitan, and in the year g5Q they invaded the empire afrefh. Th vang, the emperor, oppofed them with a formidable army; but through treachery he was taken pfifoner, and was obliged to refign lisempire to one of his own generals, who aflumed the name of Kaut-fu. The“ fucceflors of this man oppoled the barbarians ineffcétually till the year 978, when they became fo flrong as to lay fiege to a confiderable city. The emperor fent againit them in the night 300 foldiers, each carrying a light in his hand; with orders to approach the camp as near as poffible. The enemy imagining by the number of lights that the whole Chinefe army was at hand, immediately fled, and, falling into the ambufcade laid for them, were almoft all cut to pieces. In the year ggg, and again in 1035, the Kitan attacked the empire, and laid it under heavy contributions ; after which we hear little more of them till the year 1117; when their ravages became fo intolerable, that Whey-tfong, the emperor, in order to put a {top to them, called in the-affilance of the Eaftern Tar- tars to dettroy the kingdom of Kitan, which they effeGually accomplifhed. ‘his, however, proved of no advantage to the Chinefe ; for the Tartar general, elated with his con- quett, gave the name of Kin to his new dominion, aflumed the imperial title, and began to think of aggrandizing his empire. For this purpofe he invaded and made himfelf maf- ter of the greater part of the provinces of Pe-cheli and Shan-fi, when, after feveral conferences between the Tartar general and Whey-tfong, the latter was thrown into prifon, where he ended his days in 1126, having nominated his eldeft fon, Kin-tfong, to fucceed him. Kin-tfong began _his reiga with putting to death fix minifters of ftate, who had betrayed his father into the hands of the Kin-Tartars. The Barbarians in the mean time porfued their conquetts, and, marching direétly towards the imperial city, took and plundered it, at the fame time feizing the Emperor and his contort, they carried them away captives. The crown de- volved on Kau-tfong, the ninth fon of Whey-tfong, who « fixed his court at Nanking. He made feveral fruitlefs efforts to recover fome of his provinces from the Kin. Kitfong, the Kin monarch, in the mean time, endeavoured to gain the etteem of his Chinefe fubje&ts, by paying a great regard to their learning and learned men. He advanced to Nan- king, from whence Kau-tfong had retired, and took it; but receiving advice that Yo-li, general of the Song, or Southern Chinefe, was approaching to the relief of the city, he fet fire to the palace, and retired northward. However, _ Yo-fi arrived time enough to fall upon their rear-guard, which fuffered fo much, that, from this time, the Kin never dared to crofs the river Kyang. Burt in 1163 the king ap- proached the mouth of that river, and commanded. his troops, on the pain of death, to crofs it, which they refuf-d, rebelled again‘t their fovereign, and killed him in the be- ginning of the tumult, and then retired. After this, nothing remarkable occurs in the Chinele hiftory till the year 1210, when the chief of the Weltern Tar- tars, Moguls, or Mungls, quarrelled with Yong-ti, em- peror of the Kin. Io 1212, the Mogul generals forced the great wall to the north of Shan-fi, made incurlins as far as Peking, the capital of the Kin empire, and defeated an army of 3c0,0co Kin. ‘The war was.continued, and feveral battles fought in the next year; in one of which, the ground was ftrewed with dead bodies for upwards of four leagues. In 1226, Oktay marched into Henan, be- fieged the capital of the Kin empire, took feveral cities, cut to pieces an army of 30,000 men, but was, notwith- {landing, obliged to retire into Shan-fi. The war was carried on with various fuccefs by Oktay and his brother Toley, who took more than fixty important pelts in the province of Shan-fi. Toley demanded of the Song a paflage for his army through the country of Han-chong-fu, which being refufed, he foreed the paffage, and put to the {word the inhabitants of two cities. Having cut down rocks to fill up deep abyffes, and made roads through places almott in- acceflible, he befieged the city itfelf, the miferable inhabi ants of which fled to the mountains on his approach, where more than a hundred thoufand of them perished. In Janu- any 1232, Oktay, pafling the Whang-ho, encamped in the ditlriét of Kay-fong-fu, the capital of the Kin empire, and fent his general, Suputay, to beficge the city. At thak time the place was 30 miles in circumference ; but having only 40,c00 foldiers to defend it, as many more, befide 20,C0o pealants, were ordered into the city, while the em peror publifhed an affecting declaration, animating the peo ple to defend it to the lait extremity. Althongh the Mo- guls took fome confiderable polts, yet, in other initanceg, they were oppofed with fuch intrepidity and valour, th they were obliged to retire. Oktay refolved to return to Tartary, but Suputay, his general, pufhed on the fieze of the capital with renewed vigour. ~ For fixteen days and nights he continued his attacks without intermiffion, which feemed only to infpire the befieged with frefh courage: 2 incredible number of men perilhed on both fides ; at length Suputa, finding that he could not take the city, withdre his army. Soon after, the plague broke ont in Kay-fong fu, and raged with fuch violence, that, in fifty days, mor than a million of perfons perifhed by it. ‘ In a fhort time the war was again renewed. The capiti of the Kin empire was delivered up -by treachery to Sup tay, who put all the males of the imperial race to th {word, while he f{pared, by commana.of Oktay, the inhabit ants, who are faid to have amounted to neara million al ca half of families. The monarch, after this difalter, retire to Juning-fu, a city in the fouthern part of Honan, attende CHINA. only by four hundred perfons. Here they were again be- fieged by the Moguls, and reduced to the extremity of liv- - Ing three months on human ftefh, killing the old and fecble, as well as many priforers, for food. This being known to the Moguls, they attacked them, bat were repulled, though at the expence of all the beft Kin officers; upon which the emperor refigned his crown to Cheng-lin, a prince of the blood. While the-ceremony of invelting the new emperor was performing, the Moguls broke into the city, flew the late emperor and his fucceffor; and thus, in the year 1234, an end was put to the dominion.of the Kin ‘Vartars in China, The empire of China was now to be fhared between the Song, or fouthern Chinefe, and the Moguls. It had been agreed upon, that the province of Honan fhould be deliver- ed up to the Song as foon as the war was finifhed. But they, without waiting for the expiration of the term, or giving Ok- tay notice of their proceedings, introduced their troops into fome of the confiderable Mogul cities. On this the Mogul general refolved to attack them, and repaffing the Whang- ho, cut to picces part of the garrifon of Lo-yang, while they were out in fearch of provilions. The Song emperor now defired a continuance of peace, which, hawever, did not accord with the views of Oktay, who, at the head of the Mogu!s, made great progrels in the province of Huquang, «where he took feveral cities, and put vatt numbers to the fword. Trom 1239 to 1246, the Moguls were unable to make any proyrefs; but upon the death of the Chinefe ge- neral, Mong-kong, they renewed the war with more vigour and fuccefs than ever, for feveral years, In 1259 they laid fiege to Ho-chew, a {trong city, to the welt of Peking, de- fended by a numerous garrifon. The fiege continucd from Febroary till Auguit, when the Moguls made a general af- fault in the night. They mounted the walls before the go- vernor had intelligence of it, but were foon attacked with the utmott fury; a terrible laughter enfued, and among the reft fell the emperor himfelf, upon which they raifed the fiege, and retired to Shenfi. Hupilay fucceeded to Monge ko, and laid fiege to Vu-chang-fu, a city near the capital of the Song empire. The relief of this city was committed to aman deilitute of courage and talents, and who, to ob- tain a peace, entered into a treaty, by which he engaged the Song empire to pay an annual tribute of 199,0c0/., and hikewife to acknowledge the fovereignty of the Moguls. This treaty proved the ruin of the empire; for when the Mogul emperor found the terms not fulfilled, he determined to revenge himfelf on the Song for their treachery, publifh- ed a manifefto againit them, and, in 1268, the war was re- newed. They made many conquetts, took Nanking, and marched towards Hang-chew-fu, the capital of the Song empire. Notwithftanding, however, the progrefs made by the Moguls, valt territories (till remained to be fubdued, before they could be confidered as matters of the Chinefe empire. On the death of Iwon-tfong, therefore, the man- darins raifed his brother, Te-ping, to the throne. His army, confifting of ncarly 200,coo men, ignorant of the art -of war, was deteated by 20,000 Mogul troops. Nor was the fleet more fuccefsful ; for being thrown into confufion by that of the Moguls, and the emperor in danger of falling into their hands, one of the officers, taking him upon his fhoulders, jumped with him into the fea, where they were both drowned. Moft of the mandarins followed this ex- ample, as did alfo the emprefs and minifter, all the ladies ‘and maids of honour, and multitudes of others, inafmuch “that 100,090 people are fuppofed to have perifhed on that day. ‘hus ended the Chinefe race of emperors; and the Mogul dynalty, known by the name of Ywen, commenced. Though no race of men ever exifted more remarkable for cruelty than the Moguls, yet the emperors ot.the Ywen dy- naity were not, in any refpedt, worle than their predeceflors. On the contrary, Hupilay, called by the Chincfe Shi-tfu, who was tie firfl emperor of that race, endeared himlelf fo much to the people, that the reign of his family 1s ilyled by the Chinefe, the wife government. This he accomplifhed by paying ftri&t regard to their ancient laws and cultoms, by the mildnefs of his government, and by his attention and encou- ragement to learned men. In 1280 he employed fome ma- thematicians to fearch for the fource of the river Whang- ho, which, at that time, was unknown to the Chinefe them- felves. In four months they made the difcovery, and drew a map of it, which they prefented to his majefty. A trea- tife on aftronomy was, by his order, publified in the fame year. And, in 1282, he brought together all the learned men of the empire, to examine into the {tate of literature, and to take meafures for its advancement. Soon after his acceflion he fixed his-refidence at Peking, where being in- formed that the barks, which brought to court the tribute of the fouthern provinces, were obliged to come by fea, and often fuffered fhipwreck, he caufed that celebrated canal to be cut, whica is at prefent one of the wonders of the Chi- nefe empire. It reaches from Canton to Peking, and thus forms a communication between the fouthern and northern provinces. During the reign of Shi-tfu he formed the de- fign of reducing the iflands of Japan, and the kingdoms of ‘Tonquin and Cochin-China; but thefe enterprifes failed, with the lofs of ro0,coo men. “he throne continued in this family tii] the year 1567, when Shun-ti, the lait of that dynafty, was driven out by a Chinefe, named Chu, who af- fumed the imperial title under the name of Hong-vu, and thus put an end to the Ywen government. Hong-vu and his fucceffor drove the Moguls beyond the great defert, which feparates China from Tartary. ‘They continued, not- withflanding, to make incurlions upon the empire till 1583, when vait numbers of them were cut to pieces by the Chi- nefe troops. The twenty-firlt dynafty of Chinefe emperors, founded in the year 1368, continued till 1644, when they were again expelled by the Tartars. ‘The lait Chinefe em- peror was Whey-tfong, who afcended the throne in 1628. He found himfelf at once engaged in a war with the ‘Tartars, and attacked by a number of rebels in the differ- ent provinces of his empire. The former were foon van- quifhed ; but the emperor finding himfeif overpowered by the rebels, deferted by his fubjects, betrayed by thofe in whom he placed the greateft contidence, and preferring death to the difgrace of falling into the hands of his enenmics, ré- tired with his emprefs, whom he tenderly loved, and the princefs, their daughter, into the garden. His grief was fo great that he was unable to utter a fingle word. After a few filent embraces the emprefs hanged herfelf on a tree. Her hufband ttaid only to write thefe words on the border of his veit; “* I have been bafely deferted by my fubjeéts; do what you will with me, but fpare my people.””? He then cut off the young princefs’s head with one ftroke of his fey- mitar, and hanged himfelf on another tree, in the feventeenth year of his reign. His prime minilter, queens, and eunuchs followed his example. And thus ended the Chinefe mo- narchy, to give place to that of the Tartars, which has con- tinued ever fince. The whole empire fubmitted to the ufurper Li, except prince U-fan-ghey, who commanded the imperial forces in the province of Lyau-tong. ‘This brave prince, finding himfelf unable to cope with the ufurper, invited the l'artars to his affiftance ; and Ifong-te, their king, immediately joined him with an army of 80,coo men, Upon this Li marched direétly to Peking, pa 3a an Cains and burst the palace, and then Hed with immenfe treafurcs. The young Tartar monarch was immediately declared em- peror of China, his father, Tfonte, having died almoft as foon as he fet foot in that empire. The new e:nperor, Shun-chi, conferred upon U-fan-ghey the title of king, and affizncd to him the capital of Shen-li for his refidence. In 1682 the whole empire was fo effectually fubdued, that the emperor, Kang-hi, fucceffor to Shun-chi, determined to vilit Tartary, his native dominions, in order to take the di- of hunting. This practice he continued for feveral He was a great encourager of learning and the riftian religion, in favour of which he publifhed a decree in 1692. Ta 1716, however, he revived fome obfolete laws againit the Chriltians ; and in the next reign Chrii of ali denominations, not excepting even thofe of the ral race, were perfecuted; the Jcfuits were banifhed into Afa- kau, a little ifland inhabited by the Portuguefe, but fubje& .to China. Inthe year 1720, the emperor received the congratula- “tions of the whole empire, on the fignal viGtory which his forces had gained over the Etuths, who poflefled the country of the Lamas, and had committed dreadful ravages for four years fucceffively ; which victory gave him now the fole command of the kingdom of Tibet. In the morth of June an earthquake was felt at Peking, which laited about two minutes, and ki'led above roco perfons by the full of houfes. In November, the czar of Mufcovy made his public entry. into Peking, with a numerous and {plendid retinue, drefled after the European manner. He met with a gracious re- ception at the court, though the emperor would not accede to the obje&t of this vifit, which ‘was to take meafures for eftablithing a free commerce between the dominions of the two fovereigns. : Yhe emperor, while taking the diverfion of hunting in one of his parks, was fuddenly feized with a fhivering fit, which obliged him to return to his palace immediately. His illnefs increafed, and medical affiftance was applied to, ‘but was found to be in vain. Being confcious of his ap- proaching end, he affembled all his grandees, and having in their prefence declared his fourth fon his fucceffor, he ex- pired on the 2cth of December, 1722, in the 6oth year of his age. Yong-chirg was 45 years old when he afcended the throne. He had feveral brothers, but placed his confi- dence only in one; the reft he difperfed or banifhed. He -imprifoned many of the princes and grandees for proteéting the miffionaries, to whofe defign he had himfelt formerly ‘been very favourable; aud difcarded all thefe fathers from his fervice except one, who was an excellent painter. In other refpects he fhewed himfelf a wife prince, affiduous and indefatigable in the difcharge of the duties of government, fteady and refolute in his difpofition, and endowed with a egree of eloquence and addrefs, and attentive in an{wering the memorials which were prefented to him. He governed wholly by himfelf; and no monarch was ever more abfolute, or more dreaded by his fubjects. This unlimited authority enabled him to enforce a great many wholefome laws and re- gulations, in framing which he fpent whole days and nights with the molt perfevering indultry. The furett way of gain- ing his favour, was by prefenting him with fome fcheme tending to the public good, or to the relief of his fubjeéts in times of calamities, in the execution of which, if it ap- peared practicable, he fpared no pains. On the r3th of November, 1731, the city of Peking was nearly overturned ‘by a dreadful earthquake, fuch as had never before been felt -in China. The firft fhocks, which happened about eleven in the forenoon, were fo fudden and violent, that in lefs than a minute above 100,000 inhabitants were buried in the ruins of houfes, and a ftill greater number in the furrounding country, where whole villages and towns were deftroyed. The emperor was then at his pleafure-houfe about two leagues from the capital. While taking an airing in his barge, feeing the editice infantaneoufly converted into ruins, he fell proflrate on his knees, with his hands and eyes lifted upto heaven, He publithed an edié, accufing himfelf as the chief caufe of this calamity, and attnbuting the judg. ment to the wrath of Ged for his offences and want of care in governing the peoole. THe then ordered an account to be taken of the families that had fuffered by it, and an eltimate of the damage it had cccafioned, advancing confiderable furs for their reliefs part of which was prefented to the miffion- aries, towards repairing theirchurehes. But in the follow ing year he renewed his perfecution againft the Chriftians, and cauicd the miffionaries, and-ali that belonged to them, to be loaded with irons, and thrown into prifon ; and fome he even condemned to the punifhment of carrying the wooden collar. This prince was fucceeded by Kien-Lung, who, aftcra happy, peaceable, and long reign of 63 years, died onthe rrth of Pebruary, 1799; and was fucceeded by MKa- Hing, the prefent emperor, and the fifth of the Varter dy- nafty. Thefe empercrs have. wilely prevented the Euro- pean nations, who have overthrownail the otherealtern governi- _ ments, from obtaining a footing in China, ‘Phey permit them, the Engl:{h in particular, to carry on a refiriGed in- tercourfe at the fingle port at Canton ; but. they treat with coolnefs every attempt to obtain exclufive privileges, to build forts, or to eftablifh permanent factories. < Topographical Defeription, Population, &c.—After the above hiltorical fketch, we proceed to the topography of China. Itis divided into fiftcen provinces, fix of which are ftyted northern and nine fouthern. The names of thefe will be given below, when we come to fpeak of the population; and the defcriptioa of each province will be found in the alpha- betical order of the didionary. Senfible as the Chinefe feem to be of the advantages derived from an eafy communi- cation between the different parts of the empire, by means of canals, it is the more furprizing what the motives could have been, that, till this moment, have reftrained them from facilitating an intercourfe by means of good roads, in fuch parts of the country as have no irland navigation. In this refpe they fall fhort of moft civilized nations. Except near the capital, and in fome few places where the junGton of the grand canal with navigable rivers is interrapted by mountainous ground, there is fearcely 2 road“in the whole country that can be ranked beyond a foot path. Hence it happens that in the northern provinces, curing winter, it i impoffibie to travel with any degree of eafe, convenience, or fafety; all the canals to the nothward of the Ycllow river, which runs from;34° to 35° latitude, being frozen up. It is equally furprizing that their ingenuity has not extended 1 felf to the invention of fledges, or fome fort of carriages, fuitable for travelling on ice, which other nations have con- verted into the beft of roads. The cities and large tow are for the moft part built in a regular form; their walls a high and ftrong, the gates are fpacious, the main ftreets a broad and ftraight, interfeGed with others, which ¢ them at right angles. The fquares are adorned with nob ftru€tures, fuch as triumphal arches and ftately towers fe veral ftorics high, embellifhed with galleries, carving, gildin and a variety of other ornaments. ‘Their public buildings more remarkable for their extent than for their magnifcen their private houfes are large but low, feldom exceeding ftory in height, without any windows towards the it thefe are often painted, varnifhed, and gilt, in a moft fp did manner. ‘The fhops are fet out with all their rich chandiz CiHWyW-s. chandize, fome of which is brought out and difplayed in front of the houfes. Before thefe are ere&ted large wooden pillars, the tops of which are higher than the eaves of the houfes, bearing infcriptions in gilt charaGters, fetting forth the nature of the wares to be fold, and the honcit reputa- tion of the feller, and, to attraét the more notice, they are generally hung with various coloured flags and ftreamers from top to bottom, exhibiting the appearance of a line of fhipping drefled, as may be fometimes feen, on the river Thames, in the colours of all the different nations of Eu- rope. The ftreets, being generally unpaved and covered with fand, prove fo dufty in dry weather, as to be not only of- fenfive to the great crowds that continually throng them, but very injurious likewife to the fine merchandize that is expofed.. Thefe clonds are fill increafed by multitudes of horfes and carriages of all defcriptions that are in continual motion. In rainy weather they are {till more incommodious from the mud and dirt, fo that in winter and fommer they are very troublefome and’ even unhealthy to walk in. The towns, villages, and military polls, are regularly placedvat intervals of about three miles. No jultidea can be formed of the population and magnitude of a Chinefe city by the extent of its enclofing walls. Few are without large patches of unoccupied grounds within them, which, in many in- ftances, far exceed the quantity of land that is built upon. Even in that part of the capital called the Chinefe city, fe- veral hundred acres are under cultivation. The imperial city, containing the palace and buildings for the officers of fate, the eunuchs, and artificers, occupies very nearly a {quare mile, more than two-thirds of which is a kind of park and pleafure grounds; and under the north wall of the Tartar city there is a pond or {wamp, which appears to be fully twice 'the dimenfions of Lincoln’s-Inn-Fields. Such {paces of unoccupied ground might perhaps have been re- ferved for the ufe of the inhabitants in cafe of fiege, as the means of fupplying a few vegetables of the pungent kind, as onions and garlic, for the befieged, which are the more neceflary for a people who ufe fo {mall a portion of animal food, and little or no milk. Thus the cities of Babylon and Nineveh, which were fo frequently expofed to the cala- mities of war and fiege, had gardens and corn-lands within their walls. Independently of towns and villages, the houfes of the peafants are, in many parts, fcattered about. The face of the country is often level and entirely open; not a hedge-row, and very few trees to be feen through an exten- five diftrit. ‘Fhe cottages appear clean and comfortable; they are without feaces, gates, or other apparent precaution, again{t the intrufion of wild beafts or thieves. Robbery is faid to happen feldom, though not punithed by death, un- lefs aggravated by the commiflion of violence. The wives of the peafantry are of material affiftance to their familics, in addition to the rearing of their children, and the care of domeftic concerns; for they carry on moft of the trades which can be exercifed within doors. Not only do they rear filk-worms and fpin the cotton, but the women are almott the fole weavers throughout the empire. Many parts of the country are fo covered with {wamps and moraffes, as not to admit of the ufual cultivation. In fuch fituations the Chinefe exhibit new initances of induftry and ingenuity. ‘They form rafts or hurdles of bamboo which they float upon the water, or reft upon moraffes 5 on _ thefe rafts they fpreada layer of foil, from whence they raife various kinds of vegetables; in like manner fuccefsful attempts are alfo made, in miniature, to produce {maller vegetables on fhip-board, by laying feeds on moiltened foil, or even on pieces of flannel placed in frames and wetted. By thefe means the radical leaves of muftard, for example, : Vor. VII. fprout up quickly and are particularly grateful to perfons long abfent from land. Belides this method of raifing a crop upon the water, the lakes, rivers, and canals of China are converted affiduonfly to fuch other ufeful purpofes, ei- ther in cultivating vegetables growing’ from their bottom, or in catching the birds that {wim upon its {urface, or the fifh that exilt under it, or the other animals which creep upon the bottom, or by fertilizing the lands, by irrigation from them, and by the cheap and eafy communication. which they afford between the different diflriés of the empire; thus faving fo much land, otherwife neceffary for roads, and fo much labour to make and keep them in repair, which is now employed in agriculture. Ln a couatry fo populous as China every precaution is neceffary to prevent the {mallet {pot of ground from being unoccupied that can be applied to any ule; hence grape-vines, vat quantities of which are produced in this country for food, are generally planted on the fides of the canals; and, as they {pread, {mall upright potts are driven in the water five or fix feet from the bank, by which means that {pace is converted into a perfect arbour, without any expence of earth but what is immediately about the roots. Ample provilion is likewife made for the con- ftant cultivation of the land, by the forfeiture of fuch as are neglected, to the fovereign, who immediately grants them to other farmers willing to undertake their culture. We mutt next proceed to the rivers of China, of which the Hoan-ho and the Kian-ku, deferve particular attention. The fources of the firit, which is alfo denominated the Yel- low river, from the quantity of mud which it devolyes, are two’ lakes, fituared among the mountains of that part of Tartary known by the name of Kokonor. Thefe lakes lie about 35° N. lat. and 19° of longitude, to the weftward of Peking, or about 97° E.of Greenwich. This prodigious river is extremely winding and devious in its courfe, purfu- ing a N.E. dirc&tion to about 42° of N. latitude, and after running dne ealt it fuddenly bends fouth to a la- titude nearly parallel to its fource, and purfues an eafterly dire&tion till it is loft in the Yellow fea. Its comparative courfe may be eftimated at about 18co0 Britifh miles; or ac- cording to the late embafly 2150. At about 7o miles from the fea, where it is crofled by the imperial canal. the breadth is little more than a mile, and the depth only about nine or ten feet, but the velocity equals about {even or eight miles an hour. The Kian-ku rifes in the vicinity of the fources of the Hoan-ho; but, according to the received accounts and maps about 200 miles further to the weft, and winds nearly as far to the fouth as the Hoan-ho does to the north. After wafhing the walls of Nanking, it enters the fea about too miles to the fouth of the Hoan-ho. The Kian-ku is known by various names during its long progrefs; and near its fource is called by the Eluths, Porticho or Petchou ; its courfe is about equal to that of the former ; thefe two rivers being confidered as the longett on the face of the earth, for they are fuppofed to exceed the famous river of the Amazons in South America, and the majeltic courfe of the Ganges does not extend half the length. In the late embafly the length of the Kian-ku is eftimated at 22co miles; and it is obferved that thefe two great Chineferivers, taking their fource from the fame mountain,and pafling almolt clofe to each other, in a particular fpot, aftcrwards feparate from cach other, to the diftance of 15° of latitude, or about 1050 Britith miles; and finally difcharge themfelves into the fame fea, comprebending a tract of land of about 1000 miles in length, which they greatly contribute to feitilize. To thefe grand rivers many important ftreams are tributary ; but it would not be confiftent with our plan to enter into details here refpeGting them, the principal of thofe meriting 4P notice, CHINA. notice, will be found in the alphabetical order of the dic- tionary. In China there are many noble and extenfive lakes. According to Du Halde, there is one in the province of Hou-quang, that is at leaft 80 leagues in circumference. In the province of Kiang-fi there is another about thirty leagues in circumference, formed by the confluence of four large rivers, and is itfelf very dangerous to navigators. There isa confiderable lake, not far to the fouth of Nanking, befides a number of {maller ones chiefly in the eaftern and central parts of China. Sir George Staunton mentions, that upon a lake near the imperial canal, were obferved thoufands of {mall boats and rafts, conftruéted for a fingular f{pecies of fifhery. On each boat, or raft, are ten or twelve birds, which, at a fignal from the owner, plunge into the water: and it is aflonifhing to fee the enormous fize of fifh with which they return grafped within their bills. They are fo well trained, that it does not require either ring or cord about their throats, to prevent them from {wallowing any portion of their prey, except what the mafter is pleafed to return them, for encouragement and food. The boat made ufe of by thefe fifhermen is of a remarkably light make, and is often carried, together with the fifhing birds, by the men who are there to be fupported by the employment. Du Halde defcribes fome of the Chinefe mountains as abounding with filver: others produce marble and cryttal. In the province of Kiang-nan there is a diltri& wholly mountainous. T'wogrand ranges, running E. and W. inter- fe& the centre of the empire, apparently continuations of the enormous chains of Tibet. Inthe fouthern part of China the principal ridges run from N. to S. The population of China has been a topic of confiderable debate. Pauw obferves from Du Halde, that when the miffionaries proceeded through the empire, to prepare their maps, they found in the greater part of its large govern- ments, countries of more than twenty leagues, little peopled, almoft uncultivated, and often fo wild as to be quite unhabit- Provinces. Population. Pe-tche-lee 38,000,000 Kiang-nan 32,000,006 Kiang-fee 19,009,000 che-kiang 21,000,000 Fo-kien 15,000,000 ou-pee} 14,000,000 Houquang eTsdrds 1 arated Honan 25,000,000 Shan-tung 24,000,000 Shan-fee 27;000,000 Shen-fee fone 18,000,006 Kan-foo { Se-tchuen 12,000,000 27,000,000 province Quang-tung 21,000,000 Quang-fee 10,000,090 Yu-nan 8,000,000 Koei-tchoo 9,000,000 Totals |333,000,000 able, and he infers that the population is even exaggerated when it is computed at 82,000,000, ‘ In fo wide an eme pire,” fays Mr. Pinkerton, ‘* moft of the features are on a large fcale, nor can human induttry totally overcome, though as we have feen, it diminifhes certain impediments of nature, as ridges of rocks, and extenfive {wamps, in certain pofitions; and in the north of China large forefts are indifpenfably preferved for the fake of fuel. On a fmaller fcale, fuch ob- itacles to univerfal population are found even in the moft fertile countries ; they occur, as we all know, near the capital of our town.”? Civil wars, which, a3 we have feen in the foregoing hiftory, have repeatedly raged in China, have laid defolate immenfe diftri&s of the country for a long period of time. As it would be abfurd to fuppofe that all China confifts of land fit for cultivation, fo it would be equally abfurd to deny that the population has impreffed every traveller with aftonifhment, and with ideas totally dif- ferent from thofe of Pauw, who feems to have forgotten that the want of cultivation in fome diltricts is balanced by that refiding on the waters, millions of families paffing their whole exiftence in boats, on the numerousrivers, lakes, and canals. The recent Englith embafly, prepared as they were for fomething very extraordinary on the fubje€tof population, were neverthelefs greatly aftonifhed when the following ftatement was delivered at the requett of Lord Macartney by amandarin of high rank, as the abftra& of a cenfus” that had been taken the preceding year: ‘* The amount,” fays Mr. Barrow in his Travels in China, “‘ appeared fo enor= mousas to furpafs credibility. But as we had always found this officer a plain, unaffeGted, and honelt man, who on no occafion had attempted to deceive or impofe on us, we could ‘not confiftently confider it in any other light than a document drawn up from authentic materials. To the table containing the account of the population are added the number of people on a fquare mile, and the value of the furplus taxes remitted to Peking in the year 1792. No. on /|Surplus taxes. Square miles.|each {quare| remitted to mile. Peking. oz. filver. 58,949 644 3,036,000 92,961 344 8,210,0Cc0 92,176 263 2,120,000 393150 536 3,810,00C 532480 280 1,277,000 ae 1,3 10,000 1445779 187 Ae 65,104 384 32213,000 65,104 368 3,000,000 552268 458 31722,000 1,790,000 354,008 195 j 340,000 166,800 162 670,000 792459 264 1,340,000 78,250 128 500,000 107,969 74 210,000 64,554 49 T45 000 1,297,999 36,548,000 CHINA. The meafurement annexed to each of the fifteen ancient provinces was taken from the maps conttructed by a labori- ous, and, as is generally believed in China, very accurate furvey, which employed the Jefuits ten years. Whether this great empire, the firitin rank both in extent and population, does or does not actually contain three hundred and thirty- three millions, is a point that Europeans are not likely to afcertain. That it ts capable of fubfifting this and a much greater population, Mr. Barrow, in his work already referred to, has taken confiderable pains to prove. He mentions feyeral caufes that have contributed to the populoufnels of this country: fince the Tartar conqueft China has enjoyed a profound peace, and its army being parcelled out as guards for the towns, cities, and villages, and ftationed at the numberlefs pofts on the roads and canals, all marry, have families, and a certain portion of land, which they have time to cultivate, is allotted for their ufe. As the nation has little foreign commerce, there are but few feamen: fuch as belong to inland navigation are moftly married: public opi- nion indeed confiders celibacy as difgraceful, and a fort of infamy is attached to a man who continues unmarried beyond a certain time of life. As an encouragement to the nuptial ftate, every male child may be provided for, and receive a ftipend from the moment of his birth by having his name enrolled on the miiitayy litt. By the equal divifion of the country into {mall farms, every peafant has the means of bringing up his family, }f drought or inundations do not fruftrate his labour ; and the purfuits of agriculture, it is well known, are very favourable to health, and confequently to po- pulation. From the general poverty that prevails among the lower claffes, drunkennefs is little known, and temperance, from neceflity, very much practifed. The climate in general is moderate and uniform, and, excepting the {mall pox, the Chinefe are liable to few epidemical diforders ; the women are very prolific, and from the inanimate kind of life which they lead, are fubje€t to few accidents, and they all fuckle and nurfe their own children. From thefe and other favour- able circumftances, Mr. Barrow fuppofes that the popula- tion of China may not have been exaggerated even by thofe who have given the highelt calculatiens. Canals and Chinefe Navigation. In China there is fcarcely a town or even a village which has. not the advantage either of an arm of the fea or a eanal ; by which means navigation is rendered fo common, that almolt as many peo- pie live on the water as on land. The great canal is one of the wonders of art ; it runs from north to fouth, extending ifrom the city of Canton to the extremity of the empire; and by it all kinds of foreign merchandize entered at that city are conveyed diretly to Peking, a diltance of 825 miles. This canal is about 50 feet wide; it pafies through, or near 4t large cities; it has 75 large fluices to keep up the water, belides feveral thoufand bridges. China owes the greatell part of her riches to thefe numerous canals, which are cut through any kind of private property, not even excepting the gardens of the emperor, who, when the work arrives at his ground, digs the firlt {pade of earth, and pronounces with an audible voice, ‘ This ts to let all know that private plea- fure fhould never obltru@ the public good.”? The canals are bordered or faced with quays of free-(tone, and, in low places, long caufeways arc raifed for the convenience of ravellers. There are bridges over the canals of three, five, or more arches, of which the middle one is high enough for effe's to pals under with their mafts flanding. When the water is liable to overflow the neighbouring meadows, they open the fluices to convey it away, and there are in- pectors appointed to keep the canals in properrepair. One rge canal generally runs through every province, and a vaft number of fmaller ones are cut from the large one ; which again are divided into fome ftill fmaller, that end at a village or great town ; fometimes they difcharge themfelves into a lake, orlarge pond, from which all the adjacent coun- try is watered. Among all the canals in the fouthern pro- vinces, one 1s called the great canal, which is the grandeft inland navigation in the known world, being, according to Mr. Barrow, nearly toco feet in width, of which the fides are built with mafly blocks of grey marble mixed with others of granite; and this immenfe aqueduét, although forced feveral feet above the furface of the country, by embank- ments thrown up by the labour of man, flows with a current of about three miles an hour towards the Yellow river. The bultle and ativity both on fhore and on the numberlefs canals that branch out in every direGtion from the main trunk, exhibit, for feveral miles, on either fide, one continued town, extended to the point of junétion with this large river, celebrated in every period of Chinefe hiftory. That which motft charms the eye is the immenfe number of large boats with imperial colours, and beautifully painted, that fail in flects, and commanded by a fingle mandarin of the province, and loaded with its be(t produ@tions, and chiefly on the em- peror’s account. ‘There are feveral clafles or rates of thefe boats, very neat and commodious; a middle fized one has a hall and four very convenient rooms, betidesa good kitchen, and place for the attendants ; the rooms are generally carved, painted, and gilt; even the ceiling is painted, and the whole varnifhed; fome of thefe boats are of 200 tons burthen, and from 300 to 400 of them on the fame canal at the fame time, and fometimes in one fleet ; and by the clear- nefs and good management of the canals, it is rendered the mott pleafant and fertile country ia the world. The Chinefe junks are ftrong roomy veffels, from 1¢0 to 200, and fome 300 tons burthen ; the hold below deck is divided into feve- ral dittin&t apartments, partitioned off with two-inch plank, grooved or rabetted as clofe as poflible, and the joints or feams are caulked with a cement of lime, pitch, &c. prepared in fuch a manner as to render it perfe@tly water-tight. A junk may ftrike again{t a rock and not fink ; a leak may be fprung, but will damage no further than the goods in that apartment. Before the barges are launched from the canal into the ftream of the Yellow river, certain ceremonies are conceived to be indifpenfably neceffary : an oblation is made in every veffel to the genius of the river: the animals facri- ficed on fuch occafions confilt of fowls or pigs. The blood, with the feathers and the hair, are daubed upon the principal parts of the veflel, and on the fore-caille are placed cups of wine, oil, and falt, the laftarticle being thought by the Chinefe as neceflary to every facrifice. The cups, the flaughtered animals, and feveral made difhes remain on the fore~caltle, while the captain ftands over them on one fide, and a man with his gong on the other. On approaching to the rapid part of the ftream, at a fignal given by the gong, the cap- tain takes the cups one by one, the contents of which he throws over the bow of the veffel, into the river. The libation being performed, a quantity of crackers, {quibs, and gilt tin foil are burnt with up-lifted hands, while the deep- founding yong 1s inceflantly ttruck with increafing violence as the veflel {weeps along withthe current. The vidim and the other difhes are then removed for the ufe of the captain and the crew, and the ceremony ends by three genuflexions, and as many proitrations. The Chinefe are unfkilled in the art of navigation, ‘They keep no reckoning at fea, nor pof- fefs the leait idea of drawing imaginary lines upon the fur- face of the globe, by the help of which the polition of any particular place may be afligned; in other words, they have no means of afcertaining the latitude or longitude of any 4.P'2 place ona s bal place either by the diflance failed, or by obfervation of the heavenly bodies. Yet they pretend that many of their carly navigators made long voyages in which they were guided by charts of the route, fometimes drawn -on pa- per, and fometimes on the ccnvex furface of large gourds. The prefent fyftem of Chinefe nagivation is to keep as near the fhore as poffible, and never to lofe fight of land, unlefs in voyages that abfolutely require it, fuch.as to Japan, Batavia, and Cochin-China. Knowing the bearing or direc- tion of the port intended to be made, they endeavour to keep the head of the thip always pointing to it by means of the compafs. Yet even with the affiftance of the compafs it is furprifing how their ill-conftruG@ed veffels can perform fo long and dangerous a voyage as that of Batavia, and, in- deed, vaft numbers of Chinefe veffels are annually loft by * fhipwreck in attempting it. When a fhip leaves Canton ona foreign voyage, it is confidered as an equal chance that “the will never return; and when the event proves favourable, a general rejoicing takes place among the frends of thofe who had embarked in the hazardous undertaking. Some of thefe fhips are not Icfs than rooo tons burthen, and contain half that number of fouls, befides paffengers, who hope to make their fortunes at Batavia or Manilla. A fhip belongs to feveral merchants, ard is divided into as many compartments as there are partners, and: each fits up shis own as he pleafes. He thips his goods and accompanies them in perfon, or fends his fon, or a near relation, for it rarely happens that they wil! tru‘? each other with property where no family conneétion exifts. Each fleeping-place is jult the length and breadth of a man, and contaius only a {mall mat {pread onthe floor, and a pillow. Behind the compafs is generaily placed a {mall temple, with an altar, on which js continually kept burning a {piral taper compofed of wax, tallow, and fandal-wood. This holy flame anfwers a double purpofe ; for while the burning of it fulfils an act of piety, its twelve equal divifions ferve to meafure, the portions of time which make a complete day. It fhould feem that the faperftitions notions inculeated on the people, have led them to believe that fome particular influence refides in the com- pats; for on every appearance of a change in the weather, they burn incenfe before the magnetic needle. - Government and political Relations. ‘The government of China is patriarchal. The emperor is abfolute, but the ex- amples of tyranny are rare, as he is taught to regard the people as his children, and not as his flaves. Being confi- dered as the common father of his fubjeés, he !s accordingly invefted with the exercife of the fame authority over them, as the father of a family exerts on thofe of his particular houfehold. In this fenfe he takes the title of the Great Fa- ther; and by his being thus placed out of the reach of any earthly controul, he is fuppofed to be alfo above earth'y de- {cent, and therefore, as a natural confequence, he fometimes ftyles himfelf the fole ruler of the world and the fon of heaven. Conformably to this fyflem, founded entirely on parental authority, the governor of a province is confidered as the father of that province; of a city, the father of that city ; and the head of any office or department is fuppofed to prelide over it with the fame authority, intereft, and ef- fection, as a father ofa family fuperintends and manages the eoncerns of domeftic life. The itability of the government, in all its fenfible and even minute forms and cuftoms, jultly aftonifhes thofe who are moft converfant.in hiftory. It arifes from a circum{tance unknown in any other govern- ment, the admiffion and practice cf the principle, that « knowledge is power.”? For all the officers of government pafs through a regular education, and a_progrefs of rank, which are held indifpenfable. Of the officers called manda- vere courfe of fiudy, the practice of government remains, — N A. rins, there are nine claffes, from the judge of the village to the prime minifter. The profeffion requiring a long and [e- like that of medicine, unfhaken by exterior events; and while the imperial throne is fubjeét to accident and force, the remainder of the machine gees on without interruption, The governors of the provinces have great and abfolute power, yet rebellions are not unfrequent. Bribery is alfo an univerfal vice, and the Chinefe government, like many others, — is lefs beautiful in pra@ice than in theory. The Chinefe laws are ancient, but numerous; and edicts of the rei ning dynafty have retrained the mandarins within ftri@er Tanta of duty. é . Though unbounded authority is given to the emperor by the Jaws, yet the fame laws lay upon him a neceflity to ufe his power with moderation and difcretion, which are the two props that have fo long fupported the great fabric of the Chinefe monarchy. The firlt principle inftilled into the peo= ple at large, is to refpe& their prince with fo high a venera= tion asalmoft to adore him. His commands are indifputable, and his words facred. He feldom fhews himfelf to the peo- ple, and is never fpoken to but on the knees. When he is ill, the palace is full of mandarins, who fpend their whole time in a large court, offering petitions to heaven in behalf of their prince’s cure. No weather, no inconvenience, can excufe them from this duty: fo long as the emperor is in pain or in danger, the people feem to fear nothing but the lofs of him! Self-intereft is no {mall occafion of the great refpeét which is fhewn him by his fubje¢ts; for as foon as he is proclaimed emperor, the whole authority of the empire is in his hands, and the fortunes of his fubjeés are entirely at his difpofal. sft. All places of honour and profit are‘in hig gift. Honefty, learning, experience, and gravity of beha- viour, are faid to be the only qualifications to infure fuccefs to the candidate for any poft of truft or dignity. Ast emperor has the fole choice of all officers of itate, fo he dif= miffes, without ceremony, thofe who are deficient in their duty. 2d. Hehasabfolute power over the lives and prope ties of all his fubjeG@ts. Offenders are arraigned and tried in the different provinces, but the fentence is always prefen to the emperor, who either confirms or rejeéts it, as he pleafes. He can lay what taxes he thinks fit upon his fi jects to fupply the prefling wants, and relieve the neceffiti of the ftate. 3d. ‘The nght of making peace and war be- longs to the emperor ; he may make what treaties, and upon what térms, he pleafes, provided they are not difhonoura to the kingdom. The judgments paffed by him are irrev cable, and his fovereign courts and viceroys dare not ufe leaft delay in regiftermg them. 4th. Another fingular cir cumilance belonging to the Chinefe government, isthe right that the emperor has of choofing his fucceffor, whom he may feleét not only from the royal family, but from among his other fubjeé&ts: and there have been emperors, whi finding none of their own family able to fupport the dig: of a crown, have chofen for their fucceflors perfons of m birth and fortune, but eminent for virtue and underitandings Examples of this nature are not, however, very common but it frequently happens that the choice does not fall ac cording to feniority, which, in China, never occafions am civil commotions or rebellions. 5th. The grave itfelf does not put an end to his power over his fubjeéts, which is ex ercifed even upon the dead, whom he difeericcs or honours when he has a mind either to reward or punifh them or their families. He confers upon them, after their deceafe, title of honour ; canonizes them as faints, or, according to the language, ‘makes them naked fpirts.” Sometimes ht builds for them temples; and, if theiradminiltration of publi fail CHIN 2A. affairs has been very beneficial, or their virtues remarkably eminent, he commands the people to honour them as gods. The emperor has ever been looked upon as the chief prieft and principal fervant of religion; and there are ceremonies and public facrifices which he alone is thought worthy to offer up to the great Creator of heaven. 6th.."The emperor may change the figure and charaéter of the letters, abolifh icharaéters already received, or form new ones. He may likewife change the names of provinces, of cities, and of fa- milies. He may forbid the ufe of any commonly received expreffion or modes of phrafe, and introduce others which ‘have hitherto been efteemed obfolete and uncouth. To affit the emperor in the weighty affairs of the fate, and in the arduous tafk of governing an empire of fo great an extent, and fuch an immenfe population, the conftitution has affigned him two councils ; the one, called she ordinary council, is compefed of his principal minifters, of which there are fix. The other, or extraordinary council, confifts * entirely of the princes of the blood. For the adminiltration of the affairs of government, there are fix boards or depart- ments, confifting of, 1. The court of appointments to va- cancies in the offices of government, being compofed of the minifters and learned men, qualified to judge of the merits of candidates. 2. The court of finance. 3. The court of ceremonies, prefiding over the direction of ancient cuftoms, and treating with foreizn ambafladors, 4. The court for regulating military affairs, 5. ‘Che tribunal of juftice. 6. The board of works.—Thele public funGionaries re- folve upon, recommend, and report to the emperor, all mat- ters belonging to their feparate juri{diGions, who, with the advice of his ordinary, and, if neceflary, of his extraordi- nary council, confirms, amends, or rejects their decrees. Sub- ordinate to thefe fupreme courts held in the capital, are others of a fimilar conttitution, eftablifhed in different pro- yinces, and great cities of the empire, each of which cor- refponds with its principal in Peking. ~ The political importance and relations of China may be faid to be concentrated within itfelf, as no example is known of alliance with any other ftate. It has been fuppofed, that one European fhip would deftroy the Chinefe navy, and that 10,009 European troops might over-run the empire. Yet its very extent is an obitacle to foreign conquett, and, per- haps, not lefs than 100,000 foldiers would be neceflary to maintain the quiet fubjugation of it; fo that amy foreign yoke muft prove of very fhort continuance, The recent con- queit by the Mandthurs happened in confeqnence of the ge- ‘eral deteftation excited againit a fanguinary ufurper; and the invaders were in the immediate proximity, while even a Ruffian army would find almoft infurmountable difficulties on the route, and the conquett, like that by the defcendants of Zingis, would infallibly prove of fhort duration, The Chinefe have taken almott all their civil laws from their ca- nonical books of morality. Filial piety is their balis, as well as that of their government. Some decrees of the emperors, and efpecially thofe refpecting the obfervance of certain ce- Femonies, which cuftom has eltablifhed. form the relt of the ode. Ina word, the Chinefe jurifprudence contains every thing that is to be found in the beit moral writers. Every Mandarin who is a governor, either of a province or city, is obliged, twice a month, to initruct the people around im, and to recommend the obfervance of certain falutary les, fuch as filial piety, a certain deference to elders, fru- lity, temperance, andthe other perfonal virtues. An ex- efs law points out thofe parts of morality which ought to the fubjeéts of thefe difcourfes. Jurifprudence is taught China in the fame manner as the principles of religion are ght in other countries, The laws of China which concern marriage are very ex- tenlive. A man can have only one lawful wife, and her rank and age mult be nearly equal to his own; but he may receive into his houfe, on certain conditions, feveral concu- bines or wives of the fecond rank, who are w holiy fubj- to the lawful fpoufe. heir children are confidered as hers, they addrefs her as mother, and can give this title to her only. Divorces are granted in China as they were’ among all ancient nations, but with lefs facility avd ‘only in certain cafes, fuch as adultery, incompatibility of tempers, flerility, hereditary and infetious difeafes. The law proteéis every wife who is abandoned by her hufband, and can, if be ab- {cuts himfeli for three years, take another huibane, provided fhe firit get the canfent of the mandarins. The law for- bids marriage in certain circumttances; and marriage is /alfo fulpended when a family expericnces any fevere misfortunes. Every father of a family is refponfible for the condué of his children; he is even:accountable for that of his do- meitics. Every fault is impnted to him, whofe duty it is to prevent it. The old perfons of a tamily live generally with the young; the former ferve to moderate the paffions of the latter, ‘and the influence of age over youth is fupported by the fentiments of nature, by habits of obedience, by the precepts of morality ingrafted in the law of the land, and by the unremitted policy and honeft endeavours of parents to that effect. They who are paft labour difpenfe the rules and the wifdom which experience taught them, to thofe who are advancing in life. Plain moral fentences are written up in the common hall where the male branches of the family aflemble. In almoft every houfe is hung up a tablet of the anceftors of the perfons then refiding in it, to which refer- ences are perpetually made, and their example ferves as an incitement to travel in the fame path. The defcendants from acommon itock vilit the tombs of their forefathers together, at {tated times, which practice colle&ts and. unites the moft remote relations They cannot lofe fight of each other, and {eldom become indifferent to their refpeGtive concerns. The child is. bound to labour and to provide for his parents’ main tenance and comfort, 2nd the brother for the brother and the fifter, who. are in extreme want; the failure of which duty would be followed by fuch deteftation that it is. not neceflary to enforce it by pofitive law. Even the moft dif- tant kinfman, reduced to mifery by accident or ill-health, has.a claim on his kindred for relief. Manners, ftronger than laws, produced and nurtured by intercourfe and inti- macy, fecure effectual affiltance fur him. Thefe habits and manners fully explain a faét that appears extraordinary to Europeans, that no {pe€tacles of diltrefs are feen to excite the compaffion, and implore the cafual charity of indi- viduals. Civil and Military Eflablifoments. From the produce of the taxes, the civil and military eftablifhments, and all the incidental and extraordinary expences, are firlt paid on the fpot where they are incurred, out of the provincial maga- zines, and the remainder is remitted to the treafury in Pe- king to meet the expences of the court, the eftablifhment of the emperor, his palaces, temples, gardens, women, and princes of the blood. The confifcations, prefents, tributes, and other articles, may be reckoned as attaching to his privy purfe. The furplus revenue remitted to Peking in the year 1792, was {tated to be about twelve millions fterling. It is a general opinion among the Chinefe part of his fubjeéts that vaft fums of the furplus revenue, and fuch as arife from confifcations, are annually fent to the capital of Tartary: this, however, is an erroneous opinion. Notwithftanding the great wealth of the imperial treafury, the prefent em- peror found it neceflary, ia a‘lingle year, to accept of what 138, ——- is called an offering, of five hundred ounces of filver, from the falt. merchants of Canton, and fums of money, and ars ticles of merchandize from other quarters, to enable him to quell a rebellion that was raging in one of the weftern pro- vinces. He even fent down to Canton a quantity of pearls, agates, ferpentines, and other {tones of little value, in the hope of raifing a temporary fupply from the fale of them to foreign merchants. ‘The emperor of China, therefore, has not fo much wealth at his difpofal as has ufually been Quality. Viceroys, over one or more provinces - - Governors of provinces - - - ColJe&tors of revenue - - - - Prefidents of criminal tribunals - - Governors of more than one city of the firft order Governors ouly of one city of the firft order - Governors of a city of the fecond order - - Governors of a city of the thirdorder - - Prefidents of literature and examinations = InfpeCtors- General - - - - The inferior officers a€ting immediately under the orders of thefe, and amounting to many thoufands, together with the falary and expences of the different boards, all of which are paid out of the public treafury, muft require a fum, at leaft equal to the above; fo that, on a moderate calculation, the ordinary expences of the civil government will amount to the fum of 5.920,000 ounces of filver, or 1,973,333 pounds fterling. Some idea may be formed of the numerous appointments and the frequent changes in adminiltration, from the Chinefe court calendar, which is publifhed every three months, making four large volumes. ‘The attention, precaution, and extreme jealoufy of the government, have not been confidered as fufficient for the proteétion of the em- pire, without the affiltance of an immenfe ftanding army, which, in the midft of a profound peace, was ftated by Van-ta-gin, to conlift of cne million of infantry and eight hundred thoufand of cavalry. The expence of this military eftablifhment, together with artillery, tents, war-equipage, veflels of force on the different rivers and canals, the building and keeping in repair the military pofts, &c. &c. has been eftimated at 49,982,933]. fterling. The revenue is eftimated at fixty-fix millions iterling, fo that the whole will ftand as follows : : Total amount of the revenue - £66,000,000 Civil eltablifhment - £1,973,333 Military ditto - 49,982,933 ae 513950,266 Surplus, being for the emperor’s eftablifhment £14,043,734 which accords pretty nearly with the fum faid to have been remitted to Peking in the year 1792. It may perhapsbe afked, in what manner this large body of men is employed, fince the nation is fo little engaged in foreign war. To which it may be replied, that the employments of the military differ materially from thofe among European nations. Except a great part of the Tartar cavalry, who are ftationed on the northern frontier, and in the conquered provinces of Tar- tary, and the Tartar infantry, who are diftributed as guards for the different cities of the empire, the reft of the army is parcelled out in the fmaller towns, villages, and ham- lets, where they a@ as conftables, thief-takers, affiftants to magiltrates, fubordinate collectors of the taxes, guards to - of thefe pofts there are never fewer than fix men, who not imagined. He even accepts of patriotic gifts from indivi- du.ls, confilting of pieces of porcelain, filks, fans, tea, and fuch like trifling articles, which afterwards ferveas prefents to foreign embafladors ;. and each gift is pompoufly proclaimed in the Peking gazette. The chicf officers in the civil depart- ments of government, independent of the minuters and — the diffzrent boards in Peking, according to the ftatement of Tchou-ta-gin, with their falaries and allowances, reduced into filver, will be feen from the following table: Salaries in Ounces Number. of Silver. Total. ~ - it 20,000 220,000 - - 15 16,0c0 240,009 i - - 19 g:000 171,000 : - - 13 6,000 108,000 i - - 86 3,000 258,000 ; - - 184 2,c09 308,009 - - 149 1,0C0 149,000 - - 1,505 800 ¥,044,000 : & : < 3,000 402,000 Total ozs. 2,960,000 the granaries, and are employed in a variety of different ways under the civil magiftracy and police. Befides thefe, an immenfe multitude are ftationed as guards of the military poits, along the public roads, canals, and rivers. Thefe pofts are {mall fquare buildings, like fo many little caftles, each having on its fummit a watch-tower and a flag, placed at the diftance of three or four miles afunder. At one only prevent robberies and difputes on the roads, but convey the public difpatches to and from the capital. An exprefs — fent from poft to poft travels in this way at the rate of a hun- dred miles per day, and there is no other poft nor mode of conveying letters for the convenience of the public. A great part then of the Chinefe army may be confidered_ asa kind of militia, which never has been, and probably never will be, embodied ; asa part of the community not living en- tirely on the labour of the reft, but contributing fone to the common ftock. Every foldier ftationed on the dif- ferent guards has his portion of land affigned to him, which he cultivates for his family, and pays his quota of the pro- duce to the ftate. The different kinds of troops that com= pofe the Chinefe army confift of, 1. Tartar cavalry, whofe only weapon isa fabre ; anda few who carry bows. 2. Tar- tar infantry, bowmen having alfo large fabres. 3. Chinefe infantry, carrying the fame weapons. 4. Chinefe match locks. 5. Chinefe tigers of war, bearing large round fhields7 of bafket-work and long fwords. On the fhields are painted) monitrous faces of fome imaginary animal, intending to — frighten the enemy, or to petrify their beholders. The military drefs varies in almoft every province; fometimes — they wear blue jackets edged with red, or brown with yele low ; fome have long pantaloons, fome breeches, and others petticoats and boots; the bowmen have long loofe gowns of blue cotton, ftuffed with wadding, fludded with bral knobs, and bound round the middle with a girdle, fron which the fabre is appended behind. On the head th wear a helmet, with flaps on each fide, that cover the chee! and fall on the fhoulders. The upper part is like an 1 verted funnel, with a long pipe terminating in a kind {pear, on which is bounda tuft of hair dyed fcarlet, ‘ Th greateft number of foldiers,”’ fays Mr. Barrow, “ that weft at any one place might be from 2 to 3000, which were draw up in a fingle line along the bank of a river, and, as they CHINA. with an interval between each other, equal to the width of a man, they formed a very confiderable line in length. Every fifth man had a {mali triangular flag, and every tenth a large one; the flags that f{upported them were of differert colours, and fixed to the jacket behind the fhoulders.”? The Tartar cavalry appear to be remarkably {wift, and to charge with great impetuofity ; but the horfes are fo fmall, and broken into fo quick and fhort a ftroke, that the eye is deccived, and their real {peed is but moderate. Their faddles are foft, raifed before and behind, fo that the rider cannot be eafily thrown out of his feat ; and the ftirrups are fo fhort that ‘the knee is nearly level with the chin. They have little artil- lery, and that is very bad. They give a decided preference to clumfy match-locks, over the fire-locks nowin ufe among European troops, pretending that the former, by being fixed with iron forks into the ground are capable of doing more execution than the latter; but the true reafons are _ probably their want of good metal to manufaéture locks, or the bad quality of their gun-powder, or, above all, their deficiency in courage to make ufe of them with that fteadinefs which is required to produce their full effe&. Their favourite weapon is the bow, which, like all other miffile weapons, requires lefs courage to manage than thofe _ which bring a man to oppofe himfelf in clofe conteft with man. Although the Tartars have continued the Chinefe army on the old footing, they have ufed every exertion to recruit it with their own countrymen in preference to the Chinefe. Every male Tartar child is accordingly enrolled, a precaution highly neceflary, as their whole army at the time of the conqueft is faid not to have exceeded 80,000 men. It is, however, certain, that the Chinefe government was at this time under a very weak adminiftration, and every department both civil and military under the controul of eunuchs, 6000 of whom are faid to have been turned adrift by the Tartars, on the taking poffeffion of the palace at Peking. _ The condu& of the Mantchoo Tartars, whofe race is now on the throne, was 2 matter-picce of policy not to have been expeéted in a half-civilized race of people. They entered the Chinefe dominions as auxiliaries againft two rebel chiefs, and in a fhort time placed their own leader on the throne; but inftead of fetting up for conquerors they ‘melted into the mafs of the conquered. ‘They adopted the ‘drefs, the manners, the opinions of the people, and in all the civil departments of the ftate, they appointed the ableft Chinefe, and all vacancies were filled with Chinefe in pre- ference to Tartars. They learned the Chinele language, married into Chinefe families, encouraged Chinefe fupertti- tion, and, in fhort, omitted no ftep that could tend to in- corporate them as one nation ; their great object was to ftrengthen their army with their own countrymen ; while the Chinefe were fo fatisfied with the change, that they almoft doubted whether a change had reaily taken place. Jn proportion as the Tartar power increafed, they have be- come lefs folicitous to conciliate the Chinefe ; all the heads ‘of departments are Tartars; the minilters are ‘Tartars ; and molt of. the offices of high truft and power are filled by a, The beft foldiers of this empire are colleéted from the three northern provinces; thofe fupplied by the reft are feldom called forth ; but remain with their families, te their pay, and have feldom any occafion to remember at they are foldiers, except when ordered to appear at a view. | State of Society ; Manners and Cuflams. It may be laid down as an invariable maxim that the condition of the fe- male part of fociety in any nation will furnifh a tolerably Wt criterion. of the degree of civilization to which that 6 nation has arrived. The manners, habits, and prevailing fentiments of women have great influence on thofe of the fociety to which they belong, and generally give a turn to its charaéter. Thus, thofe nations where the moral and in- telle€tual powers of the mind in the female fex are held in mott eftimation, will be governed by fuch laws as are bett cal- culated to promote the general happinefs of the people ; and, on the contrary, where the perfonal qualifications of the fex are the only objects of confideration, as is the cafe in all the defpotic governments of Afiatic nations, tyranny, oppreflion, and flavery are fure to prevail; and thefe perfonal accom- plifhments, fo far from being of ufe to the owner, ferve only to deprive her of liberty and the fociety of her friends, to render her a degraded victim fubfervient to the fenfual gra- tifications, the caprice, and the jealoufy of man. Among favage tribes the labour and drudgery fall heavieft on the weaker fex. The Chinefe have impofed on their women a greater degree of humility and reflraint than the Greeks of old, or the Europeans in the dark ages. Not fatisfied with the phyfical deprivation of the ufe of their limbs, they have contrived, in order to keep them the more confined, to make it a moral crime for a woman to be feen abroad. If they fhould have occafion to vifit a friend or relation, they muft be carried in a clofe fedan-chair: to walk would be the height of vulgarity. Even the country ladies, who may not poffefs the luxury of a chair, rather than walk, fuffer themfelves to be rolled about in a fort of covered wheel-barrow. The wives and daughters, however, of the lower clafs are neither confined to the houfe, nor exempt from hard and flavifh labour, many being obliged to work with an infant upon the back, while the hufband, in all pro- bability, is gaming, or otherwife idling away his time. In the province of Kiang-fee nothing is more common than to fee a woman drawing a kind of light plough, with a fingle handle, through ground that has previoufly been prepared ; the eafier tafk of direGting the machine is left to the huf- band, who, holding the plough with one hand, calts, at the fame time, with the other, the feed into the drills. The ad- vantages which thefe women poflefs in a higher {phere of life, if any, are not much to be envied. Even at home, in their own family, a woman mutt neither eat at the fame table, nor fit in the fame room with her hufband. And the male children, at the age of nine or ten years,.are entirely feparated from their fifters. Thus the feelings of affeétion, not the inftin@tive produéts of nature, but the offspring of frequent intercourfe, and of a mutual communication of their little wants and pleafures, are nipped in the very bud. A cold and ceremonious conduct mutt be obferved on ail occations between the members of the fame family. There is no common focus to attra& and concentrate the love and re- {pe& of children for their parents. Each lives retired and apart from the other. The incidents and adventures of the day, which furnifh the converfation among children of many a long winter’s evening, by a comfortable fire-fide, in our own country, are in China buricd in filence. Boys, it is true, fometimes mix together in {chools, but the {tiff and ceremonious behaviour, which conftitutes no inconfiderable part of their education, throws a reftraint on the little play- ful ations incident to their time of life, and completely fub- dues all fpirit of aGtivity and enterprife. A Chinefe youth of the higher clafs is inanimate, formal, and ina&tive, con- {tantly endeavouring to affume the gravity of years. To. beguile the many tedious and heavy hours that muft un- avoidably recur to the fecluded females, totally unqualified for mental purfuits, the tobacco-pipe is the ufual expedient. Every female from the age of cight or nine ycars wears, as an appendage to her drefs, a {mall filken purfe or pocket, to CG HIN) A to hold tobacco and a pipe, with the ufe.of which many of to promote the affection and kindnefs which children feel them are not unacquainted at this tender age. Some, in- for their parents in many countries. A tyrant tocommand, ( deed, are conftantly employed in working embroidery on and a flave to obey, are found in every family ; and if the ais filks, ot in painting birds, infeéts, and flowers on their gauze. of kindnefs and attention that create mutual endearments be But the women who employ their time in this manner are wanting among the members of the fame family living under generally the wives and daughters of tradefmen and artificers ;_ the fame roof, it will be in vaim to expe@ to find them in a lady of rank would not be fuppofed to condefcend'to ufe the large {phere of public life; and in fa& there are no her needle. Daughters may be faid to be invariably fold. friendly focicties, nor meetings, to talk over the tranfa€tions The bridegroom muft always make his bargain with the and the news of the day. Thefe can only take place in a parents of his intended bride. She has no choice, but is free government, A Chinefe, having finifhed his daily em- difpofed of to the higheft bidder. The man, indeed, in this ployment, retires to his folitary apartment. There is, it is — ref{peét, has no great advantage on his fide, as he is not allow- true, a fort of public houfes where the lower orders of peo- — ed to fee his intended wife until fhe arrives in formal proceffion ple refort for their cup of tea; but fuch places are not free ~ at his gate. If, however, on opening the door‘of the chair quented for the fake of company. Whenever a few Chinefe ~ in which the lady is fhut up, and of which the key has been meet together, it is generally for the purpofe of gaming, or fent before, he fhould diflike his bargain, he can return her to eat akettle of boiled rice, or drink a pot of tea, or fmoke a to her parents; in this cafe the articles are forfeited that pipe of tobacco. The upper ranks indulge at home in the conftituted her price ; and a fum of money in addition may ufe of opium, of which they are very fond, though it 1s ‘be demanded, not exceeding the valne of. thefe articles. ftri€tly prohibited by law. It is, however, too expenlive s*'To what a degraded condition,” fays Mr. Barrow, “is to be ufed by the common people. The young have no oc- a female reduced by this abfurd cuftom, and how little induce- cafional affemblies for the purpofe of dancing, and of exercif- ment can fhe have to render herfelf amiable or elegant, know- ing themfelves in feats of aétivity, which in Europe are ate ing that fhe’ will be configned into the hands of the firiiman tended with the happieft effets. The firft day of the new who will give the price that her parents have fixed upon her -year, and a few fucceeding days, are the only holidays that charms.”? The man takes a wife becaufe the laws of the are obferved by the working part of the community. On eountry direé&t him to do fo, and cuftom has made it indil- thefe the pooreft peafant makes a point of procuring new — penfable ; and a woman after marriage continues to be the cloaths for himfelf and his family ; they pay vifits to their fame piece of inanimate furniture fhe always was in her friends and relations, interchange civilities and compliments, ‘father’s houfe. She fuffers no indignity, nor does fhe feel make and receive prefents; and the officers of government, any jealoufy or difturbance when her hufband brings into and the higher ranks, give feafts and entertainments; but the fame houfe a fecond or a third woman. Although even in thefe there is nothing that beers the refemblance of ; polygamy be allowed by the government, yet few take the conviviality. The guefts never partake together of the fame advantage of it. Nine-tenths of the community find it dif- fervice of difhes, but each has frequently a feparate table ; ficult to rear the offspring of one woman by the labour of the eyes of all muft conftantly be kept on the matter of the their hands; fuch, therefore, are neither in circumftances, feaft, to watch his motions, and to obferve every morfel he — nor probably feel much inclination to purchafe a fecond. puts into his mouth, and every time he lifts the cup to his The unfociable diftance which the law preferibes to be ob- lips (for a Chinefe of good breeding can neither eat nor ferved between the fexes, and the cool and indifferent manner drink without a particular ceremony), to which the guefts of bargaining for a wife, are not calculated to produce nu- mutt pay attention. If a perfon invited fhould be prevented merous initances of criminal intercourfe. Thefe, however, from attending, the portion of dinner that was intended for fometimes happen, and the weight of punifhment always lies him is fent in proceffion to his own houfe; it is even cufto- heavieft onthe woman. The hufband finds no difficulty inob- mary to fend after the gueft the remains of his dinner. taining a fentence of divorce, after which he may fell her Whatever may be the occafion of bringing together a few” for a flave, and thus redeem a part at leaft of his pur- idlers, they feldom part without trying their luck at fome” chafe-money. The fame thing happens in cafe a wife fhould game of chance, for which a Chinefe is never unprepared. elope; but if a young girl fhould chance to lofe what is He rarely goes abroad without a pack of cards in his pocket, jultly held to be the mott valuable part of female reputation, ora pair of dice; both of thefe are different from fimilar ar=” fhe is {ent to market by her parents, and publicly fold for ticles elfewhere; their cards are much more numerous that a flave. In cafes of mutual diflike, or incompatibility of ours, and their games much more complicated. ‘They fomes ‘temper, the woman is generally fent back to her parents. times play at chefs, which appears to be effentially different The prohibition againft the frequent intercourfe with modeft from that game as played in other Oriental nations. The females, for there are public women in every great city, is fpirit of gaming is fo univerfal, in moft of the towns and) not attended here with the effe&t of rendering the purfuit cities, that, in almoft every bye corner, groups are to be more cager; it, feems even to have the contrary effect, of found playing at cards or throwing dice. They are accufe promoting that fort of conneétion, which, being one of the of even ftaking their wives and children on the hazard of 3 greatelt violations of the law of nature, wili-ever be con- die. One of their moft favourite {ports is cock-fighting fidered by an enlightened people as the fir of moral crimes, which is as eagerly purfued by the upper claffs in China, a connexion that finks the man infinitely below the brute. it continues to be by thofein a fimilar fituation in fome The commiffion of this deteftable and unnatural a& is at- parts of Europe. The training of quails for the fame c tended with fo little fenfe of fhame, that many of the firft purpofe of butchering each other, furnifhes abundance officers of ftate feem to make no hefitation in publicly avow- employment for the idle and diffipat.d. They have eve ing it. Each of thefe officers is conftantly attended by his extended their inquiries after fighting animals into the in pipe-bearer, who is generally a handfome boy, from 14 to" fe& tribe, in which they have difcovered a {pecies of gryllui 18 years of age, and is always well dreffed, the reafon of or locuft, that will attack each other with {uch ferocity, 2 which is too obvious, to bye-ftanders, to be mifinter- feldom to quit their hold without bringing away, at the fan preted. time, a limb of their antagonift. Thefe little creatures a The fate of domeftic feciety in China is ill calculated kept apart in bamboo cages; and the cuftom of making them 7 devo Va a ee CHINA, devour each other is fo conimon, that during the fummer movths fearcely a boy is feen without his cage end grafs- hoppers. Another trait in the Chinefe charafter, which muft not be paffed over, is the horrid praétice of infanticide, tolerated by cultom, and allowed by government; becaule where the legiflature does not interfere to prevent crimes, it may be faid tolend them countenance. The laws of China do not indeed fuppofe fuch an unnatural crime to exift, and have therefore provided no punifhment for it. They have left the child entirely to the difpofal of the father, concluding, that if his feelings will not prevent him from do'ng it an injury, no other confideration will. ‘Thus, though the commiflion of infanticide be frequent in China, it is confidered as more prudent to wink at it, as an inevitable evil, which natural affeGtion will better corre& than penal ftatutes. It is, how- ever, tacitly confidered as a part of the duty of the police of Peking, to empioy certain perfons to go their rounds at an early hour in the morning with carts, in order to pick up fuch bodies of infants as may have been thrown into the ftreets in the courfe of the night. No inquiries are made, but the bodies are carried to a common pit without the city walls, into which all thefe that may be living, as well as thofe that are dead, are faid to be thrown promifcuoufly. _ The number of children thus inhumanly flaughtered, in the courfe of a year, is differently ftated by different authors, fome making it about 10 and others 30,000 in the whole ‘empire. Mr. Barrow thinks the truth may probably lic in the ‘mean of thefe extremes. He concludes that about 24 infants “are on an average daily deltroyed in Peking, where it is fup- “pofed about an equal number are expofed, to that of al! the ‘other parts of the empire. How very weak then, fays he, mult, “be the boatted filial affection of the Chinefe for their parents, when they fcruple not to become the murderers of their -own children, towards whom, according to the immutable Taws of nature, the force of affection will ever be ftronger, ‘than for thofe, whom the laws of China, in preference, have ‘commanded to be proteéted and fupported when rendered ‘incapable of affilting themfelves. Hence, and from other ‘fa&ts, the refult of his own obfervations, he mfers that ‘filial piety, among the Chinefe, may rather be confidered ‘in the light of an ancient precept, carrying with it the weight of a pofitive Jaw than the effect of fentiment. ‘Thefe unfavourable features, in the chara€ter of a people whofe natural difpofition is neither ferocious nor morofe, ‘But on the contrary mild, obliging, and cheerful, can be “attributed only to the habits in which they have been ‘trained, and to the heavy hand of power, perpetually hang- ing over them. That this is the cafe may be inferred from ‘the general condu@t and charaéter of thofe who have from time to time emigrated into other countries, where they are ‘not lefs remarkable for their honefty than for their peaceable -and induftriovs habits. In thefe places it appears alfo that their quicknefs at invention is not furpaffed by accuracy of imitation, The exterior deportment of every clafs in China 48 uncommonly decent, and all their manners mild and en- ‘gaging; but even thefe, among perfons of any rank, are ‘confidered as objects worthy of the interfe:ence of the le- ‘giflature ; hence it follows that they are ceremonious with- ‘out fincerity, {tudious of the forms only of politencfs, with- cut either the eafe or elegance of good-breeding. An in- fetior makes a fham attempt to fall on his knees before his foperior, and the latter affeéts a flight motion to raife him. A common falutation has its mode prefcribed by the court of ceremonies ; and any negle& or default in a plebeian to- ards lis fuperior is punifhable by corporal chaftifement, and men in office by degradation or fufpenfion. In a governs ' Vou. VII. ment where every man is liable to be made a flave, where every man is fubject to be flogged with the bamboo, where he is compelled to thank the tyrant on his knees for the trouble he has taken to correct his morals, high notions of honour, or even of common honetty, cannot be expeded. Such a fyltem is well calculated to exclude and obliterate every notion of the dignity of human nature. A flave in fact cannot be difhononred, the vices of fuch a condition are innumerable, and they appear on all occafions: a Chinefe merchant will cheat, whenever an epportunity offers him the means, becaufe he is confidered incapable of aéting honettly ; a Chinefe peafant will fteal whenever he can do it without danger of being detected ; becaufe the punifhment is only the bamboo, to which he is daily liable; and a Chinefe prince, or a prime minifter, will extort the property of the fubject, and apply it to his private ufe whenever he thinks he can do it with impunity. The only check upon the ra- pacity of men in power, is the influence of fear, arifing from the poffibility of detection. The love of honour, the dread of fhame, and a fenfe of juftice feem to be equally un- felt by the majority of men in office. Mr. Barrow produces a variety of inftanccs to prove that the character of the Chi- nefe is generally defective in thefe refpeéts; and he fays that the refined knavery difplayed by Chinefe merchants in their dealings with Europeans, and the tricks that they play off in their trasfacticns with one another, are well known to mot nations, and proverbial in their own. A merchant, with them, is confidered as the loweft charaéter in the coun- try, asa man that will cheat if he can, and whofe trade it is to create, and then fupply artificial wants. ‘To this general character, an exception is due to thofe merchants, who, a&- ing under the immediate fanction of government, have always been remarked for their hberality and accuracy in their deal- ings with Europeans trading to Canton, ‘The want of prin- ciple in the Chinefe charaéter feems to be more in the fy{tem of government, than in the nature and difpofition of the people. The Tartars, by affuming the drefs, the manners, and the habits of the Chinefe, are fcarcely diltinguifhable from them in their external appearance ; and. if any phyfical difference exilts it feems to be in ftature only. The Chinefe are rather taller and of a more flender and delicate form than the Tartars, who are in general fhort, thick, and robuft. The {mall eye, elliptical at the end next to the nofe, is a pre- dominating feature both in the Tartar and Chinefe coun- tenance; they have hoth the fame high cheek-bones and pointed chins, which with the cultom of fhaving off the hair gives to the head the fhape of an inverted cone. The natu- ral colour both of the Chinefe and Tartars feems to be that tint between a fair and a dark complexion, and the fhades of this complexion are deeper, or lighter, according as they have been more or lefs expofed to the influence of the climate. The women of the lower clafs, who labour in the fields or who dwell in veffels, are almoft invariably coarfe, ill featured, and of a deep complexion, very like that of a Hottentot. Among the men, thofe who are belt drefled wear a fort of velvet cap on their heads ; a fhort jacket clofe buttoned round the neck and folded acrofs the breaft, the fleeves remarkably wide ; the materials, cotton cloth; black, blue, or brown filk ; or European camblet ; they wear quilted petticoats and black fatin boots. The common people are dreffed in large itraw hats, blue or black cotton frocks, wide cotton trowlers, and fhoes made of ftraw; fome have coarfe flockings of cotton cloth; the legs of others are naked, and a fingle pair of drawers conftitutes the whole cloathing of a great portion of the crowd. On the banks of the Pei-ho, and indeed in mott parts of the country, bunches of large artificial sae | 4Q CHIN A. of different colours, are ftuck in the jet black hair of the women, which is {crewed up clofe behind, and folded into a knot acrofs the crown of the head. ‘Two bodkins of filver, brafs, or iron, are confpicuoufly placed behind the head in the form of an oblique crofs. ‘Their faces and necks are daubed with white paint, the eye-brows are blackened, and on the centre of the lower lip, and at the point of the chin, are two {pots about the fize of a {mall wafer, of a deep vermillion colour. A blue frock like that of the men, reaching in fome to the middle of the thigh, in others to the knee, is alinoft univerfal. A pair of wide trowfers of different colours are extended a little below the calf of the leg, where they are drawn clofe, the better to difplay an ancle anda foot which, for fingularity at leaft, may challenge the whole world. ‘This dittorted member confifts of a foot that has been cramped in its growth to the length of four or five inches, and an ancle that is generally {wollen in the fame proportion that the foot is diminifhed. The little fhoe is as fine as tinfel and tawdry can make it, and the ancle is bandaged round with party-coloured cloths ornamented with fringe and taffels: with fuch a leg and foot thus dreffed out they are confidered in China fuperlatively beautiful. This mon- ftrous fafhion of cramping the growth of the feet has been attributed to the jealoufy of the men. The fafhion is, however, at prefent fo univerfal, that any deviation from it is confidered as difgraceful. Upon the principle of being thought fuperior to others, the men of learning, as they call themfelves, fuffer the nails of their little fingers to grow, fometimes to the length of three inches, for the fole pur- pofe of demonttrating the impoffibility of their being em- ployed in any fort of manual labour; and upon the fame principle, perhaps, the ladies of China may be induced to continue the cuftom of maiming their female infants in order that they may be diltinguifhed from thofe of the peafantry, who in,mott of the provinces are condemned to fubmit to the drudgery of the field. The interior wrappers of the ladies’ feet are {aid to be feldom changed, a cuftom that conveys no favourable idea of Chinefe cleanlinefs ; this, indeed, forms no part of their character; the comfort of clean linen, or frequent change of under garments, is equally unknown to the fovereign and the peafant. A fort.of thin coarfe filks fupplies the place of cotton or linen, next the fkin, among the upper ranks ; but the common people wear a coarfe kind of cotton cloth. ‘Thefe veftments are rarely removed for the purpofe of wafhing ; the confequence is an abundant increafe of thofe vermin, to the produétion of which filthinefs is found to be favourable. The highelt officers of {tate make no helitation of calling their attendants in public to feek in their necks for thofe troublefome animals, which when caught they put between their teeth. They carry no pocket handkerchiefs, but make ufe of {mall {quare pieces of paper, which their attendants have ready prepared for the purpofe. They fleep at night in the fame cloaths they wear by day; their bodies are as feldom wafhed as their articles of drefs. At their meals they make ro ufe of table linen, and eat without knife, fork, or fpoon; a pair of {mal} -fticks, or the quills of a porcupine, are the only fubtti- tutes orthefe convenient articles ; anda Chinefe, if his rank enables him, lies down to fleep as foon as he has finifhed his lonely meal. There are no inns in any part of this vaft empire, that is, no inhabited and furnifhed houfes where a traveller may purchafe thofe refrefhments of which he ftands in need. What they call inns are mean hovels, confifting of bare walls, where, perhaps, a paflenger may procure a cup of tea fer a piece of copper money, end permiffion to pafs the sight, but this is the extent of the comfort which fuch places afford. The practice ‘ndeed of journeying by land is fo rare, that no houfe of decent accommodation could. be fupported by the occafional vifits of travellers. The officers of {tate invariably make ufe of the conveniences which the temples afford, as being the belt that can be ob- tained. Buildings and Furniture of the Chinzfe. The Chinefe buildings, even public monuments, and the emperor’s pa- laces, trike more by their extent than their magnificence. The imperial palace at Peking may be compared to a large city: thofe of the princes, principal mandarins, and people of great fortune, contain four or five outer courts, in each of which is a feparate building with three gates ; that in the middle is larger than the other two, and is decorated with two marble lions, which are placed on either fide of it. The halls fet apart for receiving vifits are neat, and provided with feats, and other plain furniture, but nothing can be perceived in them which marks either magnificence or gran- deur. The apartment in which they entertain their friends is equally plain and fimple. Thofe fet apart for their wo- men and children are inacceffible to every ftranger, even the molt intimate friend of the mafter of the houfe. The Chi- nefe gardens are laid out in a peculiar ftyle. In thefe are groves, ponds, artificial mountains and rocks, and winding alleys, which condu€t to different points of view, each of which prefents a new objet. The Chinefe are fond of every thing that is gigantic: with them the beauty of a co- lumn confifts in its fize and height ; and that of a hall in its extent. [wo provinces, viz. Chan-tong and Kiang-nan, abound with excellent marble, and in quantities fufficient to fupply the reft of the empire; but the Chinefe are neither acquainted with the art of cutting it properly, nor of apply- ing it to the purpofes of building. They generally em- ploy it in conftruéting bridges, for threfholds to the doors, and to pave their ftreets, where any of them are paved. Some triumphal arches, temples, and pagodas, are, how- ever, built of it, but without art or tafte. he Chinefe ex-— hibit but little attention in ornamenting and embellifhing the interior part of their houfes: they have neither mirrors, tapeftry, nor gilding. They, befides, receive no vifits but in a particular hall, which is fituated in the front part of the houfe, and before every other apartment, for the purpofe of prevent- ing thofe who are admitted into it from having any commu-_ nication with the inner apartment. Its ornaments confilt of large lanterns made of painted filk, which are fufpended from the ceiling, tables and other furniture, which are ge= nerally covered with a moit beautiful varnith fo tranfparent, that the veins of the wood may be feen through it, and fo bright and fhining, that it reflects different objedts, like filvered glafs. The fort of tapeitry manufaétured in China. is of white fatin, on which are wrought birds, flowers, land- {capes, &c. Sometimes they contain, in large charaéters, a few moral fentences, which generally compofe a kind of enige ma. Poor people are contented with whitening the walls of their apartments; others cover them with that fort of paper | which is brought from China, and which people of fortune, | in Europe, ufed formerly to employ in ornamentirg fome part of their’s. The beds cf the rich are furnifhed | in winter with curtains of double fatin, and in fummer of plain white taffety, interfperfed with flowers, birds, and trees: fometimes they are compofed only of very fine gauze, _ which keeps out gnats and mofquitoes, and leaves a free paf- fage for the air. ‘The polts of thefe beds.are gilt, painted and ornamented with what they denominate fculpture. The common people ufe curtains only of linen, and plain mate treffes, ftuffed with cotton; in the northern provinees they fleep upon beds.con{tructed of brick. Thefe. fingular beds are larger or fmaller in proportion to the number of the fa- mily, CHINA, mily. They are kept warm by means of a {mall ftove. Thofe who are able place on the bricks a kind of mattrefs. In the morning this is removed, and its place is fupplied by a carpet, or mat; the bed then becomes a fort of couch, up- ‘on which the whole family fit and work. At the ttoves the poor people drefs their meat and warm their tea and other liquors, for, notwith{tanding the heat of the climate, they ne- ver drink any thing cold. In the houfes of the great the ttoves are built in the wall, and the fire is lizhted from the outfide. Language and Literature. The Chinefe language is not only one of the moft ancient in the univerfe, but isy perhaps, the only language of the early ages, which is ftill fpoken and living: it is indeed as extraordinary, as the people who fpeak it, and has no relation whatever to any known lan- guage. Its genius is fuch that no laws of analogy can com- prehend it. It hasno alphabet, and the words which com- poleit confift of one fyHable only, and are very few in num- ber. Thefe words always remain the fame ; that is to fay, monofyllables, even when two are united to fignify one fin- gle thing: whether they are written or pronounced, they remain always feparate and diltingét, and are never blended into one. Thefe monofyllables never produce but one found. When they are written by the European alphabet, they begin by the letters ch, tch, f, g or j,i, by 1, my ny ng, prs, ts, v, ou; the final letters are a, ¢, i, 0, of, ou, u, /, a, gu. The middle of Chinefe words confiits of vowels and confonants, which produce only one found, and are always pronounced as monofyllables. “The Chinefe language con- tains only about three hundred and thirty primary and radi- cal words; though fome dictionaries make them amount to four hundred and eighty-four. The fenfe of thefe primitive words may be multiplied almoft without end, by the aburd- ance and varicty of accents, inflections, and afpirations ufed, and by other changes of the voice which pronounces them. The nice diltin€tions between the tones and accents of words, nearly refembling each other in found, but varying much in fenfe, require a great nicety of ear to diftinguith, and of vo- cal powers to render them exact. To fucceed in making thofe diftinctions perfectly, a ftranger fhould begin to learn them at an early age, while his organs are flexible and acute. Synonymous words are frequently introduced into Chinefe dialogues to prevent any doubt about the fenfe. If, how- ever, in an intricate difcuffion any uncertainty fhould full remain as to the meaning of a particular expreflion, recourfe is had to the criterion of tracing, with the finger in the air, the form of the chara¢ter, and thus completely afcertaining at once what was meant to be expreffed. In the Chinefe guage there are not many minute rules of grammar, con- jugation or declenfion. There is no neceffity of dittinguifh- ing fubftantives, adjectives, or verbs; nor any accordance Bender, number, and cafe, in a Chinefe fentence. The nning or end of words is not altered as it is in the Greek , by the times of performing the action meant to be eX~ reffed, or the cafes in which the things mentioned are in- ended to be placed. A very few particles denote the patt, che prefent, and the future; nor are thofe auxiliaries em- sloyed, when the intended time may be otherwife inferred with certainty. The plural number is marked by the addi- ion of a word, without which the fingular is always implied. Neither the memory, nor the organs of fpeech, are bur- hened with the pronunciation of more founds to exprefs ideas, han are abfolutely neceflary to mark their difference. A ingle fyllable always exprefles a complete idea, and may be ounded by an European conf nant preceding a vowel, fome- imes followed by a liquid. Such an order of words ren- lers the language foft and harmonious as the Italian, from he rarity of confonayts, and the frequency of its vowel terminations. There is in the Chinefe a certain order or fet- tled fyntax in the fucceffion of words in the fame fentence : a fucceflion fixed by cuftom differently in different languages. The formation of Chinefe fentences is often the fimplett and molt artlefs poffible, and fuch as may naturally have occurred at the origin of fociety. A fimple charaéter repeated, {tands fometimes for more than one of the objeéts which fin- gly it denotes ; and fometimes for a colleétive quantity of the fame thing. The charaéter of moo, fingly, is a tree; re- peated, is a thicket; and tripled, is a forell. In Chinefe there are fearcely fifteen hundred diftin@ founds. In the written language there are, at leaft, eighty thoufand charac- ters, or different forms of letters. The Chinefe charaéters are divided into fix forts; the firft exhibiting the fhape or image of fenfible things; the fecond indicating the objeét by fome vifible addition to the fhape or fymbol; the third affociating two characters to exprefs an object, which neither will denote feparately ; the fourth exprefling a found, in order to fupply the defe& of the fi- gure, as ya adjoined to the figure of a bird, to reprefent a duck, &c.; the fifth being a metaphorical application of their characters, by which their language acquires a force and vivacity of colouring peculiar to itfelf, but at the fame time rendering it extremely obfcure ; the fixth extending the pri- mitive fenfe of a character, fo that the fame character may denote a verb or adverb, an adjeGtive or fubltantive. Thefe characters have been reprefented by fome learned writers for fenfible things, and fymbols for mental objeéts, which are tied to no found, and may be read in every tongue ; and this feems to have been the cafe in the mott remote antiquity, when their charaéters, which are now abbreviated and dish- gured, might have been more fimple and natural. See Phil. Tranf, vol. lix. p. 489. The charaGters of the Chinefe language were originally traced, in moft inftances, with a view to exprefs either real images, or the allegorical figns of ideas: a circle, for exam- ple, for the fun, and a crefcent for the moon. A man was reprefented by an ereé figure, with lines to mark the extre- mities. he difficulty and tedioufnefs of imitation, foon occafioned a change to traits more fimple, and more quickly traced. A faint refemblance, however, {till remains, in afew inftances, of the original forms in the prefent hieroglyphic characters ; and a gradation of their changes is traced in feveral Chinefe books. Not above half a dozen of the pre- fent charaGters conlilt each of a fingle line; but mott of them confit of many, and a few even of feventy different {trokes. A certain connexion is to be perceived in the ar- rangement of the written charaéters of the Chinefe; as if it had been originally formed upon a fy{tem to take place at once, and not to grow up, as other languages, by flow and diftant intervals. Upwards of two hundred charaGtere, each confilting of a few lines, are made to mark the princ- pal objeéts of nature. Thefe may be confidered as the ge- nera or roots of language, in which every other word or {pecies, in a fyttematic fenfe, is referred to its proper genus. The heart isa genus, of which the reprefentation of a curve line approaches fomewhat to the form of the object, and the {pecies referable to it, include all the fentimente, pal- fions, and affections, that agitate the human breaft. Each {pecies is accompanied by fome mark denoting the genus, or“ heart.’ Under the genus ‘ hand” are arranged mott trades and manual exercifes. Under the genus ‘ word,” every fort of fpeech, ttudy, writing, underftanding, and debate. A horizontal line marks a unit; croffed by ano- ther line it ftands for ten, he five elements, of which the Chincfe fuppofe all bodies in nature to be compounded, forna fo many genera, each of which comprehends under it a great 4Q2 number CAT NVAY number of fpecies. As in every compound charaéter or {pecies, the abridged mark of the genus is difcernible, a per- fon is foon enabled to confult the Chinefe digtionary, in which thefe characters are arranged under their proper ge- nera. ‘lhe characters of the genera are placed at the be- ginning of the dittionary, in an order, which, like that of the alphabet, is invariable, and foon becomes familiar to the learner. ‘The fpecies. under each genus follow each other, according to the number of f{trokes of which each confilts, independently of the one or few which ferve to point out the genus. The fpecics wanted is thus foon found out, and ite meaning and pronunciation are given through other words in common ufe, the firft of which denotes its fignification, and the other its found. When no one word is found to render exactly the fame found, it is communicated by two words, with marks to inform the inquirer, that the confonant of the firft word, and the vowel of the fecond, joined toge- ther, form the precife found wanting. The compofition of many of the Chinefe charaéters often difplays confiderable ingenuity, and ferves to give an infight into the opinion and manners of the people. “The charaéter expreffive of happi- nefs, includes abridged marks of land, the fource of their phyfical, and of children, that of their moral, enjoyments. This charaGier, embellifhed in a variety of ways, ishung up in almott every houfe. Upon the formation, changes, and allufions of compound characters, the Chinefe have publifhed many thoufand vo- lumes of philological learning. No where does criticifm more abound, or 1s more f{tri€t. The introdudtion or altera- tion of a charaéter is a ferious undertaking, and feldom fails to meet with oppofition. The moft ancient writings of the Chinefe are {till claffical among them. The language feemis in no inftance to have been derived from or mixed with any other. ‘The written feems to have followed the oral lan- guage, foon after the men who fpoke it were formed into a regular fociety. ‘The Chinefe printed charaéter is the fame as is ufed in molt manufcripts, and is chiefly formed of ftraight lines in angular pofitions, as moft letters are in eattern tongues. A running hand is ufed by the Chinefe only on trivial occafions, or for private notes, for the eafe and expe- dition of the writer; and differs from the other as much as an European manufcript does from print. ‘The principal difficulty in the ttudy of Chinefe writings, arifes from the general exclufion of the auxiliary particles of colloquial lan-. guage, that fix a relation between indeclinable words, fuch as are all thofe of the Chinefe language. The judgment mutt be conftantly exercifed by the ftudent, to fupply the abfence of fuch affiftance. That judgment mutt be guided by atten- tion to the manners, cultoms, laws, and opinions of the Chinefe, and to the events and local circumi{tances of the country, to which the allufions of language perpetually re- fer. The Chinefe chara¢ters are fketches, or abridged figures ; anda fentence is often a {tring of metaphors. The different relations of life are not marked by arbitrary founds, fimply conveying the idea of fuch a connection, but the qua- lities naturally expeéted to arife out of fuch relation become frequently the name by which they are refpeétively known. Kindred, for example, of every degree is thus diltinguifhed, with a minutenefs unknown in other languages. That of China has diftin& charaéters for every modification known by them of objects in the phyfical and intellectual world. Abftraé&t terms are no otherwife exprefled by the Chinefe than by giving to each the name of the moft prominent ob- jects to which it might be applied, which is hkewife indeed generally the cafe of other languages. Among the Latins the abftra& idea of virtue was expreffed under the name of virtus, being the quality moft efteemed among them, as filial piety is confidered to be in China. The words of an alphas betical language being formed of different combinations of letters, each with a different fourd and name, whoever knows and combines thefe together, may read the word without the leat knowledge of their meaning ; this, however, is not the cafe with hieroglyphic language, in which each charaéter has a found annexed to it, but which bears no certain relation to the unnamed lines or ftrokes, of which it is compofed, Such character is ftudied and beft learned by becoming ac- quainted with the idea attached to it; and a ditionary of hicroglyphics is lefs a vocabulary of the terms of one lan- guage with the correfpondent terms in another, than a Cy- clopedia containing explanations of the ideas themfelves, re prefented by fuch hieroglyphics. In fuch fenfe, only, can the acquilition of Chinefe words be juftly faid to engrofs moft of the time of men of learning among them. Enough, however, of the language is imperceptibly acquired by every native, — and may, with diligence, be attained by foreigners, as far as concerns the ordinary concerns of life. We now proceed to the literature of the Chinefe. In their language are a multitude of books, abounding © in ufeful knowledge; but the higheft clafs confifis of five works: one of which, at leaft, every Chinefe who afpires to literary fame muft diligently perufe. The firft is purely hiftorical, containing annals of the empire from 2337 years before Chrift ; it isentitled Shuking, and a verfion of it has been publifhed in France. The fecond claffical work of the Chinefe contains three hundred odes, or fhort poems, in praife of ancient fovereigns and legiflators, or defcriptive of ancient manners, and recommending an imi. 5 tation of them in the difcharge of all public and domettic du ties. They abound in wife maxims, and excellent precepts, their whole doctrine being reducible to this grand rule, ‘ that we fhould not even entertain a thought of any thing bafe or culpable.” So high an opinion do the Chinefe entertain for this work, that one of their writers afks, ‘* Why, my fons do yon not ftudy the book of Odes? If we creep on th ground, if we lie ufelefs and inglorious, thofe poems wi vaife us to true glory : in them we fee, as in a mirror, what may beft become us, and what will be unbecoming ; by thei influence we fhall be made focial, affable, benevolent: for, ; mufic combines founds in juft melody, fo the ancient naa tempers and compofes our paffions. "The Odes teach us our duty to our parents at home, and abroad to our prince; the inftrué& us alfo delightfully in the various produCtions of n ture.” Haft, thou ftudied,” faid the philofopher to h fon, “ the firft of the three hundred odes?) He who ftudi them not, refembles a man with his face againft a wall, unab to advance a ftep in virtue and wifdom.” Molt of thefe od are three thoufand years old. ‘lhe work is printed in fo volumes. The third book is entitled Yeking, or the boo of changes, believed to have been written by Fo, the Hermes of the Eaft, and confifting of right lines varioufly difpofe it is, however, fcarcely intelligible to the mot learned mand rins. Confucius, himfelf, being diffatisfied with the co mentators upon it, intended to have elucidated it, but w prevented by death. The //t/, or Lili, is compiled from o} monuments, and confifts chiefly of the Chinefe ritual, and traéts on moral duties ; but the fourth, entitled Chuug-Ci or Spring and Autumn, by which the writer meant the flow rifhing {tate of an empire under a virtuous monarch, and fall of kingdoms under bad governors, is an interefting wo to every nation. The Chinefe have their ftanzas, odes, gies, eclogues, epigrams, and fatires. The common peo} alfo have ballads and fongs peculiar to themfelves. Some the mott diftinguifhed of the literati have even thought it importance to turn into verfe the celebrated maxims of rality, GC HT NvA. rality, the duties of the different conditions, and the rules of civility fortheir ufe. Seldom is the Chinefe poetry difgraced by obfcenity, and if it ever happens, the author mult pay dear for it if his works fall into the hands of government. It is in confequence of that rigid and fevere attention which watches over every thing in the lea{t tending to corrupt pub- lic manners, that all romances, without exception, are ex- prefsly prohibited by the laws. The police, however, lefs fevere than the law, permits fuch novels and romances as have an ufefu! tendency, and in which nothing is found prejudicial to morality. Every author who writes againft government ‘is punifhed with death, as wellas all thofe who have had any hand in the printing or circulation of his works. The rules of dramatic compofition eftablifhed in Europe are not known to the Chinefe. ‘They neither obferve our unities, nor any thing that can give regularity and probability to the plot. Their dramas do not reprefent a fingle a€tion ; they exhibit the whole hfe of a hero, and this reprefentation may be fup- pofed to continue forty or fifty years. The reprefentation of thefe is thus defcribed by fir George Staunton. ** The com- pany of ators fucceffively exhibited, during a whole day, feveral different pantomimes and hilorical dramas. The performers were habited in the ancient drefles of the Chinefe, sat the period when the perfonages reprefented were fuppofed to havelived. The dialogue was {poken in a kind of recita- tive, accompanied by a variety of mufical inftruments; and each pavfe was filled up by a loud crafh, in which the /so bore no inconfiderable part. ‘lhe band of mufic was placed in full view, immediately behind the ftage, which was broad, but by no means deep. Each character announced, on his firft entrance, what part he was about to perform, and.where the fcene of ation lay. Unity of place was apparently preferved, for there was no change of {cene during the repre- fentation of one piece. Female characters were performed by boys or eunuchs.” Chinefe Education. According to the book of ceremonies, the education of a child fhould commence at the moment of its birth: it allows nurfes, but enjoins mothers to ufe the greate(t precaution in choofing them. As foon as a child can put its hand to its mouth, it is weaned, and taught to ufe its right hand. At the age of fix, he is made acquaint- ed with the numbers moft in ufe, and with the firlt princi- ples of geography. At feven he is feparated from his fil- ters ; after which he is no longer fuffered to eat with them, nor to fit down in their prefence. At eight he is inftrué- ed in the rules of good-breeding and politenefs. The calen- dar becomes his ftudy at the age of nine. At ten he is fent to fchoo], where he icarns to read, write, and caft accounts. From thirteen to fifteen he is taught mutic; after which he is inftru&ted in the ufe of the bow and arrow, and how to mount a horfe. When the Chinefe youth have attained to the age of twenty, they receive the firit cap, if they are judged to deferve it: they are then permitted to wear filk drefies, ornamented with furs ; but before that period they have no rizht to wear any thing but cotton. In their mode of inflruétion, the Chinefe feic&t fome hundreds of charac- ters that exprefs the commonelt objeéts, or thofe at leaf which fall molt frequently under the perception of the fenfes, fuch as a man, fome domeltic animals, ordinary plants, the moft ufeful furniture of a houfe, the fun, the -moon, and even the heavens. Thefe objects are engraved or painted feparately on certain fubitances, and under each is put the name of the thing reprefented, which points out to the children the meaning of the word. The firft book put into the hands of a child is a colle€tion of fhort fen- tences, confifting of three or four verfes each. They are obliged to give an account in the evening of what they have learned in the day. Youth in China have no relaxation from the feverity of their ftudies, but at the commencement of the new year, anda few daysat Midfummer. After this elemen- tary treatife, they have to learn the books that contain the doétrines of Confucius and Mencius; and while they are learning by heart all the characters, they are taught to form them with a pencil: for this purpofe they have leaves of paper given them, on which are written or imprinted with red ink very large characters; thefe they are required to cover with black ink, and to follow exatly their fhape and figure, which infenfibly accuftoms them to form the differ- ent (trokes. After this they are made to trace other cha- racters, placed under the paper on which they write; thefe are black and f{maller than the former. It is of great ad- vantage to the Chinefe literati to be able to paint charac- ters well, becaufe a deficiency in this refpeét will frequently occafion a itudent to be rejeéted at his examinations when he is candidate for his degrees. When a pupil has made himfelf matter of a fuffcient number of charaéters, he is put upon compofition. To incite the youth tc improvement in this part of their education, there is a fort of competition eftablifhed in China. Twenty or thirty families, who are all of the fame name, and who confequently have only one hall for the manes of their anceftors, agree among themfelves to fend their children to this hall at flated times in order to compofe. Each head of a family in turn gives a fubje& for literary conteit, and adjudges the prize; but the exercife of this privilege lays him under the neceffity of being at the expence of a dinner, which by his orders is carried to the hall of competition. Thefe contefts are private, and have no concern with the rules laid down for public education ; but every ftudent is obliged to undergo an examination, at lealt twice a year, under the infpe€tion of an inferior man- darin of letters. This pra@ice is general throughout all the provinces in China. It happens frequently, that the mandarins of letters order thefe ftudents to be brought be- fore them, to examine into the progrefs they have made in their ftudies, and to excite a fpirit of emulation among them. Even the governors of cities do not think it below their dignity to take this care upon themfelves. They order all the ftudents, who are not far diltant from their refidence, to appear at their tribunal once a month. The author of the beft compofition 1s honoured with a prize, and the governor treats the candidates on the day of com- petition at his own expence. ‘T’o encourage learning, there are in every city, town, and almolt in every village, matters who keep fchools, for the purpofe of teaching what they call the fciences. Befides this, parents, poffcfled’ of the means, provide preceptors for their children, to attend and inftruét them, to form their minds to the principles of virtue, and to initiate them in the rules of good breeding and the accultomed ceremonies, and, if their age will admit of it, to make them acquainted with the laws, and with the know-- ledge of hiltory. ‘Lo give dignity to the examinations, the building in which they are held has always fomething to diftinguifh it, even in the fmalleft cities; but in thofe de- nominated capitals of provinces, it isa real palace. When the competition begins, the ftudents are all fhut up, each ina {mall chamber, care being firlt taken that no one con- ceals any thing that might afford him affillance in his com- pofition. They are forbidden, under the fevereft poffible penalties, to carry any thing with them into their clofet but pencils and ink ; and from that moment tliey are allows ed to have no communication with any one. In conaeétion with this part of our iubject we may notice,. that GC: Hel rinat a fon who {peaks to his father does it with the greateft ccterence aud modetty: he does not even call himfelf the ton, but the grandfon, though he may be the eldeft of the fa- niuy, and perhaps the father of many children himfelf. He will alfo often make ufe of his awa name, that is, the name that he pofleffes at that period, for the Chinefe have differ. ent names ie fuccefiion, agreeably to their age and rank. Vhe family name is that which gs given them at their birth : a month after, the parents give a diminutive name to their fon, which is generally that of a flower, animal, &c. This name is changed when the youth begias to make progrefs in his education at a public fchool, and the matter bettows upon him fome flattering appellation, which the pupil adds to his name. When he hag attained to manhood. he re- queits a new name from his friends, and this he retains dur- ing hfe, unlefs he has the good fortune to nife to fume dig- wity in the ftate, when he is honoured with one that cor- refponds with his talents and office. No other mult be afterwards given him, not even that of his family. Religion of the Chinefe. ‘Vhe primitive religion of China, or at leait thofe opinions, rites, and ceremonies, that pre- vailed in the time of Confucius, and before that period all teems to be fable and uncertainty, may be pretty nearly af- certained from the writings afcribed to that philofopber. Hie maintains that out of nothing there cannot poflibly be produced any thing ; that material bodies mutt have exifted from all eternity ; that the caufe or principle of things muft bave hada co-exittence with the things themfelves; that therefore this caufe is alfo eternal, infinite, indeftructible, without limits, omnipotent, and omniprefent ; that the cen- tral point of influence from which this caufe a¢ts, is the blue firmament, from whence its emanations {pread over the whole univerfe; that it is, therefore, the fupreme duty of the ptince, in the name of his fubjeéts, to ,prefent offerings to Tien, and particularly at the equinoxes, the one for obtain- ing a propitious feed-time, and the other a plentiful harvett. Thefe offerings to the deity were always placed on a large itone, or heapof ftones, eref&ted on the fummit of a high mountain, on the fuppofition that their influence would be fo much the greater, in proportion as they fhould ap- proach the feat and fountain of creating power, like the an- cient Perfians, who confidered the circle of the heavens to be the ruling power of the univerfe, to which they alfo fa- crificed on high mountains. To the fame principle Tacitus refers, obferving that the nearer mortals can approach the heavens the more diftin@ly will their prayers be heard. Noah alfo, after quitting the ark, built an altar on the mountain where it refted, and made a burnt offering, the fmoke of which afcending unto heaven, was pleafing to the Lord. Abraham was commanded to offer his only fon Uaac on a mountain, and Balaam afcended to the top of Mount Pifgah, to offer a facrifice and to curfe Ifrael. Thus all nations. in their infancy feem to have adopted the natural idea of paying adoration to heaven from high places. The large ltones or heaps of ftones, that have been appropriated to religious ufes in almoft every part of the world, may have been introduced from the cuftom among favage nations, to mark with a great ftone the place where their worthies were interred ; fuch being at length deified in the opinions of their votaries, the flones that were dedicated to their memory were ufed in their religious worfhip. ‘The peculiar homage, that, from time immemorial, has been paid to the memory of the dead by the Chinefe, renders probable this explana- ten of the originof their altars, or four ftones, which are called Zan, and which in former times were ereGted on molt gf their bygh mountains. At the prefent day the Taz is re- N A. prefented, upon many of the altars erc&ted intheir temples, by four loofe ftones placed in the corners of the altar, as the horns were in the corners of the Jewithaltars. As the peo- pte increafed and fpread over the empire, the inconvenience of afcending any particular mountain was felt, and the Tan was then transferred to places better adapted to general ac- commodation. In the city of Peking, which ftands on a fandy plain, the tien fan, or altar of héaven; the fee-tan, or altar of earth; and the /fen nong-fan, or altar of ancient agricultu- rifts, are ereGted on artificial mounts, within the walls of the palace; and here the emperor continues, to this day, to fa- crifice at appointed times, exclufively, asthe fon of heaven, and the only being on earth worthy to intercede for his peo- ple. The fame doGrine prevailed in the time of Confucius, who obferves that the diltance between the all-creative power aud the people-is fo immeafurably great, that the king, as high prielt, can alone offer fuch a facrifice ; and that this power is beft fatisfied when man performs the moral duties of life, which confift chiefly in filial piety, and unlimited obe- dience to the will of the prince. In the writings of Con- fucius appeare a flrong predilection for predicting events by the myltical lines of Fo-fhee. By the help of thefe lines, he pretended to foretel the events that wonld take place fora confiderable length of time. This manner of expounding the lines of Fo-fnee by Confucius, the fuppofed fyitem of binary arithmetic by Leibnitz, laid the foundation of confulting future deltiny, at this day univerfally fought after by the Chinefe. Government even grants licences to certain perfons, who pretend to predict events and caft out evil fpirits by a charm, confifting of fome charaéter written by them, according to the fuppofed prevailing planet. Pre- deftimation in all ages has formed one of the leading features of popular religion, but the Chinefe confine the influence of lots to the events of this life. Other parts of the doc- trine of Confucius were well calculated to keep alive the fu- perftitious notions that {till prevail among the Chinefe mul- titude. He taught them to believe that the human body was compofed of two principles, the one light, invifible, and afcending ; the other grofs, palpable, and defcending ; that the feparation of thefe principles caufes the death of man, when the light part afcends into the air, and the grofs finks to the earth. ‘The word death never enters into the philofophy of Confucius, nor is it even now employed by the Chinefe. When a perfon departs this life, the common expreffion is, he is returned to his family, and it was on this ground, that it became the indifpenfable duty of every good man to obferve a {trict obedience in the performance of the facred rites in the temple confecrated to the memory of an-— ceftors. He maintained that all who negleéted this duty, would, after death, be deprived of the privilege of vifting the hall of anceftors, and of the pleafure arifing from the homage beftowed by their defcendants. Such a fyttem could not fail to eftablifh a belief in good and evil {pirits prefiding over families, towns, cities, houfes, mountains, and other particular places. Neither Confucius nor any of his difciples attached the idea of a perfonal being to the deity ; nor does it feem ever to have entered into their minds to reprefent their firft caufe under any image or perfonification. They confidered the fun, moon, ftars, and the elements, with the azure firma- ment, as the creative and productive powers, the immediate agents of the deity, and infeparably connected with him, and they offered adoration to thefe agents, united in one word, Tien (Heaven). The difciples of Confucius, like the ftoics, confider the whole univerfe as one animated fyi tem made up of one material {ubftance and one fpirit, of which every CHINA. every living thing was an emanation, and to which, when feparated by death, from the material part it had animated, every living thing again returned. But what has been efteemed furprifing is, that the followers of Confucius have never erected any {tatue to his memory, nor paid him divine honours, as has been erroneoufly fuppofed. In every city is a public building, in which examinations for public offices are held, and this building is called the houfe of Confucius. Here on certain days the men of letters afflemble to pay refpe€t to the memory of their philofopher. In the great hall, appropriated for this ceremony, a plain tablet is creéted with an infcription to this effet: “ O Cong-foo-tfe, our re- vered mafter, let thy fpiritual part defcend, and be thou pleafed with this token of refpeét which we now offer unto thee.” Fruit and wine, flowers and perfumes, and other articles are then placed before the tablet and fcented gums, frankincenfe, and tapers of fandal wood are at the fame time burnt. This ceremony is in every refpeét the fame as that which Confucius taught to be obferved towards the manes of departed relations, who are thought to delight in hovering over the grateful odour of fruits, flowers, and the fmoke of incenfe. Another religion fprung up fhortly after the death of Confucius. A man of thename of Lao-kung, having tra- velled into Tibet, became acquainted with the worhip of the priefts of Lama, which he thought would fuit his country- men, and he accordingly eftablifhed a fet under the name of Tao-tze, or fons of immortals. He maintained, like Epicurus, that to live at eafe and make himfelf happy were the chief concerns of man. The doétrine of immortality, a branch of the Metemp/ycofis, was converted by Lao-Kung, into the art of producing a renovation of the faculties in the fame body, by the means of certain preparations taken from the three kingdoms of nature. ‘he infatuated people flew with avidity to the fountain of life. Princes fought after the draughts that fhould render them immortal, but which, in faét, in numerous inftances, brought on premature death. Confiltent with the principle of ‘ taking no thought for the morrow,” the priefts of Lao-kung devoted them- felves to a ftate of celibacy, as being more free from cares and the incumbrances which neceflarily attend a family con- nexion ; and, the better to accomplifh this end, they aflociated in convents. Here they pra¢tifed all manner of incanta- tions, and their fucceflors perform their magic tricks as they march in proceffion round the altar, on which the facred flame is fuppofed to be kept continually burning. They chaunt in unifon a kind of recitative, and they bow their heads ub- fequioufly every time they pafs before the front of the altar. The great Gong is {truck at intervals, accompanied by tink- ling founds, emitted by gently ftriking {mall metal plates, fufpended in a frame.- Their temples are crowded with large and monftrous figures, fome made of wood, fome of flone, and others of baked clay, daubed over with paint and varnifh, and fometimes gilt. To thefe fizures, however, they do not feem to pay any homage, but they are intended to reprefent good and evil genii under the various pafiions to which human nature is liable. About the year 65 of the Chriftian era, the fe& of Fo was introduced into China from. Hindoftan. The name was derived from the idel.Fo, fuppefed to be the Boodh of Hindoftan, and the chief tenets are thofe of the Hindoos, among which is the metempfycolis, or tranfition of- fouls from one animal to another. ‘The prielts are denominated bonzes, and Fo is-fuppofed to be gratified by the favour fhewn to his fervants. Since the fifteenth century, many of the Chinefe literati have embraced a new fyftem, which acknowledges an univerfal principle; under the name of Taiti, feeming to correfpond with the foul of the world of fome ancient philofophers. This opinion may indeed deferve the name of atheifm, but it is confined to very few ; and the Chinefe are fo far from being atheifts, that they go into the oppofite extreme of polytheifm, believing even in petty de mons, who delight in difplaying minute acts of evil or good. There is in China no ftate religion, none is preferred or encou- raged byit; the emperor is of one faith, many of the mandarins of another; and the majority of the common people of a third, which is that of Io. ‘This laft clafs, the leaft ca- pable, from ignorance, of explaining the phenomena of nature, and the molt expofed to wants which it cannot fupply by ordinary means, is willing to recur to the fuppofition of extra~ ordinary powers, which may operate the effects that it cannot explain, and grant the requelts which it could not otherwife obtain, The Chinefe have no Sunday, nor even fuch a di- vifion of time as that of a week. The temples are open every day for the vifits of devotees, and perfons of that defcription have, from time to time, made grants, though to no great amount, for the maintenance of their clergy ; but no lands are fubjeét to ecclefiaftical tythes. The common Chinefe are remarkably fupertitious : befides the habitual offices of devotion, the temples are particularly frequented by the di- {ciples of Fo, previoufly to any undertaking of importance; whether to marry or to go a journey, or conclude a bargain or change fituation, or for any other materia! event of life, it is neceffary firft to confult the fuperintendant deity. This is performed by various methods. Some place a parcel of confecrated fticks differently marked and numbered, which the confultant, kneeling before the altar, fhakes in a hollow bamboo till one of them falls on the ground ; its mark is ex- amined, and referred to a correfpondent mark in a book which the prielt holds open, and fometimes even it is written upon a fheet of paper palted upon the infide of the temple. Polygonal pieces of wood are by others thrown into the air, each fide of which has its particular mark; the fide that is uppermoft when fallen on the floor, is referred to its corre~ fpondent mark in the book of fate. If the firlt throw.be fa~ vourable, the perfon who made it, proftrates himfelf in gra- titude, and undertakes, in confidence, the bufinefs in agita- tion. Butif the throw be adverfe, he tries a fecond time, and the third throw determines, at any rate, the:queition, In other refpects, the people of the prefent day feem to pay little attention to their prielts. ‘The temples are, as we have obferved, alwazys open to fuch as choofe to confult the de- crees of heaven. ‘They return thanks when the oracle proves propitious to their wifhes. Yet they more frequently calt lots to know the iffue of a projected enterprize, than to fup+ plicate for its being favourable; and their worfhip confitts more in thankfgiving than in prayer. Although the reli- ion of Fo teaches the doétrine of- the. tranfmigration of fouls, and promifes future happinefs to the people, on certain conditions, yet the Chinefe feldom carry the objects, to be obtained by their devotion, beyond the benefits of the prefent life. The temples of Fo abound with more images than are found in molt Chriltian churches, and fome that bear a greater analogy to the ancient than to the prefent worthip of the Romans. One figure, reprefenting a female, was thought. to be fomething fimilar to Lucina, and is particu- larly addreffed by unmarried women wanting hufbands, and married women wanting children. The do¢trine of Fo, ad- mitting of a fubordinate deity particularly propitious to every with which can be formed in the human mind, would fcarcely fail to fpread among thofe claffes of the people, who are not fatisfied with their profpects, as refulting from the natu- ral caufes of events. Its progrefs is not obftructed by the as governmeut CH I NOA. goverument of the country, which never interferes with mere Opinions. It prohibits no creed which is not fuppofed to affe the tranquillity cf focicty. Funeral rites may be reckoned among the Chinefe religious cufloms. Formerly it was ufual to bury flaves alive with their dead emperors, but this cruel practice has given way to that of burning repre- feutations of their domettics in tin-foil, cut into the fhape of human beings, and of placing their ftatues, in wood or dione, upan their graves.- The Chinefe burying-places, planted with cyprefs trees, are at a diftance from any church or temple, and are no otherwife confecrated than by the vene- ration of the people, the remains of whofe anceftors are ce- pofitedin them. ‘he people prelerve thofe facred repofito- ries with all the care they can afford to beftow upon them. They vifit them annually, repair any breaches that accidents may have made, and remove any weeds that may have grown, ‘No perfon is allowed to be buried within a city, and where there is ground that cannot be cultivated, it is always pre- fered for places of interment, as lefs liable to be difturbed ; yet the meaneit peafant will refpe& the {pot over which a heap of earth denotes a repofitory of the dead beneath. The laft remains of a relation are interred with all the ho- nours which the family can afford. The lofs of a parent in ‘China is efteemed the greateft that can happen to any one, and the fentiment of affeGtion and refpe&t towards fuch, while living, is not fuddenly extinguifhed in the breatt of the fur- vivors. . The heart is indulged and confoled by paying fu- perfluous duties to the manes of the deceafed. The dictates of nature in this inftance are enforced by the moral laws which govern the empire. Every inftitution tending to maintain the habits of affectionate regard of offspring to- wards their progenitors, is fan¢tified into a precept, not to be neglected but at the peril of being accounted infamous. The funeral proceflions of the great officers of ftate, fome- times extend for nearly half a mile in length. In the front marches a prieft uncovered, next a group of muficians with flutes, trumpets, and fymbols; after thefe the male relations of the deceafed, in long white frocks, and behind them the chief mourner, fupported by two friends, whofe exertions to prevent him from tearing his cheeks and hair appear ridicu- lous ; next follows the coffin, covered by a magnificent cano- py, and borne generally on the fhoulders of men; after the canopy, the female relations proceed in chairs, or in little co- vered carts, wearing white frocks like the men, their hair difhevelled, and broad white fillets bound acrofs their fore- heads. Over the mourners are carricd umbrellas, with deep curtains hanging from the edges. Several perfons are em- ployed to burn circular pieces of paper, covered chiefly with tin-foil, as they pafs by burying-places and temples. Thefe pieces, in the popular opinion, like the coin to Charon for being conveyed to the Elyfian fields, are underftood to be convertible, in the next {tage of exiftence, into the means of providing the neceflaries of that new life. Notwith{tanding the philofophical doGtrines of the learned Chinefe, which ex- clude all notions not confonant with reafon, as well as the reality of all beings not referable to the fenfes, they often yield, in praGtice, to the notions of the vulgar. The people, among other fuperttitions, are particularly fcrupulous about the time and place of burying theirdead. ‘The delay occa- fioned before thofe difficult points are afcertained, has often detained the coffins of the rich from their la& repofitory ; many are feen in houfes and gardens under temporary roofs to pre- ferve them, in the mean time, from the weather ; but necef- fity obliges the poor to overcome many of their fcruples in this refpect, and to depofit at once, and with very little cere- mony, the remains of their relations in their laft abode. The ccemeteries of the dead exhibit a much greater variet¥ of monumental architefture than the dwellings of the living can boalt. Some, indeed, depofit the remains of their ancef- tors in houfes, that differ in nothing from thofe they inhabited while living, except in their diminutive fize; others prefer a {quare vault, ornamented in fuch a manner as fancy may fug- gett; fome make choice of a hexagon to cover thedecealed, and others of an o€tagon. ‘The round, the triangular, the fquare, and multangular column, is indifferently raifed over the grave of a Chinefe; but the mof common form of a monument to the remaius of perfous of rank, confilts in three terraces one above another, erclofed by circular walls. The door of the vault is in the centre of the uppermolt terrace, covered with an appropriate inicription; and figures of flaves and horfes, and catrle, which, when living, were fub- fervient to chem, and added to their pleafures, are employed after their death to decorate the terraces of their tombs. The celebration of marriage, oftentatious, and, indeed, ex- ~ penfive as it is, is yet inferior to that of funerals in the fame rank of life. Its pomp, was probably, in the origin, fugs — gelted by the parents of the parties. They naturally wifhed to give dignity to an union of their choice, and to mark it with a folemnity tending to render the tie more facred and — more durable. But the impulfe which unites the fexes did not require the aid of public feftivals. Sir George Staunton defcribes both a funeral and marriage proceffion, which he witnefled at the fame time. Speaking of the former, he fays, ‘ it was, moving towards the gate in which the white or bridal co'our, according to European ideas, of the perfons who formed it, feemed at firft to announce a marriage cere- mony ; but the appearance of young men overwhelmed with grief fhewed it to be a funeral, much more, indeed, than the corfe itfelf, which was contained in a handfome fquare cafe, fhaded with a canopy, painted with gay and lively colours, and: preceded by ftandards of variegated filks. Behind were fedan chairs covered with white cloth, con- taining the female relations of the deceafed; the white co- lour, denoting, in China, the affi@ion of thofe who wear it, is ftudioufly avoided by fuch as wifh to manifeft fentie ments of a contrary kind; it is, therefore, never feen in the ceremony of nuptials, (met foon afterwards), where the lady, as yet unfeen by the bridegroom, is carried in a giltand gaudy chair, hung round with feftoons of artificial flowers, and tie ~ us lowed by relations, attendants, and fervants, bearing the paraphernalia, being the only portion given with a daughter in marriage by her parents. | Among the religious ceremonies of the Chinefe muft be noted their feftivals, the firlt of which is kept on the — emperor’s anniverfary. This feftival may be confidered — as lafting feveral days. The firft is confecrated to the purpofe of rendering a facred and devout homage to the fupreme majefty of the emperor. The prince’s embaf= fadors, and great officers of ftate, are affembled in a large — hall; and, upon particular notice, they are introduced int® an inner building, like a temple, which is chicfly furnithed with inftruments of mufic ; among thefe are fets of cin \ cal bells, fufpended in a line from ornamented frames wood, and gradually diminifhing in fize from one extremity ~ to the other, and alfo triangular pieces of metal arrang in the fame order as the bells. To the found of thefe - ftruments a flow folemn hymn is fung by the eunuchs, w have fuch a command over their voices as to produce the effe& of mufical glailes at a diftance ; the performers are directed in gliding from one tone to another by the faking of a fhrill and fonorous cymbal. During the performance, | and at particular fignals, nine times repeated, all the pers fons prefent proitrate themfelves, nine times, except the ema 6 peror, } | CHINA. peror, who continues, as if it were an imitation of the deity, invifible the whole time. The celebrated feaft of lanterns, when the whole country is lighted up, from Gne extremity of the empire to the other, in every poflible way that fancy can fuggeft, is an ancient religi- ous ufage, of which, at the prefent day; they can give no plau- fible account. It has been fuppofed that it may be derived from a common origin, with an annual illumination of the fame kind mentioned by Herodotus; which was generally ob- ferved, from the cataracts of the Nile to the borders of the Mediterranean, by hanging lamps of different kinds to the fides of the houfes. On this day the Chinefe not only illu- minate their houfes, but they alfo exercife their ingenuity in making tranfparencies in the fhape of different animals, in which they run through the different {treets by night. The effet, when perfeétly dark, is whimfical enoush. Birds, beafts, fifhes, and other animals are feen darting through the air, and contending with each other; fome with fquibs “in their mouths breathing fire, fome fending out fky-rockets, others rifing into pyramids of party-coloured fire, and others burfting like a mine with violent explofions. Throughout the whole empire of China a grand feftival is celebrated on the fame day, called the verral feftival. In the morning the governor of every city comes forth from ‘his palace crowned with flowers, and enters a chair, in which he is carried amidit the noife of different inftruments which precede. The chair is furrounded by feveral litters cover- ed with filk carpets, upon which are reprefented perfons il- luftrious for the fupport they have given to agriculture, or fome hiftorical painting on the fubje&. The ftreets are hung with carpets; triumphal arches are ere¢ted at certain diftances; and the houfes are every where illuminated. A large figure made of baked earth reprefenting a cow comes next. A child with one foot naked and the other fhod, which reprefents “ the f{pirit of labour and diligence,” fol- lows, beating the image to make it advance. Labourers furnifhed with implements of bufbandry march behind, and a number of comedians and people in mafks clofe the rear, whofe appearance and attitudes afford entertainment to the ee: The governor advances to the ealtern gate as if | he intended to meet the fpring, and then the proceffion returns to the palace in the fame order. After this the cow is {tripped of its ornaments, and a number of earthen calves are taken out of its belly, which are diftributed, as weil as the figure itfelf, when broken to pieces, among the crowd, ‘The governor then puts an end to the ceremony, by making a fhort oration in praife of agriculture, in which he endea- vours to excite his hearers to promote fo ufeful an art by all the means in their power. Another Chinefe feftival is that on the commencement of the new year, during which l affairs, whether private or public, are fufpended ; the tri- unals are fhut; the polts ftopped; prefents are given and mee! the inferior mandarins go and pay their ref{pects their fuperiors; children to their parents; and fervants to their mafters. This is called taking leave of the old year. the evening all the family affemble to take a grand repaft, when no {tranger is admitted ; but on the following day they become more:fociable, the whole of which is employed in diverfions and feafting, and the eveping concluded with illuminations. It may be worth obferving in this place, that almott every intercourfe in China between fuperiors and in- eriors, is accompanied or followed by: reciprocal prefents, gut thofe made_by the former are granted as donations, while chofe onthe part of the latter are accepted as of- rings. Chitefe terms correfpondent to thefe are ftill ap- d to the prefents pafling between the emperor and fo- q printers according to the official ftyle of the arrogated I.‘ é fuperiority affe&ted by the Chinefe court. But when the emperor of China has occafion to make mention of himfelf, he ufes the moft modeft and, indeed, humble expreffions in every thing that relates to his own perfon, according to the fyftem of Chinefe manners ; which require, in the mention of one’s felf, that the moft abjeG& terms fhould be employed, and the moft exalted towards thofe who are addrefled. State of Knowledge in China. It is a matter of doubt whe- ther natural philofophy or chemiftry can be faid to be known as {ciences in this country. ‘here are feveral treatifes in- deed on particular fubjects in each, and the Chinefe poffefs a very voluminous Cyclopedia containing faéts and obfer- vations relating to them ; but no traces are to be perceived of any general fyltem or doétrine by which feparate fas or obfervations are conne&ed and compared, or the common properties of “bodies afcertained by experiment; or where kindred arts are condu&ed on fimilar views; or rules framed, or deduétions drawn from analogy, or principles laid down to conftitute a fcience ; for fome there is not even aname. Of pneumatics, hydroftatics, ele&tricity, and magnetifm, they may be faid to have little or no knowledge; and their optics extend not beyond the making of convex and concave lenfes of rock cryftal, to affift the fight in magnifying, or for the purpofe of burning. glaffes. The fingle microfcope is in common ufe, but the Chinefe have never hit upon the effet of approximating obje&s by combining two or more lenfes. Their books are full of particular proceffes and methods, by which a variety of effets may be produced in chemical and mechanic arts, and much might probably be gained by the perufal of them, by perfons verfed in the language of the defcribers, and acquainted with the fubject of the defcription. As foon as the produ& of any art or manufacture has appeared to anfwer the purpofe for which it was intended, it feldom happens that the difcoverer is either impelled by curiofity, or enabled by his opulence, to endeavour to make any further progrefs towards its encreafed utility. The ufe of metals for the common purpofes of life has made them fearch for them in the bowels of the earth, where they have found all thofe that are deemed perfe&t except platina. If they have not difcovered the belt methods of feparating the precious metals from the fub- {tances among which they are found, nor of reducing the ores of others into their refpeétive metals, they have at leaft fucceeded in obtaining them without alloy, whenever they with fo to do. The gold is chiefly colle&ted in finall grains among the fand in the beds of rivers and torrents, which carry it down with them as they defcend from the moun- tains. It is pale, foft, and duétile, and is often formed into bracelets, which fome mandarins and many women of rank wear round the wrift, not more for ornament, than from a notion that they preferve the wearer from a variety of difeafes. The Chincfe beat it into leaf ufed for gilding, and the weavers employ it in their tiflues and embroideries. Trinkets are alfo made of it at Canton, which are fent to Europe as eaftern ornaments. Belides the ufe of lilveras a medium of payment for other goods when it paffes accord- ing to its weight, it is likewife drawn into threads ufed in the fk and cotton manufaétures. Bell metal and white copper are made in great perfection in China; the latter is found to confift of copper, zinc, and a little filver. The iron ore of the Chinefe is not well managed, and the-metal is not fo foft, malleable, or duétile, as the iron of this coun- try; and their {miths work is exceedingly brittle, clumfy, and without polifh. They excel in the art of cating iron, and form plates of it much thinner than is generally Chae to be done in Europe.. Much of the tin imported by the Chinefe is formed into as thin a foil as poffible, to palte it 4R upon CHINA. upon fqnare pieces of paper, which are burnt before the images of their idols. With the amalyam of tin and quick- filver, they make mirrors; and their fpeétacles, which are much ufed in China, are formed of ecryftal, which the Canton artifts cut into laminze with a kind of fteel faw. The powder of the cryftal, like that of the diamond, helps to cut and polifh itfelf. In almoft every thing the Canton artilts are uncommonly expert in imitating European works: they mend and even make watches, co y paintings, and colour drawings with very great fuccels. They fupply ftrangers with coarfe filk {tockings, manufactured at Can- ton, though none of the natives wear fuch, unlefs it be fome young Chinefe, who are fond of following the fa- fhions of Europeans. The toys made at Canton, known under the name of balancers or tumblers, are partly filled with quick-filver. That metal is fometimes ufed in the fame complaints as thofe to which it is applied in Europe as a {pecific ; but a prejudice prevails among the common people, that it 1s apt to deftroy the powers of one fex, and to occafion barrennefs in the other. The ftate of phyfic is extremely low in China: there are no publie fchools or teachers of it; and a young man who withes to become a phyfician has no other way of acquiring medical knowledge than by engaging himfelf as an appren- tice to fome practitioner. He has thus the opportunity of feeing his matter’s practice, of vifiting his patients with him, and of learning fuch parts of his knowledge and fecrets as the other chufes to communicate. The emoluments of the profeflion rarely exceed the fkill of the praCtitioner. As many copper coins as are equal to about fixpence are faid to be the ufual fee among the people, and perhaps quadruple among the mandarins. The latter of high rank have phy- ficians in their houfehold ; the emperor’s phyficians, as well as moft of the domettics, are chiefly eunuchs. Medicine is not divided in China into diftin@ branches; the fame perfon ads as phyfician, furgeon, and apothecary. The furgical part of the profeffion is flill more backward than the other. Amputation in cafes of compound fracture is utterly un- known, and death is the fpeedy confequence of {uch acci- dents. The mortality of the {mal]-pox, joined to the ob- fervation that it attacked the fame perfon but once, induced the Chinefe, at an early period, to expofe young perfons to its infection when it happened to be mild. This led to the practice of inoculation, which is firft mentioned in the annals ef China at a time an{wering to the beginning of the tenth century of the Chriftian era, The general method of Chi- nefe inoculation is, when the difeafe breaks out in any dif- trict, the phyfician carefully collects a quantity of proper matter, which is dried, pulverized, and clofely fhut up ina porcelain jar, fo as to exclude it from the air; and in this manner it will retain its property for many years. When the patient has been duly prepared by medicine, and ftriély dieted for fome time, a lucky day is chofen for the f{prink- ling a little of the powder upon a piece of fine cotton, which they infert up the noftrils of the patient. No male phyfician is allowed to attend a pregnant woman, and {till efs to practife midwifery ; in the indelicacy of which, both fexes feem to agree in China. There are books written on that art for the ufe of female practitioners, with drawings of the ftate and pofition of the infant at different periods of geltation, together with a variety of directions and prefcrip- tions for every fuppoted cafe that may occur: the whole is mixed with a number of fuperftitious obfervations. In China, as in this country, there are quacks, who gain large fums of money by the fale of noftrums, the efficacy of which is fet forth in hand-bills diltributed among the people. TYhere are in China no profeifors of the fciences connected with medicine, The human body is never, unlefe privately, diffe&ted there. Books indeed, with drawings of the exe ternal ftruéture, are fometimes publifhied ; but thefe are ex- tremely imperfe&t, and confulted perhaps oftener to find out the name of the {pirit under whofe prote¢tion each particu- lar part is placed, than for obferving its form and fituation. The phyficlogy of the hursan body, or the do¢trine which explains the conftitution of man, is neither underftood, nor confidered as neceflary to be known ; and their fkill in pa- thology, or in the caufes and effects of difeafes, is extremely limited and often abfurd. The feat of mott difeafes is fup- pofed to be difcoverable by means of the pulle; yet they have no knowledge whatever of the circulation of the blood. ‘They imagine that every particular part of the human body has a particular pulfe afligned to it, and that thefe have all a correfponding and fympathetic pulfe in the arm: thus they fuppofe one pulfe to be fituated in the heart, another in the Jungs, a third in the kidneys, and fo forth; and the fill of the do€tor confifts in difcovering the prevailing pulfe in the body, and the mummery made ufe of on fuch occa- fions is highly ludicrous. The beft of their medical books are little better than mere herbals, {pecifying the names, and enumerating the qualities of certain plants. The knowledge of thefe plants, and of their fuppofed virtues, goes a great way towards conftituting a phyfician. Thofe which are moit commonly employed are gin-feng, rhubarb, and China- root. A few preparations are alfo found in their pharma- copeia from the animal and mineral kingdoms. In the former they employ fnakes, beetles, centipedes, and the aure- liz of filk-worms and other infe&ts; the meloe and the bee are ufed for blifters. In the latter, faltpetre, fwphur, na- tive cinnabar, and a few other articles, are occafionally pre- feribed. Opium is taken as a medicine, but more generally as a cordial to exhilarate the fpirits. There is no branch of {cience which the Chinefe affe& to value fo much as aftronomy. Nothing indeed can be fo well calculated to excite curiofity, and occafion admiration, as the fight which the clear atmofphere of China almoft always allows to its inhabitants, of an azure firmament {pangled with ftars. The viciffitudes of day and night, of fum- mer and winter, and the different phafes of the moon, exhibit appearances too ftriking not to claim attention in the rude as well as the cultivated ftages of fociety. The neceffity indeed of being able to mark with fome degree of precifion the returns of the feafons, in fo large a community, muft have direGied an early attention of the government to this fubject: and accordingly we find, that an aftronomical board has formed one of the ftate eftablifhments in China from the earlieft periods of their hiftory. Yet fo little pro- — grefs have they made in that f{cience, that the only part of its fun@tions which can be called aftronomical has long been committed to the care of foreigners, whom they affect ta hold in contempt, and to confider as barbarians. The prin- cipal objeét of this board is to frame and to publifh a national calendar, and to point out to the governor the fuit- able times and feafons for itsimportant undertakings. Even when the marriage of a prince is about to take place, the commiffioners of aftronomy muft appoint a fortunate day fo the celebration of the nuptials, which is announced, in form, in the Pekieg Gazette. In this almanack are inferted all the fuppofed lucky and unlucky days in the year, preditions of the weather, days proper for taking medicines, commen= _ cing journies, taking home a wife, laying the foundation ofa” houfe, and other matters of moment, for entering upon which particular times are affligned. To the fuperintendanes of the Chinefe members of this tribunal is committed the altrological part, a committee of whom js feleGted i } CHIN A. for the execution of thts important tafk. "The phenomena of the heavenly bodies, to an enlightened and intelligent mind, furnifh the moft grand and fublime [peétacle in nature ; to the ignorant and fuperltitious the moft awful. The com- mon people in all countries and of all ages have confidered the occaliomal privation of the light of the two great lumina- ries of heaven as the forerunners of fome extraordinary event. The people of China have, from the earlieft ages, confidered a folar eclipfe as ominous of fome great calamity ; and as great pains are taken to infpire them with a belief that their profperity is owing to the wifdom and virtues of their fove- . reign, fo they are tempted to attribute whatever they think portentous to fome deficiency on his part. To this convenient prejudice the emperor finds it prudent to accommodate his conduét. He never ventures upon any undertaking of im- portance at the approach of fuch an eclipfe, but affedts to withdraw himfelf from the prefence of his courtiers, to ex- amine [{tri€tly into his late adminiftration of the empire, in order to correct any error, for the commiffion of which the eclipfe may have been an admonition, and invites his fubjects to offer him freely their advice. The Chinefe government obferves on the event of an eclipfe ceremonies fimilar to thofe that were in ufe two thoufand years ago among the Egyp- tians, Greeks, and Romans. When the moon is eclipfed, their mufical inftruments ere ftruck up, under the notion that by their fhrill noife they may affift in relieving the labour- ing goddefs. The brazen gong is violently beat by the Chi- nefe ou the occafion ; and that fuch an event may not pafs un- obferved, and the luminary may thereby be deprived of the ufual affiftance of mufic to frighten away the dragon, which they fuppofe to have feized upon it, the great officers of ftate in every city and town are inftruGed to give public notice of the time when it will happen according to the calculations of the national almanack. “ A rude projection of a lunar eclipfe,” fays Mr. Barrow, ‘* that happened while we were at Tong-choo, was ftuck up in the corner of the ftreets ; all the oflicers were in mourning, and all bufinefs was fufpended for that day.’? When the Dutch ambaffadors were at Peking, the fun was eclipfed on the 21ft January 1795, which happened to be the firft day of their new year; a day obferved through the whole empire with the greatelt feftivity and rcjoicings ; and almoft the only day on which the bulk of the people refrain from their ref{pective occupa- tions. The embaflador and his fuite were fummoned to court at the ufual hour of three in the morning, and on arriving at the palace, they were told that in confequence of _an eclipfe of the fun, about to happen on that day, which was a moft unfortunate event, portending an unhappy year to the country, the emperor would not be vifible for three days, during which time the whole court would go into mourning, and that the amufements ufual on that particular day would be fufpended from one end of the empire to the other. Jutt before the eclipfe happened, the members of the mathematical board and other learned men affembled near the palace, each having in his hand a fketch of the obfcura- tion in order to witnefs the truth of the altronomer’s calcula- tion. The moment the eclipfe begins, they fall down on their knees and bow their heads nine times to the ground, during which is ftruck up the horrible crafh of gongs, kettle drums, trumpets, and other noify inftruments, intending to fcare away the devouring dragon. Attronomy, as connected with the firft principles of chronology, has however been in high eltimation from a very early period of Chinefe hittory. ‘The firit mention of it that has come down to us, is, where the emperor ao inftruGted his Aftronomers Hi and Ho, how to diftinguifh ind determine the four feafons of the year, ‘ Frit,” fays the mighty price, *¢ ao defires that 77 and Zo will calcu- late and obferve the places and motion of the fun, moon, and {tars ; and that they will afterwards teach the people what- ever relates to the feafons. Secondly, according to Yao the equality of day and night, and the ftar WViao, ferve to determine the vernal equinox. The equality of day and night and the ftar /7iz point out the autumnal equinox. The longett day, and the ftar Ho, are the figns of the fum- mer folftice. "Che fhorteft day, and the ftar Mao, thew the winter. Thirdly, 2woinforms his two aftronomers, that the Ki confilts of 366 days, and that to determine the year and its four feafons, an intercalary moon muft be employed. Hence it appears that the Chinefe aftronomers, even at this early period, were required to mark in the calendar the times when the fun and moon entered the different figne, together with the places of the planets, and the times of | the eclipfes. We know alfo from other works of autho- rity, that thofe who neglected to announce thefe phenomena, were punifhed with death. It appears likewife, that even at that time, they knew how to determine the equinoxes and folftices by the length of the days and nights, and that they availed themfelves of the motion of the planets, in order to compare their places with that of the fun in each of the four feafons. _ It is alfo evident, though certainly very extraor- dinary, that the Chinefe were then acquainted with the length of a year of 365 days and fix hours. The Chinefe have always fixed the beginning of the aftronomical year at the winter folftice; but the beginning of the civil year has varied according to the will of the emperors. The Chinefe year has at all times confiited of a certain number of lunations, twelve of which form a common year, and thirteen the em- bolifmic year. They reckon their lunations by the number of days which happen to fall between the moment in which the fun is in conjuction with the moon, and the moment of the conjunétion following. The Chinefe divide their days into a greater or fmaller number of equal parts, but befides thefe they gencral- ly divide them into 12 hours, which are, of courfe, double the length of thofe adopted by us. Their day be- gins and ends at midnight. ‘The path defcribed by the fun has been known in China from the remoteit antiquity, and the Chinefe have always diftinzuifhed the ecliptic from the equator. The former they cati hoang-tao, the yellow way ; the other is named ¢che-tao, or the equinoétial line. The year is alfo, with the Chinefe, divided into four equal parts or feafons, each of which has three fmaller divifions, its bee ginning, its middle, and its end, that is, a lunation for each of the three parts: it is likewife fubdivided into 24 equal parts, each of which contains 15 degrees, fo that the whole together makes the 360 degrees. The Chinefe make ufe of a cycle of fixty years called ‘ kiatfe,”’ from the denomination given to the firft year of it, which ferves as the bafis of their whole chronology. Every year of this cycle is marked with two letters, which diftinguifh it from the others; and all the names of the emperors, for two thoufand years and upwards, have names in hiftory common to them with the correfpond- ing cycle. ‘The intricate and irregular motion of the moon has been long known by the Chinefe. In the reign-of Yao the allronomers were able to calculate, with fufficient preci- fion, the times of new and full moon. The firtt day of the new moon, they named cho, commencement or beginning, and the day of full moon, ovang, which fignifies to expeét, or hope: becaufe the people expeéted the kindnefs and pro- tection of certain fpirits, which they invoked only at that epocha. ‘To exprefs the age of the moon, befides the num- bers, they ufe the words /uperior and inferior firing: they fay chang-hicn, a bow having the {tring uppermott, and Aia-hien, 4Re2 a bow CHIN: a bow having the ftring undermoft.” It is thus they diltin- guifh what are denominated the quarters of the moon. ‘heir method of intercalation. has varied, but it has generally ad- mitted twenty-nine or thirty days for one lunation ; the for- mer is called a {mall Juaation, and the latter a zreater luna- tion. They divide the ftars according to the following or- der: the pe-teow, or celeftial buthel of the north, is what we call the urfus major: the nan teow, or celettial bufhel of the fouth, which comprehends the principal ftars oppofite to the great bear; and which, together, form a figure, almolt like that of the great bear in the north. The five planets called “ ou-hing”’ are next enumerated ; thefe are Saturn, Ju- piter, Mars, Venus, and Mercury : and lattly are mentioned 28 conitellations, in which are comprehended all the ttars of the zodiac, and fome of thofe which lie neareft toit. M. Gaubil, one of the learned Jefuits who refided long in China, and who paid great attention to the aftronomy of the Chi- nefe, fays they have been long acquainted with the motion of the fun, moon, and planets, and even of the fixed ltars from weft to eaft; though they did not determine the mo- uion of the latter till about 4oo years after the Chriftian era. ‘Lo the five planets juft enumerated they have afligned revolutions which approach very near to ours. They have no notion of their different fituations, when [tationary and retrograde: and as in Europe, fome of the Chinefe imagine that the heavens and planets revolve round the earth, and others round the fun. By reading their books we may per- ceive, that the Chinefe have had a perfet knowledge of the quantity of the folar year; that they have alfo known how to eflimate the diurnal motions of the fun and moon; that they have been able to take the meridian altitude of the fun, by the fhadow of a gnomon; and that they have thence made pretty exa&t calculations to deter- - mine the elevation of the pole, and the fun’s declination : it appears that they have had a tolerable knowledge of the right afcenfion of the ftars, and of the time when they pafs the meridian; of the reafon why the fame ftars, in the fame year, rife and fet with the fun; and why they pafs the meridian, fometimes when the fun rifes, and fometimes when he fets. In China the firft operations of arithmetic are very gene- rally unknown ; in the fhops regular entries are made of the articles- to be difpofed of, and the feveral prices are affixed in the common Chinefe characters equivalent to the words which exprefs. numbers in other languages; but not by a diftin& fet of figures upon a fimilar fyftem to that of thofe called Arabic by the Europeans. heir arithmetic is me- chanical, and to find the aggregate of numbers, a machine called the * fwan-pan”? is in univerfal ufe, from the man of let- ters to the meaneft fhopman. See Anacus and SHWAN-PAN. The knowledge of the Chinefe in geography is as limited as that in aftronomy. ‘Their own empire was confidered by them as occupying the middle fpace of the {quare furface of the earth, the reft of which was made up of iflands. When the Tefuits went firft to China, they found the charts, even of their own country, rude and incorre, fketehes without any feale or proportion, in which a ridge of mountains covered a whole province, and a river {wept away half of another. At prefent they have neat and accurate maps of the eoentry, copied after the original furvey of the whole empire, under- taken by the Jefuits, and completed after feveral years la- bour. State of the Arts. Little can be faid of the ftate of. the fine arts in this country. Of their poetry we have already Spoken. Mutfic does not feem to be cultivated'as a f{cience, nor learnt as an elegant accomplifhment, nor praétifed as an amulement of genteel life, except By females who are edu. cated for fale, or by fuch as hire themfelves out for the en- tertainment of thofe who may be inclined to purchafe their favours. "‘Thefe women play generally upon wind-initru- ments, fuch as pipes and flutes, while the favourite inftru- ment of the men is fomething like a guitar. Eunuchs and the fowelt clafs of perfons are hired to play, and the merit of their performance appears to confift in the intenfenefs of the noife theyare able to make. The gong is admirably adapted for this purpofe. See Gonc., and Cuinese Mufic. Kettle drums and different fized bells conftitute part of their facred mufic. They have alfo an inftrument which confiits of {tones cut into the fhape of a carpenter’s fquare, each {tone f{ufpended by the corner in a wooden frame. It isthe boalt of the Chinefe hiftorians, that the whole empire of nature has been laid under contribution in order to complete their fyftem of mufic: that the fkins of animals, fibres of plants, metals, ftones, and baked earth, have all been em- ployed in the prodution of founds. A Chiriefe band plays, or endeavours to play, in unifon, but they never attempt to play in feparate parts. They have not the leaft notion of counterpoint, an invention to which even the Greeks had not arrived, and which was unknown in Europe, as well as Alia, till the monkifh ages. See Cuinese Mufic. With regard to painting, they can be confidered in no other,light than as miferable daubers, being unable to pencil out a correét out- line of many objeéts, to give body to the fame, by the ap- plication .of proper lights and fhadows, and to lay on the nice {hades of colour, fo as to refemble the tints of nature. But the gaudy colouring of certain flowers, birds, and in« fects, they imitate with a degree of exaGtnefs and brilliancy to which Europeans have not yet arrived ; to give diftance to objects on canvas, by diminifhing them, by faint colouring, and by perfpeétive, they have no fort of conception. At Yuen-min-yuen Mr. Barrow found two very large paintings of land{capes, which, as to the pencilling, were done with to- lerable execution, but they were finifhed with a minutenels of detail, and without any of thofe ftrong lights and maffes” which give force and effect toa piture; none of the rules. of perfpective were obferved, nor any attempt to throw the objeéts to their proper diltances. 1n a country where painting is at fo low an ebb, it would be in vain to expect much exe- cution in {culpture. Grotefque images of ideal beings, and monttrous diftortions of nature are fometimes feen upon their bridges, and in their temples, where the niches ar filled with gigantic gods of baked clay, fometimes painte with gaudy colours, plaiftered with gold leaf, er covered with varnifh. Near the gates of cities four-fided blocks of ftone or wood are frequently erected, with in{criptions upon them, to perpetuate the memory of certain diltinguifhed charaters, but they are neither objects of grandeur nor o} nament. The whole of their architecture is indeed un which are generally fquare buildings carried feveral {tori above the arched gate-way, and, likethe temples, are cove with one or more large projeéting roofs. But the m ftupendows work of this country is the great wall that d vides it from northern Tartary, which is built upon the f plan as the wall of Peking, being a mound of earth cafed each fide with bricks or ftones. The altonifhing magnitu of the fabric confifts not fo much in the plan of the work, in theimmenfediftanceof fifteen hundred miles, through whi it is extended, over mountains of two and three miles height, and acrofs deep vallies and rivers. See Ware a CHINA. Chinefe Trade, Manufadures, Agriculture, Fc. The trade of China is now encouraged by the government. Even the foreign commerce, which was formerly fhut up by their jea- lous monarchs, has been laid open by the Tartars fince the conqueft, fo that they now trade with Japan, Manilla, Siam, Batavia, end other parts of the Eaft Indices. They likewife derive confiderable advantage from their traffic with the Eu- ropeans. ‘Thefe have indeed fearce any port open to them, except that of Quang-tong, and that only at certain times of the year; neitherarethey fuffered to fail up quite to that city, but are forced to caft anchor at Whang-pu, a place about ' four leagues fhort of it, where the river is fo crowded with trading veffels, that it looks like a large city on the water. This trade was once very advantageous to the Europeans, who brought thither cloths, fwords, clocks, watches, looking-glaffes, diamonds, cryftals, telefcopes, and other mathematical inftruments, and fold them at a high rate ; but the market is now over-ftocked with thofe commodities, and the trade hardly worth carrying on in any thing but fil- ver exchangedfor gold, which is fold higher or lower ac- cording to the time of the year; it being cheapelt in March, April, and May, when there is the greateft number of vef- fels in the port returned from Quang-tong. But what the Chinefe chiefly depend upon is their home traffic. We ought to conlider every province as a feparate {tate or king- dom; fome of thefe abound with certain commodities, or provifious, which others want, and, to communicate which to all the reft, the beft methods have been invented, both by land and water-carriage. Thus the provinces of Hu-quang and Kyang-fi, which abound with rice, fupply thofe that want it; Che-kyang furnifhes the fineft filks; Kyang-nan the fineit ink, varnifh, and all forts of curious works ; Yun- nan, Shen-fi, and Shan-fi, yield plenty of iron, copper, and other metals, horfes, mules, and furs; Fo-kyen, the beft fugar and tea; and Sechwen the greateft variety of medi- cinal and other plants ; all thefe are conveyed from one pro- " vince to another, either by their rivers and canals, or by land-carriage ; and when brought to the place of fale, are commonly vended ina few days. ‘The next branch of their wealth arifes from their manufaCtures, of which they have great variety. We fhall only fpeak of fome of the moit confiderable, fuch as their filk and cotton, their porcelain and Japan ware, or varnifh. We begin with the filk, the inven- tion of which the Chinefe records attribute to one of the wives of the emperor Wang-ti; fince which period many other empreffes have been recorded for the fingular care they took to encourage it, by breeding the filk-worms, {pinning the filk, and delivering it to the proper workmen and women to be woven. Their example could not fail of exciting the reft_ of their fex to put their hands to fuch a profitable, as well as delightful, work, by which they were enabled to exchange their old garb of fkins, for the more eafy and ele- gant drefs made of this new and valuable commodity. Upon the whole, that manufa@ture hath been fo well culti- vated among them from time immemorial, that not only the princes, grandees, literati, and other perfons of diftinc- “tion, but their domeftics, the merchants, tradefmen, and mechanics, can afford to clothe themfelves with it; none, ‘except thofe of the meanett fort, and the peafants, appear- ing in cotton. The quantity they fend abroad of it is prodi- _ gious, and plainly proves that it employs an infinite number of hands; fo that it is: not without reafon that China is ftyled the filk country. Neither are the Chinefe to be lefs admired for their furprifing ingenuity, diligence, and flill, in the management of every branch of it, the contrivance of their looms, and other inflruments for {pinning and weav- | ‘ing it in a beautiful varicty of colours and patterns ; their great care and {killin breeding, hatching, and propagating their worms ; and their excellent way of cultivating mulberry- trees to the belt advantage for their nourifhment. The Chinefe appear to have {trong claims to the credit of having been indebted to themfelves only, for the invention of the tools required in the primary and neceflary arts of life. The traveller wiil obferve, in relation to common tools," fuch as the plane and anvil, that whether in India or in Europe, in ancient or in modern times, they are found fabricated in the fame form, denoting one common origin, In China algne, thefe tools have fomething peculiar in their conftruction, clearly indicating that they are of an original invention. Thus, the upper furface of the anvil, elfewhere flat and fomewhat inclined, is among the Chinefe fwelled into aconvex form. The common plane, too, is diftinguifh- ed by fome minute particulars, which chara@terize it to be original. There is reafon to believe, that not only inventions of the firft neceflity, but thofe of decoration and refine- ment, were known among the Chinefe in remote antiquity. The annals of the empire bear teftimony to the fa¢t, and it is confirmed by a confideration of the natural progrels of thofe inventions, and of the ftate of-the Chinefe artifts at thistime. In the firft eftablifhment of an art, it is practifed aukwardly, and this flate is fuppofed to continue ftationary, until at length it advances to its fecond pericd, when it be- comes improved, and the artilt is enabled to avail himfelf to the utmoit of every tool and machine that can affift him. The laft period of perfeCtion is that in which the artift is become fo dextrous, as to complete his work with few, or aukward tools, and with little or no affiltance. And {uch is the charaéter of the Chinefe potter, weaver, worker in pre- cious metals, and in ivory, and of molt others in the feveral trades commonly praétifed in the country. The procefs of {melting iron from the ore is well known to them, and their caft ware of this metal is, as we have already obferved, re- markably thin and light. Ofall the mechanical arts, that in which they feem to have attained the higheft degree of per- fection, is the cutting of ivory. Nothing can be more ex- quifitely beautiful than the fine open work difplayed in a Chinefe fan, the fticks of which would feem to be tingly cut by the hand; for, whatever pattern may be required, asa fhield with a coat of arms, ora cypher, the article will be finifhed according to the drawing, at the fhorteft notioe. Out of a folid ball of ivory, with a hole in it not larger than half an inch in diameter, they will cut from nine to fifteen diftin& hollow globes, one within another, all loofe, and ca- pable of being turned round in every dire€tion, and each of them carved full of the fame kind of open work that appears on the fans. A very {mall fum of money is the price of one of thefe difficult trifle. Models of temples, pagodas, and other pieces of architecture, are beautifully worked in ivory, and from the fhavings, interwoven with pieces of quills, they make bafkets and hats, which are as light and pliant as thote of ftraw. In fhort, all kinds of toys and trinkets are executed in a neater manner, and for lefs money, in China, than in any other part of the world. The various ufes to which that elegant fpecies of reed called the bamboo, is applied, would require a volume to enumerate. Their chairs, their tables, their fereens, their bed{teads and bedding, and many other houfehold moveables, are entirely conftructed of this hollow reed. It is ufed on board fhip for poles, for fails, for cables, for rigging, and for caulking. In hufbandry, for carts, for wheel- barrows, for wheels to raife water, for fences, for facksto hold grain, and a variety of other utenfils. he young fhoots furnifh an article of food, andthe wicks of their candles are made of its fibres, It Serves to embellifh the garden of the oe, an CHINA, and to cover the cottage of the peafant. It is the inftru- ment in the hand of power that keeps the whole empire in awe. Indeed there are few ufes to which a Chinefe cannot apply the bamboo, either entire, or {plit into thin laths, or divided into fibres, to be twifted into cordage, or mace- rated into a pulp, to be manufactured into paper. The dif- covery of making paper from firaw is of very ancient date in China. The ttraw of rice and other grain, the bark of fome trees, and various plants, are employed in the paper manufactories of China, where fheets are prepared fo large, that a fingle one will cover the fide of aroom, The fineft fort of paper for writing upon, has a furface as fmooth as vellum, and is wafhed with a folution of alum to prevent it from finking. Many old perfons and children obtain a live- lihood by wathirg the ink from written paper, which is after- wards re-manufactured into new fheets ; the ink is alfo fepar- ated from the water, and preferved for future ufe. SceParrr. There is no doubt that the art of printing is of great an- tiquity in China, yet they never proceeded beyond a wooden block. With the Chinefe the art confifts in nothing more than in cutting in relief the forms of written charaGters on wood, daubing afterwards thofe charaCters with a black glu- tinous fubitance, and prefling upon them different fheets of paper. It has not yet occurred to them to form moveable and feparate types; they are fatisfied, whenever the fame characters very frequently occur, as in the public calendars and gazettes, to ufe types for fuch cut apart and occafion- ally inferted. See Printine. in China, the chain-pump, nearly in its primitive fate, conftitutes an effential part in their fhips of war, and other large veflels; the principal improvements fince its firft in- vention, confift in the fubftitution of boards, cr bafket- work for wifps of ftraw. Its power with them hes never been extended beyond that of raifing a {mall flream of water upon an inclined plane from one refervoir to another. to ferve the purpofes of irrigation. They are of different fizes, and worked in different ways, fome by oxen, fome by treading in a wheel, and othersby the hand. The power of the pulley is underftood by the Chinefe, and is applied on board all their large veffels, but always in a fingle flate. The lever is alfo well known among them, and is applied to weighing ali their valuable wares; and the tooth and pinion wheels are ufed in the conftruétion of their rice-mills, that are put in motion by a water-wheel. But none of the me- chanical powers are applied on the great feale to facilitate and to expedite labour. Simplicity is the leading feature of all their contrivances, that relate to the arts and manu- factures. The tools of every artificer are of a fimple con- itruGtion, and yet each tool is contrived to anfwer feveral purpofes; thus the bellows of the blackfmith, which is nothing more than a hollow cylinder of wood with a valv- ular pilton, befides blowing the fire, ferves for his feat when fet on end, and as a box to contain the reft of his tools. The joiner makes ufe of his rule as a walking ftick, and the cheit that holds his tools ferves him as a bench to work on. The pedlar’s box and a large umbrella are fufficient for him -to exhibit all his wares, and to form his little fhop. Betides the variety of trades which are ftationary in China, there are many thoufands of the people, in every large city, who cry their goods about, as is done in our metropolis. Barbers alfo are feen running about the itreets with inftra- ments for fhaving the heads and cleanfing the ears. They carry with them, for this purpofe, a portable chair, a por- table ftove, and a {mall veffel of water; and, whoever wifhes to undergo either of thefe operations, fits down in the ftreet, while the operator performs his office. ‘To diftinguifh their profeffion, they carry a large pair of fleel tweezers, with which they make a great noifc, in order to obtain employ ment. There are perfons alfo engaged in the open {treets felling off their goods by auétion, and the butchers of Pe- king not only fell, but drefs the meat for their cultomers, who eat in the fhops what is neceflary, and having paid the price, go zbout their bufinefs. The Chinefe government has, in all ages, beftowed the frit honours on every improvement in agriculture. The hufbandman is confidered an honourable as well as a ufcful member of fociety ; he ranks next to men of letters or offi- cers -of ftate, of whom he is frequently the progenitor. The foldier, in China, cultivates the ground. The prieits alfo are agriculturifts whenever their convents are endowed with land. The emperor is confidercd as the fole propri- ctor of the foil, but the tenant is never turned out of poffef fion as long as he continues to pay about the tenth part of what his farm is fuppoted capable of yielding. And, though the holder of lands is only confidered as a tenant at will, it is his own fault if he is difpoffeffled. If any one happens to hold more than his family can conveniently cul- tivate, he lets it to another, on condition of receiving half the produce, out of which he pays the whole of the empe- ror’s taxes. A greater part of the poor peafantry cultivate land on thefe terms. In China there are no immentfe eftates, no monopolizing farmers, nor dealers in grain. Every one can brinz his produce to a free and open market; no fifheries are here let out to farm. Every fubject is equally intitled to the free and uninterrupted enjoyment of the fea, — of the coafts, of the eftuaries, of the lakes, and rivers. There are no manor lords with exclufive privileges, nor any game laws, The Chinefe never divide their fields into ridges and fur- rows, but plant their grain in drills on an even furface, They are not inattentive to the direGtion of their rows, or dibbling their grain, as may be inferred from the folemn re- gulations, made concerning the annual ceremony of the emperor’s act of hufbandry in ploughing the ground. Itis fettied that he fhall ftand with his face turned towards the fouth, and taking hold of the plough with his right hand, he fhall turn up a furrow in that direGtion. The colle¢tion of manure is an object of fo much attention with the Chi- nefe, that a prodigious number of old men, women, and — children, incapable of much other labour, are conftantly employed about the ftreets, pnblic roads, banks of canals and rivers, with bafkets tied before them, and holding in their hands {mall wooden rakes to pick up the dung of ani- mals, and offals of any kind, that may anfwer the purpofe of manure; this is mixed f{paringly with a portion of {tiff loamy earth, and formed into cakes, dried afterwards in the fun. It fometimes becomes an obje&t of commerce, and is fold to farmers, who never employ it in a compact ftate. Their firft care is to conftru& very large cilterns for contain- ing, befides thofe cakes, and dung of every kind, all forts of vegetable matter, as leaves, or roots, or items of plants; mud from the canals, and offals of animals, even to the ~ fhavings colle&ted by the barbers. With all thefe, they mix as much animal water as can be colleGed, or of com-— mon water, as can dilute the whole; and, in this flate, ge- — } nerally in the a& of putrid fermentation, they apply itto the ploughed earth. In various parts of a farm, and near the paths and roads, large earthen veffcls are buried to the” edge in the ground for the accommodation of the labourer or paifenger who may have occafion to ule them. In {mall — reuring houfes, built alfo upon the brink of roads and in the — neighbourhood of villages, refervoirs are conftruéted of — compact materials, to prevent the abforption of whatever they receive, and ftraw is carefully thrown over the farce ' em CHINA. from time to time, to prevent evaporation. Such a value is fet upon the principal ingredient for manure, that the oldett and moft helplefs perfons are not deemed wholly ufelefs to the family by which they are fupported. The quantity of manure colleéted by all thefe means is ftill inadequate to the demand. It is referved, therefore, for the purpofe of pro- curing a quick fucceffion of culinary vegetables, and for forcing the produdtion of flowers and fruit. Among the vegetables raifed in the greatelt quantities, is a fpecies of braffica, called by the Chinefe Pe-tfai, which refembles cofs Jettuce, and is much relithed both by foreigners and natives. Whole acres of it are planted in the neighbourhood of po- pulous cities, and it is difficult on a morning to pafs through the crowds of wheel barrows and hand-carts loaded with this plant, going into the gates of Peking. It is falted for win- ter con{umption, and, in that ftate, exchanged, in fome of the provinces, for rice. ‘That grain and that herb, together with onions, ferve as a meal for the Chinefe peafants and me- chanics. The hufbandman always keeps the grain he in- tends to fow in liquid manure until it germinates, which has the effect of haftening the growth of plants, as well as de- fending them from infe@s, The great object of Chiuefe agriculture, the production of grain, is generally obtained with little manure, and without letting the land lie fallow. A mixture of earth, in due proportion, is fometimes fubtti- tuted with fuccefs in the deficiency of manure; anda fur- face of ftrong loamy clay may, with the addition of fand and water, be rendered an advantageous medium of fupport of vegetable life. Sea-fand 1s likewile ufed for this purpofe, and, if Jaid on in proper proportions, it tends to promote fermentation, which is favourable to the growth of vege- tables. By pratices fimilar to thefe, the Chinefe fupply the deficiency of manure. ‘They are conftantly changing earth from one piece of ground to another; mixiag fand with that which they find to be too adhetive, and clay or loam where the foil appears too loofe ; and having thus given their land the confiftency that it requires, their next care is to prevent it from becoming dry. _ Befides the great plenty of corn, grain, and pulfe of all forts, which almoft every part of this country produces, it hath likewife a fufficient quantity of pafture-ground, which feeds a vaft quantity of cattle of all forts; whilft their fpacious woods and foreits fupply them with as great plenty and variety of wild beafts; fuch as buffalos, wild rs, deer of feveral kinds, elephants, leopards, tigers, bears, wolves, foxes, and a variety of others, not known to us, which afford the Chinefe the diverfion of hunting, as well as the commerce and profit of their furs, which are commonly very fine and valuable. This country alfo produces the muik-cat, a profitable creature. They have, likewile, a fort of roebuck which they call hyang-chang-tfe, the male of which a bag of a very odoriferous fub{tance. This creature, hich breeds moftly cn the northern ridge of mountains beyond Peking, is firft hunted, then killed; the bag above- tioned is immediately cut off and tied very hard, that it y lofe none of its efluvia. The fleth is alfo good to eat ; ut the bag is efteemed of more value than the reft of e carcafe., The moit delizhtful, however, of the whole wadruped kind, is a fmall ftag bred in the province of Yun- » and no where elfe; bought at a high rate by the rinces and nobles, merely to be kept for fhow in their dens. Thefe are exaétly fhaped like the common fort, their fize fcarcely exceeds that of our ordinary dogs, on ich account they are elteemed as curiofities: but they @ a great variety of ftags of different kinds in the other Ovinces, fome of which are reckoned as extraordinary for ir large fize. Birds and fowl, both of the wild and tame kind, are here in great plenty and variety ; fuch as eagles, cranes, ftorks, hawks, falcons, pelicans, birds of Paradife, peacocks, pheafants, partridges, turkies, geefe, ducks, {wans, cocks, and hens, and a vatt variety of water-fowl on their lakes, rivers, and canals. Among the tame and curious fort, they have a variety of beautiful parrots, not inferior, either in plumage, colours, or facility of talking, to any that are brought from America: but the mott furpriling and delight- ful of all the flying kind, is the litcle bird called kin-ki, or golden-hen, which is commonly found in the provinces of Yun-nan, Shen-fi, and Se-chwen. This admirable creature derived its name from the exquifite fymmetry of its fhape, the beauty, luftre, and variety of its plumage, the complete mixture and arrangement of light and fhade, both in its wings and tail, and the fine plume that crowns its head : but what renders it {till more valuable among the epicures is the delicate tafle of its flefh, which, we are told, greatly excels that of pheafants. China feems to be defigned by nature to produce not only all the fruits which grow in other parts of the world, but likewife many others peculiar to its foil and climate; fo that, if they have not fo great a plenty and variety of the former, it is owing to their neglect of cukivating them; for, in general, they grow na- turally almoft in every province, and many of the more deli- cate kind in the fouthern parts to greater perfection than any in Europe. Apples, pears, plums, quinces, apricots, peaches, figs, pomegranates, mulberries, nectarines, grapes, oranges, lemons, citrons, melons, walnuts, chefnuts, pine- apples, and other fruits, grow almoit every where in great plenty. Yet they are not fo curious as the Europeans in cultivating and improving them, but content themfelves with having three or four different forts of apples, feven or eight forts of pears and peaches; and as for their cherries, they are hardly worth eating. The only fruits that exceed ours are their pomegranates, a fine fort of mufcadine grapes of exquifite taite and flavour, and their tfe-tfe, called by the Portuguefe macau, which is a kind of fig. Olives are here in great plenty and varicty, and, though different from ours, have a very fine talte; but whether out of diflike, or that they do not think it worth their while, they extract no oil from them, Among thofe fruits which grow in the fouthern provinces, the li-chiis moft eeemed. It is fhaped like a date, and hath an oblong ftone. The fruit is full of moitture, of an excellent tafte and flavour when full ripe ; but fhrivels, and grows blackifh, like our prunes, by keep- ing. Next to that is the long-yen, or dragon’s-eye, which is round, and yellowifh, the pulp white, and a little acid. Both thefe are efteemed very wholefome, efpecially the lat- ter, which is taken to create an appetite. They have likewife fome fingular as well as ufeful trees, particularly that which they ftyle the pepper-tree, which bears a fort of grain like a pea, but of too hot a nature to be eaten; but the hufk, which is lefs pungent, is ufed by the common people. The pea-tree produces a fort of pulfe, like our common pea, only a little more rank, Their wax-tree is fo called from the wax that is produced on it by a kind of little worm which runs up and faltens to its leaves, and quite cov- ers them with combs. This wax is hard, fhining, and confider- ably dearer than that of common bees ; though this laft they likewife have in much greater quantities. When thefe worms are once ufed to the trees of any diftri@, they never leave them, unlefs fomething extraordinary drives them away. ‘The nau-mu is a tall ftraight tree, the wood of which is incor- ruptible like the cedar : it is commonly ufed to make pillars, doors, windows, or ortiaments for palaces, temples, and large buildings; but it is in other refpeéts much inferior to the tze-tau, or rofe-wood, which is of a reddith black, freaked, and CHIN A and full of fine veins, which appears to be painted by fome artift. The furniture and ornaments made of this wood are much efteemed all over the empire, and fell at a greater price than thofe which are varnifhed or japanned. We omit a great variety of other valuable and curious trees, fuch as the cedar, ebony, fanders, pines, oaks, &c. which we have not room to defcribe. - But that which is juftly efteemed the moft profitable among the Chinefe, and hath mott excited the envy of the Europeans, is their tfi-fhu, or varnifh-tree, that yields the eum with which they make their fine giran-varnifh or japan, which keeps fuch an infi- nite number of hands employed in moft provinces of the ‘empire, and furnifhes it with fuch a prodigious variety of cheits, cabinets, boxes, and other houfchold ornaments, fo beautifully painted and varnifhed, and fent abroad into mott parts of the world. The next to that in ufefulnefs is the tong-fhu, or oil tree, from which a liquor or oil is drawn, not much differing from the varnifh above-mentioned, and ufed almott to the fame end, but chiefly in larger work, fuch as pil- lars, cornices, galleries, triumphal arches, and fine floors. This oil, when boiled into a confiftency, not only preferves the wood over which it is laid, but gives it a fine lultre, and, like the varnifh, may be mixed with any colour to great ad- vantage. China is likewife famous for producing the cam- phor-tree, which grows to a prodigious fize, and rifes often to the height of 300 feet 3 its wood is of a firm texture, of great ufe in fhip-building, as well as in joiners’-work, from the beautiful glofs it acquires in polifhing ; but the molt valuable part is the gum, which the Chinefe are extremely expert at extradling, percolating, purifying, and fubliming. The Jalt of the tree kind, worth our particular notice, 1s what they call tie-li-mu, or iron-wood, from its extreme hardnefs. It is, indeed, very remarkable for its ftrength and durability, beyond any other wood ; the tree is as tall and fpreading as our large oaks, and the wood is of a much deeper brown, as well as more weighty and tough. Almoft every part of the country being interfeGed by rivers and canals, abundance of water is always near at hand ; and it remains only for them to contrive the means to con- vey as‘much of it as is neceffary to the planted grounds. Thus they reap full and conftant crops without fallowing, and fometimes without manure. The draught cattle moft generally in ufe are oxen, mules, and afles; horfes are fearce, of a miferable breed, ‘and incapable of much work. No pains, however, are beftowed to improve the breed, for the Chinefe imagine that this animal requires no other at- tention than that of giving him food. The taxes raifed for the fupport of government are neither exorbitant norburdenfome: they confift inthe tenth of the pro- duce of the land, in a duty on falt, on foreign imports, anda few {maller taxes that do not affeét the bulk of the people. The total amount of taxes and affeffments, which each indi- vidual pays to the ftate, does not exceed four fhillingsa year. “With fuch advantages and fuch encouragements given to agri- culture, one would imagine that the condition of the poor mutt be betterthan elfewhere. Yet, in years of fcarcity, either from unfavourable feafons of drought or inundations, which are perpetually occurring, in one province or other, thoufands perifh from an abfolute want of food. There are few pub- lic charities ; no poor laws ; and it is not a common cultom to afk alms: Mr. Barrow fays he did not feea fingle beggar from one end of China to the other, except in the ftreets of Canton. The children, or next of kin, muft take care of their aged relations; and the parents difpofe of their children in what manner they may think beit for their fa- milv intereft. As feveral generations live together, they are fubiifted at a cheaper rate than if they had feparate houfe- holds; and in cafes of real diftrefs, the government is fup- pofed to a& the "parent ; and whenever any of its officers, through negleét or malice, with-hold grain from the poor, they are punifhed with fingular feverity, and fomctimes even with death. Another great advantage enjoyed by the ‘Chinefe fubje& is, that the amount of his taxes is afcer- tained. He is never required to contribute, by any new af. {eflment, to make up a given fum for the extraordinary ex< pences of the ilate: except in cafes of rebellion, when an additionel tax is fometimes impofed on the neighbouring provinces. We hhall conclude this article with a fhort account of their coin. Silver and copper are the two current metals in China; gold being on the fame footing as precious ftones, ~ purchafed, like other valuable merchandizes, according to its weight and finenefs. Silver, though ufed in payment, is : not coined, but cut into pieces, {maller or larger, as occafion requires ; fo that its value is rated according to its weight and goodnefs. The fcales, or rather fteelyards, with which they weigh the filver or gold, and which they commonly carry about them in a neat japan cafe, confift of a little round plate, an ebony or ivory beam, and a weight. The beam, which is divided into minute parts on three fides, is fuf-— pended by fine filken ftrings at one of the ends, in three dif- ferent points, that they may more eafily weigh their pieces, Thefe kinds of fteelyards are fo exceedingly exa& for weighs ing any money, or {mall pieces of filver, that from fifteen or _ even twenty crowns, down to the twelfth part of a penny, and lefs, may be weighed in them with fo great a nicety, that th one-thoufandth part of a crown will turn the feale. The Chinefe chufe to have it in that manner rather than coined. If, like the Europeans, they had ftamped pieces of determi- — nate value, they fay their country would fwarm with clippers _ and coiners, and the dealers be forced to have ftill recourf to their fcales and touchftone. The only expeditious way _ they have to pay any fum in filver, is to keep by them a variety of plates of that metal, beaten, either thinner or thicker, befides the ingots, which are referved for larger fums; and thefe, by long ufe, they can cut to a very great nicety. The only coin, properly fo called, in ufe among them, is of copper, and of a very inconfiderable value {carcely amounting to the third part of one of our farthings, It is of a round figure, with fome Chinefe charaéters on each fide, and a {quare hole in the middle, through which th may be ftrung to any number. They, however, had, in a cient time, a great variety of coins of gold and filver, which are now only to be feen m the cabinets of the curious, an more particularly in that of the late emperor Kang-hi, wh caufed a noble colleGion to be made of ail that could be fou of that kind.in the empire, and to be depofited there as cu= riofities. The Chinefe pound, or lyang,-weighs fixteet ounces, but is divided into only ten parts, called tfyen, this inte ten fwen, which @re equivalent to about feven pence Englifh; the fwen into ten fi of filver. The beam of Chinefe fcale carries thefe divifions %o farther; and yet, wi refpeé to gold or filver of a confid =thle weight, the divifi is more minute, and almoft extend imperceptible part for which reafon it is fearce poilible to convey a juft idea them in ourlanguage. They divide the li into ten wha, th wha into ten fe, the fe into ten fu, the fu into ten chin, which laft fignifies a grain of duft; this again into ten yay, they into ten myau, the myau into ten mo, the mo wto ten tfyu and the tfyuninto ten fun. There were periods at which {carcity of {pecie obliged their monarchs to raife the valueg the {mall copper pieces fo exceffively high, that one of them was worth ten of the fame fort current in former time This fcarcity of copper coin, oceafioned either by fome i “Vv CHT N-A. Tent irruption of foreigners, who came and carried it away, or through the cautioufnefs of the people, who buried it in time of war, and died, without difcovering where it lay hid, hath been fo terribly felt, that at one time an emperor caufed near fourteen hundred temples of Fo to be demolifhed, and all the images and copper work to be caft into coin; and at other times the people have been exprefsly forbid the ufe of any veflels, or other utenfils of copper, and obliged to deliver up thofe they had to the mint. & ; Penal Laws and Punifbiments. The laws of China define, in the mot perfpicuous manner, almoit every fhade of criminal ‘offences, and the punifhment awarded to each crime, and the greateil care has been taken in conftruéting the {cale of crimes and punithments, which are very far from being fanguinary. Of all, the defpotic governments exifting, there is certainly none where the life of man is held fo facred as in the laws of China. A murder is never overlooked, except in the horrid practice of expoling infants; nor dares the emperor himfelf take away the life of the meanelt fubje@t without the forma- lity of a regular procefs. So tenacioufly, however, do they adhere to the principle, “ At the hand of every man’s bro- ther will I require the life of man; whofo fheddeth man’s blood, by man fhall his blood be fhed,” that the good inten- tion is oftentimes defeated by requiring of the perfon laft feen in company with one who may have received a mortal wound, or who may have died fuddenly, a circumftantial account, fupported by evidence, in what manner his death was occa- fioned. In attempting to proportion punilhments to the degrees of crimes, the Chinefe feem to have made too little diftin@ion between accidental manflaughter and premeditated murder. To conttitute the crime it is not neceflary to prove intention or malice ; if a man fhould kill another by accident, his life is forfeited by the law. And however favourable the circumftances may be, the emperor alone has the power of remitting the fentence ; a power which he rarely, if ever, exercifes, to the extent of a full pardon. The procefs of every trial for criminal offences, of which the punifhment is capital, muft be tran{mitted to Peking, and fubmitted to the fupreme tribunal of juttice, which affirms or alters according to the nature of the cafe. The execution of all capital crimes takes effect once a year, at the fame time; and the number, feldom above two hundred, is very {mall for fo populous an empire. In moft cafes, indeed, fine and imprifonment, flagel- lation and exile, are the ufual inflictions, except in cafes of murder, and in crimes againft the {tate or emperor. The punihment of treafon extends even to the ninth generation. A traitor’s blood is fuppofed to be tainted, though they ufuaily fatisfy the law by including only the neareft male re lations, then living, in the guilt of the culprit, and by miti- gating their punifhment to that of exile. ‘Theft is never pu- nifhed with death ; nor is robbery, unlefs it be accompanied with perfonal injury. ‘Che moderation of thofe punifhments ems to imply the infrequency of the offence. In a variety of capital punifhments, {trangulation is deemed lefs infamous han decapitation : the feparation of any part of the body om the remainder being confidered as particularly difgraces ful. The punithment of the Caygue, which confilts of aa enormous block of wood, with a hole in the middle, to re- ceive the neck, and two [maller ones for the hands of the offender, is generally inflicted for petty crimes. ‘This am- bulatory pillory the culprit is fentenced to wear for weeks or months together, provided he is able to walk about, but he is nerally glad, for the fupport of his degrading burthen, to Bsn again{t awall or atree. If a fervant of a civil magiltrate takes it into his head that the culprit has reited too long, he a him with a leathern whip till he rifes. ‘lhe punifh- ‘ment of the bamboo, however degrading it mult appear to t Vor. VII. an Enropean, is ordered upon a very fummary hearing opon any individual not in the rank of mandarius; anda viceroy has not only the power of degrading lower officers, but direfting, without the form of a trial, any punifhment, ‘not capital, on them. Every mandarin’ may make ufe of the baton, or pan-tzee, which is a flat piece of bamboo, broad at the bottom, either when any one forgets to falute him, or when he admini(ters public juftice. Qn fuch occafions, he fits at a table, upon which is placed a bag filled with fmall flicks, while a number of petty officers ftand around him, each fur- nifhed with fome pan taces, and waiting only fora lignal to make ufe of them. ‘Ihe mandarin takes one of thefe little flicks and throws it into the hall of audience, upon which the culprit is feized, and receives five {mart blows from’ the pan-tzee; if the mandarin draws another fick from the bass a fecond officer beltows five more blows, and the punifhment is thus continued till the judge is pleafed to makeno more fignals ; when the criminal is expected to proltrate himfelf in gratitude for the paternal difcipline. “Some crimes ate punifhed either with banithment, or by being condemned to drag the royal barks for a term of years, or to have their cheeks branded with a hot iron. Children who are deficient in duty, are condemned to receive a hundred blows; and if they lift up their hands againft their parent, or ufe abutive language, they are punifhed with death. The flightett punifhment in China is the baftinado, which is only ufed for chattifing thofe who are guilty of very trivial faults, and the number of blows is eftimated according to the nature ef the offence. The loweft number is twenty, when the punifh- ment is confidered as paternal correétion. ‘The emperor even orders it to be infli@ed upon fome of his courtiers; which, however, does not prevent them from being afterwards received into favour. The order and adminiftration of the jails are faid to be re- markably good. ‘he debtor and felon are confined in fe- parate places, it being thought impolitie and immoral to affociate guilt with imprudence or misfortune. ‘The two fexes are likewife kept carefully apart. Confinement for debt is only temporary; but if after the delivery of ail, the debtor’s property be infufficient to fatisfy the demands againft him, he is liable to wear a’ neck-yoke in public, for a certain period, to induce his family, if able, to difcharge the debe. IF his’ infolveney has been incurred by gaming or other improper conduét, he is fubje& to corporal punifi- ment and exile. A min may fell himfelf in China in certain cafes, fuch as difcharging a debt to the crown, or to affit a father in diltrefs, or to bury him in due form. If his con- du& is unimpeachable, he is entitled to his liberty at the end of twenty years; but if otherwife, he continues a flave for life, as do his children alfo, if he had included them in the original agreement. The emperor’s debtors, if fraudulently fo, are ftrangled ; if through misfortunes, their wives and children, and property of every kind, are fold, and they themfelves are fent to the new fettlements in Tartary. In China, the intereits of the emperor are always made the fir object ; no property can be fecute againft his claims, Dif putes among individuals concerning property, do not fill up a large {pace in the tranfa@tion of Chinefe affairs: Property, whether real or perfonal, is held by tenures too fimple to oc cafion much difference of opinion as to the right to it. There are no entails nor fettlements, and the little commerce they maintain with foreigners, together with the uniformity of their own principles, euftoms, and opinions; but above all, the union which exifts in families, among whom, elfe- where, the exclufive rights of individuals occafion the greatett feuds; and the fort of comtnunity in which moft of them continue in China, cut off the principal fources of eet 48 The CIIN A. The halls of audience are, in fa&t, more engaged in folicita- tions than in contefts, and men of talents are employed, fometimes, to fupport the caufe of others, who are young, ignorant, or incapable ; but there is no particular order of men, who fubfiit in affluence, as lawyers and attornies ; or who arrive at disnitics hike the former. ‘lhe impartiality of the judge is endeavoured to be fecured by appointing no man to that office in the province of which he is a native. He is, however, liable to be fwayed by the weight of pre- fents. Such offerings are univerfal from an inferior to a fu- perior, and from a pleader to his judge. ‘They are paid by both parties, and the value of the prefents is not afcertain- ed; it is even expected, that the offcrings fhould be in pro- portion to the opulence of the donor. By the laws relating to property, women in China are excluded _from inheriting, where there are children, and from difpofing of property ; but where there are no male children, a man may leave by will the whole of his property to the widow. The reafon affigned for women not inheriting is, that a woman can make ne offering to deceafed relations, in the hall of ancettors. And it is deemed one of the firit bleffings of life, for a man to have fome one to look up to, who will tranfmit his name to future ages, by performing, at certain periods, the duties of this important ceremony. Natural Produdions and artificial Curiofities of China. Among the natural produétions of China mutt be mentioned the tallow-tree, called by Linnzus croton /eliferum,. from whieh the Chinefe obtain a vegetable fat for their candles. This fruit, in ics external appearance, bears fome refemblance to the berries of the ivy. As foonas it is ripe, the capfule opens and divides into two or three divifions containing ker- nels, each attached by a feparate foot-ftalk, and covered with a white flefhy fat fubftance. The fat is feparated from the kernels by crufhing and boiling them in water, and the candles made of it are firmer than thofe made of tal- low, and free from all offeifive {mell; the wicks are gene- rally made of a light inflammable wood, in the lower extre- mity of which is pierced a {mall tube, to receive an iron pin, which is fixed on the flat top of a candleftick, and thus fupports the candle without the neceflity of a focket. The tallow-tree is faid to have been tranfplanted to Carolina, where it flourifhes as well as it docs in China. Sugar canes are very much cultivated in China; the plantations of which, belonging to individuals, and being but of little ex- tent, the expenfe of erc&ting fugar-mills is too heavy to have one upon each plantation. ‘The bulinefs of extracting the juice of the cane, and of boiling it into fugar, is there a feparate undertaking from that of him who cultivates the plant. Tne boilers ef fugar travel about the country, with a {mall apparatus fufficient for their purpofe, but which a Welt India planter would conlider as inefficacious and contemptible. It is not a matter of great difficulty to tra- vel with this apparatus, as there are few plantations of which fome part is not acceffible by water-carniage. A few bam- boo poles and mats are deemed fufficient for a temporary building ; within which, at one end, is fixed a large iron cauldron, with a fire-place and flue, and about the middle, a pair of cylinders or rollers, fixed vertically in a frame. Upon the top of the axis of one of the cylinders, prolonged above the frame, are fixed two fhafts or levers, curved in {ach a manner as to clear the frame in turning round the rollers, and to the end of thefe fhafts are yoked two buffa- loes, who, moving round as in a common cattle mill, prefs the canes between the cylinders, and exprefs their juice, which is conveyed through a tube into the cauldron. The canes, deprived of their juices, become fit fuel, by means of which thofe juices are boiled into a proper conliftence for granulation, The boiler of fugar endeavours to enter into an agreement with feveral planters at a time, fo that his works, ereéted near the centre of their feveral plantations, may ferve them all, without changing his eftablithment. During the time he is employed, the fervants and children of the planter are bufily engaged in carrying canes to the mill, The canes are planted very regularly in rows, and the earth carefully heaped up about the roots ; and under the roots of the canes is found a large white grub, which, fr'ed in oil, is eaten as a dainty by the Chinefe. In the neighbourhood of the canes are likew:fe feveral groves of orange trees, of the fruit of which there is a great variety in fize and colour. ‘The pines, which bear large cones, have kernels much relifhed by the Chinefe ; and every mountain, either too {teep, or too rocky, to be applied to any other ufe, is planted to the top with various kinds of pines, but moft generally with the larch, as preferred for the purpofes of building. On the fides and tops of earthen embankments, dividing the garden grounds and groves of oranges, the tea-plant is {een growing like a common fhrub fcattered carelefsly about. Wherever it is regularly cultivated, it rifes from the feed fown in rows, at the diftance of about four feet from cach other, and is kept very free from weeds. Walt tracks of hilly land are planted with it, particularly in the province of To-chien; its perpendicular growth isimpeded tor the convenierce of colleGting its leaves, which is done fir(t in fpring, and twice afterwards in the courle of the fummer. The largeft and oldeit leaves, which are the leait efteemed, and deftined for the ufes of the loweft claffes of the people, are often expofed to fale with fcarcely any pre- vious preparation, but the young leaves require much trow- ble before they are fit to be delivered to the purchafer, Every leaf pafles through the fingers of a female, who rolls it up almoft to the form it had affumed before it became ex- panded in the progrefs of its growth. It is afterwards placed upon thin plates of earthen ware or iron, made much thinner than can be executed by artifts out of China: thefe plates are placed over a charcoal fire, which draws all the remaining moifture from the leaves, and renders them dry and crifp. The colour and aftringency of green tea is de rived from the early period at which the leaves are plucked. The tea is packed in large chefts, into which it is prefled down by the naked feet of the Chinefe labourers. It is fometimes made up into balls, and fometimes a black extraé is drawn from it, to which many virtues are attribufed. This plant is cultivatedin feveralof tlie provinces of China, fel dom more northerly than about thirty degreesbeyondthe equa- tor. It thrives beft between that parallel and the line that feparates the temperate from the torrid zone. Such immenfe quantities of tea are raifed in China, that a fudden failure of ademand from Europe would not be likely to occation any material diminution of its price at the Chinefe markets, though it might be attended with inconvenience to particular cultivators. See Tuea. Another natural produétion of China is the pe-tun-tfe, ufed in the manufactory of porcelain, which is a fpecies of - fine granite, or a compound perhaps of quartz, feltfpar, and mica, in which the quartz feems to bear the largett proportion. » It appears from experiment that it is the fame as the growan flone of the Cornith miners. The micaceous part, in fome of this granite, often contains particles of iron ; in which cafe it will not anfwer the potters’ purpofe. This material can be calcined and ground much finci by the mills of England than by the imperfe& machinery of the Chinefe, and at a cheaper rate than the prepared pe-tun-tfe of their country, notwithftanding the cheapnefs of labour there. See Porcerain. The CHT The bamboo is a curions and beautiful, as well asa va- lusble plant. It is properly a reed, hollow, and generally jointed ; it is fuppofed to flourifh moft on dry ground in the neighbourhood of running water. Its growth is quick, attaining its height, about twenty feet, in a year and a half. It has the properties of being equally light and folid, and it rifes out of the ground with a trunk of which the dia- meter contracts as its length increaics; the branches of the bamboo are few, and of a light fhining green ; the leaves are long and delicate. Within the hollow of its joints is fre- quently found a fingular fub{tance of a filiceous nature, . which has been ufed in fome countries as a medicine. The Chinefe reckon above fixty varieties of the bamboo, and apply it perhaps to as many ufes. See AruNvo. OF all the artificial curiofities in China, their flately towers are the molt {triking to flrangers, though built in a ftyle peculiar to this country. There are two of thefe without the walls of Nanking, the molt beautiful of which, flyled the Porcelain Tower, becaufe it is lined all over, the infide with China ules, beautifully painted, is the mott ad- mired by all travellers, for its height, fymmetry, and va- nety of carving, gilding, and other ornaments, It is of an oétagonal form, nine ftorics, or two hundred feet high, and forty feet in diameter ; fo that every fide is fifteen feet in length. The whole is built on a large bafis of brick, ftrongly cemented, which forms a ftately perrou, or flight of nine or ten fkeps, likew fe of an oétagonal figure, by which yeu afcend to the firft ttory ; and this perron is fur- rounded with a baluttrade of unpolifhed marble on the out- fide. The firlt ftory, or, as it is called, the hall, is the higheft of all, but has no windows, nor any light but what comes in at three {pacious gates, which open into it. ‘The wall is faid to be about twelve feet thick, and eight anda half high, cafed with porceiain, but of the coarfer fort, and not a little damaged by age. From this you afcend to the fecond, and thence to all the other ttories, which are of equal height, by a very inconvenient ftair-cafe, the lleps of which are ten inches high, and very narrow. i Every ttory has eight large windows, one at every front, They all lef- fen, as they mount one over the other, fo as tu form, in the whole, a kind of cone, or fugar-loat ; and betw cen each of them is a penthoufle or fhed, which projects fome yards from the wall all around, and leffens in the fame proportion the higher they rile. Each room is adorned with paintings aud other ornaments, after the Chinefe ityle, both on the fides aud on the ceiling, whilll the outfide 1s embellithed with variety of work in baffo-relicvo, niches, and imagery. But the mott beautitul part of the whole fabric is a kind of cupola, which anes thirty feet higher than the uppermoit flory, and is fupported by a thick mail, hxed at the bot- tom of the floor of the eghbth fkory. This picce feems to be inclofed ma large iron hoop, all the way, which winds round it like a fpwal lune or fcrew, at the diitauce of feveral feet, fo that the whole looks like a hollow cone rifing in the air, and fupporting on the top a golden ball of an cx- traordivary lize. Such is the {tructure of that famed tower, which, whether of brick, marble, or whatever otier mate- nal, is looked upon by Le Compte, and other authors, as the belt contrived, molt folid and magnificent work in all the Eat. Nieuhoff adds two circumitances concerning it, yiz. that the bail, or piue-apple on the top, is reported by tine Cninele to be of mafly pold; and the other, that the tower bath flood feven= hundred years, and was erected by toe Vartars, as a monument of their having made them- {elves matters of the Chinefe empire ; whereas Le Compte aflirms ir to nave been, in his time, of no more than three hundred years tlandug, and to have beew built, together N A. with the Temple of Gratitude, by the emperor Yong-lo; to which opinion Du Halde feems to fubferibe. Molt of thefe towers have in the uppermott gallery, acd at every angle, {mall bells hanging at fome diltance, by chains or wires, which are ealily moved by every blaft or wind, and make an agreeable tinkling. But the greatelt celight which thefe kinds of ftruétures afford, is the charming profpect of all the country, exhibiting an incredible number of viilas, orchards, gardens, meadows, towns, and monuments. ‘They have a prodigious number of temples, both in town and country. The moft celebrated of them are built in barren mountains ; to which, however, the induttry of the natives hath given beauties which were denied to them by nature; fuch as canals, cut at a great expence, to convey the water from the adjacent heights into proper refervoirs, for the ufe of the bonzes and their votaries; gardens, groves, ard deep grottoes, cut into the rock, to fhelter them from the excef= five heat; circumftances which render thefe folitudes de- lightfully romantic. Thefe ftruGures confitt partly of fine porticos, paved with large {quare polifhed ttones, and partly of halls and pavilions, reared in the corners of the courts, having a communication with each other by galleries, adorned with ftatues either of {tone or brafs. The roofs of thefe buildings thine with beautiful japanned tiles, of green or yellow, and are embellifhed at the corners with dragons of the fame colour, The reft of thofe buildings are built of timber, and moft of them have high towers. Mott of the cities have large bells fet up in their high towers, by which they give notice of the different watches of the night; and thofe which have no bells make ufe of large drums. Some of their bells are of a monttrous bignefs and weight but the largeft of all are thofe of Nanking and Peking. Le Compte mentions feven they have ia the latter of thefe cities, that weigh one hundred and twenty thoufand pounds, This is nearly five times the weight of that at Erfurth ia Saxony, which Kircher fuppofed to be the largeft in Eu. rope. But the Chinefe bells are very much inferior to thole of Europe in found ; their clappers are of ahard wood. Their metal is very coarfe, and full of knots, and their fhape ill- contrived, for they are almoil as wide at top as at bottom, their thicknefs gradually leflening from the bottom upwardss fo that, upon the whole, they are mere unwieldy maffes of metal, without mufical tone, or any thing worth notice, but their huge, dull, beavy found, and prodigious weight, The lalt artificial curioficy we fhall mention, is their fur~ prifing fire-works, iu which they may be jultly faid to ex- cel all other nations. “This was the chief ufe they made of gun-powder, which it is faid they had among them many centuries before it was known in Europe ; they ufed to ex- hibit thefe fire-works at their folemn feftivals and other grand occafions, and ina great variety of figures and repre- fentations. ‘hey have carried this art to fuch perfeétion, that they can give to every object its true form and natural colour, Magailian relates, that he faw one of them which reprefented a vine-arbour, that burned without coufuming, the root, branches, leaves, and grapes of which appeared all in their true fhape and colour; the grapes were red, the leaves green, and the ftem and branches exaétly imitated nature,—A fiatic Refearches. Univerf. Hift. Anc. and Mod. Hitt. Univer.d’Anquetil. Playfair’s Chron. Sir George Staunton’s Embafly. Philhps’s Inland Navigation. Grof- fier’s Defeription of China. Barrow’s Travels. Pinker- ton’s Geography. Cuina, or China-ware, in the Manufudures, a fine fort of earthen ware, otherwife called porcelain ; which fee, Cuina, gilding on. See Gitpvine on China Cuina, party, See Party. 452 Cwina, CHE Cina, broken, a cement for. See Cament. Cana pink, in Botany. See Diantuus Chinenjis, Cuina rofe. See Hisiscus; Rosa Chinenfis. CHINALAPH, in Ancient Geography, a river of Africa, the moft confiderable in the Numidia Maffzfylorum, or pre- fent ftate of the Algerines, who call it Sheliif. It takes its rife in the Sahara, or Defert, at the dillance of about 80 miles to the S.E. in N. lat. 35° 2’. The fountains which form its fource, from their number and contiguity, are known among the Arabs by the name Sebbiene Aine, or Sebaoun Aioun, the fountains. In itscourfe it receives the Midroe, the Harbeene at the town of Medea, the Tod- dah, or Silver river, the Archew, the Mina, Woariffa, and Fagia. See SHeLuir. CHINCHA, in Geography, a fertile valley of South America, in the province of Peru, where the ancient Incas had a temple dedicated to the Sun. It was formerly very populous, but now contains about 509 families. The town, whence the valley derives its name, is fituated about 16 mil-s N. of Pifco. CHINCHE, in Zoology: Buffon calls the Viverra Me- hitis by this name. Skunk weefel of Pennant. CHINCHILLA, in Geography, atown of Spain, in the province of Murcia; 25 leagues S.W. of Valencia. CHINCHIMEN. in Zoology, a name given by Molina and Pennant to the Luéra felina, or otter, with the fhape and appearance of a cat; its length from nofe to tail is 20 inches. Molina (Chili, 265), fays, that it inhabits the fea of Chili. It fwims about in pairs, and loves to bafke in the fun, on the teps of rocks; and, when taken, has all the fierccnefs of a wild cat. CHINCHINA, in Botany. See Crcnona. CHINCHIO, in Geography, a town of European Tur- key, in the province of Dalmatia; 6 miles E. of Spalatro. CHINCON, a town of Spain, in New Caltile ; 18 miles E.S.E. of Madrid. CHIN-COUGH, alfo called Kink-cough, and Hooping- cough. See Pertussis. CHINCULAGUA, in Geography, a {nowy mountain of South America, in the Cordilieras of the Andes, in the province of Quito, N. of Cotopaxi, and of a fomewhat lefs fize. CHINE, inthe Manege, is uled for the back-bone, or the ridge of the back of a horfe. The French call it echine; and the ancient Italian matters ¢/guine. Cuine, La, in Geography, a village of Canada, feated on the ifland of Montreal, about 9 miles higher up, whither goods are fent from Montreal in carts, on account of the rapids in the river St. Lawrence juft above the town. This village is built on a fine gravelly beach, at the head of a little bay near the lower end of lake St. Louis, which is a broad part of the river St. Lawrence. Its fituation is very agreeable; and from fome of the ftorehoufes belonging to the king and to the merchants of Montreal, are charming views of the lake and of the country on its oppofite fide. In the king’s ftorehoufe, the prefents forthe Indians are de- pofited as foon as they arrive from England. In fight of La Chine, on the oppofite fide of St. Lawrence, itands the village of the Cachenonaga Indians, containing about 50 log-houfes and a Roman Catholic church, built in the Cana- dian ftyle, and ornamented within with pictures, lamps, &c. The number of the Cachenonagas in this village is efti- mated at about 150; the other Indian villages in the civil- ized parts of Lower Canada are, one of the Canafadogas, fituated near the mouth of the Utawas river; one of the hittle Algonguins, near Trois Rivieres; one of the Abera- chies, near the fame place on the oppofite fide of the river ; I OF = | and one of |the Hurons, near Quebec ; but none of thefe vil- lages are as large as that of the Cachenonagas. ‘The bateaux that navigate the river St. Lawrence afcend from this place by means of poles, oars, and fails. Cuinese Chronology. See Cuina and Curonorocy. Cuinese Coin. See Cuina. Cuinese Langnage. See Cuina. Cuinese Mufic. This fubjeG, of which we knew fo little, except from Pere du Halde, whofe information did not much enlighten us, has been fo amply treated of late years, by Pere Amiot, the Abbé Roufficr, M. La Borde, and the authors of the Encyclopédie Méthodique, that little would remain to be faid, if we had not other refources from which to draw that which may, perhaps, vary our narrative, if not inftrué the reader. The author of the prefent arti- cle, when colle&ting materials for Ris ‘ General Hiftory of Mufic in every civilized part of the Globe,” did not forget China, the moft ancient, extenfive, and polifhed, empire that exifts. He fent queries to an Englith gentleman, a good judge of mufic, who had refided many years at Can- ton, and who tranfmitted them to different diftant provinces, whence he obtained anfwers in French and Italian, from miffionaries long refident there; and our correfpondent at Canton not only tranfmitted to us their anfwers, but fent with them a complete fet of Chinefe inftruments; among which there was every {pecies of flutes, feveral ftringed in- ftruments of the lute and guitar kind, the pao, formerly called yu, tcheo, he, and ching, the appellation to which we fhall adhere in the courfe of this article. The ching is a beautiful inftrument, which has a gourd, or bamboo, for its bafis, and reprefents in the arrangement of its reeds or bamboo pipes, the column of an organ; with thefe we re- ceived the largeft gong which had ever been brought to England. ‘Thefe inruments were accompanied by Chinefe airs in Chinefe charaéters of notation, and in thofe of Eu- rope, with a treatife on mufic tranflated into French from the Chinefe, and a poem by the late emperor, Kien-Long, on the fupprefiion of a rebellion in a diftant province from the capital. Thefe are dated Canton, 1775 and 1777. Fur- ther information from books and various other inquiring friends, was accumulated before lord Macartney’s embafly took place; when, by his lord(hip’s friendfhip and liberal fpirit of refearch, not only for the fatisfaction of his own mind, but the fervice of others, he extended his patronage fo far asto defire the mutical hiftorian to write down a fe- ries of queftions, not only concerning mufic, but-any thing elfe that was wifhed to be invefligated ; and fatisfactory an- {wers were received to moft of the queries delivered, at his lordfhip’s return; drawn up by the learned and ingenious Mr. Hiittner, travelling tutor to the fon of the late fir George Staunton, a gentleman, who, previous to the Chi- nefe voyage, had refided a confiderable time at Naples, and is a well-informed mufician. Another chelt of in{truments, and a gong were added to the colleétion by the kindnefs and liberality of lord Macartney, and-from all thefe ma- terials, we fhall endeavour to furnifh curious inquirers after Chinefe mufic, with as much ‘information as can be com- preffed into the fpace ufually allowed to articles of a fimilar kind. ’ Mofic has powers fo oppofite over human affections, that wherever it is cultivated it is fure of at leait two fets of friends of very different difpofitions, the grave and the gay. Tt can equally footh and exhilarate. The Chinefe, the mok. grave, formal, and frigid people on the globe, boaf the having framed the proportions of mufical tones into a re- gular fyftem 4000 years ago, not only long before the time of Pythagoras, but that of the Egyptian ‘ Hermes Triie megiftus,’> a. -CHINESE MUSIC. megiftus;? or the eftablifhment of their myftagogues or priefts. But mufic, like other ancient arts, has fo mnch de- pended on the tranquil and profperous ftate of the nations by which it has been patronized, that, after being invented, cultivated, and brought to a certain degree of perfedtion, it has partaken of all the viciffitudes and calamiues of flates, and has been fo totally loft during the horrors of invafion, revolution, and ruin, that if, ina loag feries of years, pro- {perity fhould return, neither its mufic nor its fytem is to be found, unlefsy fuch fragments as, according to M. Baillie’s altronomy, we now poflefs of the theory and practice of the ancient Greek mufic. The Chinefe in their old books have the numbers of their ancient fcales as we have at prefent the ratios of Euclid and Ptolemy, which give us (according to the abbé Rouffier) the ‘“ true dimenfions of each tone, and their reciprocal generation,” which are infupportable on our keyed-inftruments. So that mufic being loft after the crufh of kingdoms, is again to be found by long labour, fludy, and experience; again to be loft, and again to be found! per omnia fecula feculorum. It is well known in Europe (fays and believes Pere Amiot ) that Egypt had its Mercury Trifmegiftus, (thrice great, ) who, by the {weetnefs of his lyre, civilized mankind. It is Jikewife as well known that Greece had its Orpheus and Amphion, who by their ftrains ftopt the courfe of rivers, made rocks dance, and even in the infernal regions filenced Cerberus himfelf; but Europe has fill to learn that China has had its philofophical mufician, its Lyng-tun, its Kouci, and its Pin-mou-kia; whofe ftrains have been equally mira- culous in taming the moft furious wild beafls, and in civi- lizing mankind, often more ferocious than bea{ts themfelves. Pere Amiot de la Mufique Chinoife. The firit chapter in the hiftory of every great nation is mythological, and never to be literally under{tood, And to fay the truth, there feems at prefent in the mufic of China lefs enchantment than in our own. Yet the vulgar of all nation prefer their ‘old traditional tunes to the fineft compofitions, and-moft exquifite performances that have ever been heard in an opera-houfe. « During the firft years of my refidence at Peking,” fays the reverend miffionary, ‘“ I loft no opportunity of trying to convince the Chinefe, that our mufic was fuperior to theirs. I was pretty well verfed in the art; I performed on the German flute and harpfichord, and thofe I wifhed to pleafe were not of an ignorant or mean order, but perfons well educated and qualified to compare and judge; in fhort, perfons of the firft rank, who, honouring the French mif- fionaries with their benevolence, ‘frequently came to their houfe to converfe with them on objects of {cience, and fuch arts as were cultivated in China. “Les Sauvages, and Les Cyclopes, the moft admired harpfichord leflons of the celebrated Rameau, the moft beau- tiful and brilliant folos of Blavet for the German flute, made no impreffion on the Chinefe. I faw in their countenances only acold and abfent air, which convinced me that nothing I played wasat all felt. I afleed themoneday what they thought of our mufic, and begged them to {peak fincerely. They an- {wered with the utmoft politenefs poflible, that, ‘ our mufic not being made for their ears, nor their, ears for our mufic, it was not furprifing that they did not feel its beau- ties, as they did thofe of their own country.”? ‘ The airs of our mufie (adds a do€tor among them, called Han-lin, and then in the fervice of the emperor) pals from the ear to the heart, and from the heart to the foul.’? We feel, we underftand it: what you have been playing has no effe& on us: the airs of our ancient mufic were ftill of:a higher /, ordex, They were not to be heard without rapture. All our books abound with the mof pompous encomiums of its charms; but at the fame time they inform us how much the excellent methods employed by the ancients in producing fuch marvellous effe&ts were loft, &c.”? If Pere Amiot had tried to convert the Chinefe to a love for European mufic by French finging, we fhould not have wondered. at his failure; but the inftrumental pieces of Rameau and Blavet were jullly admired in their day ; and there have been long a neatnefs avd precifion in the execu- tion of inftrumental mufic in France, which has not been ex- ceeded in any other country; fo that if Pere Amiot did juftice to the touch-ftones with which he tried the feelings of the Chinefe, it was natural to expeét a different refult. But -a fimilar difappointment happened to the Englith muficians during lord Macartney’s embafly. His lordfhip took with him a complete military band of wind-inftruments, feveral of whom were able occafionally, to perform well on the violin and the violoncello. Butthe Chinefe feemed wholly unmoved by the-perfect execution of the belt pieces, of the beft compofers, in Europe. Among the prefents which his excellency took to the court of China, was a good barrel organ, made by Gray, as a curious {pecimen of our me- chanifm, upon which, befides our beft popular tunes, were fet feveral favourite airs of their own country 3 to fome of which a bafe was added, and others were fet on the barrel in their native ftate, without any accompaniment whatever. The firft they did not feel, and the others, perhaps, from not being played in. the time and with the expreffion to which they were accuftomed, they would hardly acknowledge. As it was well known that, with all their long cultivation of mufic, the Chinefe had not arrived at counterpoint, or mufic in parts, the author of this article tried to betray them into a love of harmony, and * the concord of {weet founds.”? Being in poffeffion of the melody to the hymn that is an- nually fung by the Chinefe with the utmoft pomp, reve- rence, and folemnity, in honour of their anceftors, in the pre- fence of the emperor, entitled, ‘¢ The Son of Heaven,’ at- tended on this occafion by his fons, all the princes of the blood, the great officers of ftate, the Mandarins, the lettrés, men of {cience, &c. and whofe arrival is the fignal for the commencement of the hymn; and the melody to this hymn being, like our pfalmody, entirely conipofed of flow notes of equal length, ic was thought a good foundation on which to build harmony in plain coun- terpoint; and as there are many ftanzas to this hymn, a fundamental bafe only was added to the melody at firft; then a fecond treble;, and, afterwards, a tenor; after which a little motion was given to the bafe, followed by other additional notes to the tenor and bafe, but always taking care to enforce the principal melody by one of the other parts, either in unifon, or in the odtaye. But this had no other effect than to try the patience and politencfs of the Chinefe, who heard it without emotion of any kind. And when it was over, one.of the Mandarins, an accom- plifhed man of good fenfe.and good breeding, who attached himfe!f to our ambaffador, and feemed imprefled with a fin- cere friendihip for him, faid, but with the utmolt politenefs, that ‘he doubted not butsthat our mufic was very fine to ears accuftomed to it;. but that they were not able to underftand it. The additional parts confufed and bewildered them; they difguiled the air, and rendered it doubtful which was the principal found, adding that fuch mufic was too complicated for them, and required more attention than they were accuitomed to give to their own airs.”’ Such are the effeéts which our harmony has on the ears of the molt enlightened Chinefe, and indeed on thofe of all nations out of Europes, So that the opinion of Roufleau, that CHINE SEe MY Sire. that our harmony is only a Gothic and barbarous invention, which we fhould never bave thought of, if we bad been more fenlible to the true beauties of the art, and to mufic truly natural,’”? almoft ceafes to be a paradox. We thail now endeavour to give a fynopfis of the ancient mufical fyltem of the Chiuefe, which, if its chronology 13 jatt, mutt have preceded every other regular fyitem upon earth, The fy lem of Chinefe mufic bears date from the beginning of the monarchy, at leatk 2637 years before the Chrittian cra; a proof, according to Pere Amiot, that the Chinefe are the original authors of the fyftem of mufic, which has been fo ionz known in their country; and if it has been altered and abridged in later ages, it mult have been from the corruptionsand decay of the firlt principles upon which it was founded; and from its being mixed and united with vain and abfurd {ciences, fuch as divination by numbers, and judicial altrology, that men of true fcience have abandoned. ae Cnincfe have had, at every period of their hiltory, en univerial fyltem, united in all its points, to which every thing was conneéted and referred, as well in politics, as phy- fics and morality. To this fyftem they have withed, in fome way or other, to make the rules of mulic accord as well as thofe of other feiences, connected with their religious and civil eftablifhments. And Pere Amiot, being preffled to declare what were the peculiar excellencies of the primitive mulic of the Chinefe, from which it derived its miraculous powers, and whether he thought they had ever known harmony or mulic in parts, fimilar to that of modern times? he anfwered in the affirmative ; and added, that he thought the Chinefe were probably the nation in the world that has belt known harmony, and moft univerfally obferved its laws. But what is this harmony ? £* It is that which confilts in the general accord of all things natural, moral, and political, in- cluding whatever conititutes rehyion and government; an accord of which the f{cience of found is only the reprefen- tation and the image.’? So that the expreffions concerning this divine mufic, of which the learned miffionary and the Abbé Roaffier have laboured fo much to explain the laws, are only al'egorical and figurative! even the form of their mufical inftraments was metaphorical. Their hiltorians tell us that Foht, the founder of the Chi- nefe empire, 2952 B.C., was likewife the inventor of mulic; that in framing the inftrument called in, along inftrument ftrung with filken ftrings; the belly of which was curved to reprefent the heavens; the back was level to reprefent the earth; he placed the dragon (the fymbol of China) eight inches from the bridge to reprefent the eight points of the winds, and gave four inches to the neek of the Poung-Hoang to reprefent the four feafons of the year. ‘I’his initrument was furnifhed with five itrings to reprefent the five planets and the five elements, and its total length is fixed at feven feet two inches to reprefent the univerfality of things. By means of this inftrument he began by re rulating his own brealt, and contining his paffions within jult bounds; he afterwards la- boured at the civilization of mankind ; he rendered them ca- pable of obeying laws, performing a¢tions worthy of recom- pence, and of peaceably cultivating the earth, which gave birth to the arts. Foi had patriarchal longevity, having reigued 115 years. This is all fymbolical and imaginary mufic ; all that con- cerns real mufic that is intelligible is, that (according to Pere Amiot) long before Pythagoras, or any of the ancient fages of Greece, had travelled into Egypt, before the eltablifh- ment of Hierophants, and even before the time of Mercury himtelf, the Chinefe knew the divifion of the od¢lave into twelve femitones produced by a gammut or feries of fourths and fifths by the Abbé Rouffier’s favourite triple provreffion. Of this feries of perfcG filths, however, the ancient Chinete uled only five, beginning at F, the fundamental of their fyftem, which produced the following treble feales either way, by beginning ‘at the top or bottom of their preat Lu, as each diflin& arrangement of founds is-called. — — =HE And by giving to thefe founds a regular diatonic progreffion, they furnifh the following {cale without femitones: and which is, in faét, the precife Scots feale, that may be played on the fhort keys of a harpfichord, or piano forte, in G b or F &, for example: ~ Beginning in C, the fcale would be equally deficient. a: Had they purfued the feries of 5ths two degrees further, they would have had E and B; which would have furnifhed the two femitones neceflary to complete the {cale in C natu- ral. The din (which may be called the lyre of Fo-hi), all agree, had at firft but five ftrings. which were afterwards increafed to feven. But in procefs of time, they were again reduced to five, on which the tunes in prefent ufe feem chiefly to be formed, as thofe that are genuine, and not adulterated by Europeans, who write them down by memory, have no femitones. Pere Amiot’s book is crowded with feales, fyftems, cal- culations, and diagrams, which leave us as much in the dark as ever; as to what this learned mufic was, which ancient fages regarded as the univerfal {cience, the {cicnce of {ciences, whence all other feiences flowed. Father Amiot did not well know what to do with his Chinefe mufical difcoveries, till he faw the Abbé Rouffier’s Treatife on the mulic of the ancients; nor the Abbé how to illuttrate his Pythagorean ideas, tiil he faw the papers of Pere Amiot, of which papers he afterwards became the editor, and pubdlificd them in the fixth vol. des ALZemoires concernant I’ Hifloire, les Sciences, les Arts, Se, des Chinois. Ta explaining and commenting the work of Pere Amiot, the Abbé had a good opportunity, which he did not negle&, of harmonizing the Chinefe fyttem with his own, Not a paflaze of the ancient mufic is preferved, or the Jeait =S= oS | CHINESE MUSIC. leat idea fuggefted of what kind it literally could be; but after all threfe {cales and calculations which feem to imply that real pra¢tical mufic, ‘* which at once delighted the fenfe and gratified the mind, by the evidence of demonffration ;”” we find that it was an allegorical mufic, as inaudible as that of the {pheres. Father Amiot obferving that the Abbé Rouffier {poke favourably of the Chinefe, in his Memoire fur la Mufique des Anciens, fays, the Abbé Rouffier might, with the affillance of the Chinele, have become the flambeau; at once to cn- lighten men of letters and harmonilts ; the firft by a refeareb into ancient vfages, and the lalt in recovering to China that kind of mufical omnipotence which it formerly enjoyed, and which it has unhappily fince lott. This is another fpecimen of the wide extent of father Amiot’s mulical creed. But one of his countrymen, a gentleman to whom queries concerning Chinefe mufic had been fent, whohadvetided many years at Pcking, and who feems to have underttood the fub- jet better than Pere Amiot, fays, “ To hear the Chinefe talk of their mufic in ancient times, we fhould fuppofe it to be fomething marvellous; they confefs, themfelves, that not a vettige of it remains, and never ceafe deploring its lofs: but for my part, I can hardly believe that their anceltors had carried the art of mufic to fuch a high degree of perfection ; if they had, the prefent Chinefe could not fail to have a kind of mufiec at leaft tolerable, and I am inclined to be of the fame opinion as one of their lettrés, who told me, that what we read in their books concerning the excellence of their ancient muific, fhould not be underftood literally, but tigura- tively, of the good harmony between the prince and people, and the different orders of the ftate.’’ The emperor Kan-hi, the grand-father of the late em- peror Kien-long, who began his reign in 1662, and reigned 61 years (Eloge dela Ville de Moukden, Poeme par l’Empe- reur Kien-long, 1770, Svo.), was a true lover of arts and {ciences, who tried to procure from the Europeans refiding at Peking all the knowledge poffible on every fort of fubject. With their affiftance he had new books written in the Chi- nefe language upon aftronomy, mathematics, geography, me- dicine, &c. which ought to be recorded in our hiltorics, that if in future times it isfaid that excellent books on thefe fub- jects have been written in China, it might be known to whom the beft are due. The ancient Chinefe had no notation ; but at prefent they exprefs founds by the charaéters of their language, in imita- tion of the Europeans. But they have no modulation, and eonfequently know not what is meant by a b, x, or half note. , In the fouthern part of China they have only five notes or tones in the oétave ; but in the north, bordering on ‘Vartary, feven can be diflinguifhed. The generation of the 12 /u, or fcales, in this MS. traét, differ confiderably from thofe of Pere Amiot. But thefe feales, in Chinefe charaéters, for which we have no types, though they might gratify curiofity, could convey no more intelligence to the reader concerning the practical mufic of the Chinefe, than thofe in the treatife of Alypius, in Meibomius, of the practical mufic of the Greeks, concerning which we know little more than the al- phabet. After the feales and table of the twelve /u, or orders of founds, combined with the five tones, or rather table of the variations of different /us, the very intclligent correfpondent of our zealous friend (Mr. R.) concludes thus: * ‘Vhis, fir, is all that I can at prefent communicate concerning the mu- fic of the Chinefe, of which Kan-hi faid with great truth, the more pains were taken. to.underfland it, the more obicure and perplexing it became, for want of being able to trace it’ up to its true principles. “ Tt was afked, whether eunuchs were employed as fingers on the {lage, or in the palace ; and the anfwer was, that fome fron Europe had been introduced. in the palace early in the reign of the late emperor, as muficians, to fing, play on inftrus ments, and teach others; but that was not of long continu- ance; and now, as formerly, no other ufe is made cf them than as guardians of the wives and concubines of the emperor and of great perfonagcs.’? This communication bears date, Peking, 1780. We have a letter, likewife procured by Mr. R. from an Italian miffionary, on the fame fubjeét, who had been near thirty years in China, and had been admitted into the impe- nal palace to perform to the emperor, among European mu- ficians, who had been fent for, expreisly, for that purpofe. OF the ancient mufic of the Chinefe we can have no ace count but from books, equally fabulous with Egyptian my- thology and) the Grecian pantheon. But of the modern; we can form anijdea, not very wide of the truth, by corres {pondence and converfation with intelligent perfons, judges of European mnfic, who have long refided in China, as well as by drawings of their inftrements, and by the inftruments themfelves in our poflcfiion, and by fpecimens of Chinefe me~ lodies (they have had nothing elfe) current from time ims memorial, aud they are {till current throughout the ems pire. But the national airs of China being appropriated'to par- ticular times and occafions, are conttantly recognized, felt; and underftood ; fo that no Chinefe Fontenelle need aflc, “« Sonate que vent-tu?”” the times and the feafons would fave him that:trouble. Some of thefe airs are only publicly performed once a year, others twice, and the reft are ufualiy confined to one particular occafion. In high antiquity the zomoi of the Greeks had all appropriate names and applca- tious ; and their ancient modes the fame, which mufl greatly heighten their popular effects. ‘ God fave great George our King,”? in turbulent times, and “ Rule Britannia” (which has. fupplanted: * Britons ftrike home’’) in time of war, are proofs of the effeéts of appropriate tunes. But the variety after which muficians and dilletanti are ever craving in Europe, prevents all popular effecis from new mufic, however good the compofition and performance. Fine mulic can never have the general effeét of familiar and fimple airs, which require no feience to comprehend. Mr. R.’s friend fays, that Pere Amiot has written a treatife of great length on the mufic of the Chinefe, chiefly the ancient, which has certainly fuffered many changes from time, and which is now very difficult to verify. It is by the Euro- peans that the notatien which the Chinefe now have has been furnifhed, from their own alphabetic. characters. "That given for the inftruments does not correfpond with the fame European notes as the vocal. The Chinefe, formal ard fymmetric in every thing, have a {pecific number of airs for great occalions, which are never changed or varied. 1. The court airs, performed on the emperor's birth-day, and on days of ceremonial, but always when his imperial ma- jelly is pretent. 2. Airs to infpire true concord and national felicity, performed at the beginumg and end of each year, when the emperor afcends his throne. 3. dirs of incitement to virtue, when an eloge on the em- peror is real, aud his imperial majelty offers facrifice m a temple to the fouls of his anceftors. 4. Ditto, on another day of facrilice. 5. When his imperial majetty dines in public. .6) 6. Airs, CHINESE MUSIC. 6. Airs performed after a grand council’ has been held, and the emperor returns to his apartments. 7. Ditto at the folf@icial ceremonies, when the emperor offers facrifice on-a round altar. There is a certain number of mandarins to fuperintend the muficians on ail thefe occafions; the muficiafis, too, are limited to a certain number, and to inftruments of different kinds, on different occafions. ; This will account for the torpid flate of the art, and the infenlibility of the ingenious inhabitants of China to Euro- pean mufic. «People muft learn to hear mufic, as well as to perform it. There is no forcing pleafure on any animal, aud every man will be pleafed his own way —‘* Not by com- pulfion, Hal!” The Chinefe becan with fimplicity, and habit has fixed that fimplicity into an immutable law. The Europeans began their prefent poliphonic mufic with complication and eternal change.of {tyle; and effufions of unbounded imagina- tion will preclude fimplicity, and prevent any mufic fromliving to be fuperannuated, or becoming venerable for its antiquity. On the grand annual feaft given by the emperor when he receives the homage of governors of provinces, chiefs of tribes, tributary princes, &c. the grand mufic begins. It has nine flrains, or movements, performed between the feveral courfes, which are eight in number. The fir’ mufic pre- cedes the firft courfe, the other feven are feverally performed between and after the eight courfes. Pere Amiot. -Of all the Chinefe inttruments which we have feen, or which have been defcribed in books, there is no one which feems likely to pleafe Europeans, except one infrument made of a fonorous ftone, and another of {mall reeds of the bamboo. The inftrument formed of the prerre fonore is of the higheft antiquity, and mentioned with great encomiums in their molt ancient books. It is hard to fay whether it was an invention of the ori- ginal inhabitants, or brought thither by colonial invaders. The ‘inftrument is called the ding, is made of all fhapes and fizes, hanging like a bell, and beat with a covered mallet, like a gong. Its tone is as clear as if of glafs or metal. This fonorous ftone Pere Amiot believes to be metalline cryttallized, of five different properties ; hardnefs, weight, colour, grain, and tone. Itis as hard as agate and precious ftones ; fo that it refifts the beft tempered fteel. The harder it is, the higher it can be polifhed, and the clearer its fouud. [tis fo heavy, that arude piece of it, fuch as one man might be thought able to carry, requires four to move it. As to colour, it partakes of yellow, carnation, white, red, cinna- bar, and deep brown. It oft refembles marble of five colours. The principal ufe made of thefe pierres fonores, is giving figna!s for a concert to begin or end: the entrance or exit of the emperor, or other great perfonage, as in Europe by a great bell or cannon. As to the pitch and tuning of thefe lapidary inftruments, the Abbé Rouflier tries hard to prove it to be from the datum F, in the triple progreffion. Thefe in‘truments are fufpended by a ring, or rings, to a frame, and the largeft give the national pitch, F, to which the reltare proportioned. (See Plates, Mufic.) One of the mot ufeful qualities of the King, is, that its pitch is never fubject to variation, by heat or cold, like in{truments of wood or metal. The Chinefe have {uch a reverence for this inftrument, that they hold it profanation to ufe it on common occafions, as the Germans do an organ; and think the Englith very profligate in ufing it any where but ina church. Pliny 1. 3..c. 10. mentions a fonorous ftone, under the title KarxuoPwyros. tiavitum reddit.” But the Ching is the only inrument that we have received from China which would pleafe European ears. It is com~ pofed of reeds of different lengths, arranged into columns of organ pipes. See Plate, Mufic. Its tone is more {weet and delicate than that of any of our wind inftruments. It is not loud enough for a theatre or concert room ; but in a {mall apartment of a manfion, if cultivated by a mufician of tafte and fcience, it might be made the moft exquifite and capti- vating of inftruments. Ithas from 13 to 19 pipes, which fpeak either by blowing or inhaling, fo that a tone may be con- tinued to any length. It never {peaks till a hole is ftopt, and as many ventiges as are covered by the fingers, fo many founds will be produced; fo that duets may be played on a fingle individual inftrument, or even chords, which, if har- monically proportioned, like the tones of our inftruments, would greatly delight ears well organized. But no feale has ever been fent to Europe which bas come to our knowledge. Pere Amiot evades giving one. The mafter of the Ching is equivalent to organilt or maeftro di capella. Thefe regals, as we may call them, are of different fize and com- pals, and compofed of a different number of reeds. The {mall Ching, of which we have three in our own poffeffioz, has 13 pipes or reeds, which, fays the Abbé Rovflier, give the 12 femitones of the o€tave above the generator, or prin- cipal. But query, how can we reconcile this to there being no femitones in Chinefe melodies ? The beily of feveral ftringed inftruments in China is a feGtion of the gourd or pumpkin. Such is that of the Yee-Yen, whichlis played with a bow, and has two ftrings which are tuned filths. But the Ching has fometimes a {eétion of the cocoa-nut for its bafis. This inftrument is compofed of many pipes 5 each of its reeds has a different tone, produced by a ve narrow, thin, brazen or copper plate, fuch as is ufed in the reed-work of an European organ. The feale to this fweet little inftrument, remains the rand defideratum in Chinefe mufic. The Chinefe vocal mufic is not likely to pleafe any other ears than their own. Moft of them, even boys not excepted, fing in falfetto, and it feems as if a natural voice was as much difliked by them, as the original fhape of a woman’s foot. Nor did the officers or attendants in lord Macartney’s embafly ever hear in China a bafe or tenor voice. This un- natural method of finging is not improved by the perpetual tumultuous motion of the voice. The found of a double bafe they deteft; yet, notwith- ftanding their diflike of low tones, on their feeming to like the baffoon better than any other of our wind inftruments, lord Macartney offered to give it them; but they declined the acceptance, and immediately fet a joiner to work, who placing it on the ground, took the exact dimenfion of its feveral joints, keys, &c. and made one for themfelves. The Chinefe have theatrical dramas, with and without mufic. OF the latter kind are their comedies and farces. But their tragic fcenes are generally accompanied with all the noife of drums, gongs, &c., and the fcreaming and bawling of mandarins, after which they commonly introduce love {cenes and pattoral entertainments. : Allthe Chinefe airs which we have feen or heard, are in com- mon time. ** At Canton (fays Mr. Hiittner) we were furprifed by an opera confifting of recitativos and airs that did not want expreffion. At leaft I obferved that molt of our party feemed to be highly pleafed with them, and though ignorant of the Chinefe language, to underftand in fome meafure the meaning of the words, which, if Iam not miftaken, was entirely “ Calcophonos nigra eft; fed illifa, cris CHI entirely owing to the excellent imitation of the different acecnts of the paffions, and to their adequate movements and geltures. Thefe players, natives of Nanking, reminded me of the famous mufic of ancient Rome. The initru- mental mefic which con{tantly accompanied both recitativos and airs, was very pleafing and in excellent time. “The military mufic of the Chinefe is indeed miferable, and certainly not at all calculated to infpire courage. It has neither melody, expreffion, nor time. Hautbo's and horns together make fuch a continued and jarring noife, as if they vied with each other to im:tate the wawling of cats. Their horns, however, have a very good tone, aud refemble our ferpents. “The belt mufic we heard, was at the prefentation of the embaflador at Geho. After the emperor had afcended the throne anda religious filence prevailed throngh the nume- rous aflembly, we were ftruck with a delightful mufic from the great tent.. ‘The foft found, the fimple melody, the folemn progrefs of a flow hymn, gave at leaft to my mind that elevation to which only Handel’s mufic can raife it. For a long time I remained doubtful whether I heard human voices or inftiuments, ttl the latter were feen by fome that ftood nearer; they were flringed inftruments, and a fort of bamboo-fy:inx. The hymn refembled thofe fung in pro- teftant churches, but had no parts. Between each bar a {eemingly metal cymbal founded the tone of the following bar, which had a very good effet; but this was probably a large pierre fonore, aud the bamboo fyrinx was doubtle{s aching. “ What the Chin. fe judged of the embaffador’s band, I am not able to determine, but our interpreter told me, they liked their own mufic much better. They took great aotice of the con{trugtion, neatnefs, and management of cur mufical inftruments, as well as of our mufical notation. “ For though the miffionaries have introduced mufical figns in China, they feem to be known only by a few in- dividuals, more as a curiofity, than as the eafielt and molt accurate method of communicating mufical ideas. All the mufic we heard was piayed by rote, yet I have feen feveral rinted Chincfe books of mufic or mufical notes. « The geatlemen in the embaflador’s fuite, who are fond of mufic, fometimes ufed to takea part in the concerts per- formed by the band. At this fome of the mandarins were furprifed : upon my inquiring the reafon, [learnt that they, like the Romans, thought mufic no proper amufement fora gentleman.” That the exquifite harmony with which Mr. Hiittner was fo furprifed and pleafed on the day of prefentation in the great imperial tent, was produced by the Ching, we have no doubt. That inftrument, of which the tones are fo extremely f{weet, has harmony in itfelf, as every ventage in the {waz- zads, or pipes of which it is formed, when {topt by a finger of the player, produce a different tone; and as many holes as are llopt produce an equal number of founds; and though we know not the fcale, nor how to find the feveral notes, fo as to form melody or harmony, yet by chance at differ- ent tria!s, we have found 3ds, sths, Sths, and every inter- val confonant and diffonant in the diatonic fcale. Mr. Barrow’s account of the mufic that was prepared for the embaflador and his fuite at Canton, is the following : On the arrival of lord Macartney and his officers at the faftory, they found in the midit of a garden prepared for them on the oppofite fide of the river, “a company of comedians hard at work in the middle of a piece, which it {eaned had begun at fun-rife ; but the fqualling, and their thrill and harfh mufic, were fo dreadful, that they were pre- vailed Re with~ difficulty, to break off during dinner, Vou. VII. CH which was ferved up in a viranda direétly oppofite the theatre. «© Next morning, however, at fun-rife, they fet to work a-frefh, but at the particular requett of the embaflador, in which he was joined by the whole fuite, they were dif charged, to the no {mall aftonifhment of our Chinefe con- duétors, who coreluded, from this circumflance, that the Englith had very little tafte for clegant amufements. Players, it feems, are here hired by the day, and the more inccflantly they labour, the more they are applauded. They are always ready to begin any one piece out of a litt of 20 or 30 that is prefented for the principalto make his choice.” Travels through China. But though the mulic of the Chinefe is feverely cenfured by the gentlemen of the embaffy, they all agree that they are excellent a¢tors. The belt of thofe that perform at Canton generally come from Nanking. Cuinese Philofophy, Poetry, Sc. Cuinese Stoves. See Kanc. Cuinese-Wall. See Cuina and Watt. Cuiness Weights. See Cuina and Weicur. Cuinese Wheel, See WuHeen. CHINEY, or Cinzy, in Geography. See Cuiny. CHING, atown of China, ot the third ‘rank, in the province «f Tche-kiang; 10 leagues S. of Chao-hing. -9 Cuinc, or CHinG-TInG-Fu, a town of China of the firtt rank, inthe province cf Pe-tche-li, feated near a fine river, of an oblong figure, and walled, and near 4 miles in circuit. Under this are 32 cities, 5 of the fecond, and 27 of the third rank. Upon the adjacent mountains N. of it, which produce a great varicty of medicinal herbs, are feveral {uperb monuments ereéted to the heroes of the Chinefe, and one in particuiar, confecrated to the memory of the firlt em- peror of the dynafty of Han. CHING-CHEW, a city of China of the firft rank, in the fouthern diltri@t of the province of Hou-quang. CHINGE, in Zoology, the name given by Molina, who has firft deferibed it, (Chili 269,) to the Viverra Chinge, or black weazle, with changeable calls of blue, with a row of white fpotsfrom head to tal.. In fhape and general form, it refembles the Chincha, which fee. It isa native of Chili; and Molina fays, that the {meli ifluing from it is owing to a certain grecnifh oil, ejected from a follicle or receptacle near the tail. The Indians are faid to value the fkin of this fpecies on account of its beauty, and to ufe it for various purpofes, quilts, &c. ke. Shaw. CHING-HAT, in Geography, a town of Afia, in the kingdom of Corea; Go miles E.S.1. of Kang-tchecu. CHING-HO-ANG, a mountain of China, in the pro- vince of [che-kianz, near its capital, Hang-cheu, or Hang-tcheou-fou ; on which flands a high tower, which, by the help of a large water glafs that is made to turn the hand of a dial, thews the hour of the day at a confiderable di- {tance ; the figures of the hours being gilt, and about 18 inches long. CHING-KYANG, or TcuinG-1anG-rou, a city of China, of the firft rank, in the province of Yun-nan. CHINGOLEAGUL, a fmall American ifland, near the coait of Virginia. N. lat. 37°56’. E. long. 75° 26’. CHING-GONGO, ariver of Hindoottan, which rifes in the Ellichpour country, and runs into the Godavery, 16 miles S.W. of Neermul. CHING-NGHAN, or Tcutx-ncan-Fou, a city of China, of the firlt rank, inthe province of Quang-fi, CHING.-TU, or Tcuinc-rou-rou, a city of China, the capital of the province of Se-chwen, or Se-tchuen, for- merly the refidence of the emperors, and one of the largeft 7d by and Sce Cuina. ‘CHI anc mot beautiful cities of China; but in 1646, it was al- mott entirely deftroyed during the civil wars which preceded the lalt invafion by the Tartars; its temples, bridges, and the ruins of its ancient palaces, are {tili obje€ts of admira- tion to ftrangers. Father Martini, in his Chinefe Atlas, men- tions a fingular bird that is feen in the neighbourhood of this place, called ‘* tong-hoa-fang,” or the bird of the flower; “ tong-hoa,”’ from which the vulgar pretend that it is pro- duced, on account of the refemblance of its plumage to the colours of this flower ; fo that it is called the ‘ living flow- er.” This city has under its jurifdiction 6 cities of the fecond, and 25 of the third rank. CHINIAN, Sr.,a town of France, in the department of Hérault, and chief place of a canton, in the diltri& of St. Pons. The place contains 2838, and the canton 7105, inhabitants; the territory includes 230 kiliometres, and 10 communes. CHINIZ, a town of Perfia, in the province of Farfiftan, fituated on the Perlian gulf; 140 miles W. of Schiras. CHIN. KIEQOU, a town of China, of the third rank, in the provinee of Ho-nan3 15 leagues N.E. of Yun-hing. CHIN-LI, a town on the N.W. coat of the ifland of Hainan, of the third rank; 12 miles W. of Kiong-tcheou. CHIN-MOU, a town of China, of the third rank, in the province of Chen-fi, on the river Kin; 50 milesN.N.W. of Kia. CHINNA, in Aucient Geography, a town of Europe, in Dalmatia. Ptolemy. This is named Cinna in Antonine’s Itinerary. CHINNABALABARAM, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in the Myfore country; 85 miles N.E. of Seringapatam. N. lat. 13° 25’. E. long. 77° 56’. CHINNAPUTTON, a city of Hindoottan, with a fort of ftone, in the Nizam’s territories, 37 cofles, or about 563 geographical miles W.N.W. from Sarore-Bancapour. CHINNOR, an inftrument of mufic among the He- brews, confilling of thirty-two chords. Kircher has given a figure of it. : CHINON, in Geography, a town of France, and prin- cipal place of a diltriét, in the department of tie Indre and Loire; fituated on the Vienne, and defended by a ftrong caltle. The place contains 6106, and the canton 15,040 in- habitants; the territory includes 2474 kiliometres, and 13 communes. It is diftant 8 leagues W.S.W. from Tours, and 42 S.E. from Saumur. CHINQUIS, in Ornithology, the name given by fome Writers to the Tibet peacock, Pavo Tibetanus, which fee. CHINSE, in Sea Language, is ufed for thrufting oakum into a feam or chink, with the point cf a knife or chiffel. CHIN-SHAN, or the Golden Mountain, in Geography, an ifland of China, fituated in the middle of the river Yang- tfe-kiang, which rifes almoft perpendicularly out of the river, and is interfperfed with gardens and pleafure-houfes. Art and nature feem to have combined in giving to this fpot the appearance of enchantment. _ It belongs to the emperor, who has built upon it a large and handfome palace, and on the higheft eminence feveral temples and pagodas. The ifland alfo contains a larze monaftery of pricits, by whom it is chiefly inhabited. In one cf the plates annexed to the *: Embaffy to China,”’? we have a view of this ifland. CHINSURAH, called alfo Hougly, a town of Hin- dooltan, in the province of Bengal, fituated on the weltern bank of the Ganges, 40 leagues from its mouth at Ingcllee, about 19 from Patna, and 17 miles N. from Calcutta. The Dutch, who eltablifhed a fettlement in this place, obtained it by gift, or rather by purchafe, from the Moorifh govern- ment, It is partly built along the river, and requires three- 8 CHI quarters of an hour to. walk round it. On the land fide it is clofed by barrier-gates ; within, it-is very irregularly built ; it has many markets or bazars, which are plentifully fupplied with all kinds of goods and provifions; that of the money- changers, which is a long and broad ftreet, is the handfomelt, The principal houfes are built of brick, with terrace-roofs, in the Moorifh ftyle; they confift only of one ftory, and are whitened on the outfide with lime, which gives them an cle- gant appearance. Little wcod is ufed in the buildings, be- canfe it is liable to be deftroyed by the white ants. Inftead of glafs windows, frames of twifted cane are ufed: ‘The apartments, thus guarded from the extreme heat which pre- vails for 8 org months in the year, are fpacious and airy, and provided on the fouth fide with yalleries or porticos, refting upon pillars. On the terrace-roofs the inhabitants take the evering air, and fometires pafs a part of the night with their friends. ‘Lhe houfes, or rather the huts, of the poor Bengalees are moftly made cf mud end ftraw, aid receive their light through the entrance. The town has z hand- fome little church with a fteeple. The lodge, formerly be- longing to the Dutch Eatt-India company, is an oblone {quare with ftone walls, and called Guftavus fort. A battery of 21 pieces of cannon is thrown up, by the river fide, for the purpofe of firing falutes. Hougly is a Moorith fort, about half an hour’s walk from Chinfurah ; butit is not ina very defenfible ftate. The Englith are now in poffeffion of Chinfurah. CHIN-TCHEN, atown of China, of the third rank, in the province of Chen-fi; 20 miles N. of Torg. CHINY, or Cixey, a town of France, in the department of the Sambre end Meufe ; and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of Dinant, feated on the Semoy, g leagues W. of Luxembourg. The place contains 1055, and the canton 5978 inhabitauts; the territory includes 255 kiliometres and 18 communes. Before the revolution, this town was the capital of a comté in the duchy of Luxembourg, which was of great extent, and included 13 cities or capital towns, and it was fometimes called imperial. After paffing through the poffeffion of feveral proprietors, fince Bruno, the 27th archbifhop of Colozn, and chancclior of the empire, crected it into a comté, about which time it waa furrounded with walls; it was adjudged to the houle of Auftria, by the treaty of Ry{wick. CHIN-YANG. See CuEn-yaxc. CHIO fear, a name given to a {mall fpecies of pear, called alfo by fome the baftard mufk pear, from its refembling the little mufk pear in its {weet flavour. Its fkin is yellow itreaked with red; it is of a roundifh fhape, and does not hang in clufters, but fingly on the tree. CHIOCCO, Anprew, in Liography. Of the life of this ingenious and learned phyfician, we have few memorials. We only know he was a native of Verona, where he eppears to have praGtifed medicine, towards the end of the 16th and the beginning of the 17th centuries, and that he died there on the 3d of April, 1624. From his works it is that we obtain the information that he was well verfed in the learning of the fchools; that is, that he was intimately ac- quaizted with the writings of Ariftotle, and of Galen, whole dogmas he every where defends ; and that he was more than moderately imbued with cleffical and polite litera- ture. The following are among the mait éfteemed of his produftions. * Qnellionum Phyficarum et Medicaram Libri tres,” 4to. r5ca. He defends the practice of giving antimonial vomits, and infils that the fource of uriner caleuli is more freqnently in the bladder, than in the-kidnies. « Pforicum, feu de Scabie Libri duo, de contagii natura, &e. Carmina defcripta,” gto. 1797. Halkrgives a good charafer C*H.d chara&er of this poem, which we have not feen, as alfo of his defence of the Siphilis of Fracaftorius, againit the ftri€tures of Scaliger. “ De Aeris Veronentis clementia,” 1597, 4to.; from the general longevity of the inhabitants, many of them having attained a great age, he argues for the falubrity. of the foil and atmofphere of that city. He alfo wrote a treatife on contagious fevers, and of the ut'hty of bleeding, with the view of removing obftru@tions: Alfo © De Coliegii Veronenfis iluftribes Medicis et Philofophis, &c.’? 1623, 4to. The account of the writings of the per- foas commemorated, which fhould have fermed a principal feature in the work, is very imperfeétly performed. Haller Bib. Med. . CHLOCOCCA, in Botany, (from xi». faow, and xoxx0«, aberry.) Lien. Gen. 231. Setreb. 305. Gert. 150. Jufl. 204. Vent. 2. 551. Ciocogue; Lam. Encye. Clafs and ord. Pentandria monogynia. Nat. ord. Aggregate, Linn. Rubiacee, Jul. Gen. Ch Cal. Perianth fmall, fuperior, five-toothed. Core monopetalous, funnel (haped; tube long, fpreading ; border five-cleft; fegments equal, acute, reflected. Stam. Fiiaments five, filiform, the length of the corolla; anthers oblong, erect. Pil. Germ inferior, roundifh, comprefled ; fiyle hliform, the jength of the ttamens; fttigma fimple, ob- tufe. Peric. Berry roundilh, comprefled, crowned with the calyx, one-celied, (two-celled, Gert. and Brown). — Seeds two, roundih, compreffed, diltant, (one in each cell, perdu- loris. Gert.) EM Ch. Corolla) funnel-fhaped, eqwal; berry two- feeded, inferior. Sp. 1. C. racemofa; climbing Snowberry-tree, or Da- vid’s-rvot, Lian. Spec. Mart. 2. Lam. 1. Willd. Jacq. Amer. 68. Pi&. tab. 69. Brown, Jam. 164. No. 1. 2. Lam. Illutt. Pl. 160. (Lonicera, Linn. Spec. Edit. 1. Peri- clymenum; Plum, tab. 217. fig. 2. Dill. Elth. tab. 228. fig. 295. Jafminum; Sloan. Jam. tab. 185. fig. 3. (The Pandacaqui of Sonnerat Novv. Guin. tab. 19. quoted by the younger Linnzus as a fynonym of this fpecies, does not belong to the genus, nor even to the natural order of Rubiacez, but is a f{pecies of T'abernamontana.) “ Some- what climbing ; leaves broad-lanceolate ; flowers in loofe, lateral racemes: with one flipular tooth.” Linn. jun. Stem fix feet high or more. Branches {mooth, loofe, fpreading out horizontally. Leaves petioled, oppofite, acuminate, nerved, fmooth, fhining on the upper furface. Stipules mi- nute, acuminate, within the petioles. Racemes axillary, op- pofite to the branches, fimple, or fubdivided, {carcely longer than the leaves, many-flowered. Flowers pale yellow, pe- duncled, ufually in pairs, directed one way. Berry {now- white. There 1s a variety found in woods (No. 2. Brown) which grows to a much more confiderable height, with long, cylindric, weak branches, which cannot fupport themfelves without the aid of the neighbouring trees or fhrubs. Its leaves are faid to be {maller, fomewhat convex, a little rigid; the racemes fhort and fimple; the corollas a little larger, pale coloured, but purple at the corners. Jufficu feems inclined to regard it as a diltine {pecies, but La Marck attributes the difference folely to the plant’s being drawn up to a greater height in woods. The root has much the fame bitter acrid talte with the feneka fnake root, and is a flrong refolutive and attenuant ; a decodtion of it is adminiftered with fuccels in obitinate rheumatifms and venereal complaints. A native of Jamaica, St. Domingo, and the neighbourhood of Carthagena. 2. C. darbata, Mart. Wiild. Fortt. Flor. Aultral. No. 96. “ Ere& ; leaves egg-fhaped ; peduncles axillary, one-Jowered ; corollas bearded in the throat.’ A CHI native of the Marquefas, Society and Friendly iflands in the South Seas. Cuiococca ncdurna, Jacq. Cuiococca paniculata, Linn. jun. Lam. TRIA paniculata. CHIONANTHUS, (from day, fnow, and avbo:, a flower.) Lion. Gen. 21. Schreb. 26. Wild. 37. Juff. 105, Went.'2. 302. Grert.2 9. Lam. Ill. 23. Clafsand ord. Diandria monogyria. Nat. ord. Sepiaric, Linn. Faf- mincé, Juil. ‘ Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth one-leaved, four-cleft, ereét, acute, permanent. Cor. one-pétalled; tude very fhort, the length of the czlyx, fpreadirg, fegments of the border four, linear, erect, acute, oblique, very long. Stam. Filaments two, three, or four, very fhort, awl-fhaped, inferted into the tube: anthers heart fhaped, ere&t. Pi/?. Germ ege- fhaped; ftyles fimple, the length of the calyx. Peric, Drupe round, one-celled. Seed, nut ftriated. Eff. Ch. Corolla quadrifid ; divifions extremely long ; drupes with a ftristed nut. Sp. 1. C. virginica. Virginian fnow-tree or fringe-tree, Linn. Sp. Pl. x, Mart. 1. Lam. Encyce. 1. Hluft. 1. tab. 9. fig. r. Willd, r. (C. latifolia and anguttifclia; Hort. Kew. r. 14. Amelanchier, Catef. Car.1. tab. 68. “*Pedun- cles three-cleft, three-flowered.”? Linn. Leaves ovate lanceolate, fomewhat pubefcent underneath ; drupes globu- lar.’ Lam. A fhrub from fix to ten feet high. Leaves oppofite, petioled, entire, from five to feven inches long, and about three broad. /owers white, in pendulous panicled racemes ; fegrcnts of the corolia eight or nine lines long, whence it has been called fringe-tree. Lam. to which Dr. Mead contributed fifty-one guineas. ‘I'he is- {criptions contained in it were collected by conful Sherrard, Dr. Picenini, and Dr. Lifle, afterwards bifhop of St. Afaph; they were afterwards depofited iu: the Earl of Ox- ford’s library, and are now preferved in the Britifh Mulaum. Mr. Chifhull added to his “ Antiquitates”’ two {mall pieces addreffed to the Rev. John Horn. He formed a defign of publithing a fecond volume, the printing of which was a@u- ally begun, when death put a ftop to its progrefs, and it has never been afcertained in what manner the manuferipts were difpofed of. In 1731 Mr. Chifhull was prefented with the rectory of South-church in Effex, which he did not long en- joy. He died at Walthamitow on the 18th of May 1733, fincerely regreted by his friends, and by thefe who were capable of duly appreciating his learning and talents. One of his contemporaries, Dr. Taylor, ftyles him ‘* Vir celeber- rimus ingenii acumine et literarum peritia, quibus excellebat maximeé ;”” and Dr. Mead has beftowed on him a very high encomium in the preface which introduced Mr. Chifhuli’s differtation on the Smyrnzan coins; he likewife teftificd a fincere regard to the memory of his friend, by publifhing an account of his travels in Turkey. Mr. Chifhull fultained an excellent charaéter as a divine. CHISOING, or Cisoinc, in Geography, a town of Flanders, with an abbey ; 2 leagues N.N.W. from Orchies. CHISME, or Cisme, a {ea-port town of A fiatic Turkey, on the welt coatt of Natolia; oppofite the ifland of Scio, between which and the continent is a narrow {trait, where the ‘Turkith fleet was deftroyed by the Ruffians in the year 1770; 40 miles W. of Smyrna. The ancient name of this town was Cyffus. N. lat. 38° 24’, E. long. 36° 16’. CHISSAMA, a province of the kingdom of Angola in Africa, fituated under the gth degree of S. lat. near the mouth of the river Coanza. It isa Portuguefe fettlement, confilting of three commanderies, whofe defpotic governors exercife a tyrranic cruelty over the natives. ‘I'he foil abounds with a peculiar falt, formed of a briny water, which the in- habitants cait into oblong pieces hke bricks, about 5 or 6 inches long, and exchange with the Portuguefe for meal, oil, and other commodities, This falt is reckoned of fuch ex- cellent quality, not only for food, but alfo for phytic, that the merchants convey it through all Ethiopia, and de« rive from it an extraordinary gain. [he province affords likewife fine honey and wax ; but water is extremely fcarce, as this province has no rain from May to O&ober, and its mountains are detftitute of fprings; fo that the inhabitants who are near the Coanza fupply themfelves from that river, at the hazard of being devoured by the wild beatts, which {warm along its banks. CHISSEL, an inttrument much ufed in feulpture, ma- fonry, joinery, carpentry, &c. There are chiflels of different kinds; though their chief difference lies in their different fize and ftrength, as being ail made of iteel well fharpened and tempered: but they have different names, according to the different ufes to which they are applied. The chiilels ufed in carpentry and joinery are, 1. The former, which 1s ufed firft of all before the paring chiffel, and jait after the work is fcribed. 2. The paring-chiffel, which has a fine {mooth edge, and is ufed to pare off or fmooth the irregularities which the former makes. This is net ftrack with a mallet, as the former is, but is prefled with the fhoulder of the workman. 3. Skew former: this is ufed for cleanfing acute angles with the point, or corner of its nar- row edge. 4. The mortife-chiffl, which is narrow, but very thick and flrong, to encure hard blows; and it is cut toa 4U02 ve ry os very broad bafil: its ufe ms, to cut deep fquare holes in the wood, for mortifes. 5. The gouge, which is a chiffel with a round edge; one fide whereof {crves to prepare the way for an aygre, and the other to cut fuch wood as-is to be rounded, hollowed, &c. 6. Socket chiffels, which are chiefly ufed by carpenters, &c. to have their fhank made with a hollow fockvt at top, to receive a {trong wooden {prig, fisted into it with a fhonlder. Thefe chiffels are diltinguifhed, ac- cording to the breadth of the blade, into half-inch chif- fels, ‘three quarters of an inch chiffels, &c. 7. Ripping-chif- Jel, which is a focket chiffel of an inch broad; having a blunt edge, with no bafilto it; its ufe is to rip or tear two pieces of wood afunder, by forcing in the blunt edge between them. Cuissex, in Geography, a fort in the ftate of the Tennef- fee, 24 miles from the Englith ferry on New River, 43 from Abinzdon, and 107 from Long ifland, on Holfton. CHIT, is the name of an inftrument ufed in cleaving laths. CHITARONE. A large Spanifh guitar. CHIVTARRA, Stal. See Guitar. CHIT I, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Cyprus, near Larnica, much celebrated amonz the ancients. See Citium. CHITIQUE, Du, Jake, called alfo Pelican lake, a lake of North America, {eparated from lake Miron, in N. lat. 55° 7’, by a fhort, narrow, and fmall flrait. It is not more than 7 miles long, and its courfe is about N.W. and is fuc- ceeded by the lake Des Bois, which runs about 21 miles ina S.S.E. and N.N.W. courfe, and is ful! of iflands; the paf- fage to it being through an intricate, narrow, winding, and fhallow channel for § miles. CHITON, in Conchology, a genus of Trstacea, or fhells, the animal inhabitant of which is a doris (fee Doris), and the fhell, which is multivalve, confilting of feveral feg- ments or valves difpofed down the back. Species. Hisripus. Shel! of fix tlriated valves. Schroet. This is of a moderate fize; the colour blackifh-grey, with white fpots and’ dots, and very finely marked with minute granulated ftrie. A native of America. Tusercurarus. Shell of feven valves; body tubercn- Jated. Gmel. Chiton ofcabrion, Linn. Muf. Ad. Fr. Chi- ion cylindricus, Schroet. Inhabits America. The form is an oblong-oval, narrow, with tubercles above difpofed in a quinennx ; fides cinereous, mixed with white and marked with brown undulated bands ; back greenifh, with a broad deep band of black. Acureatus. Shell of eight valves, ftriated; body fomewhat aculeated. Linn. Amoen. Acad. imax marina, Rumpf. An Afitic fpecies. The fhell is tuberculated, oval, rough on the upper part, with narrow, fubulate, fomewhat curved, unequal red prickles. Fascrcuvaris. Shell of e'ght valves; body with a tuft of hair on each fide of the valves. Schroet. Defcribed as a native of the coatt of Barbary ; the valves are cinereous, fmooth, and flightly carinated ; the lateral tufts of hair whitith. Squamosus. Shell of eight valves and femi-ftriated ; the margin covered with minute feales. Linn. &c. There are many varicties of this fpecies ; one (8) is rough and variegated, Chiton feaber variegatus, Chemn. And ano- ther fmooth and variegated (y) Chiton levis variegatus, Chemn. The ofcabrion gallicum of Argenville, and Chiton Squanofus, tefta feptemvalvi of Schroeter, are aifo deemed varieties of this Species. “The valves are partly granulated, and partly ftri- Cort ated very finely; the extreme valves lunulated, Found chiefly in America. Ruser. Sheil of cight vaives ; fomewhat ftriated, the ftrie curved ; body red. Linn. Fn, Succ, This is of an oval and fub-oblong form, with the back carinated or elevated into a keel. Colour tawny, with a darker ftreak on the back bordered with white; margin of the animal brown or yellow with red fpots and dots. Inhabits the North feas. Chemnitz defertbes a variety of this fpecies that is marbled with white and red. Punctatus. Shell of eight valves, and fmooth; body with excavated dots. Chiton corpore pundato teflis ao, Linn, Calza ferpentis diadema, Eph. nat. cur. A, general inhabit- ant of Europe, Atia, and Africa. Asus. Shell of eight valves, fmooth, firft emarginate behind; body white. This is of an oval fhape. Lion. Fabr. &c. Cixereus. Shell of eight valves, fmooth, and cari- nated ; body reddifh, with a fomewhat ciliated border, O. Fabr. Found among the roots of the ulve in the Norway feas, It is of a fall fize, meafuring only two lines in length ; the form is deprefled, and narrower before; with two longitudinal grooves down the back, one on each fide the middle dorfal ridge.. Colour reddifh when the ani- mal is alive. Bicoror. Shell of eight valves, thick: outfide fea green; inlide fnowy white, edged with bleck. Gmel. &c. Native country unknown, The fize is rather large. Cerasinus. Shell of eight valves, fmooth, and cherry- coloured, with fnowy marginal teeth. Chemn. &c. Native place unknown. Macetranicus. Shell of eight valves, thick, black- brown ; above convex, with a blackifh band in the middle of the back, and Jateral yellowih ftriz. Gmel. Seba. &c. Inhabits the ftraits of Magcllan. This fpecies ia of a large fize; fhell fine green, bordered with brown, and black within the middle. ’ Fuscus. Shell of eight valves, brown, fmooth; infide and teeth of the margin {nowy ; back with triangular black fpots, and obfcure yellowifh bands on each fide. Chemn. &c. . This is found in India. It is of a narrower form than the lait; marginal teeth are numerous, and largett on the two extreme valves; and the back is more tosh and carinated. Macuratus. Shell of eight valves, fmooth; within fea-preen; margin covered with greyifh white fcales ; anterior part of the middle valves, and fides of fume {potted with brown. Chemn. A rare {pecies. Country unknown. Marmorartus. Shell of eight valves, {mooth, black and white varied; middle valves greenifh within. Gmel. Chemn. &e. Inhabits the American feas. Size variable ; colours black and white, varioufly difpofed in alternate blackifh and white bands, ftreaks, veins, and {pots ; the fcabrons border tumid with alternate whitish, ftecl blue, and blackith patches. A variety with feven valves is defcribed by Schroeter. Granutatus. Pitchy, above flat, with numerous ele- vated dots difpofed in regular feries ; border broad, coriace- ous, fpinous, with alternate black and white patches. Chemn. A native of the American ocean. rarely feven. Picevs. Shell eight valved, above fmooth, pitchy, black varied with white. Chemn. Inhabits the American and Red feas. This is allied to the preceding fpecies. The infide of the fiell is eae tie It inhabits the North Seas. Valves ufually eight, CHI the middle, at the fides greenify ;, and the back is marked with alternate black and white fpots, bands, and veins, Rarely fouad with only fix or feven valves. Inpus. Shell of eight valves; whitifh afh colour, with the border fealy; middle valves very finely punCtured, Chemn. A native of the American feas. Minimus. Sheli of eight valves, fmooth black, and fprokled with farinaceous or powdery patches. Chemn. Inhabits the Norway feas, near Bergen. Size very {mal}. Cimex. Shell of eight valves, carinated, diaphanous, and banded; each of the extreme valves very finely punc- tured. Chemn. This fpecies is of a {mill fize, and inhabits the Norway feas. Within the colour is whitifh-ahh, with alternate blackith and paler bands. Asettus Shell of eight valves; deep black ; above eouvex, with a yellowth fpot en each of the valves. Chemn. Inhabits the North feas, affixed to the large mufc'e, mytilus modiolus. Gicas. Shell of eight valves, thick, convex, and white; firft valve crenated, the middle ones emarginated, and the extreme one armed with teeth. Chemn. &c. | Length four inches; border tumid, coriaceous, and bla¢k brown. his inhabits the Cape of Good Hope. Tuarassixus. Shell of tix valves, gloffy, oval; fea- green, with a pale line above, in the middle; border thin and hyaline. Schroct. Native place unknown. Istanpicus. Shell of eirht valves, fub-cylindrical, very finely puStured, black with cinereous border. Schroet. &c. This is of a {mall fize, and narrow at each end. Crainttus. Shell of feven valves, and thickly befet with fhort hairs. Gmel. This is deferibed by Gmelin, on the authority of Pennant, as a [pecies inhabiting the fea near Aberdeen, Scotland. The foecies occurs on feveral other of the Britith coatts, and -has commonly eight valves. Maroinatus. Shell of eizht valves, fmooth, with fer- rated reflected margin. Gmelin, &c. Found on the fea- coalt of Scarborough, aad oa the weftern coatts, and thofe of Scotland. Leavis. Shell of eight valves, very gloffy, with clevated dorfal band. Gmel. [habits the Scottifh fhores. Amicutatus. Shell of eight valves, reniform, very fragile, and covered externally with a coriaceous membrane. Pallas. Length about fix inches; the valves are imbricated. This inhabits the coalt of the Kurile iflands. CHITORE. See Cueirore. CHITPOUR, or Cuittipur, probably the ancient Supara, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in the coun- try of Guzerat; celebrated for its manufa@ture of chintfes ; 172 miles S.W. of Amedabad. N. Jat. 21° 20’. E. long. oo o, CHITRO, a town of European Turkey, in the province of Macedonia, firuated in the bay of Salonichi; 36 miles §.S.E. of Edefla. N. lat. 40% 30’. BE. long. 23° 10% CHITSEE, in Botany, the name of a Chinefe tree, called alfo Setfe. CHITTAGONG, Cuitrticonc, or IstamMABAD, in Geography, the name of a province of the peninfula, which feparates the gulf of Bengal from the Chinefe fea, between the Burrampooter river and the borders of Arracan, and the Birman empire. Its chief town of the fame name, fituated at a confiderable diftance from the river Naaf, which bounds the Britifh and Birman territories, is the feat of the pro- ei vincial government, and refidence of the English magiftrates The banks of the river are covered with deep jungles, inter- fperfed with fcanty {pots of cultivation, and a few wretched villages, inhabited by the pooreit clafs of nerd{men, and the families of roving hunters, whofe occupation it is to catch and tame the wild elephants, with which the forelts abound. Such unfrequented places afforded to perfons, concerned ina lawlcfs traffic, an afylum, where they efcaped the cognizance of the Englith officers of juftice, and furnithed the emperor of the Birmans with occafion for complaint and remonitrance, or rather for aggreffion on the territories of the Enghhh Eatt- India company, which terniinated, after a threatened con- fi, in compromife and conciliation. The Portuguefe made their firit fettlement in this country. The capital, called alfo Ifamabad, is 4° 53’ E. of Balafore, in N. Jat. 22” 20’, and . long. gt? 55’. From this town the coats of Arracan and Pegu take a S.S.E. courfe to Cape Ne- grais, the extreme point of Pegu to the SW. the latitude of which is under 16 degrees, anddiftance from Iflamabad about 420 geographical miles. CHITTELDROOG, a town of Hindooftan, and capi- tal of a province of tie fame name, in the Myfore coun try ; though which paffes the river Hogery. It is diftant 85 miles N.N.W. from Seringapatam, and g5 E. of Beda- nore., N.tat..13° 50’... E. long. 73°. : CHITTENDEN, a county of America, in the ftate of Vermont, fituste on the lake Champlain, between Franklin county on the N. and Add:fon S.; the Maille river paffes through its N.W. corner, and Onion river divides it nearly in the centre. Its chief town is Berlington. ‘This county contained, by the cenfus of 1791, 44 townfhips, and 730% ins habitants. Since that time the northern counties have been taken from it, fo that neither its fize nor number of inha- bitants can now be afcertained.— Allo, a townfhip in Rut- land county, and {late of Vermont, containing 159 inhabit- ants. The road over the mountain paffes through this townhhip. It is diftant 7 miles E. from the fort on Otter creck, in Pittsford, and about 60 N. by E. from Ben- nington. CHITTENENGO, or ‘Canaseracs, a confiderable ftream, which runs northerly into lake Oneida, in the ftate of New York. CHITTEPUT, a town of Hindooftan, in the Carnatic ; 14 miles N. of Gingee. CHITTIGONG, or Istamanav. See CuittTascone. CHITTIM, in Scripture Geography, denote, according to Bafnage, the Cuthzans, who inhabited Sufiana, neav Babylon, and who, marching under Nebuchadnezzar, con- tributed to the fiege of Tyre. Bochart {uppofes the Romans to be meant by Chittim: but as the Cuthzans are never called Chittim in Scripture, and the Romans were.not concerned in the fiege of Tyre, mentionea by the prophet Ifaiah (ch. xxiii. v. 1, &c.), Calmet fuppofes that the appellation of Chittim is applied to the Macedonians, and that the prophet {peaks of the country of Macedonia as an ifland, (denominating it the ifles of Chittim,) after the mane ner of the Hebrews, who thus call peninfulas and maritime countries. However, there feems to be no fufficient reafon for re(training the term Chittim to Macedonia, which was not particularly a mavitime country, but it may. include all Greece ; and more efpecially the iflands of the Archipelago, and perhaps up the Bofphorus, fince veflels might navigate from thence to Tyre, as they now do to Egypt, &c. The Greek colonies, difperfed about the Mediterranean, might alfo be comprehended under the denomination ; and, confe- quently, Sicily, Sardinia, and a great part of Italy. 8 CHITTING, CHI CHITTING, in Gardening, A feed is faid to edit, when it firft fhoots its fmall roots into the earth. CHITTOOR, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in the Carnatic ; 28 miles N.W. of Arcot, and 79 W. of Madras. CHITERA, a town of Hindooftan, in the Babar coun- try ; 85 miles S. of Patna, and 72 S.S.W. of Bahar. CHI-TUA, in the Materia Medica, a name ufed by fome authors for a kind of dignum aloes, which is reddifh, and of a very fine f{cent. CHITWA, in Geography, a town of the peninfula of _ India, in the province of Cochin, near the coaft of Malabar, Ni. Jat. 0° 33’ 115% TE. long. '76°' 5°. CHIVA, a town of Spain, in the province of Valencia ; 15 miles W.N.W. of Valencia. ‘ CHIVAGE. See Cuevace. CHIVALRY, in Antiquity, an inflitution which, accord- ing to fome writers, took its rife from the crufades, but according to others, gave occafion to that enterprife; and which, though founded in caprice, and productive of extra- vagance, had a very confiderable influence in refining the manners vf the European nations, during the rath, 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries. This inftitution naturally arofe, fays Dr. Robertfon, (ubi infra,) from the ftate of fociety at that period. The feudal ftate was a {tate of perpetual war, rapine, and anarchy ; during which the weak and unarmed were expofed to perpetual infults or injuries. The power of the fovereign was too limited to prevent thefe wrongs ; and the admini{tration of juftice too feeble to redrefs them. Againft violence and oppreffion there was fcarcely any pro- tection, befides that which the valour and generofity of pri- vate perfons afforded. ‘I'he fame {pirit of enterprife which had. prompted fo many gentlemen to take arms in defence of the opprefled pilgrims in Palettine, incited others to de- clare themfelves the patrons and avengers of injured inno- cence at home. When the final redution of the Holy Land under the dominion of Infidels, put an end to thefe foreign expeditions, the latter was the only employment left for the adlivity and courage of adventurers. he objects of this inftitution were to check the infolence of overgrown op- preflors, to fuccour the diltreffed, to refcue the helplefs from captivity, to protect or to avenge women, orphans, and ecclefialtics, who could not bear arms in their own defence, to redrefs wrongs, and to remove grievances. Thefe were confidered as acts of the higheft prowefsand merit. Valour, gallantry, and religion, were blended in this inflitution ; hu- manity, courtefy, juftice, and honour were its chara¢teriftic qualiues; the enthufiallic zeal produced by religion ferved to give it fingular energy, and to carry it even to a romantic excefs: men were trained to knighthood by ae previous difcipline; they were admitted into the order by folemnities no lefs devout than pompous; every perfon ef noble birth courted the honour; it was deemed a di- {tin@ion fuperior to royalty, and monarchs were found to receive it from the hands of private gentlemen. Thefe va- rious circum{tances contributed to.render a whimfical inftitu- tion of fubttantial benefit to mankind. Another ingenious writer, who traces the origin of chi- valry to the crufades, thus reprefents the occafion and man- ner of its introduction, On the crumbling of the weltern empire into {mall itates, with regular fubordinations of vaf- fals and their chicfs, who looked up to a common fove- reign, it was foon found that thefe chiefs had it in their power to make themfelves very formidable to their mafters ; and juft in that crifis of European manners and empire, the Saracens having expelled Chriftianity from the Eaft, the weftern princes feized the opportunity, and with great craft turned the warlike gemius of their feudataries, which would CHI otherwife have preyed wpon themfelves, into the fpirtt of crufades againft the common enemy, See Crusanr. But when, afterwards, the ardour of the crufades was fomewhat abated, though not extinguifhed, the Gothic princes and their families bad fettled into eftablifhed monarchies. At this junéture, when the reftlefs {pirit of their vaflals had little employment abroad, and was reftrained, in a contider- able degree, from exerting itfelf with fuccefs in domeittic quarrels, it broke out in ail the extravagance of ‘ knight- errantry.”” Military fame, acquired in the Holy Land, bad entitled the adventurers to the infignia of arms, the fource of heraldry ; and infpired them with the love of war and the paffion of enterprife. Their late expeditions had given them a turn for roving in quelt of adventures ; and their religious zeal had infufed high nations of piety, juitice, an | challity. The fcene of action being now more cuntined, they turned themfelves from ‘ the world’s debate,” to pri- vate and perfonal animofites. Chivalry was employed in refcning humble and faithful vaffals from the opprefliun of petty lords ; their women from favage luft; and the hoary Rea of hermits (a fpecies of eaflera monks, much reve~ renced in the Holy Land) from rapme and outrage. In the mean time the courts of the feudal fovercigns became ma nificent and polite; and, as the mulitary conftitution ftil fubfitted, military merit was to be upheld; but, detlitute cf its former objects, it natura'ly foftened into fi€titious images and courtly exercifes of war, in ‘Jults” and “ Touraaments ;” where the honour of the !adies fupplied the place of zeal for the holy fepulchre ; and thus the courtefy of elegant love, but of a wild and fanatic fpecies, as being engrafted on {pi- ritual enthufiafm, came to mix itfelf with the other charac- ters of the knights-errant. Dr. Hurd, in his ** Letters on Chivalry and Romance,” obferves, that chivalry, properly fo called, and under the idea of “a diftin@ military order, conferred in the way of inveltiture, and accompanied with the folemnity of an oath and other ceremonies, as defcribed in the old hiftorians and romances,””? was of later date than the feats of Charle- magne and our Arthur, and feems to have fprung imme- diately out of the feudal conftitution. This conilitution produced a very great change in the politics of Europe ; and its firft and moft fenfible effe€Q was the erection of a prodigious number of petty tyrannies, exercifed by the great barons over their dependent vaflals. Thefe barons, though clofely attached to the fervice of their prince by the con- ditions of their tenure, became a kind-of abfolute fovereigns, at leaft with regard to one anotlier ; and as their aims and in- terefts often interfered, the feudal flate was, ina great cegree, a {tate of war ; the feveral combinations of feudal tenants were fo many feparate armies under their head or chief; and their caitles were fo many fortreffes, as well as palaces, of thefe puny princes. Hence arofz the peculiar encouragement which was given to the ufe of arms, under every different form of attack and defence, as tle fafety of thefe different communities, or the ambition of their leaders, might require, This condition of the times is fuppofed by the ingenious prelate to have given nfe to that military inititution, which we know by the name of ‘ Chivalry.” In the intervals of peace, the military difcipline of the followers of thefe inde- endent nobles was not to be relaxed, nor their ardour {uf- Ped to cool, by a total difufe of martial exercifes. To this circumftance, he conceives, may be traced the proper origin of * Jufts’” and ‘ Tournaments :”? thofe images of war, which were kept up in the caitles of the barons, and, by an ufeful policy, converted into the amufement of the knights, when their arms were employed on no ferious oc- cafion. See Just and Tournament. © From CHIVA® RY. From the circumftances of the feudal government, which gave rife to chivalry, the author accounts for the various chara&teriftics of this finzular profeffion. Hence were derived the paflion for arms, the fpirit of enterprife, the rewards of valour, the fplendour of equipage, and, in fhort, every thing that raifes our ideas of the prowefs, gallantry, and magnificence of thefe fons of Mars. Hence alfo proceeded their romantic ideas of juftice, their paffion for adventures, their eagernefs to run to the fuccour of the diftreffed, and the pride they took in redreffing wrongs and removing grievances, which are diltinguifhing chara¢teriltics of genuine chivalry. Moreover, the courtefy, affability, and gallantry, for which thefe adventurers were fo famous, are but the natural effe&s and confequences of their fituation. The caltles of the barons were the courts of thofe little fovereigns, as wellas their fortreffes ; and the refort of their vaffals thither, in honour of their chiefs, and for their own proper fecurity, would render that civility and politenefs, which are feen in courts and infenfibly prevail there, a predominant part in the character of thefe aflemblies. Befides, the preeminence of the ladics, in thofe courts and circles of the great, would operate fo far on the fturdielt knights, as to give birth to the attentions of gallantry : and as violations of chaitity were the moft atrocious crimes which they had to charge on their enemies, they would pride themfelves in the merit of being its protectors; this virtue furnifhing the fairett and ftrongett claim of the fex itfelf to fuch proteétion, it is no wonder that the notions af it were, in time, carried to fo Platonic an elevation. ‘T'o this purpofe the great matter of chivalry exprefles his fentiments on the fubje& -— “ Tt hath been thro’ all ages ever feen, That, with the praife ot arms and chivalry, The prize of beauty ftill hath joined been ; And that for reafon’s {pecial privity : For either doth on other much rely ; For He meefeems molt fit the fair to ferve, That can her belt defend from villany ; And She mott fit his fervice doth deferve, That faireft is, and from her faith will never fwerve.”” Spenfer, b. iv. c. 5. As to the charaéter of religion, which was fo deeply im- printed on the minds of all knights, and was effential ro their inftitution, infomuch that, 1t is faid, ‘* the love of God and of the ladies,?? went hand in hand in the duties and ritual of chivalry, two reafons may be affigned for this fingularity ; viz. the fuperftition of the times in which chi- valry arofe, which was fo great, that no inftitution of a public nature could have found credit in the world, that was not confecrated by the churchmen, and clofely inter- woven with religion; avd alfo the condition of the chriitian ftates, which had been haraffed by long wars, and had but jut recovered a breathing time from the brutal ravages of the Saracen armies. The remembrance of what they had lately fuffered from thefe grand enemies of the faith, made jt natural and even neceffary to engage a new miltary order on the fide of religion. See Recreant. The pre- ceding charaéterittes of chivalry, which Dr. Hurd deduces from the effential properties of a feudal government, are made to refult from the f{pirit of crufades, by thofe who trace their origin to thefe military enterprifes ; whereas this author confiders the latter as only an accidental effe& of the former. He allows, however, what indeed cannot be reafonably contefted, that chivalry as it is reprefenced in books of romance, (fo much polterior to the date of that military inititution) took its colour and character from the imprefliuns made on the minds of men by the fpirit of crufading inte the holy land. Accordingly there are, as he apprehends, two diftin@ periods, which ought to be carefully obferved in a deduétion of the rife and progrefs of chivalry. The firff is that in which the empire was overturned, and the feudal governments were every where introduced on its ruins, by the northern nations. In this era, that new policy fettled itfelf in the weft, and operated fo powerfully as to lay the firtt foundations, and to furnifh the remote caufes of what we know by the name of chivalry. The other period is, when thefe caufes had taken a fuller effe&, and fhewed themfelves in that fignal enterprife of the crufades; which not only concurs red with the {pint of chivalry, already pullulating in the minds of men, but brought a prodigious increafe, and gave a fin- gular vigour and force, to all its operations. In this era, chivalry took deep root, and at the fame time fhot up to its full height and fize. From this laft period the Romances both in profe and verfe, derive all their ideas of chivalry, See Romance. But it was, as our learned prelate conceives, the former period that gave birth to this inftitution ; as he infers not only from the reafon of the thing, but from the furer information of authentic hiftory. For there are traces of chivalry, in its moft peculiar and charaéteriltic forms, to be found in the ages preceding the crufades ; and even jutts and tournaments, the image of ferious knight-erraatry, waa certainly of earlier date than that event. Our author, (re- ferring to the “* Memoirs of the Academy of Infcriptions and Belles Lettres,” T. xx), proceeds to fhew that there is a remarkable correfpondency between the manners of the old heroic times, as painted by their great romancer, Homer, and thofe which are reprefented to us in books of modern knight-errantry ; and this is a fa@ which is accounted for by the affiftance of another, viz. that the political ftate of Greece, in the earlier periods of its hiftory, was fimilar in many refpeéts to that of Europe, as broken by the feudal fyitem into an infinite number of petty independent governments. This fimilarity is illuftrated in the following particulars, The military enthuliafm of the barons is but of a piece with the fanaticifm of the heroes, as they are exhibited by the Gothic romances and by the Greek poet. We alfo hear much of knights-errant encountering giantsand quelling favages, in books of chivalry. hefe giants were oppreffive feudal lords, occupying their ftrong holds or caftles; and their dependents of a lower form, who imitated the violence of their fuperiors, and though deftitute of caftles, had their lurking places, were the favages of romance. he greater lord was denominated a giant, for his power; the lefs, a fa- vage, for his brutality. Ancther terror of the Gothic ages was montters, dragons, and ferpents. In all thefe refpects, Greek antiquity very much refembles it. For what are Ho- mer’s Leltrigons and Cyclops, but bands of lawlefs favages, with, each of them, a giant of enormous fize at their head ?’ And what are the Grecian Bacchus and Hercules, but knights-errant, the exact counterparts of Sir Launcelot and Amadis de Gaule? Moreover, the oppreffions which it was the glory of the knight to avenge, were frequently carried on,, as we are told, by the charms and enchantments of women, Similar to {tories of this kind are thofe of Calypfo and Circe, the enchantrefles of the Greek poet. Befides, robbery and piracy were honourable in both ; fo far were they from re- flecting any difercdit on the ancient or modern redreflors of wrongs. ‘To account for this odd circumitance, we ought tor recollect, that in the feudal times, and in the early days of Greece, when government was weak, and unable to redrefs the frequent injuries of petty fovereigns, it wou'd be glorious for private adventurers to undertake this work ; and if they 6 could. @ H 1 ViAyLi RY could accomplifh it in no other way, to pay them in kind by downright plunder and rapine. Their manners, in another refpeét, were the fame. Battardy was in credit with both. Whilft they were extremely watchfal over the chaftity of their own, women, thofe whom they could feize upon in the enemy’s quarter, were deemed lawful prize. Or, if at any time they tranfyreffed in thisiway at home, the heroic ages were complaifant enough to cover the fault by an. in- genious fiction, The offspring was reputed divine. We alfo find, that together with the greateft fiercenefs and; favagenefs of ‘character, the utmolt generofity, hofpitality, and courtely were imputed to the heroic ages. Achilles was at once the mott relentlefs, vindiG&ive, implacable, and the friendlict of men. Similar to this is the reprefentation that occurs in the Gothic romances, where it is almoft true what Butler fays humoroufly of thefe benign heroes, that « They did in fight but cut work out T’ employ their courtefies about.” / Thefe contradiions in the charaéters of ancient and mo- dern men of arms can be reconciled only by obferving, that as in thefe lawlefs times dangers and diftreffes of all forts abounded, there would be the fame demand for compaffion, gentlenefs, and generous attachment to the unfortunate, thofe efpecially of their own clafs, as of refentment, rage, and animolity again their enemies. . Further, if we advert to the martial games which ancient Greece delighted to ce- Icbrate on great and folemn occalions, we fhall perceive that they had the fame origin, and ferved the fame purpofe, as the tournaments of the Gothic warriors. And, laitly, the paffion for adventures, fo naturalin their ftuation, would be as naturally attended with the love of praife-and glory. Hence the fame encouragement, in the old Greek and Gothic times, to panegyrilts and poets: the bards being as wel- come to the tables of the feudal lords, as the AOIAOT of old to thofe of the Grecian heroes. Bifhop Warburton (in a note to Love’s Labour loft) and Warton (Diff. r. prefixed to the Hiftory of Englih Poetry, vol. i.) incline to the hypothefis which traces the firft idea of chivalry and romance to Spain, where it was introduced by the Saracens or Arabians, who having been for fome time feated on the northern coalts of Africa, entered Spain abont the beginning of the 8th century. Mallet, in his ‘ [ntroduétion to the Hiltory of Denmark,” followed by Pinkerton (Diff. on the Scythians or Goths) and Percy (en the Ancient Metrical Romances), afcribes to the tales and rites of chivalry a Scandinavian origin. An anonymous writer, however, is of opinion, (Mouth. Magaz. Feb. 1800) that neither Moorifh Spain, nor Gothic Scandinavia save this very decifive impuife to the chara¢ier of early modera civilization; but rather Armorica, and the conneSed pro- vinces of Britain. In fupport of this opinion it is argued, that all the European nations take their romances of chi- valry from toe French; that the French romances orizi- nate in the north of France; that the older romances of chivalry have efpecially celebrated the heroes of Greater or Leffer Britany, end are therefore of Armorican origin ; that rime is derived from the language of Armorica; and that chivalry, thovgh of ob{cure origin, is alfo probably Amori- can. Accordingly it is alleged, that chivalry refemb!es, in the fpirit of its operation, a confederacy of country-gentle- . men, to ward off from each other the dangers and evils of anarchy. A defenfive, not an offenfive, {pirit characterizes the obiigatioas of a knight; and his oath required him to protect the church again{t heathens, ladies again{t ravilhers, orphans ¢g.inf encroaching guardians, and the conquered equal againit infult. An exclufive care for the interelts of gentlemen diflinguifhes the praStice of the initiated; and whilft the perfonal rights of women of the lower claffes were invaded without fcruple, thefe of ladies were refpected with {uperftitious politenefs.- Such features, it is faid, feem to be rather the relics of a receding than the tokens of a grow- ing civilization. The whole ritual of chivalry, the miliary exercifes, the tournaments, the fortified palaces, and its reli- gious character imply an advancement in dociety to which the Scandinavians could not haveattained. The faered reverence for ladies cannot have procesded froin the Mahometan Moors. Armorica alone, as this anonymous writer marntains, was adapted by its political circumftances, its Chriftianity, and its long participation of Roman culture, to become the nurfe of fuch peculiarities. Some ceremonies of knight- hood bear a ftrong refemblance to’ thofe bardic inititutions which were common to the Belgie provinces of Gaul and Britain ; and which retain, till this time among the Welth, a great influence. See Romance. Chivalry, whatever might be the-era of its origin, declined in Englend during the iuglorious reigns of king John and Henry IIL; bet revived under Edward J. This prince was one of the moft accomplifhed knights of the age ia which he flourifhed, and both delighted and excelled in feats of chivalry. As a proof of this, it will be fufficient to el- lege, that when he was on his return from the Holy Land af- ter his father’s death, and knew that bis prefence was ar- dently defired in*England, he accepted an invitation to a tournament at Chalons in Burgandy ; where he difplayed his fkill and valour to great advantage, and gained a com- plete viGory. Edward III. was no lefs fond of chivalry, and encouraged it both by his example and munificenee. Having formed the defign of afferting hisclaim to the crowd of France, he laboured to infpire his own fubje4ts witha bold enterprifing fpirit, and to eatice as many valiant foreigners as poffible into his fervice. With this view, he eclebrated fe- veral pompous tournaments, to which he invited all ftrangers who delighted in feats of arms, entertained them with great hofpitality, and loaded fuch of them as excetled in thofe mar- tial {ports with ‘honours and rewards, in order to attach them to his perfon and engage them to fzht in his caule: with the fame view, and at the fame time, he founded the mof honourable order of the garter, of which his own he- roic fon, the Black Prince, was the firft knigtit, and all the firft companions were perfons famous for their victories at tournaments, and in real wars. ‘Phe revival of chivalry ia thefe two reigns of Edw. I..and Edw. ILI. contmbeted not a little to promote valour, munificence, and a f{plendid kind of gallantry among perfors of .condition, who afpired to the honovrs of knighthood, which were them objeéts of ambition to the greateft princes. Ali the heroic virtués, it has been faid, which then exifted in the feveral ilates of Chrifendom, were the fruits of chivalry. Althouzh this may be regarded as an extravagant affertion, it cannot be denied that the fpirit and the laws of caivalry were friendly to the caufe of virtue. By thefe laws none but perfons ef uofullied charaGer could obtain the honours of kuishthood, which were conferred with mach folemaity on the molt public occafions, and in the prefence of the moit auzalt afiemblies. After the candidate had given fufficient proofs of his prowefs, and other virtues, to merit that diftiac- tion, and had prepared himfelf for receiving it, by faulting, confefling, hearing maffes, bathivgs, and other adis of deva. tion, he took an oath confilting of 26 articles, in whieh, amongit other things, ke fwore, that he would be a good, brave, loyal, jalt, generous, aud gentle knight, a champion of the church and clergy, a proteéior of the ladies, aud a sedreflor of the wrongs of widows aud orphans. To this purpole CHI yenie we may obferve, that when Alphonfo V. king of ortugal, conferred the honour of knighthood on his fon, he commanded him to kneel down by his fide, and inftruSted him in the nature and duties of the order into which he was admitted; and, amongft other things, direXed him to con- fider, that as the priefthood was inftituted for divine fervice, fo was chivalry for the maintenance of religion and juftice. A knight, he adds, ought to be the hufband of widows, the father of orphans, the protetor of the poor, and the prop of thofe who have no fupport ; and they who do not ati thus, are unworthy to bear that name. Thofe who acquitted themfelves of thefe obligations in an honourable manner were favoured by the fair and courted by the great; but thofe who were guilty of bafe difhonourable a€tions, were degraded with every pofible mark of infamy. (See Knicut.) . All this could hardly fail to have fome influence on the conduct of thofe who were invefted with that dignity ; though, from the rudenefs. of the times, and. the general diffolution of manners which then prevailed, that influence was probably, lefs than might have been expected. However, the fpirit and pradlice of chivalry did aGtually produce a very benefi- cial effet. «I will venture to fay,’’ aslord Lyttelton ob- ferves (Hilt. Hen. II. vol. iii, p. 161, 8vo.) ** that from the oth to the 16th century, the brighteft virtues whicli digai- fied either the hiltory of this nation or that of any other people in the whole Chriftian world, were chiefly derived from this fource. Had it not been for the {pirit of chivalry, the corruption of religion, the want of all good learning, the fuperttition, the ferocity, the barbarifm of the times, would have extinguifhed all virtue and fenfe of humanity, as well as all generous fentiments of honour, in the hearts of the no- bility and gentry of Europe; nor could they have beenable to refift the military enthufiafm of the Saracens and the Turks, without the aid of another kind of .fanatici{m, which was excited and nourifhed in them by means of that {pirit.”” ee This fingular inftitution,”’ fays Dr. Robertfon (ubi infra), ¢in which valour, gallantry, and religion, were fo ftrangely blended, was wonderfully adapted to the tafte and genius of martial nobles ; and its effects were foon vifible in their man- ners. War was carried on with lefs ferocity, when humanity came to be deemed the ornament of knighthood no lefs than courage. More gentle and polifhed manners were intro- duced, when courtefy was recommended as the molt amiable of knightly virtues. Violence and oppreffion decreafed, when it was reckoned meritorious to check and to punifh them. A fcrupulous adherence to truth, with the molt reli- gious attention to fulfil every engagement, became the dif- tinguifhing characteriftic of a gentleman, becaufe chivalry was regarded as the fchool of honour, and inculcated the moit delicate fenfibility with refpeét to that point. The admiration of thefe qualities, together with the high dif- tinétiens and prerogatives conferred on knighthood in every part of Europe, in{pired perfons of noble birth, on fome oc- cafions, witha {pecies of military fanaticifm, and led them to extravagant enterprifes. But they imprinted deeply on their minds the principles of generofity and honour. Thefe were flrengthened by every thing that can affect the fenfes or touch the heart. The wild exploits of thofe romantic knights who fallied forth in queft of adventures, are well known, and have been treated with proper ridicule. The political and permanent efforts of the {pirit of chivalry have been lefs obferved. Perhaps, the humanity which accompa- nies all the operations of war, the refinements of gallantry, and the point of honour, the ‘three chief circumftances which diflinguih modern from ancient manners, may be afcribed in a great meafure to this whimfical inftitution, Vou. VII. logues, vol. iii. Ht feemingly of little benefit to mankind. ~The fentiments which chivalry infpired had a wonderful influence on manners and conduét during the rath, r3th, 14th, and rsth, centu- ries. ‘They were fo deeply rooted, that they continued to operate after the vigour and reputation of the in{titution it- {elf began to decline.”’ In a word, chivalry, which is now an obje& of ridicule, was, at the period to which we have above referred, a matter of the greate{t moment, and had no little influence onthe manners of mankind and the fate of nations. Robertfon’s Ch. V. vol. i.. Henry’s Hilt. vol. viii. Lyt- telron’s Hilt. vol. iii, Hurd’s Moral and Political Dia- Memoirs of Ancient Chivalry, &c. tranf lated from the French of M. de St. Palaye, by the tranflator of the Life of Petrarch (Mrs. Dobfon), 8vo. 1784. Cuivarry, or Chevalry, in Law, a tenure of land by knight-fervice; whereby the tenant was anciently bound to erform fervice in war, to the king, or to the mefne lord of whom he held by that tenure. By a flatute of 12 Car. 1. cap. 24. all tenures by chi- valry, in capite, &c. are abolifhed. See Court and Guar- DIAN. Cuivatry, Court of., See Court. CHIVAZZO, or Cuivas, in Geography, a town of Piedmont, fituated near the union of the river Orco with the Po, ona large plain, part of which is converted to til- lage, and produces ‘Turkey corn, but towards Zigliano a barren wafte in many places, covered with a kind of reddith heath. It is defended with ancient and new walls, baftions, and large fofles filled with water; and well fupplied with artillery and a numerous garrifon, efpecially in time of war. Its fituation is fo advantageous, that thofe who are matters of it are faid to poffefs the key of the country of Turin, the Canavois, the country of Vercelli, Montferrat, and Lom- bardy, all which they may enter at pleafure. It has feveral churches and convents; 11 miles N.E. of Turin, and 12 S. of Ivrea. N. lat. 45° 1’. E. long. 7°43’. CHIUDENDO, in Sialian Mujic, to conclude ; as chiudenda col ritornello, col Paria, fignifies to end with a ritornello, or fome paflage which has been before fung in fome parts of the piece. CHIVEN, in Ornithology, a name given by fome old writers to the fly-catcher, Mu/cicapa grifola. CHIVERNY, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Loir and Cher, feated on the fouth fide of the Conon; 3 leagues S.E. of Blois. CHIVES, or Cuieves, in Botany, the fmall knobs growing on the ends of the fine threads, or ftamina’ of flowers: by Ray, and others, called alfo apices. See An- THERE. Dr. Grew calls the famina, or threads themfelves, on which the apices are fixed, the chives. Cuives, avery {mall fpecies of the onion kind, is alfo called by this name. See ALtium. CHIUM marmor. See Marace. CuiumM vinum, Chian wine, or wine of the growth of the ifland of Chios, now Scio, is commended by Diofcorides, as affording a good nourifhment, fit to drink, lefs difpofed to intoxicate, endued with the virtue of reflraining defluxions, and a proper ingredient in ophthalmic medicmes. Hence Scribonius Largus direéts the dry ingredients 1n collyria for the eyes, to be made up with Chian wine. : CHIUN, or Cuevan, in Hebrew Antiquity. We meet with this word in the prophet Amos (ch. v. 26) cited in the AGs of the Apoftles, (ch. vil. 43.). St. Luke reads the paflage thus: Ye took up the tabernacle of Moloch, and the ftar of your god Remphan, figures which ye made to workhip them,”? The import of the Hebrew is as follows : 4X Ye CHL 6* Ye have borne the tabernacle of your kings, and the pes deftal (the chiun) of your images, the ftar of your gods, which ye made to yourfelves.””’, The Septuagint in all pro- bability read repham or revan, inftead of chiun or chevan, and took the pedettal for a god, Some fay that the Septuagint, who made their tranflation in Egypt, changed the word chiun into that of remphan, becaufe they had the fame fignification. M. Bafnage, in his book entitled Jewith Antiquities, after having difcourfed a good deal upon chion or remphan, concludes that Moloch was the fun, chion, chiun, or remphan, the moon. CHIUREA, in Zoology, a name given by Cardan, Oviedo, and fome others, to the Opofflum, Dipecpnis opoffium. CHIUSA, La, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the Veronefe, belonging to the ftate of Venice; g miles N.W. of Verona.—Allo, a town of Italy in the Friuli, feated on a {mall river, called the ‘* Vella,’? which runs into the Taja- mento; taken by the French in 1797; 14 miles N. of Friuli. CHIUSANO, a town of Naples, in the province of Principato Citra; 13 miles S.S.E. of Benevento. CHIUSELLE, a river of Piedmont, which runs into the Orco; 1 mile W.S.W. of Fogliffo. CHIUSI, a town of Italy, in the country of Sienna, containing about 1000 inhabitants, the fee of a bifhop; 31 miles S.S.E. of Sienna. CHIUSO, Jial. Clofe, concealed, locked up: as in Mufic, canone chiufo, isa canon, not in {core, but written entirely on one itaff, fometimes without any indications of clefs, fignals when the feveral parts come in, or information of any kind to point out the folution. See Canon. CHIUSTENGI, in Geography, a town of European Turkey,’ in the province of Bulgaria ; 70 miles E. of Silittria. Nu lat. 439.2"). IS. long..27%,30!. CHIUTAYA, Kiuraya, or Curaja,a town of Afia- tic Turkey, and capital of a diftri€ in Natolia, fituated at the foot of a mountain, in a fertile and healthy country, and defended by a caftle on a rock. It contains feverat mofques, and three Armenian churches; 136 miles S.S.E. from Conftantinople. N. lat. 39° 14’. E. long. 30° 44’. CHIZF’, a town of France, in the department of the Two Sevres, and diltri& of Niort, fituated near the Bou- tonne; 34 leagues S. of Niort. CHIZILARABAD, a town of Afia, in the kingdom of Kurdiftan ; 70 miles S.S.E. of Kerkuk. CHLANA, in Antiquity, akind of thick, fhaggy, up- per garment ; its ufe was very ancient; for we find Homer makes his heroes firlt put off their ch/ena, and afterwards their tunics or coats. CHLAMYDIA, in Botany, Gert. See PHormium. CHLAMYDULA, in Antiquity, a {mall upper gar- ment worn by children. See Cutamys. CHLAMYS, among the Romans called paludamentum, in Antiquity, a military habit, worn by the ancients over the tunica. Chlamys was the fame, in time of war, that the toga was in time of peace; each belonged to the patricians. It did not cover the whole body, but chiefly the hind-part; though it alfo came over the fhoul- ders, ufually the left fhoulder, fo as to leave the right arm at liberty, and was faftened with a buckle on the breatt. There were four or five kinds of chlamys; that of children, that of women, and that of men, which laft was divided into that of the people, and that of the emperor. The con- ful and generals, before they fet out for the field, went to the capitol dreffedin this robe, in order to pray and make cHL vows to the gods, and threw it afide on their return, enter. ing the city in the toga. CHLENN, in Geography, atown of Bohemia, in the cir- cle of Konigingratz ; 18 miles S.E. of it. CHLIASMA, in Medicine, a warm fomentation of the moilt kind ; as pyria is of the dry kind. CHLOEIA, in Antiquity, a feftival celebrated at Athens, iu honour of Ceres, to whom, under the name x0», i.e. grafs, they facrificed a ram. CHLOPAN, in Geography, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Volhynia; 72 E.N.E. of Lucko. CHLORA, in Botany, (faid to be fo called from xyAwgor, pale or greeni/h yellow, alluding to the colour of the flowers.) Linn. Syft. Nat. 1258. Reich. 519. Schreb. 653. Willd. 752. Jufl. 142. Vent. 2. 425. (Blackftonia; Hudf. Flor. Ang. ed. 1.) Clafs and order, ofandria monogynia, Nat. Ord. Rotaceas Linn. Gentiane, Jufl. Vent. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth eight-leaved ; leaves linear, per- manent. Cor. monopetalous, falver-fhaped; tube fhorter than the calyx, coating the germ; border eight-cleft ; feg- ments lanceolate, longer than the tube. Stam. Filaments eight, very fhort, feated in the throat ; anthers linear, erect, fhorter than the fegments of the corolla. Pil. Germ ovate- oblong; ftyle filiform; ftigma four-cleft. Peric. capfule ovate-obleng, fomewhat comprefled, furrowed, one-celled, two-valved ; valves incurved on the fide. Seeds numerous, minute, Ef. Ch. Calyx eight-leaved. Corolla monopetalous, eight-cleft. Capfule one-celled, two-valved, many-feeded. Stigma four-cleft. Sp.1.C. perfoliata. Linn. Syft. Nat. 1. Mart. 1. Lam. Encyc. 1. Willd. 1. (Gentiana perfoliata; Linn. Sp. Fl. Centaureum luteum perfoliatum, Bauh. Pin. 278.) Yellow centaury. ‘ Leaves perfoliate.’’ Root annual, fmall, twifted. Whole herb glaucous, intenfely bitter. Stem from three inches to three feet high, erect, cylindrical, dichotomous near the top. Leaves quite entire, fmooth, egg-fhaped, acute. J/owers from the forks of the ftem, folitary, pe- duncled, of a golden hue; leaves of the calyx generally eight, border of the calyx generally eight-cleft; filaments generally eight; ftigma red, two-cleft; fegments bifid. A native of a calcareous foil in England, and the fouthern part of the continent of Europe. 2. C. guadrifolia, Linn. Syft. Nat. 2. (Gentiana: Linn. Sp. Plant.) “ Leaves growing by fours.’? Stem about feven inches high, fimple, fomewhat quadrangular, jointed. Leaves in whorls, linear, a little broader towards the top, rather obtufe, the length of the internodes. Peduncles five, terminal; the fifth in- termediate ; each with two oppofite braétes about the mid- dle; corolla eight-cleft as in the preceding, but the feg- ments {maller. A native of the fouth of Europe. Linneus fuppofed it a hybrid plant produced from Chlora perfoliata, and Linum quadrifolium. 3. C. dodecandria. Linn. Syit. Nat. 3. Mart. 4. Lam. Encyc. 3. Willd. 3. (Chironia; Linn. Sp. Pl. Gentiana; Gron. Virg.) ‘* Leaves oppofite ; corollas twelve-cleft.’? H/owers flefh-coloured ; calyx twelve- cleft; fegments linear, ereét; corolla twelve-cleft, longer than the calyx; fegments lanceolate. Stamens twelve; an- thers oblong, {piral; germ roundifh: ftyle long, twilted ; ftigma fimple. A native of Virginia. 4. C. imperfoliata. Linn. jun. Sup. 218. Mart. 2. Lam. Encyc. 4. Willd. 5. “ Coroilas fix-cleft.”? Root annual. Stem about four inches high, herbaceous, quite fimple, ere&t, quadrangular. Leaves oppolite, feffile, half-embracing the ftem, egg-fhaped, {mooth, acute, fhorter than the internodes, J/ower yel- low, CHL Jow, larger than the leaves, terminal, peduncled; ca+ lyx one-leafed, campanulate, the length of the corolla, bifid beyond the middle, fpreading, permanent ; fegments Janceolate ; corolla monopetalous, falver-fhaped : tube fhort, fpreading; border longer, with fix oval fegments; filaments fix, awl-thaped, a little longer than the tube, and attached to it ; anthérs roundifh; germ oblong; ftyles two, agglutinated together; ftigmas obtufe. A native of Italy. The fruit of this plant is unknown, and nearly all its known parts of fruGtification are totally at variance with the generic cha- raéter; it cannot therefore be a chlora, as that genus is at prefent underftood, notwith{tanding its agreement in habit with C. perfoliata, from which the generic chara€ter was originally formed. C. dodecandria is in the fame predica- ment; and, on account of its fpiral anthers, had perhaps better have been left with Chironia, where Linneus once laced it. CHLORANTHUS, (from xAxzoz pale yellow, and Gos, a flower.) Mart. Wilid. LL. Herit. Sert. Ang. 35. tab. 2. Swartz. Phil. Tranf. Vol. 77. tab. 14. Juf. 423. (Ni- grina; Schreb, 212. Lam. fll. 185. tab. 71, Poiret in En- cyc.) Clafsand order, tetrandria monogynia. Nat. Ord. un- certain; fuppofed by Juffieu to have fome affinity to Vif cum. Gen. Ch. Cal. none. Cor. monopetalous, fcale-like, three- lobed, concave within, convex outwards, half-fuperior, at- tached to the outer fide of the germ. Svam. filaments none ; anthers four, oval-oblong, feffile, adnate to the petal within towards its edges. Pi. germ half-fuperior, egg-fhaped ; ftyle none; ftigma capitate, fomewhat two-lobed. Peric. Berry oval, fomewhat mucronate at the tip, tranfparent at the bafe, one-celled. Seed fingle, roundifh. Eff. Ch. calyx none. Petal fcale-like, three-lobed, fixed to the fide of the germ. Anthers adnate to the inner fide of thepetal. Berry one-feeded. Sp. C. inconfpicuus. A ftoloniferous underfhrub. Stems about a foot high, cylindrical, procumbent at the bafe, throwing out roots from the lower knots. Leaves about two inches long, and oppofite, oblong-ovate, revolute, fomewhat wrinkled, {preading, flat, permanent ; petioles fhori, oppo- fite, uniting at the bafe into a kind of ring, which fupports two awl-fhaped ere& ftipules. //owers pale yellow, in a terminal panicle compofed of oppofite {pikes, arranged in pairs on a common receptacle, each accompanied by a {mall fcale-like bra@te. The ripe fruit is marked towards the top with the fcars of the corolla, andits bracte, which, as Juf- fieu obferves, proves it to be truly inferior. A native of China and Japan, and cultivated by the Chinefe in their gardens. It was introduced into the royal garden at Kew, in 1751, by Dr. James Lind. CHLORAS, in Zoology, one of the fynonyms of Simia Mormon. Breflauer. CHLOREUS, in Ornithology, a name given by Turner and others to the common yellow-hammer, Emleriza Citri- nella; which fee. Cu oreEvs, is alfo'a nameaffigned by feveral of the early writers to the golden oriole, Oriolus galbula. CHLORION, of Gefner, in Ornithology, the golden eriole, Oriolus galbula of Linnxus. CHLORIS, Chloris ludoviciana vulgo Papa dida. Briff. See EmsBeriza ciris. Cuorts indica, Briff. the yellow finch. See Frincitva butyracea. Cutorts bahamenfis. Briff. See Frincitva Licolor. CHLORITE, in Mineralogy, Saint Erde, cr pearls of the Cornifh mines, a f{pecies of the muriatic genus in the arrangement of Kirwan, (Vol. I.) which he diltrikutes into CHL 3 families, ‘Ihe firlt is in aloofe form; colour, prafs-green, or greenifh-brown, or dark-green inclining to black; ex- ternal luftre 0.1 ; it feels greafy, fhews a white ftreak, and gives an earthy {mell when breathed on. It is found in feales cither invefling other ftones or heaped together. It melts into a dull black compact flag, and then becomes magnetic, By the analyfis of Mr. Hepfner it contains 0.4375 magnefia, 0.375 filex, 0.0417 argill, 0.0166 calx, and 0.1292 iron. 2. Saufs. 133. The fecond family is indurated and cryftal- lized: colour, dark-green, almoft black; form oblong, quadrangular, and acuminated. Lutftre, 1 ; tranfparency, o. FraGture earthy, but fomewhat {caly. Hardnefs, 6; not remarkably heavy ; gives a mountain green ftreak ; feels meagre ; does not effervefce with acids. Ferb. Briefe. 43. According to Hzpfner, it contains 0.415 filex, 0.3947 magnefia, 0.0613 argill, 0.015 calx, 0.1015 tron, 0.015 air and water. 1.Chy. Ann. 1790. 56. The third family is flaty. It is faid to abound with garnets and magnetic iron ftone. According to Baron Bern. (1 Raab. 247.) its colour is greenifh grey ; according to others, dark-green, inclining to black. Internal luftre, 1.2 ; tranfparency, 0; fracture more or lefs perfeAly flaty, fometimes curved flaty, or paffing into the fcaly foliated ; and then accompanied with more luftre and a darker colour. Fragments flatted. Gives a mountain green ftreak, feels {mooth and fomewhat greafy. Hardnefs, 5.4. CHLOROPUS, in Ornithology, the common water-hen or moor-hen of Will. Penn. &c. The common gallinule of Latham Syn, and fulica-chloropus of Linnzus and Gmelin, which fee. CHLOROSIS, in Medicine, the green-ficknefs, from xrweds, green, or pale, a difeafe peculiar to young women, about the period of the commencement of menitruation ; the moft obvious and charaéteriftic fymptom of which is an extremely pallid complexion, frequently with a tinge of yellow, fomtimes verging towards green. It has hence been alfo called occafionally, from the days of Hippocrates, iGerus albus, or white jaundice. y This difeafe ufually commences with languor, laflitude, and indi{pofition to motion or exertion ; and a failure of anima- tion or depreffion of {pirits. The ftomach is deranged in its funétions, and various fymptoms of dyfpepfia, fuch as heart- burn, naufea, acid eructations, &c. appear; the appetite for natural food is diminifhed, and a depraved appetite for indigeftible fubftances, fuch as chalk, or earth, enfues. The refpiration becomes fhort and difficult, efpecially upon every flight exertion, fuch as afcending the itairs, or any declivity, and on thefe occafions the heart is frequently feized with palpitation. The patient complains of confider- able pain in the loins and head, and frequently in the whole ofthe mufcles of the limbs. The bowels are often irregular in their evacuations, molt frequently inclined to conftipation. The fkin over the whole body becomes extremely pallid, fome- times nearly white, more frequently fallow, and in the ad- vanced ftagesa flight greenifh-tinge is occafionally obferved ; the lips lofe altogether their rednefs ; and the eyes become of an exceflive pearly whitenefs. As the difeafe proceeds, the legs and feet become oedematous, efpecially in the evening, and the ferum flows into the cellular membrane of the eyelids, which are {welled and livid in the morning, and at length into that of the whole body, producing a general anafarca. In this condition of the body, fome of the vif- cera, as the flomach, liver or fpleen, become occafionally affeéted with fome organic difeafe, the functions generally fail, and the patient dies, tabid or dropfical. This termina- tion, however, is rare ; for the chlorofis, in general, is readily removed by medicine and regimen. 4X2 It CEL O'R Ouselse. Tt is obvious, from this enumeration of the fymptoms, that the difeafe is connected with a great debility or atony of the whole fyltem, and efpecially of the circulation. Hence. the languor and lafficude, and pains in the mufcles, efpecially on being exerted; hence the imperfect fecretions of the ftomach and liver, and inteftines, which give, rife to indigeftion, flatulence, conftipation, &c; and hence the deficiency of that healthy complexion of the fin, which the fiee and vigorous circulation of the blood through the cutaneous veflels produces. The pain of the back, which is an almott con{tant fymptom of chlerofis, arifes partly from the ftate of atonyin the mufcles, as m other difeafes where the ftrength is much impaired, but chiefly perhaps from the difordered {tate of the uterus. The chlorotic condition of the body is fo commonly con- nected with a partial or complete retention of the menitrual difcharge, or amenorrhea, that the latter is frequently confidered as an .almoft fynonymous term, and by the females themfelves all the fymptoms of chlorofis are attri- buted folely to the amenorrhea. This, however, is un- doubtedly an erroneous notion. The general debility of the fyftem is the common caufe of the non-appearance of the monthly difcharge, and of thofe other fymptoms which conttitute chlorofis; both the one and the other are fymp- toms of the general morbid flate of the habit: Thus all the fymptoms of chlorofis, occur occafionally when the mentes continue to appear at the regular periods. Many of the fy mptoms are fometimes obferved, in which neither the colour of the fin, which charaéterizes chlorofis, is prefent, nor are the catamenia fulpended. Anda fufpenfion of the catamenia, where the chlorotic condition does not take place, is a very common cecurrence. Indeed, whatever occafions a confider- able reduction of the ftrength, at any period of life, gene- rally caufes a fuppreffion of the menfes; fuch as a_want of nutritive food, watching, chronic difeafes, &e. But it is chiefly abont the period, when the difcharge of the menfes firit appears, or when it has already appeared partially, but not yet attained its regularity, that this debility, which induces chlorofis, is readily excited. Why the body thould at that period be thus eafily cifeafed, it is very difficult to explain fatisfactorily. The cau/es which induce chlorofis are more eafily afcer- tained. Whatever contributes to reduce the ftrength of the {yftem, or greatly to difturb the digeftive organs, at the pe- riod of life jult alluded to, tends to produce a chlorotic con- dition, Hence the occalional caufes of chlorofis are as va- rious as the -fources of debility. Fatigue, lofs of fleep, deficiency of nutritive food, previous difeafes, expofure to cold, a {edentary mode of life, grief, and other depreffing paflions, are frequent caufes of thisdifeafe. But of all the mental caufes, love, which ‘feeds on the damafk cheek,” is {aid to be the moft common fource of chlorofis, The ha- bits, therefore, of all conditions of fociety are favourable to the frequent produétion of the complaint. The crowded and clofe ftreets, the {mall unventilated tenements, in which young females of the poorer clafs, occupied in {edentary employments, {carcely ever enjoy the benefit of free air, to- gether with their feanty and poor diet, render this clafs of girls very obnoxious to the attacks of chlorofis. ¢ind, to vf: the words of an intelligent phyfician, “wwe can- pot be furprifed that young ladies of the higheft rank fhould fuffer equally ; eight months of the year they fit on thick carpets, in clofe rooms, heated by regiller ftoves; have large fires kept in their bed rooms, never {tir out except in carriages, and are often too much reltriéted in their diet. $e weaknels and extreme irritability, induced by this mode ef living, net onty bring on the chlorotic ftate, but after the Lg flighteft expofure to damp or cold air, render them alfo liable to be affe&ed with pains and inflammations of the bowels, rheumatif{m, head-ach, catarrh, phthifis, &c.”? See Willan Dif. of London, p. 195. With refpeét to the proximate caufe of chlorofis, perhaps little that is fatisfa€tory can be faid. As the difeafe is moft commonly coune¢éted with a retention of the catamenia, and occurs folely, or almoft folely, at that period of life, when . the organs dettined for the work of generation are evolved, or attain their mature condition, the general laxity and de- bility of the fyftem, upon which all the fymptoms, even the amenorrhea, depend, have been attributed to fome morbid condition of the cvaria. Thus a celebrated profeffor has re- marked, that as a certain flate of the ovaria in females prepares and difpofes them to the exerc'fe of venery, about the very period at which the menfes firtl appear, it is to be prefumed that the ftate of the ovaria and that of the uterine veflels are in fome meafure connected together ; and as generally fymp- toms of a change in the ftate of the former appear before thofe of the latter, it may be inferred, that the ftate.of the ovaria has a great fhare in exciting the ation of the uterine veflels, and producing the menftrual flux. But analogous to what happens in the male fex it may be prefumed, that in females a certain fate of the genitals is neceflary to give tone and tenfion to the whole fyitem; and therefore that, if the ftimulus arifing from the genitals be wanting, the whole fy tem may fall into a torpid and flaccid ftate, and from thence the chlorofis and retention of the menfes may arife. Cullen, firt lines, 1001. This hypothefis poffeffes the recommenda tion of ingenuity, but it does not remove every difficulty. It is not clear that the morbid condition of the ovaria, like that of the uterine veffels, or of the conftitution at large, is not rather a confequence of the general debility, thana caufe of it. It is fortunate, that in this, as in many other difeafes, con- cerning the nature of which phyficians have differed in fen- timent, we have a more folid bafis than that of hypothetis, on which the cure is accomplifhed ; namely, experience. In the difeafe in queflion, as general debility is the apparent fource of all the fymptoms; fo experience has fhewn, that thofe expedients and medicines which reftore the itrength of the conftitution, remove all the fymptoms of the difeafe. In a ftate of mere debility of the fyftem, unconne&ed with any organic difeafe, although medicine can do much, yet much is alfo to be done by regimen and the general condu& of the patient. One of the moft powerful means of ftrengthen- ing the frame is regular exerci/e in the open air. This fhould, therefore, be fteadily and daily reforted to, according to the condition of the conflitution, increafing the quantity aud degree of it in proportion to the increaling powers of the patient. Itis mott effectual in the pure air of the coun- try, and hence it is advifeable to refort to it where it is in the power of the patient ; as a regularity of diet and hours will alfo materially aid the general plan. It is, doubtlefs, from thefe circumitances principally, that numbers of chlo- rotic females {peedily recover their {trength, complexion, and the healthy functions of the uterus, at the watering places, where exercife, temperance, regularity, and good air, contribute to the attainment of health. And among thofe who are unable to obtain that fort of benefit, flili the effets of medicines are aided in a molt important degree by regular exercife in the apen air. A variety of medicines have been employed by different practitioners for the cure of chlorofis and. amenorrhea ; fome, with a view of ftrengthening the flaccid and languid: fyftem, and others, with a view of itimulating the uterine veflels in particular. ‘The latter, from their fuppofed effec - iA ~~ CHL O RgO STS. in exciting the flow of the menfes, have been termed emme-~ nagogues. Among the general tonic, or flrengtheninig medicines, iron, or, as it is improperly named, /fee/, in its different pre- parations, is the moft valuable and effectual remedy. Some phyficians have gone fo far as to confider it as a {pecific in chlorofis ; a notion which, though in itfelf abfurd, implies the general fuccefs with which they have employed this medicine. It has been adminiftered in almoft all its prepa- rations with advantage; moft frequently in the form of a fulphate, or faline compound with the fulphuric acid, (ferrum vitriolatem of the Pharmacopceeias), or of rutft (ferri rubigo). A mixture, which was adminiftered with confiderable {uccefs by Dr. Griffiths, and is now celebrated under his name, has been univerfally employed; it confilts of the ferrum vitriolatum, with the vegetable alkali, and myrrh. It is obvious, however, that the re- fult of this mixture mutt be a decompofition of the fulphate of iron, a formation of a neutral falt (the fulphate of pot-afs) and a precipitation of the oxyd of iron in an impalpable powder. Inttead, therefore, of taking the falt of iron, the patient {wallows a naufeous mixture of Glauber’s falt, with the oxyd of iron, and myrrh. This precipitate, freed from the Glauber’s falt, is a carbonated oxyd of iron, and may be colleGted and given in a more fimple form, or combined -with other ingredients; it is, perhaps, the lealt offenfive to the ftomach, and one of the mott efficacious preparations of iron. Being ina more impalpable powder, it may fuperfede theruft of iron, which has been long adminiftered with fuccefs, as it may be retained on the ftomach in a larger dofe. In whatever form the iron is given, it contributes greatly, with exercife and good air, to improve the digeltive powers, and to promote a more perfect aflimilation of the food, and alfo, by accelerating the circulation, to reftore the impeded fecretions, and the languid a¢tion of the uterine, as well as the other parts of the fyftem. The {mall quantity of iron contained in the chalybeate waters is very minute, in compa- rifon with the quantity which may be received into the fy{- tem in the forms of artificial combination ; and the advan- tages of a watcring-place are therefore probably not to be imputed to this fource, as has been already hinted. With the fame intention of fupporting the ftrength, other tonic medicines may occafionally be employed ; fuch as the various bitters, bark, gentian, &c.; combined with cordials, where the aétion of the ftomach is extremely feeble ; or with abforbents, fuch as magnefia, where there is a prevalence of acidity in that organ, ‘he aromatic gums, or gum-refins, feem to afford a grateful ftimulus to the digeltive organs, and are often conjoined with the preparations of iron, efpe- cially in the form of pills. The cautious application of cold, where there is {till fufficient energy in the conftitution, has been attended with great benefit, as in the form of a fhower-bath ; and a bath of the temperature of about 80°, fuch as that of Buxton, has proved efficacious. But on the whole, the practice may be confidered as unfafe, uotil the patient is in a {tate of convalefcence, and has regained a con- fiderable portion of her ftrength. In the writings of the older phyficians many medicines are enumerated under the title of ‘ Emmenagogues,” and their fpecific a€tion on the uterus is contended for; , and among the vulgar, at prefent, feveral articles are believed to be poffeffed of that power, which they: adminifter on every occafion of menttrual ttoppage. But the evidence in favour of the exiltence of fuch powers is fo unfatisfactory, that the notion of a {pecific emmenagogue is now generally difearded. The melampodium, or black hellebore, was recommended in ‘the ftrongeft terms by Dr. Mead ; he affirmed thar‘it rarely failed to produce the menfes, and that, when it did, hemor- rhages occurred from fome other part. But fubfequent ex- perience has not confirmed this extraordinary encomium. The medicine is a {trong general {limulant. Savin is another hot and irritating vegetable, which has been faid to exert powerful effects on the uterus, which it perhaps may fome- times excite, in common. with relt of the bedy, by its diffufible ttimulus. Dr. Home (Clinical Obf. and Exp. p. 385.) confiders it as poffeffed of emmenagogue qua- lities. There are two other claffes of medicines, which fometimes induce a flow of the menfes, by their action upon the parts adjoining the uterus; thefe are purgatives which ftimulate the re&tum or Jower end of the inteftines ; and thofe medi- cines, which, being carried off in the urine, ftimulate the bladder ; fuch as cantharides, the balfams, and other tere- binthinate fubftances. The powers of the latter are but flight; but an acrid purgative is perhaps one of the molt direét promoters’ of the catamenia in the catalogue of the Materia Medica. The pediluvium is occafionally employed to reftore the menftrual difcharge, and frequently with the defired effe&, if it be reforted to about the regular period at which the difcharge is expe@ed, and when the pains of the back, &c. betoken a difpofition in the conttitution to perform its healthy function. The ftrong ftimulus of the ele&tric fluid has been fometimes dire&ted to the region of the uterus, by pafling flight fhocks acrofs the pelvis, with the effe& of bringing on the catamenia. Like the remedies jut mentioned, it is very uncertain in its operation, and may be reforted to with the greateft profpect of fuccefs at the approach of the regular period. We have faid nothing of the rubia tin@torum, or madder, and fome other fubi{tances extolled as emmenagogues ; nor of the infpiration of oxygen gas, recommended by Hufe- land and Dr. Thornton, becaufe the evidence in favour of thefe remedies is altogether unfatisfaGory. But after all that is: faid refpecting emmenagogues, it mutt be remembered, that the amenorrhea, or retention of: the menfes, is not the caufe, but one of the fymptoms of the chlorotic condition ; and, therefore, that a partial ftimu- lus to the uterus can but partiaily remove the difeafe, which will ceafe only with the removal of the general debility. It may be added, that the natural ftimulus to the uterus is the exercife of venery, and that where marriage is ims pending, it may be delicately recommended to be accelerated according to circumttances. Dr. James Hamilton of Edinburgh, in a valuable treatife on purgative medicines lately publifhed, obferves, that chlorofis is often attended with a torpor of the-intettines and conftipation, and that the daily ufe of purgatives, in laxative dofes, until the black and fetid ftools afflume a natural appearance, is followed with great‘fuccefs- It will not be denied, that a fluggith action of the bowels frequently accompanies chlorofis, atid that the colour of the: {tools is dark in confequence of the morbid fecretiors of the inteftines and the her; and allo that this ftate of the canal, though perhaps an effect in the firlt infance, becomes a caufe of aggravation to the difeafe in general. Hence, there is an obvious neceflity of preferving a regularity of the inteftinal evacuations inthis dileafe. Awd hence, perhaps, Dr. Friend found mercury a good emmenagozue, and Dr. Darwin refer- red the difeafe to torpor of the liver. Neverthelefs, the gene- ral languor and debility oppofe the idea of ative purga- tion, and fuggeit the propriety of combining the general tonic lan, with a careful relaxation of the bowels. CHLOROXYLON, in Botany. Brown, Jam. Laurus chloroxylon, CHLORUS,, See creo CHLORUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Afia, placed by Pliny in Cilicia. be CHLUMETZ, in Geography, atown of Bohemia, in the circle of Konigingratz ; 5 miles S. of it. CHMICLOWKA, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Braclau; 46 miles E.N.E. of Braclau. CHNA, in Ancient Geography, a name which, according to Steph. Byz. was formerly given to Pheenicia; but ac- cording to Bochart, it is the diminutive of Canaan. CHNIM, in Geography, a trong town of Bofnia, belong- ing to the Venetians; 15 miles S. of Banjaluka. CHNUMBMIS, or Cunumis, in Ancient Geography, an ancient town of Egypt, placed by Ptolemy in the nome of Thebes.» é CHNUS, in Hippocrates, isa fine foft wool, to which he compares an aqueous {pleen, on account of its foftnefs. CHOAKING the /uf, in Rigging, denotes placing the bight of the leading part, or fall of a tackle, clofe up be- tween the neft part and jaw of the block. : CHOAM.-YU SO, in Geography, a town of China, in the province of Quang-tong; 16 leagues E.S.E. of Kao- tcheou. CHOAN, in Grecian Antiquity, fo called from the yon, a libation, an epithet applied among the Athenians to facri- fices that were offered for appeafing the manes of the de- ceafed. They confilted of honey, wine, and milk. ‘ CHOANA, in Ancient Anatomifis, a cavity in the brain like a funnel, called alfo pelvis. Cuoana, in Natural Hiffory, one of the fynonymeus names of Maprerora infundibulifermis. Gualt. (teft. 24.) calls it Choana faxea crifpata rugofa, minimis poris. Cuoana, or Cuoava, called Chaona by Diodorus Siculus, in Ancient Geography, an ancient town of Afia, in Media, ac- cording to Ptolemy.—Alfo, an ancient town of Afia, placed by Ptolemy in BaGriana.—Alfo, a town placed by the fame geographer in Parthia. : CHOANI, the name of an ancient people placed by Piiny in Arabia Felix.—Alfo, a people placed by Marcian of Heraclea in Europe, near the Boryithenes and the Alauni. CHOAPA, in Geography, a {raall harbour on the coaft of Chili in South America, in about S, lat. 31° 42’. CHOARA, in Ancient Geography, the name of a country of Afia, placed by Pliny in the weltern part of Parthia. CHOARAXES, a river of Afia, which ferved as a boundary between the Colchide territory and Armenia, ac- cording to Strabo. / CHOARENA, or Cuoarina, a diftri@ of Afia in the country of the Parthians according to Strabo; it was that region of Parthia which was neareft to India. CHOASPA, a town of Arachofia, according to Pto- lemy. CHOASPES, a river of India, according to Strabo. It difcharged itfelf into the Cophes on the confines of Ara- chofia. Cuoasres, or Cuoasris, the modern Ahwaz, a river of Afia, the fource of which is placed by Pliny in Media, and he fays it ran into the Pafitigris. According to Strabo, this river had ics fource in the country of the Uxians, traverfed Sufiana, and difcharged itfelf into a lake which alfo received the Euleusand the Pafitigris. This river is faid to have flow- ed into the Perfian gulf by a feparate mouth, though it hada communication with the Tigris. Herodotus fays, that the Choafpes wafhed the walls of Sufa, and that the Perfian kings drank no other water befides that of this river, which they car- riedabout with them in filver veffels, whitherfoever they went. Pliny places the city of Sufa on the banks of the Euleus, or the Ulac of the prophet Daniel, and according to this CHO writer, the Perfians draok no other water: whence it Is in+ ferred, that the Choafpes and the Euleus were the fame ri- ver, at leaft at Sufa. Trom this city they flowed in one ftream, and were afterwards diltinguifhed, fometimes by one name, fometimes by the other. Although the ancient Sufa decorated the banks of this river, the modern towns of Kiab and Ahwaz are of {mall account. CHOASPITES, in Natural Hiflory, a name given by the ancients to a {pzcies of the chry/oprafivs, a gem ofa colour between yellow and green, It was called choa/pites from the name of a river in which it was frequently found. CHOATRA, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of Afia, which branched out from the Gordyzan mountains on the confines of Affyria and Armenia, and which feparated Media from Affyria. CHOBAR, ariver which difcharged itfelf into the Eu- phrates. Sce Cuavoras. CHOBAT, a town of Africa, in Mauritania Czfarienfis, called in the Itinerary of Antonine Coba, reprefented as a municipium, and placed between Muflubium and Igilgilis. CHOBATA, a town of Afia in Albania, placed by Pto- lemy between the rivers Albanus and Cafius. CHOBOLTIVO, in Geography, a town of Poland ia the palatinate of Volhynia ; 36 miles W. of Lucko. CHOBUS, Kemxuat, in Ancient Geography, a river of Afia in the Colchide territory, between the Charius and Sin- gama, according toArrian. Pliny calls it Cobus, and adds, that it had its fource in mount Caucafus, and traverfed the country of the Suani. It ran from the north to the fouth- eat, and fell into the Euxine fea to the north of the mouth of the Phafis. CHOC, Siocx. This word or term is employed, in Mf- Iitary Language, to exprefs the a€t of two corps encountering or engaging each other. In {peaking alfo of two hoftile corps, who have only had a brufh, or fome fkirmifhing, it is faid, that there has been wn choc, a fhock between them. CHOC Bay, in Geography, a bay on the W. coalt of the ifland of St. Lucia, a little to the N. of Carenage bay. CHOCCHARMO, a town of Atiain Thibet ; 27 miles N.E. of Tofon-Hotun. P CHOCE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Arabia De- erta. CHOCHE, a village of Afia, fituated near the Tigris, according to Arrian. CHOCK, in Sea Language, a wedge ufed to confine a cafk, or other heavy body, to prevent it from fetching away when the fhip is in motion. Cuock isalfo atriangular piece of wood faftened occafi- onally in the ftrap at the arfe of the block: on the bafe of which wedges are driven to force the block into its place. Cuock is alfo a fhort malt for boats, by which they are towed along. CHOCKS, denote, in Maf-Making, pieces made to fa- fhion: out fome part that is wanting, or to place between the head of a lower-matt and heel of a top-matt. CHOCO, in Geography, a province of South America, in the vice-royalty of New Granada, bounded on the N. by the province of Darien and Carthagena, on the E. and S. by Popayan, and on the W. by the Pacific Ocean. The foil, climate, produéts, &c. are fimilar to thofe of Popa-- an. y CHOCOLATE, a kind of cake or confeétion, prepared of certain drugs ; the bafis or principal whereof, is the cacao- nut. See THEOBROMA. The trees that produce thefe nuts grow plentifully on the banks of the river Magdalena in South America, and in other fituations where the foilis adapted to them; but thofe in CHOCOLAT E. in the jurifdiion of Carthagena are faid to excel thofe of the Caraccas, Maracaybo, Guayaquil, and other parts, both as to the fize and goodnefs of the fruit. The Carthagena cacao or chocolate is little known in Spain, being only fent by way of prefents; for, as it is more efteemed than that of other countries, the greater part of itis confumed in this ju- wnifdifion, or fent to other parts of America. It is alfo im- ported from the Caraccas, and fent up the country ; that of the Magdalena not being fufficieat to anfwer the great de- mand of thefe parts. ‘The former is mixed with the latter, as it ferves to correét the extreme oilinefs of the chocolate when made only with the cacao of the Magdalena, The latter, by way of diftinGion from the former, is fold at Carthagena by millares, whereas the former is difpofed of by the bulhel, each weighing 110 pounds: but that of Maracaybo weighs only 96 pounds. he cacao tree abounds in the diftri& of Guayaquil, and is generally not lefs than 18 or 20 feet high. It begins from the ground to [eparate into four or five ftems, according to the vigour of the root from whence they all proceed. They are commonly between four and feven inches in diameter; but they fart grow in an oblique direc- tion, fo that the branches are expanded and feparated from one another. The length of the leaf is between four and fix inches, and its breadth three or four. It is very {mooth, foft, and terminating ina point, like that of the China orange tree, but differing from it in colour: the former being of a Cull green, and having ro glofs which is obfervable on the latter; nor is the tree fo full of leaves as that of the orange. The pods, that contain the cacao, grow from the ftem, as well as from the branches. ‘The firit appearance is a white bloffom, whofe piltil contains the embryo of the pod, which grows to the length of fix or feven inches, and four or five in breadth, refembling a cucumber in fhape; and ftriated in a longitudinal dire€tion, but deeper than the cucumber. Thefe pods are proportionable in their dimenfions to the ftem or branch, to which they adhere in the form of excref- cences, fome {maller and others larger. When two happen to grow in contaét, one of them attratts all the nutritive juice, and thrives on the decay of the other. The colour of the pod, while growing, is green, like that of the leaf; but when arrived at its full perfection, it gradually changes toa yellow. The hell that covers it is thin, fmooth, and clear. When the fruit is arrived at its full growth, it is gathered; and being cut in flices, its pulp appears white and juicy, with {mall feeds regularly arranged, and at that time of no greater confiftence than the reft of the pulp, but whiter, and enclofed by a very fine delicate membrane, full of liquor, refembling milk, but tranfparent and fomewhat vifcid: in this flate it may be eaten, like any other fruit; its talte being a fweetifh acid, but thought in the country to promote fevers. ‘The yellownefs of the pod indicates that the cacao begins to feed on its fubftance, to acquire a greater confiftence, and that the buds begin to fill; the co- lour gradually fading till they are fully completed, when the dark brown colour of the fhell, into which the yellow has deviated, indicates that it is 2 proper time to gather it. The thicknefs of the fhell is now about two lines, and each feed found inclofed in one of the compartments, formed by the tranfverfe membranes of the pod. After gathering the fruit, it is opened, and the feeds taken out and laid in ficins kept for that purpofe, or more generally on vijahua leaves, and left in the airto dry, When fully dried, they are put into leather bags, fent to market, and fold by the carga or load, which is equal to $1 pounds; bur the price is not fixed, as it is fometimes fold for fix or eight rials per carga, though lefs than the mie of gathering ; but the general price is between three and four dollars, and at the time of the armadas, when the demand has been very large, rifes in proportion. This tree produces its fruit twice a~year, and in the fame plenty and goodnefs of quality. The quantity ga- thered through the whole jurifdiction of Guayaquil amounts at leafl to 50,000 cargas. The cacao trees fo much delight in water, that the ground where they are planted muft be reduced to a mire; and if not carefully fupplied with water, they die. ‘They mutt alfo be planted in the fhade, or de= fended from the perpendicular rays of the fun. According ly, they are always placed near other larger trees, under the fhelter of which they grow and flourifh. No foil can be better adapted to the nature of thefe trecs than that of Guayaquil, as it favours them in both refpe&ts; in the former, as confilting wholly of favannahs, or wide plains overflowed in winter, and in fummer plentifully watered by canals; and with regard to the latter, it abounds with other trees, which afford them the requifite fhelter. The culture of this tree requires no other attention befides that of clear- ing the ground from the weeds and fhrubs that are abund- ant in fo wet a foil. This, indeed, is fo neceffary, that, if neglected, thefe vegetables will, in a few years, deftroy the cacao plantations, by robbing the foil of all its nourifhment. See GuayaAgQuiL. The name chocolate is alfo given to a drink, prepared from the above-mentioned cake, of a dufky colour, foft, and oily ; ufually drank hot, and efteemed not only an excellent food, as being very nourifhing, ,but alfo a good medicine; at leaft a diet, for keeping up the warmth of the ftomach, and af- fifting digettion. The Spaniards were the firft who brought chocolate into ufe in Europe; and that, perhaps, as much out of intereft, to have the better market for their cacao-nuts, vanilla, and other drugs which their Weft Indies furnifh, and which enter the compolition of chocolate, as out of regard to thofe extraordinary virtues which their authors fo amply enumerate init. The qualities above mentioned are all that the gene- rality of phyficians, and others, allow it. Cuocotate, original manner of making. The method firft ufed by the Spaniards was very fimple, and the fame with that in ufe among the Indians: they only ufed cacao- nut, maize, and raw fugar, as exprefled from the canes, with a little achiotte, or rocou, to give it a colour: of thefe four drugs, ground between two ftones, and mixed together in a certain proportion, they made a kind of bread, which ferved them equally for folid food, and for drink; eating it dry when hungry, and fteeping it in hot water when thirfty. The Indians, to one pound of the roaited nuts, put half a pound of fugar, diffolved in rofe-water, and half a pound of flour of maize. This drink the Mexicans called chocolate, from. chacoc, found ; and alte, or atte, water; q. d. water that makes a noife: from the noife which the inflrument, ufed to mill and prepare the liquor, made in the water. But the Spaniards, and other nations, afterwards added a great number of other ingredients to the compolition of cho- colate ; all of which, however, vanilla alone excepted, {poil rather than mend it. Cuocorate, method of making, now in ufe among the Spaniards of Mexico. The fruit, being gathered from the cacao-tree, is dried in the fun, and the kernel taken out, and roafted at the fire, in an iron pan pierced full of holes; then pounded in a mortar; then ground on a marble ftone, with a grinder of the fame matter, till it be brought iato the confiltence of a palte: mixing with it more or lefs fugar, as it is to be more or lefsfweet, In proportion as the paite ad. Vancesy CHO COLAWT £. wanees, they’ add. fome long' pepper, alittle achiotte, and, YJattly, vanilla; fome add cinnamon, cloves, 2nd anife ; and thofe whorlove perfumes; mufk and ambergris. Too 6 lbs. -of the nut, they add 32 of fugar, 7 pods of vanilla, or the ‘pods of epidendrum vanilla, 12.]b, @f flour of maize, 4 1b. of cinnamon, 6 cioves, one dram’ of capficum, and as much of the roucou-nut as is thought neceffary to improve the co- Jour, together with ambergris or mufk, to impart an apree- able fcent. - In the more fimple and common way, to 17 lbs. of nuts are added 10 lbs. of fuzar, 28 pods of vanillas, one dram of ambergris, and 6 ounces of cinnamon. There is alfo a kind of Mexican chocolate, in the compo- fition whereof there enter almonds and filberts ;- but it is ra- ther to fpare the cacao, than to render:the chocolate better ; and, accordingly, this is looked on as fophitticated checo- date. Cuocorars, the, made in Spain, differs fomewhat from that made in Mexico: for, belides the drugs ufed in this ‘lalt, they add two or three kinds of flowers, pods of cam- peche, and generally almonds and hazel-nuts. The ufual proportion, at Madrid, is, to an hundred kernels of cacao, to add two grains of chilé, or Mexican pepper; or, in lieu thereof, Indian pepper ; a handful of anife; as many flowers, called by the natives vinacaxtlides, or little ears; fix white ‘rates in powder; a little machufia ; a pod of campeche; two ‘drachms of cinnamon; a dozen almonds, and as many hazel nuts ; with achiotte enough to give it a reddifh tin@ure ; the fugar and vanilla are mixed at difcretion; as alfo the mufk and ambergris. hey frequently work their pafte with orange-water, which they think gives ita greater confiftence and firmnefs. The pafte is ufually made up into cakes, fometimes into ‘long rolls ; and fometimes the cakes are made up of pure chocolate, without any admixture ; thofe who ufe it being to add what quantity they pleafe of fugar, cinnamon, and va- nilla, when in the water. ; Among us, in England, the chocolate is chiefly made thus fimple and unmixed, (though perhaps not unadulterated) of the! kernel of the cacao; excepting that fometimes fugar, and fometimes vanilla, is added; any other ingredient being {careely known among us. , The mode of preparing the mafs into a liquor, with the proportions, are various: ordinarily, the chocolate is boiled in water, fometimes in milk ; and fometimes, by good eco- mitts, in water-gruel: when boiled, it is milled, or agitated with a wooden machine for the purpofe, and boiled again, till it be of the proper confiltence for drinking; then fugar- ed, if the mafs weve pure; then milled afrefh, and poured off. Note, the beft chocolate is that which diffolves entirely in the water; leaving no grounds or fediment at the bottom of the pot. ‘ The Spaniards efteem it the laft misfortune that can befal a man, to be reduced to want chocolate: they are never known to leave it,.excepting for fome other liquor that will intoxicate. ' Hoffman, in his “ Potus Chocolate,” 1765, confiders cho- colate as an aliment; and, in a medicinal view, he recom- mends it in emaciating difeafes, both as aliment and medi- cine; and next very ftrenuoufly in hypochondriacal cafes; and in confirmation, adduces that of cardinal ~ Richelieu, who, he fays, was reftored to health by living on chocolate. He is not lefs copious on its good effects againft the hamor- rhoids. The neweft chocolate is efteemed the beft; the drug never keep ng wellabove two years, but ufually degenerating much before that time. It is to be kept in brown paper, put up in a box; and thet in another, inadry place. Cuocorate, laws relating to. By 43 Geo. III. c. 68. all former duties of cuftoms are repealed, and the following new duties impofed: viz. for cocoa-nuts of the produce of any Britifh colony or plantation in America, and of the produce of any other country or place, on importation, 6d. per cwte Tor the conditions, regulations, and reftriétions, uider which cocoa-nuts fhall on importation be fecured in warchoufes, fee 10 Geo. c. 10. 6 Geo. III. c. 52. Alfo 35 Geo. III. c.-118. When taken out of fuch ware- hoxfes for confumption in Great Britain, they are charged with a duty of 2d. per lb. By 43 Geo. III. c. 69, all former duties of excife are in like manner repealed, and imlicu thereof the following are impofed ; viz. for every lb. weight avoirdupois of cocoa-nuts, of the growth or produce of any Britifh colony or plantation in America, imported. isto Great Britain, 1s. 1od.; for ditto, if imported into Great Britain by the Eatt India company, 2s.; for ditto, of all other co- coanuts imported into Great Britain, 3s. No choco- late ready made, or cocoa paite, fhall be imported, ‘on pain of forfeiting the fame, and double value, and alfo the bags, cafks, and other package. 10 Geo. c. 10. §.2. Cocoa- nut fhells or hufks may be feized, and deftroyed ; and the officer who feizes them rewarded with any fum not exceeding 2os. per cwt. 4 Geo. II. c. 14. §. 12. The excife offi- cers may fearch fhips for cocoa-nuts, chocolate, and cocoa- patte, and feize, &c. 11 Geo. c. 30. §. 1. Cocoa-nuts fhall not be taken out of the warehoufes, either for home confumption or exportation, but upon payment of the inland duties. 21 Geo. III. ¢. 55. §. 10, 11. Cocoa-nuts for which the duty has been paid, or the chocolate made of fuch nuts, may be exported, on fecurity given that they fhall not be re-landed ; and under certain regulations, fpecified in 27 Geo. III. c. 13. §.12. Every perfon, who hall keepa fhop, &c. and have in his cuftody above 6 lbs. of chocolate or cocoa-nuts, fhall be deemed a dealer in the faid commodity. 11 Geo. c. 30. §.4. By 20 Geo. IIL. c. 35. no perfon fhall trade in chocolate without an annual licence, for which he fhall pay (by 43 Geo. III. c. 6y.) 55. 6d. under pe- nalty of 20/. Houfes of manufaéiuring and fale are to be entered, on pain of forfeiting 200/. and goods, &e. ro Geo. III. c.10. §. 10. The faid houfes fhall be marked aver the doors with the words ‘“ dealer in cocoa-nuts, chocolate, &c.”? on pain of 200/, 19 Geo. IIT. co 69. §. 18. Any dealer buying thefe commodities of any perfon, not having his fhop, &c. fo marked, fhall forfeit rood, Any perfon, not having entered his fhop, &c. who fhall paint over his door the aforefaid words, fhall forfeit 5o/., befides other penalties. If any perfon, not being a dealer, fhall buy thefe articles, not having thefe words over his door, he fhall forfeit 10 Notice fhall be given to the next officer of the divifion, of bringing in thefe commodities into any fhop, &c., and a cer- tificate duly figned, expreffingthat the duties have been paid, and that they were condemned and forfeited, and alfo the quantity and quality, &c. fhall be delivered, on pain of for- feiting the fame and treble value. Anda permit fhall be given to the buyer, &c. 10 Geo. cto. §. 11.15. Offi- cers fhall enter at all times by day warehoufes, fhops, &c. and furvey, the owner affilting and keeping jut weights and {cales, on pain of roo/. and forfeiture of the commodities, which may be feized by the officer. 10 Geo. c. 10: §. 12. ro; Geo. IE. €::44s0§. 0-8 1028) Gros! Lil e1g7§-nlgs Deceiving or obitruéting the officer incurs a forfeiture of too/. 26 Geo. IIL. c..77. §. 8. Search fhall be made for goods concealed, and if any perfon obftruét the officer, he fhall forfeit 100/. ; and if any {eller or dealer fhall conce-d any or ‘ CHO any of the faid goods, he thall forfeit the fame and treble va- Ine; and if any perfon fhall obftru@ the officer in feizing fuch goods, or endeavour to refcue the fame after feizure, he -fhall forfeit 5o/. 10 Geo. c. ro. §. 13.39, 40. If ‘any.article made to refemble cocoa fhall be found in the pof- feffion of any dealer, under the name of American cocoa, or Englifh or Britifh cocoa, or any other name of cocoa, it fhall be forfeited, and the dealer fhall forfeit 100/. 43 Geo. III. c. 129. §. 5. ‘he maker of chocolate, within the bills, fha'l weckly, and elfewhere every 6 weeks, enter in writing at the next office the weight of chocolate made by him, and clear off the duties. on pain of 5o/.; nor fhall he, after de- fault in payment, fell or deliver any out till the duty is paid, on pain of treble value. ro Geo. c. 10. §. 17,18. He fhall alfo produce at the place and time of entry the choco- late made, (on pain of 20s. for every pound not produced), which fhall be tied up with thread in papers of 11b., 41b., or 2 lb. each, and neither more or lefs; which fhal be marked or ftamped by the officers. 32 Geo. IT. c. 10. §. 16. Offences again{t thefe regulations incur a forfeiture of 2c/. ‘The counterfeiting of the ftamp, or the knowingly felling of any chocolate, or the fixing of any paper with a ftamp on fuch chocolate, as has not been entered, and on which the duties have not been paid, incurs the penalty of a for- feiture of 50c/., and of commitment to the next county gaol for 12 months. to Geo. c. 10. §.22. 11 Geo. c. 30. §. 13. Notice fhall be given by thofe who make chocolate for private families, and not for fale, three days before it is begun to be madg, fpecifying the quantity, &c.; and within three days after it is finithed, the perfon for whom it is made fhall enter the whole quantity on oath, and have it duly ftamped, and pay the duty, under penalty of forfeiting the fame and treble value. Nor fhall any perfon be permitted to make into chocolate for their own private ufe lefs than half a hundred weight of cocoa-nuts at atime. 10 Geo. . 10. §. 29,24; 25. Mr. Henly, an ingenious eleGrician, difcovered that cho- colate, frefh from the mill, as it cools in the tin pans into which it is received, becomes ftronzly ecleGtrical; and that it retains this property for fome time after it has been turned out of the pans, but foon lofes it by handing. The _power may be once or twice renewed by melting it again in an iron ladle, and pouring it into the tin pansas at firlt; but when it becomes dry and powdery, the power is not capable of being revived by fimp!e melting: but if a {mall quantity of olive-oil be added, and well mixed with the chocolate in the ladle, its eleétricity will be completely reftored by cool- ing itin the tin pan as before. From this experiment he conjecteres, that there is a great affinity between phlogifton and the electric fluid, ifindeed they be not the fame thing. Phil. Tranf. vol. xvii. part 1. p. 94, &c. Cuocorare Creek, in Geography, a head-water of Tioga river in the flate of New York, whofe mouth lics ro miles S.W. of the Painted Pott. CuocoLate-aut tree, in Botany. See THEosroma. CHOCOLOCO-CA, in Geography, called by the Spa- niards Caftro Virreyna, a town of Pera, famous for its fil- ver mines, which are at the top of a mountain always covered with f{now, and 2 leagues from the town. Its wine alfo is plentifuland good. See Castro Virreyna. CHOCOPE, a town of South America, in the country of Peru, and jurifdi€tion of Truxillo, 13 or 14 leagues dif- tant from St. Pedro, and 1: leagues from Truxillo, in S. lat. 7° 46’ 40". The town confills of between 8o and yo houtes, covered with earth ; occupied by between 60 and 70 families, chiefly Spaniards, with fome of the other cafts, but not above 20 or 25 Indian families. It has a large and de- Vou. VII. CHO cent church, built of bricks. In 1726 a rain which con- tinued 40 nights, from 4 or 5 in the evening till about the fame time in the morning, entirely ruined the houfes, and even the brick church, fo that only fome fragments of its walls remained. Two years afterwards a fimilar phenome- non occurred, which Jafted £1 or 12 days, but much lefs vio- lent and de!tructive. Foran account of the adjacent country, fee CurcaMa. CHOCORUA, a mountain of America, in Grafton county and ftate of New Hampfhire, on the N. line of Strafford county, N. of ‘T'amworth. CHOCUITO.. See Cxucuiro. CHOCZIM, or Coxzim, a town of European Turkey in Moldavia, fituated on the fouth fide of the Duictter, near the frontiers of Poland, remarkable for two victories gained here by the Poles over the Turks, one in 1621, and the other in 1683. The fuburbs were dettroyed by fire in 1769; onthe 3d of September 1789, the city, after a long fiege which re- duced it almoft to ruins, furrendered to the Ruffians. Choc- zim is 12 miles $.S.W. from Kaminieck, and 63 miles W.N.W. from Mogilov. N. lat. 48° 52’. IE. long. 26° 59+ CHODDA, in Ancient Geography, a town or village of Afia in-Carmania, according to Ptolemy. CHODIVOJA, in Geography, atown of Walachia; 32 miles S.S.W. of Bucharett. CHODOROSTAU,a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Lemberg ; 20 miles S.E. of Lemberg. CHOENICIS, in the Ancient Surgery, the trepan, fo called by Galen and /Zgineta, and mentioned by Celfus, where he calls it modiolus. CHOENIX, an Attic dry meafure, containing three co- tyle, or one fextarius and a half, which is two pounds anda quarter. Its mark wasa x witha» over it. The choenix likewife contained the forty-eighth part of a medimnus, and was otherwife called Hemerotro- PHIS. Grotius and others have obferved, on the authorities of Herodotus (lib. iii, and vil.), Hippocrates, Diogenes La- ertius, and Athenzus, that a choenix of corn was a man’s daily allowance, as a penny (denarius) was his daily wages; and hence we may iufer, (in reference to Rev. vi. 5,6), that if his daily labour could earn no more than his daily bread, without other provifion for himfelf or his family, corn mutt neceflarily bear a very high price. In another mode of com- putation, if we reckon the choenix tobe about a quart Eng- lifh (which is fuppofed not to be a full pint and a halt ), and the Roman penny or denarius to be about 8¢. Englilh, the neareft and common eftimate of both, wichout de- {cending to greater exaCtnefs, corn at that price will be above 20s: per Englifh bufhel; which, when the commoa wages of a man’s labour was but 8d. a day, fhewed a very great f{carcity of corn, next to a famine. But whatever may be the capacity of the choenix, which is difficult to be determined, as it varied in different times and countries, yet {uch care and fuch regulations about the neceffaries of life imply fome want and fcarcity of them. Scarcity obliges men to be exaé in the price and meafure of things. In fhort, the intent of the prophecy, to which we now refer, is, that corn fhould be provided for the peo- ple, but that it fhouldbe diftributed in exact meafure and proportion. Accordingly bifhop Newton obferves, (Diff. on the Prophecies, vol. iii—fee alfo Mede on chap, vi. v. 5.) that this third period, to.which the cited paffage pertains, commenced with Septimius Severus, and continued under Alexander Severus and the Septimian family during 42 years. Thefe two emperors, it is remarked, who enacted jult and ak equal CHO equal laws, and were very fevere ard implacable againtt of- fences, were no lefs celebrated for the procuring of corn and oil and other provifions, and for fupplying the Romans with them after they had experienced the want of them. The colour of the dlack hor/e, it is faid, befits the feverity of their nature and their name; and the da/ances are the well-known emblem of juftice, as well as an intimation of {carcity. Lowman (Paraphrafe on the Revelations) refers this period of prophecy to that interval, which fucceeded the reigns of Trajan and Hadrian. Antoninus Pius fucceeded Hadrian A.D. 138. - Antoninus the philofopher, partly with Verus and partly alone, and after them Commodus, governed the Roman empire, till within a few months of the reign of Se- verus, who began his empire, A.D. 193, a fpace of about so years. The fourth general perfecution was within this period, nearly 60 years after the third general perfection by Trajan, A.D. 107. Moreover, it appears from the con- curring teltimonies of Tertullian (ad Scep. c. 3.), Aurelius Viétor, JuliusCapitol., Antoninus Pius, and Anton. Philof., and Xiphilin ex Dione, that a f{carcity of provifions, ap- proaching to famine, which occurred in every reign of the “intonines, continued to the empire of Severus, who exerted himfelf in redreffing this evil: and thus the reign of Severus appears to be a proper termination to the judgment of this prediction. . CHOERADES, in Ancient Geography, an ifland of th Tonian fea, on the coaft of Italy, near the Iapygian pro- montory, according to Thucydides.—Alfo, iflands of the Euxine fea, rear the Hellefpont, fuppofed by Ortelius to have been the Cyanean ifles.—Alfo, a name given to the Ba- learic iflands.--Alfo, iflands of the Perfian gulf.—Alfo, iflands on the coaft of Eubcea, near mount Caphareus, where Ajax is faid to have fuffered fhipwreck, after having violated Caf- fandra.—Alfo, a town of Afia, in the country of the Moly- neci, inhabited by Greeks. Steph. Byz. CHOERAGIA, a place of Thrace, in the vicinity of Conttantinople. CHOEREAS, a place of the ifland Eubeea, according to Herodotus. CHOEREATZE, a lake of Peluponnefus in Sicyonia, accordiny to Herodotus. CHOERINA, in Antiquity, a kind of fea thells, with which the ancient Greeks ufed to give their fuffrage, or vote. CHOERIUS Satrus, in Ancient Geography, a foreft of Peloponnefus, placed by Paufanias near the town of Ge- fenia, in Meffenia, CHOEROGRYLLUS. See Hedge-Hoc. CHOES, or the Leneans, in Antiquity, an Athenian fef- tival in honour of Bacchus, celebrated on the r2th of the month Anthetterion. It latted only one day ; and as the in- habitants of Attica were only permitted to be prefent at the celebration of this feftival, authors referved their new pieces for the greater Dionyfia, which were folemnized a month after, and which attracted from all parts an infinite number of fpectators. It was ufual at the feftivals of Bacchus, to prefent tragedies and comedies to the public, and the authors thus contended for vittory. See Dionysia. Cuoes, in Ancient Geography. See Copuenes and Cow river. CHGUR, French, a chorus, or a mufical compofition of never lefs than three or four vocal parts, in which the harmony is complete, and performed fimultaneoufly by all the voices, enforced by the orcheitra. See Trnor, and Base. CHOHAN, in Geography, a circar of Hindooftan, in the country of Allahabad. CHO CHOHREN, or Kouren, a town of Germany, is the circle of Upper Saxony, and territory of Leipfic, 20 miles S.S.E. of Leipfic. ; CHOIR, that part of a church, cathedral, &c. where the clergy and chorifters, or fingers, are placed. The word, according to Ifidore, is derived a coronis cir- cumfantium ; becaufe, anciently, the chorifters were difpofed round the altar to fing ; which is ftill the manner of build- ing altars among the Grecks. Others derive the term choir from o¢0;, a dancer, or a company of dancers, alleging that dancing was one of the religious ceremonies of the church, although numerous anathemas again{l it occur in the works of the fathers, among the primitive Chriftians, as wel! as the Hebrews and Pagans. The following paf- fage from St. Auguftine’s eighth fermon is cited to prove that the early Chriftians made dancing a part of their Sun- day’s amufement, and that they accompanied their facred fongs with inftroments. ‘* It is better to dig or to plough on the Lord’s day than to dance. Initead of finging pfalms to the pfaltery or lyre, as virgins and matrons were wont to do, they now walte their time in dancing, and even employ matters in that arc.”? The above derivation is remarkable, and not one of thofe that can be fufpected of proceeding from fancy, and accidental fimilitude of found. One of the acceptations of the term x0¢05 given by Suidas, is, zo TUSNUM Tuy EY THES EXKANT IOS aoovlu, a company of lingers in a church, that is, a choir. It feems to have been fometimes ufed, like our word choir, in the local fenfe: xogos, fays Suidas, xas of yrogevlas, xs 6 tomas, &C. that is, dancers, and the place in which they danced. It is fo ufed by Homer, (Od. viii. 260.) Assmvay 22 xopov; they made fmocth or level the place appointed for dancing. Father Menettrier (Des Ballets, anc. et mod. Paris, 1682), after [peaking of the re- ligious dances of the Hebrews and Pagans, obferves, that the name of choir is ftill retained in our churches for that part of a cathedral where the canons and prie(ts fing and perform the ceremonies of religion. The chow was formerly feparated from the altar, and elevated in the form of a theatre, inclofed on all fides with a baluftrade. It hada pulpit on each fide, in which the epiitle and gofpel were fung, as may be itill feen at Rome in the churches of St. Clement and St. Pancratius, the only two that remain in this antique form. Spain, continues this author, has pre- ferved in the church, and in folemn proceffions, the ule of dancing to this day. France feems to have had the fame cuftom till the 12th century, when it'was abolifhed by the fynodical conftitutions of Odo, bifhop of Paris. The fame author, however, in his preface, informs us, that he himfelf had feen, in fome churches, the canons, on Eafter-funday, take the choriiters by the hand and dance in the choir, while hymns of jubilation were performing. Burney’s Hift. Mufic, Vol. iit. See Dancine. The choir with us is diftinguifhed from the chancel, or fan@tuary, where the communion is celebrated : as alfo from the nave, or body of the church, where the people are placed. : The patron is faid to be obliged to repair the choir of a church; and the parifhioners the nave. The choir was not feparated from the nave, till the time of Conftantine: from that time the choir was railed ia with a balultrdde, with curtains drawn over, not to be opened till after the confecration. In the twelfth century they be- gan to inclofe the choir with walls; but the ancient ba- luftrades have been fince reftored; out of a view to the beauty of the architecture. The chantor is matter of the choir. In nunneries, the choir is a large hall, adjoining to the body CHO body of the church, feparated by a grate, where the reli- gious fing the office. Cuorr mufic, mufic fung in a chorus, as in churches. It is fometimes ufed for mujfica piena, canto fermo, or what we ¢all plain chant, or fong. See Cuant and Cuorar Service. CHOIROS, in /chthyology, a name given by Ariltotle, and others of the old Greck writers to the Cernua or Aceri- na of the Latins. This fifh has been called by a variety of names, but it is a {pecies of perch, the Perca cernua of modern naturalifts, and the pope or ruffle, of the Englith fihhermen. It is by no means fo abundant as the common perch, neither is it of the fame family, for it has only one dorfal fin, while the common perch has two; it is alfo a fmaller fifth, feldom exceeding the length of fix or feven inches. The body is more elongated, and the back lefs prominent and arched. The colour is olivaceous green on the back, yellewifh on the fides, and {potted with black ; belly whitifh. Donov. Brit. Fithes. See Perca cernua. CHOISEUL, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Upper Marne; 4 leagues N.E. of Lan- gres. Cuo1seut Bay, a bay that lies on the N.W. coait of the iflands of the Arfacides, W. of Port Praflin. The ancient inhabitants, like thofe of Port Praflin, powder their hair with lime, which burns it and gives it a red appear- ance. Cuoissut Bay, a bay that lies on the S. fide of Maghel- Jan Straits, between Swallow Harbour and the channel of St. Barbara. CHOISY, Francis-Timoreon pe, in Biography, was born at Paris in the year 1644. He is reckoned among the cclebrated writers and extraordinary chara¢ters that have flourifhed in France. In his infancy he was taught to pay the greatelt deference to perfons of rank, and to endeavour to attach himfelf to thofe who might hereafter promote his interefls. He was intended for the church, but the habits of his youthful years were irregular, and he afforded op- portunity for feandal to the decent part of fociety, by ap- pearing perpetually in public in female habiliments. He was handfome and delicate, and having been accultomed by his mother, from his childhood, to appear in this difguife, the habit of it had grown into a kind of paffion. He patled fome years under the name of the countefs des Barras, in- dulging in gallantries which were infpired or facilitated by his aflumed charaéter.. Such, indeed, were the manners of the higher ranks in France, that he was admitted at court in this mafquerade, aud few were found in that circle who did not encourage a charaéter which they ought to have fourned at with indignation. Of thefe few was the duke de Mon- taufier, who meeting him one day in the queen’s drawing- room, faid in a tone of anzry contempt, “‘ Sir, or madam, I know not how to addrefs you, you ought to die of fhame for appearing dreffed like a woman, when God as done you the favour to make yon a man: Go, hide-yourleif.”’ While he lived in this tate he had been induéted to the office of abbé, and it was not till he was thirty years of age, that he thought it expedient to change his courfe of life, and to obliterate the remembrance of the fcenes that he had exhi- bited, from his own mind, as weil as from the minds of others. He went to Italy in 1676, and took an active part in promoting the eleGtion of Innocent XI. and was fo far beneficial to the interefts of the pontiff, that he was em- ployed to draw up a letter from the Trench cardinals to Louis XIV. for the purpofe of engaging him in his favour, who had been devoted to his enemies. De Choify fucceed- ed, but gained nothing by it but the honour of being the firlt to kifs the toe of the new pope. On his return to CHO France he was attacked with a fevere illnefs, which excited in him compun@tion for the paft, and the moft terrible ap- prehenfions for the future. He at length recovered, and during his convalefcence he held religious converfations with the abbé Dangeau, the refult of thefe were publithed in four dialogues: On the Immortality of the Soul; On the Exiftence of God ; On Religious Worfhip; and On Provi- dence. From this period, 1684, de Choify engaged in a new career: in the following year he went on an embafly from the fovercign of France to the king of Siam, whors the Je- fuits had reprefented as willing to become a convert to Chriftianity. But on arriving at Siam, he found that the royal converfion was no. more than a comedy planned by the Jefuits, in order to procure an embafly that might be fer. viceable to their commercial’plans, and that the embaffador and himfelf were intended to a parts in their favour. He was refolved that the voyage fhould not, with regard te himfelf, be without its ufes: he took prieft’s orders, and he was apparently very much impreffed with the facrednefs of his. new charaGter. He would not venture to fay mafs till he had been a month on board the fhip which brought the miffion back to France. He then became a zealous preacher to the crew, who were much edified by his pious exhorta- tions. He brought home with him a complimentary meffage from the king of Siam to his patron the cardinal de Bowi- lon, who unfortunately was not in favour at court. Louis was therefore difpleafed thet this mark of diltinGion fhould have been obtained for his difgraced minifter. Choify, find- ing himf{elf flighted, retired to a religious feminary, and employed himfelf in writing a life of David, and a tranfla- tion of the Pfalms. Thefe he was allowed to prefent to his fovereig, whofe {miles now abundantly repaid him for palt neglect. He was immediately elected a member of the French academy ; and his eulogy on the death of cardinal de Richelieu in 1687 was greatly admired. He was indeed a very ufeful member of that fociety, and drew up a fort of journal of ail that pafied at its meetings, which on account of the anecdotes that were interwoven with it, was not publifhed by the academy, though it was printed in the Opu/- cules of the abbé d’Olivet in the year 1754. De Choify was chofen in 1697 dean of the cathedral of Bayeux, which was the higheft poft he ever obtained in the church. His early’ adventures, of which himfelf was afhamed, precluded him from any diitinguifhed ecclefiaftical preferment. Befides the life of David, he pubtified lives of Solomon, St. Lonisy and of feveral of the French monarchs; but his moft confi- derable work was an Ecclefiaitical Hiltory, in eleven vo lumes, which was undertaken at the defire of Boffuet; and it comprifed the molt interefting facts of general hiltory, written on a pleating and popular plan. His lat work, which did not appear till after his death, was Memoirs of Louis XIV. in 2 vols. r2mo. This has been reckoned the molt agreeable of his writings. His ftyle and masner were parzicularly adapted tu the compolition of memoirs; yet in all the biographical picces which he drew up, he has been charged with having paid too little regard to truth. He publifhed a tranflatiow of the celebrated ‘ Imitation of Jefus Chrilt ;”? to the firft edition of which he prefixed a print of Madame de Maintenon on her knees before a crucifix, with the foilowing infcription : ‘* Hearken, O daughter, and co; - fider and incline thine ear: forget alfo thine own people, and thy father’s houfe; fo fhall the king greatly delire thy beauty.”? The text was in the fubfequent editions omitted. To this writer has been afcribed a licentious work, in which his own gallantries are fuppofed to have been pourtrayed: 4¥ 2 it CHO it is entitled Memoirs of the Countefs des Barras. This was not printed till the year 1736; but the abbé de Choify died in 1724, after completing his eightieth year, His charaéter could not command the refpeét of the really wife, nor the eftimation of the truly virtuous. After he had reformed the manners of his youth, which cannot be too feverely re- probated, he exhibited thofe fymptoms of frivolity which were highly unbecoming his rank and ftation in life. He was neverthelefs beloved, on account of his difpofition, which was kind, and of his manners, which were gentle, eafy, and very infinnatng. Gen. Biog. Du Frefnoy. Cuoisy, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Seine and Marne ; 4 leagues N. of Provins. Cuoisy-Bellegarde, a town of France, in the department of the Loiret ; 4 leagues W. of Montargis. Cuotsy fe Roy, or Cuoisy-/ur-Seine, a town of France, in the department of the Seine, and diftrict of Paris; 6 miles S, of Paris. CHOIX, Port a, lies on the N.W. fide of Newfound- land, N. by W. from the bay of Highgournachat, and 5.E. from point Riche. Cuorx, Old Port a, a femicircular bay on the N.W. fide of Newfoundland, round point Riche from the fouthward 5 the N.W. point of which is called Point Ferrol, Within this point are feveral iflands; but the interior bay is {pacious. CHO-KEL’, a town of Afia, in Thibet 5 145 miles E.S.E. of Laffa. j Cuoxe-Weed, in Botany, See OROBANCHE. CHOLAGOGUE, in Medicine, from xorn. bile, and “YW TL impel, a term applied by the older writers to thofe purga- tive drugs, which they imagined to poffefs the property of acting fpecifically on the liver, and expelling bile. Thefe were aloes, {cammony, black hellebore, &c. Any acrid or drattic cathartic will, by its trong ftimulus, neceflarily excite the biliary duds, as well as thofe of the pancreas and the mucous follicles, which line the inteftines, to pour out their fluids. See Caruartic. ‘Ifthe term be applicable to any medicine, it is to calomel, which appears to have the power of exciting the ation of the whole apparatus of the liver, and of increafing its produétion of bile, as well as of emulging the biliary dudts. CHOLALLAN, in Geography, one of the moi con- fiderable {tates near the mountain of Popocatepee, in Mexico. This, and the ftate Haexotzinco, having, with the affiltance of the Tlafcalans, fhaken off the Mexican yoke, re-elta- bhfhed their former ariftocratical government. CHOLARGUS, or Corarcos, in Ancient Geography, a borough of Greece, in Attica, belonging to the Acaman~ tide tribe, according to: Steph. Byz. and Suidas. CHOLAWIA, in Geography, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of Minfk ; 42 miles S.E. of Minfk. CHOLBEESINA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in Sogdiana, fituated near the Oxus. CHOLEDOCHUS, in Anatomy, a term derived from xoan, bile, and dexopes, L receive. ‘The hepatic dué, having been joined by the cyftic, takes the name of dudus communis choledochus, and proceeds to open into the duodenum. For a further account of this du@, fee Liver. CHOLELITHUS, in Medicine, from >oan, bile, and i903, a flone, a term applied to the concretions, which occur in the gall-bladder and biltary ducts. See Gaut-/lone. CHOLER. See Bite. CHOLERA, xea‘pa, fometimes written with the addi- tion of the word morbus, difeafe, is fo called from xoar, bile ; the leading charaéter of the difeafe being a copious evacua- tion of bilious matter both by vomiting and by ftool. CHO The phenomena of cholera, as well as the fuccefeful mode of treating it, have been weil known, and defcribed, in very fimilar terms, by phyficians from the earlieft dawn to the prefent times. In the writings of Hippocrate:, Aretzus, Celfus, Sydenham, and Cullen, we trace the fame opinions refpecting the diforder, and the fame precepts as to its cure. The attack of this complaint is generally fudden. The bowels are feized with griping pains, and the ftoo s, which are at firft thin and watery, as in a common diarrhea, are paffed frequently : the flomach is feized with ficknefs, dif- charges its contents, and rejeéts what is fwallowed. In the courfe of a few hours the matter vomited, as well as that which is difcharged by ftool, appears to be pure bile, and paffes off both ways in confiderable quantities. The grip- ing pains of the inte(tines now become more fevere, in con- fequence of the extraordinary irritation of the pafling bile, which excites them to partial and irregular fpafmodic contractions. Thefe fpafms are often communicated to the abdominal mufcles, and generally to the mufcles of the lower extremities ; fo that the cramps in the legs become very diftrefling. The ftomach is aifo affeted with confiderable pain, and a fenfe of great heat, in coufequence of the fame irritation: there is ufually great thirft, aud fometimes a fe- vere head-ach, from the fympathy of the head with the ftomach. ‘lhe pulfe becomes {mall and frequent, and the heat of the fkin is increafed. A great degree of debility, languor, and faintnefs, amounting even to lyncope, {peedily comes on, in confequence of the fudden and copious evacua- tion of the fluids; fometimes attended with a colliquative fweat, coldnefs of the extremities, and fuch like fymp- toms,” Sydenham fays, “ as frighten the by-ftanders, and kill the patient in 24 hours.” Syd. feét. iv. chap. z. In this climate, however, though the powers of life are often fo rapidly reduced by an attack of cholera, as to excite con- fiderable alarm for the fafety of the patient, yet it feldom terminates fatally. Though both the pulfe and refpiration are hurried and irregular during the courfe of the difeafe, yet, it is remarked by Dr. Cullen, that there is no proper pyrexia, but merely a feverifhnefs from irritation, as thefe fymptoms are generally removed entirely by thofe remedies which quiet the {pafmodic affections attendant on the dif eafe. : It is fcarcely neceflary to point out the diagnofis of clio- lera, and the difeafes which bear fome refemblance to it, fince the difcherge of almolt pure bile by vomiting and ftcol, fimultaneoufly or alternately, is not obferved in any other difeafe. Vomiting and purging da, indecd, frequently oc- cur at the fame time, as after a furfcit, or taking a’ large quantity of indigeftible food, or from other caufes ; but the matter difcharged is not bilious. The praéi:ce, however, mutt be fimilar in both; the object being to get rid of an irritating matter from the inteftinal canal in both cafes, which, in the true cholera, is bile, in the other inftances a mafs of undigefted aliment. The true cholera occurs, in temperate climates, only dur- ing the hot feafon. Sydenham remarks, that it appears as certainly in the month of Augult, as fwallows in the early fpring, or cuckows at the approach of fummer ; and that it very feldom continues longer than the month in which it began. This obfervation, however, does not accord with the experience of the prefent times. Cholera is now feen perhaps more frequently in September than in Augult; and cafes occalionally occur, though it be not epidemical, con- fiderably earlierthan Auguft ; evenin Juneor May. Syden- ham feemed to confider the copious ufe of the fummer. fruits as the general caufe cf cholera; although the obferva- tion which he has made upon the fubject is inconfiltent with that CHO that notion. ‘ For though the fame caufes,” he remarks, ** wholly remain, fo that many fhould be feized with this difeafe, as wellin September as in Augult, by reafon of eating too much fruit, yet we fee the fame effet does not follow.”? Probably this notion, which is ftill adopted by many pra¢titioners, originated merely from the concurrence of the feafon of the difeafe, with that of the ripening of fruit. But when it is confidered that the hot feafon is alfo coin- cident; that in all hot countries the bilious fecretion is ufually increafed, and thus gives rife to this and fimilar dif- eafes ; that in this climate cholera attacks thofe who pro- cure much fruit, and thofe who are unable to procure it, in- difcriminately ; and that the diforder ceafed, even while the fruit remained abundant, according to Sydenham; there can remain little doubt that it is the heat of the atmofphere which produces cholera. Hence it is, that cholera is fome- times moft prevalent in Auguft, fometimes in September, according to the earlier or later occurrence of a high tempe- rature ; and that after a few hot days, even in May or June, a few cafes of the difeafe are fometimes obferved to enfue. It has been remarked, however, that, both in hot climates, and inthe hot feafons cf mild climates, occafional falls of rain have been particularly followed by an epidemic cholera. In fome cafes, indeed, it is probable that the heat of the feafon may give only a predifpofition, and that certain in- gefta, fudden change of temperature, or other caufes in this ftate, readily excite the difeafe. Hence various circum- {tances are’ enumerated by authors, as having produced cho- lera; fuch as cold drink, drallic purgatives, acids, fear, &c. But it is certain that the difeafe conftantly appears during a hot feafon, of fteady temperature, and often without any obvious change or error in tie diet or manner of life. In the cure of cholera, which conififts in the produdtion of a large quantity of bile by the liver, and its neceflary paflage through the alimentary canal, the experience of all ages wholly concurs. A fummary of this experience is given by Dr. Cullen in fuch confp:cuous terms, that we fhall prefer tranferibing it. “In the beginning of the difeafe the evacuation of the redyndant bile is to be favoured by the plentiful exhibition of mild diluents, both given by the mouth and injected by the arus; and all evacuant medicines, employed in cither way, are not only fuperfluous, but commonly hurtful. “© When the redundant bile appears to be fufliciently wafhed out, and even before that, if the {pafmodic affections of the alimentary canal become very violent, and are com- municated in a corfiderable degree to other parts of the body, or when a dangerous debility feems to be induced, the irritation is to be immediately obviated by opiates, in fufficiently large dofes, but in {mall bulk, and given either by the mouth or by glytter. “ Though the patient be in this manner relieved, it fre- quently happens, that when the operation of the opium is over, the difeafe fhews a tendency to return; and, for at leaft fome days after the firft attack, the irritability of the inteftines, and their difpofition to fail into painful {pafmodic contraétions, feem to continue. In this fituation, the repe- tition of the opiates, for perhaps feveral days, may come to be neceffary ; and as the debility commonly induced by the difeafe favours the difpofition to {pafmodic affections, it is often ufeful and neceflary, together with the opiates, to em- ploy the tonic powers of the Peruvian bark.”” Firft Lines, § 1462. Thus, by commencing the cure with the free ufe of di- Juents, we partly contribute to the expulfion of the bilious matter, and partly correct its acrimony. To employ eva- CHO cuants, as Sydenham quaintly obferves, is to increafe the difturbance, and, as it were, to endeavour to quench fire by oil ; and, on the other hand, to commence with opiates, is fhutting up the enemy in the bowels. Although this fimple and rational prattigeshas ftood the teft of experience from the earlicit date, yet other modes have been occafionally reforted to as auxiliary, or fuperfed- ing it. The Columbo-root has been employed, it is faid, with confiderable efficacy in the cure of cholera. Dr. Percival, {peaking of this root, fays, “inthe cholera morbus it al- leviates the violent tormina, checks the purging and vomit- ing, corrects the putrid tendency of the bile, quiets the in- ordinate motions of the bowels, and fpeedily recruits the ex- haufted ftrength of the patient.”” In confirmation of this, he adds, that an eminent furgeon, who, in 1756, had the care of an hofpital-fhip in the Ealt Indies, gave the Columbo-root in that climate (in the dofe of half a drachm or more), toa great number of patients, often twenty in a day, attacked with this difeafe. “ He feldom employed any means to promote the difcharge of the bile, or to cleanfe the ttomach and bowels, previous to its exhibition; and he generally found that it {oon {topped the vomiting, which was the moft fatal [ymptom, and that the purging and remaining complaints quickly yield- ed to the fame remedy. The mortality on board his fhip, after he ufed this medicine, was remarkably lefs than in the other fhips of the fame fleet.”? Percival’s Effays Med. and Exp. vol. ii. p.7. We have feen the Columbo-root re~ main on the ftomach, when almott every thing elfe was re- jected in this diforder; but we think aifo that we have obferved the mifchiefs fufpeéted by Sydenham from {top- ping the evacuation; the purging has aflumed the form of dyfentery. Dr. Douglas (fee Edin. Med. Effays, vol. v. part ii. p. 646.) recommends a fimple, but, he affirms, an effica- cious remedy, after the bile has been confiderably thrown off; namely, a decoGion of oat-bread, toafted as brown as coffee, but not burnt. A copious draught of this is ex- tremely powerful, he fays, in fettling the naufea and vomit- ing. If the patient is greatly exhaufted, he renders it more cordial by an admixture of wine. his, Dr. Douglas re- marks, is nearly the praétice of Celfus, who recom- mends, firlt, repeated draughts of warm water to clear the flomach, and a little after that, he advifes the patient to take wine and water mixed with polenta. Now this was, accord- ing to Pliny, barley, fried or toafted brown, and ground to powder ; it was an aftringent, and good for adiarrkceea. Dr. Dovglas fuppofes that wheaten bread, cr meal, treated in the fame manner, would anfwer every purpofe. The warm bath, or warm fomentations, have been ufed with advantage, when the {pafmodic affeétions of the bowels were fevere. And in other inftances cold drink has been given with beneficial effects. Dr. Cleghorn obferves, (Obf. on Difeafes of Minorca, p. 224.) * the Spanifh phyficians have often affured me, that they found nothing more bene- ficial in violent deplorable chojeras than drinking of cold water: which practice 1s recommended by many of the ancients.”’ ‘T'nus Aretzeus remarks, ‘¢ Sin autem omnia an- tiqua itercora dejecta fuerint, et biliofi humores tranfierint, biliofufque vomitus et diitentio adfit, faftidium, anxietas, virium labefatio, tunc frigide aque cyathi duo aut tres propinandi funt ad ventris altri€iionem, ut retrogradus hu- morum curfus cohibeatur, atque:{tomachus ardens refrige- retur ”? CHOLET, in Geography, a town of France, in the de~ partment of the Maine and Loire, and chief plece of a car- ton in the citriét of Beaupréau, 9 leagues 8.5, W. of An. gerg. cHo ets. The place contains 4709 and the canton 15,090 in- Fabiana’ the territory includes 347% kiliometres and 12 communes. N. lat. 47° 3’. W. long. 0° 59’. CHOLIMMA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, placed by Ptolemy in Greater Armenia, CHOLLE’,a town of Afia,in the Palmyrene. Ptolemy. —Alfo, a town of Africa, according to Appian. Cuore, Cape de la, in Geography, the moft prominent part of the coait, on the N.W. part of the ifland of Corlica, tetween the gulf of Fiorenzo to the S.E. and the harbour of Calvi to the S.W. CHOLLIDA, in Ancient Geography, a people of Greece, in Attica, belonging to the Leontide tribe. Steph. Byz. CHOLM, or Known, in Geography, a town of Ruff, in the government of Pfkof, feated on the river Lovat, and alfo one of the g diftricts included in this government ; 180 miles S. of Peterfburg. N. lat. 57°. E. long. Qala. CHOLMADARA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in the Comagene, feated on the right bank of the Euphrates, N.E. of Samofata and near it. CHOLMOGORI, or Kotmocort, in Geography, a town and diftri& of Ruffia in the government of Archangel, feated on the welt fide of the Dwina; 28 miles S. of Arch- angel. CHOLOBAPHIS, in Natural Hiflory, a name given by fome of the ancient Greeks to a peculiar kind of emerald which was inferior to many others, and was of a colour tend- ing to yellow. It is plain that the Romans called all the green cryftals found in copper-mines by the name of emeralds; for they exprefs in their defcriptions all the defe&ts we find in thele eryftals, fuch as their having hairs, or fubftances like hairs, within, as alfo falts, and the like. CHOLOBETANA, in Ancient Geography, a country of Afia, in Armenia. CHOLOE, an ancient town of Pontus Galaticus, in Cap- padocia. CHOLOMA, or Cuo tosis, fignifies, according to Ga- len, any diftortion of a. member or depravation of it with re- {pect to motion, It is taken alfo, in a particular fenfe, for chalting or lamenefs of a leg, ariling from luxation. CCHOLONG, in Geography, a town of Afia, in Thibet ; 57 miles N.N.W. of Chao-mahing- Hotun. CHOLTITZ, atown of Bohemia, in the circle of Chru- dim; 6 miles N. W. of Chrudim. CHOLUA, in sincient Geography, a town of Afia, in Greater Armenia. CHOLULA, in Geography, a ‘town of Mexico, ia the province of Tlafcala, which formerly formed an inde- pendent ttate. It was held by the people of Mexico as a facred {pot, and the fanétuary of the gods, with a temple, in which they offered more vitims than in that of Mexico: 5 leagues from Tlifcala. The treachery of the Cholulans was very feverely punifhed by Cortes, when he took poffef- fion of this place in 1519. ‘The Spaniards and Tlafcalans, under the direétion of their commander, fell upon the multi- tude, and filld the ftreets with bloodfhed and death. The temples which afforded a retreat to the priefts, and fome of tthe leading men, were fet on fire, and they perifhed in the flames. ‘This {cene of horror continued two days; during which, the wretched inhabitants fuffered all that the deftruc- tive rage of the Spaniards, or the implacable revenge of their Indian allies, could infliét. At length the carnage ceafed, after the flaughter of 6000 Cholulans, without the lofs of 2 CHO a fingle Spaniard. Cortes then releafed the magiftrates, whom he had previoufly feized, and reproaching them bit- terly for their intended treachery, declared, that as jutice was now appeafed, he forgave the offence, but required them to recal the citizens who had fled, and re-eftablihh order in the town. Barthol. de Jas Cafas fays, there was no occafion for this maffacre, and that it was an act of wanton cruelty, perpetrated merely to ftrike terror into the people of New Spain. But the zeal of Las Cafas often leads him to exag- gerate. On.the other hand Bern, Diaz aflerts that the firft miffionaries fent into New Spain by the emperor, made a judicial inquiry into this tranfaction ; and having examined the priefts and elders of Cholula, found that there was a real conlpiracy to cut off the Spaniards, and that the account given by Cortes was exactly true. However this be, the feverity of the punifhment was certainly exceflive and atro- cious. Robertfon’s Amer. vol. ii. CHOMA, in Ancient Geography, atown of Afia Minor in Lycia, according to Ptolemy ; which had been epifcopal— Alfo, the name of a place of Peloponnefus, in Arcadia, according to Paufanias. CHOMARA, a town of Afia, in Ba&triana. Prtol. CHOMASI, a people of Batriana, mentioned by Mela and Pliny. CHOMEL, James Francis, in Biography, born at Paris, towards the end of the 17th century, ftudied medicine at Montpellier, where he took his degree of dottor, in 1708. Returning to his native city, he foon fo far diltin- guifhed himfelf as to be appointed phyfician and counfellor to the king. The following year he publifhed, ‘* Univerfa Medicine Theorice pars prima, feu Phyfiologia, ad ufum fchole accommodata,’? 12mo.; and in 1734, ‘* Traite des Eaux Minerales, Bains et Douches de Vichi, 12mo.”? This work pafled through feveral editions. To that of the year 1738 the author added a preliminary difcourfe on mineral waters in general, with accounts of the principal of the me- dicinal waters found in France. His elder brother, Cuomet, Peter, Joun Barrisre, ftudied medicine at Paris, and was admitted to the degree of doGor there in 1697. Applying himfelf more particularly to the ftudy of botany, while making his co'le¢tion, he fent his obfervations to the Royal Academy of Sciences, who eleéted him one of their members. He was alfo chofen, in November 1738, dean of the faculty of medicine, and the following year, was re-elected but died in June 1740. Befides his ‘* Memoirs’” fent to the Academy of Sciences and his ‘‘ Defence of Tourne- fort,’ publifhed in the Journal des Savans, he publifhed « Abrege de |’Hiltoire des Plantes ufuelles,’’ Paris, 1712, tzino. This was, in the year 1715, increafed to two, and in 1730, to three volumes in 12mo., and is efteemed an ufeful manual. Cuomet, Joun Baptiste, Lewis, his fon, educated alfo at Paris, took his degree of do€tor in Medicine, in 1732. He was feveral years phylician in ordinary to the king, and in November 1754 was chofen dean of the faculty. He died in 1765. He publifhed in 1745, ** An Account of the Difeafe then epicemic among cattle,”’ and boats of great fuc- cefsin the cure, which was cffeed, he fays, by ufing fetons, imbued with white hellebore ; “ Differtation hiltorique, fur la Mal de Gorge Gangreneaux, quia regne parme les Enfans, en 1748: the malignant fore throat, firlt treated of in this country by Dr. Fothergil’, about ten years later than this period. Chomel recommends bleeding, vomiting, and blif- ters, and had then recourfe to cordials, ‘* Effai hiitorique fur la Medicine en France,” 12mo. 1762. He alfo wrote, © Vie de M. Morin,” and ** Eloge hiitorique de M. Louis Duret,’”? which ah. A we —— ey - A — cH.O which were publifhed in 1765. Eloy. Dig. Hift, Haller Bib. Bot. CHOMELIS, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Upper Loire; 43 leagues N. of Le Puy. CHOMER. See Corus. CHOMERACG, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Ardeche, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri€& of Privas; 3 miles S.E. of Privas. ‘The place contains 1566 and the canton 6423 inhabitants: the territory includes 110 kiliometres and g communes. CHOMONCHOUAN, a lake of Canada; 73 leagues N.W. of Quebec. N. lat. 49° 20’. W. long. 75° 40’. CHOMSK, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of Brzefe; 56 miles E. of Brzefe. CHONAD, a town of Hungary, feated on the Ma- rofch, the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of Colocza; 25 miles N. of Temefvar. CHONA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia Minor, in Phrygia. It had been epifcopal and metropolitan. CHONAS, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Here, and diftri€t.of Vienne; 13 miles S. of Vienne. CHOND, a town of Arabia; 190 miles S.W. of Amen- zirifdin, CHONDRILLA, in Botany, (Xov}piran, Diofcor.) Linn. Gen. gio. Schreb. 1235. Wiild. ryo5. Juil. 169. Vent. 2. 464. Gert.g13. Condnille ; Lam. Encyc. Clafs and order, Syngencfia polygamia equalis. Nat. ord, Compofite femiflo/cu- lofe, Linn. Cichoracea, Jull. Gen. Ch. Calyx common calycled, cylindrical; fcales of the cylinder numerous, parallel, lincar, equal; thofe of the bafe few, very fhort. Corolla compound uviform ; florets all ftrap-fhaped, linear, truncated, four or five-toothed ; herma- phrodite ones very numerous, in feveral ranks. Stam. Fila- ments five, capillary, very fhort; anthers forming a hollow cylinder. Pi/?. Germ fomewhat egg-fhaped ; ftyle filiform, the Icngth of the ftamens; ftigmas two, reflexed. Peric. none, except the permanent common ealyx. Seeds ovate, comprefled, muricated; down capillary. Rec. naked. Eff. Ch. Calyx calycled. Florets in many ranks. Seeds muricated ; down fimple. Sp. 1. C. juncea, Rufhy gum-fuccory. Linn. Sp. Pl. Gert. tab, 158. fig. 6. Jacq. Ault. 5. tab. 427. Bauh. pin. 130. (C. viminea; Bavh. hit. 2. ro21. fig. 1. Rai. hift. 223.) ‘ Root-leaves runcinate; ftem-leaves linear, entire.”’ Root perennial. Stem two or three feet high, branched, erect, hard, villous near the bottom, f{mooth and ftriated above. Flowers yellow, flender, like thofe of lettuce, folitary or in bunches, feffile or on fhort peduncles ; ftipes of the down long, attenuated above. A native of the fouthern parts of Europe, flowering in July and ripening its feeds in September. 2. C. crepioides, Murray Syft. Veg. 713. Mart. Lam. Willd. (C. juncea; Linn. Syft. Nat. 52.) ‘© Leaves arrow-fhaped, embracing the ftem ; ftem fimple; flowers nearly feffile, lateral.”” Root annual. Stem a foot and half high, ftriated, purple at the bafe, befprinkled with a few white briftles. Leaves relembling thofe of turritis, undi- vided, oblong, rough about the edge, and efpecially about the keel, with white hairs, glofly on the upper furface ; lower ones with {mall teeth. F¥oqwers yellow, purplith un- derneath, alternate, on a peduncle fcarcely longer than the calyx, with one or two brattes ; calyx ftriated, befet with black tubercles and a white briftle; calycle very fhort, with awl-fhaped permanent leaflets. It may perhaps be affoci- ated with the genus crepis. Native country unknown. Such is the defcription of this plant copied verbatim by all recent botanilts from the Syftema Nature of Linnzus, CHO where it unaccountably appears under the name of juncea to the total exclufion of the well-known original juncea of the Species Plantarum, No one fince Linnezus appears to have feen even a dried {pecimen; and as it is not known whence it came, or whither it is gone, it mutt furely be confidered as a vagabond of very dubious character. 3. C. nudicaulis, Lion. Mant. 2. Mart. Lam. Willd. (Laétuca nudicaulis ; Murr. in Comment. gott. 1772. tab. 4.) ‘* Stem nearly naked ; flowers panicled.’? Svems few, a foot high, pani- cled, ftraight, cylindrical, gloffy, furnifhed with a {mall leaf ortwo. Root-leaves runcinate, obtufe at the end, ciliated with fmall teeth. F/owers pale yellow ; calyx eight-leaved, glofly, imbricated below with a few caducous leaflets ; ray confifting of about twenty-four florets; dif compofed of ftyles refembling the florets in colour; down feffile. Seeds black. A native of the Eaft Indies, and not of North America or of Egypt, as Linneus fuppofed. Obf. La Marck has included in his chondrilla the whole Linnzan genus prenanthes, and has divided it into two fec- tions. 1. With florets in feveral ranks, comprehending the three preceding {pecies with the crepis pulchra of Linnzusg, which, he fays, cannot be a crepis, as its calycle confifts of clofe feales. 2. With florets in a fingle rank, the prenan- thes of Linneus. The only point at iffue is, therefore, whe- ther a difference in the number of ranks in the florets of the ray be fufficient to conftitute a generic character; for it is- evidently of no confequence whether the down be ftépitated or feffile. We fhall adhere to the Linnean diftribution. Sce PRENANTHES. Cuonpritva, ficula tragonopoides ; Bocc. Sic. See Scor- ZONERA refedifolia, Linn, Soncuus chrondrilloides, Willd.. Cuonnricva tingitana ; Herm. Lugbd. See Scorzone~ RA fingitana, Linn, Soncuus, Lam. Cuonpritra paluflris longifolia; Rai Supp. See Son- CHUS maritima. : Cuonpritva /utea; Bauh.hift. See Soncuus senuiffimus. CuHonpriLa vifcofa humilis ; Bauh. pin. See Lactuca Saligna. Cuonpritva caerulea latifolia, and cerulea altera; Bauh. pin. See Soncuus perennis. CHonpRILLA anguftifimo folios Jul. A&. 1709. See PRENANTHES ¢enuifolta. CHONDRILLA viminea vifcofa monfpeliaca ; Bauh. pin. and vifcofa caule foliis obdudlo. See PRENANTHES vViminea. CuonnriLva bulle/a ; Bauh.pin. altera, Diofcorides, Colphyt. pujilla marina, Lob. ic. See Lrontopon bul- lofum. Hieracium bulbofum, Willd. Cuonpritva hicracii folio annua; Tourn. See Creris pulchra, Linn, Prenanthes hieracifolia, Willd. CuHONDRILLA minima repens ; Shaw’s ‘Travels. NANTHES farmentofa. Curonprivea orientalis cichorit fylveftris- folio ; Tourn. See Prenaytues chryfanifolia. Curonpritta purpurafeens fetida ; Bauh. pin, Crepis fatida. Cuonpritia verrucaria; Bauh. pin. zacintha, Lion. Zacintha verrucofa, Gert. See Pre- See See Larsana Cuonpritia caerulea cyani capitulo; Bauh. pin. See CATANANCHE caerulea. Cuonpritia cyanoides lutea; Bocce. muf. Bar. ic. See CATANANCHE Juica Cuonpritea zeylanica; Burm, zeyl. See Cacaura /on- chifolia. Cuonpritta bulbofafyriaca; Bauh. pin. See Ericeron tuberofum. ‘ ; Cronpritra foliis anguflis ad oras pundatis ; Plum. Sp. See Pectis pundata. CuonDRILLaA cHo ‘Cuonpritra Soltis laciniatis ; Bauh. pin. REA crupina. Cuonprit_# fpecies elegans; Cluf. hift. See Crcnortum Spinofum. CHONDRILLA cretice nomine miffa ; Bauh. hift. See Tra- GopoGon picrioides, Linn. Arnopogon picrioides, Willd. CuHonpritia Species tertia; Dod. pomp. See Cata- NANCHE carulea. CHONDROGLOSSUS, in Anatomy, a name applied, by Albinus, and fome other anatomilts, toa few tibres of the hyogloffus mufcles which arife from the cornus minus of the os hyoides. See Toncve. CHONDROPTERYGII, in Jchthyology, the fixth, or laft order of fifhes, in the Linnzan fyftem. All fifhes that have the gills cartilaginous are comprehended under this order ; as acisenfer (turgeon), chimera /qualus (thark), priflis (faw-ffh), raja (vay), and petromyzon (lamprey). See article IcHTHYOLOGY. : The word is derived, by Artedi and others, from 3073p9s, a cartilage, and m7epuyiov, a wing cr fin, and may therefore be underftood as comprehending all fifhes that have a carti- laginous inftead of bony ficeleton. ‘The French term chon- dropterygiens applies precifely to this defcription of fifhes in the latter fenfe. CHONDROS, in Ancient Medical Writers, the fame as alica. It fignifies alfo fome grumous concretion, as of mattich, or frankincenfe. It is, befides, the Greek word for a cartilage. CHONDROSYNDESMUS, fignifies a cartileginous ligament. The word is derived from xov3z0s, a cartilage, and ouvdec pos, a ligament. CHONE, or Cuonts, in Ancient Geography, a town of the Oenotrians in Italy, the capital of a country of the fame name, near the territory of Crotona. CHONG, the name of a fpirituous liquor, fimilar to whiiky, extra€ted in Bootan from grain. It is flightly acid and {pirituous, and extemporaneoufly prepared by the infu- fion of a mafs of grain in a flate of fermentation. Capt. ‘Lurner, in his Embafly to Tibet (p. 24, &c.) has detailed the procefs employed in the preparation of it. Wheat, rice, barley. and other kinds of grain are indifcriminately made ufe of for this purpofe. To a given quantity of grain is added rather more water than wiil completely cover it, and the mixture is placed over a flow fire till it begins to boil ; itis then taken up, and the water drained from the grain, which is {pread abroad upon mats, or coaifecloths, to ccol. When it is cold, a ball cf the compofition, here called ‘* Bakka,” (which is the bloffom of the Cacalia faracenica Linnzi, col- kc€ted and rolled together in {mall balls), is crumbled, end ftrewed over the grain, and both are well mixed together. The ufual proportion is a bali of the fize of a nutmeg to two pounds of grain. The grain thus prepared is put ito bafkets lined with leaves, and preffed down with the hasd flightly, to draw off the fuperfluous moifture. It is then covered with leaves and cloths, to defend it from the exter- nal air, and put ina place of moderate warmth, where it is fuffered to ftand three days. It is afterwards depofited in dry earthen jars; a little cold water is {prinkled upon the top in the proportion of about a tea-cup full to a gallon of grain; the veffel is then covered clofe, and the cafe fortified with fome ftrong compoft, or ftiff clay. It remains thus at lealt 10 days, beforeitis fit for ufe; and, if it be fuffered to con- tinue longer, it always improves by age. To make the chong, when required, they puta quantity of the fermented mafs into fome capacious veflel, pouring boil- ing water upon it, fufficient completely to cover it, and dtirring the whole well together. A fhort time is fufficient See Centrau- CHO for it to digeft; a {mall wicker bafket is then thruft down in the centre, and the infufion, called Chong, immediately drains through, and occupies the vacant {pace. This liquor is, at entertainments, expeditioufly diftributed to the gueits ; the fegment of a gourd, faftened upon a ftaff, ferving the purpofe of a ladle. Each perfon holds a fhallow wooden cup upon the points of his fingers, for its reception, and is feldom fatisied with one fupply. This liquor, which is flightly acid, and without any powerful fpiric, furnifhes a grateful beverage; and it is ufually drank warm. From chong an ardent fpirit is obtained by diftillation ; this {pirit is denominated “ Arra;”’ it is fiery, and powerfully ine- briating. CHONG-TCHEOU, in Geography, atown of Afia, in the kingdom of Corea; 25 miles S.W. of Ou-tcheou. CHONNAMAGARA, cr Cuonxnasarara, in Ancient Geography, a town of India, on this fide of the Ganges. Ptolemy. CHONOS. gulfof, in Geography, or the archipelago of Guay- tecas, lies towards the fouthern extremity of the continent of Chili, in the fouthern Pacific Ocean. ‘The moft remarkable ifland in it is that of Chiloe, which fee. The iflands, called Chonos, are inhabited by Indians, who ufe the falted flefh of the fpecies of feal, called the fea-wolf, as common food. To the fouth of Chiloé and the archipelago of Chonos is the peninfula of the three mountains, followed by three confider- able iflands, that of Campana, lat. 48° to 49° 20’, explored by Malefperia; that of Madre de Dios; and that of Str. Francis, by fome called Roca-Partida. The rigour of the climate renders thefe iflands of little importance. CHOOK-TCHOO, in Geography, one of the Ladrone iflands, under the lee of which the thips of the embafly to China came to anchor, in 12 fathoms water, on a muddy bottom. N. lat. 21° 55’. E. long. 113° 44’. See La- DRONES. CHOOZ, a town of France, in the department of the Ardennes, and diftri€&t of Rocroy. CHOP-CHURCH, or Cuurcu-cuoprer, in Law, a name, or rather nick-name, given to parfons, who make a practice of exchanging benefices. Chop-church occurs in an ancient ftatute of King Henry VI., as a lawful trade, or occupation; and fome of the judges fay, it was a good addition. Brook holds, that it was no occupation, but oniy a thing permiffible by law. CHOPER, or Kuoper, in Geography, a river of Afiatic Ruffia, which runs into the Don, near Choperfkaia. CHOPERSK, or Kuopersx, formerly Navokhoper/e, a town of Afiatic Ruffia, in the government of Saratoff, feated on the Choper; and one of the 11 diftri&s of the government : 140 miles W. of Saratof, and 638 S S.E. of Peteriburg. CHOPERSKATA, a town of Ruffian Tartary, in the country of the Coflacs, on the Don: 191 miles N.E. of Afoph, and 60 fouth weit of Archadinfkaia. CHOPIN, René, in Biography, an eminent French law- yer, born in Anjou, 1n 1537. He was fera confiderable time a pleader before the parliament of Paris, and at length re- tired, when he was confulted in every difficult cafe in the law. He publifhed many works, which have been colleéted in fix volumes folio. His Latin flyle is conciHfe, but often obfcure. The bett of his produdtions was on the ‘* Cuftom of Anjou,” on account of which the city of Angers granted him the honours and title of fhermff of their city. In the year 1594 he was fentenced to bamfhment for his adherence to the league, but the fentence was not executed on him,- The day on which Henry IV. entered Paris, Chopin’s wife went mad through party rage. He commonly itudied lying 8 on GS H-9 on the ground with his books about him. He was afliSted with the ftone, and died under an operation in 166. CHOPIN, or Cuopine, a French and Scotch liquid meafure, containing half their pint. CHOPS, The, in Geography. See Swan Ifland. CHOPTANK, a large navigable river of America, on the eaftern fhore of Maryland, which difcharges itfelf into Chefapeak bay. CHOQUE-Bay, lies on the W. fide of the ifland of St. Lucia, between Gros Iflet bay on the N. and Carenage bay to the S. CHORA, in Ancient Geography, a place of Thrace on the Euxine fea, at a {mall diflance N.E. of Mauron-Tichos and near Ganos.—Alfo, a place of Gaul, on a river of the fame name, (la Cure) betwen Avalon and Auxerre. The abbé le Beuf fuppofed it to be Crevant: but M. d’?Anville places it on the confines of the diocefe of Auxerre, on the fide of Autun, in the fituation of a farm which now bears this name. Sanfon has coyfounded it with Corbeil. It is mentioned in the Notitia Imperit in the following terms: “ prefectus Sarmatorum gentilium a Chora Parifios ufque.”” - CHORAGIUM, in Antiquity, was ufed to denote the funeral of a young unmarried woman. Some think it fhould be written coragium, from xogn, puellay and eyo, duco. But Pitifcus choofes rather to derive it from chorus ; becaufe a chorus or company of virgins always at- tended fuch funerals. Cuoracium fignifed afo the tiring or dreffing-room belonging to the flage; and fometimes was taken for the drefs itfelf. CHORAGUS, in Antiquity, he who had the fuperin- tendance of the chorus, whofe bufinefs it was to take care they obferved the rules of the mufic, and performed their parts with decorum. It was the province of the mafter of the chorus, in the abfence of the poet, to exercife the actors for a long time before the reprefentation of the piece. He beat the mea- fure with his feet, bis hands, or by other means which might give the movement to the performers in the chorus, who were attentive to his geftures. It was alfo his duty, not only to guide the voices of thofe who were under his dire€tion ; but he gave them leffons in the two kinds of dances which were adapted to the theatre. See Dance. Choragi were likewife certain Athenian citizens chofen annually, who were obliged to be at the expence of players, fingers, dancers, and mutficians, as often as there was occafion, at the celebration of their public feftivals on occalion of the greater Dionyfia, or feftivals of Bacchus, which were celebrated with extraordinary magnificence, when tragedies and comedies were exhibited in the theatre; and hymns in honour of Bacchus, accompanied with flutes, were chaunted by the chorus in the Odeum. Each of the ten Athenian tribes appointed a choragus to lead his chorus, who was to be at leaft 40 years of age, and whofe province it was to choofe the performance and to prepare them for the exhibition by previous inftru€tion. With this view the cho- ragus for fome months previous to the feftivals took the per- formers, that they might be duly inftruted, into bis houfe, and provided for their fupport ; fo that it was an office of great expence, Ar the feftival he appeared, as well as his follow- ers, with a gilt crown, and a magnificent robe. Thefe funétiona, confecrated by religion, were fill farther ennobled by the example of Ariflides, Epaminondas, and the greateft men, who deemed it an honour to difcharge them; but they were fo expenfive, that many citizens declined the dangerous honour of facrificing part of their fortunes to the precarious hope of rifing by this means, to the firlt offj- | Vor. VII. CHO ces of maciftracy, Sometimes a tribe was unable to finda choragus ; and in this cafe the itate took upon itfelf the ex- pence, ordered two citizens conjoiatly to fupport the bur- then, or permitted the choragus of one tribe to conduét the chorusofanother. When the feltival drew near, an emulous contention arofe among the choragi, which fometimes pro- ceeded to great violence, each ftriving to excel his com- petitors; and even intrigues ard corruption were fometimes employed in order to obtain the victory. Judges were ap- pointed to decree the prize, which fometimes was a tripod carefully confecrated by the victorious tribe, either ina temple, or in an edifice ereéted on the occafion. ‘The peo- ple waited the decifion of the contelt with the fame anxiety and the fame tumult, as if their mof important intereils were the objeéts of difcuflion. The glory refulting from the victory was fhared between the triumphant chorus, the tribe to which it belonged, the choragus who was at its head, and the mafters who, under his direGtion, had given the preparatory leffons. During the feitivals the laws de- clared the perfons of the choragi and the a¢tors inviolable. To the expence that preceded the conteft, were added the difburfements that followed the vidtory ; there {ti!l remained for the choragus the charge of dedicating the tripod he had won, and probably of erc¢ting a little edifice, or temple, in which it was to be placed. The tripod, thus won and pres ferved, and dedicated, became a family honour, and was appealed to as-an authentic teftimony of the merit and virtue of the perfon who obtained it. he choragic temples and tripods were numerous at Athens. CHORAIC mujfic, a fort of mufic proper for dancing, by the varicty of its different motions. CHORAL, fignifies any perfon that, by virtue of any of the orders of the clergy, was in ancient times admitted to fit and ferve God in the choir. Dugdale in his Hiftory of St. Paul’s Church, fays, that there were with the chorus formerly fix vicars choral belong- ing to that church. Cuorat fervice, The difference between cathedral or choral fervice and parochial, confitts in the choir of cathedrals chanting the pfalms, accompanied by the organ, in 4 parts, antiphonally, inftead of the minifter and the clerk and con gregation, asin parifh churches, reading them verfe for verfe without mufic. The refponfes are chanted in cathedrals, andthe Ze Deum, Fubilate, Magnificat, and Nune dimittis, ave either chanted like the pfalms, or fung to meafured and elas borate mufic, under the title of Choral Service. See Cas THEDRAL Service, Choral Service and Cuaret Effa- blifkiment. CHORAMNEL, in Ancient Geography, a favage people of Afia, in Perfia, who, according to a pailage of Ctefias, cited by Steph. Byz., ran fo {wiftly that they were able to overtake a flag. CHORAN-KIAMEN, in Geography, a port of Chinefe Tartary ; 20 miles W.S.W. of Nimgouta. CHORASAN. See Korasan. CHORASMEL, in Ancient Geography, a people men- tioned by Athenzus and placed in Afia. They occupied the territory to the north and eaft of Parthia, and extended themfelves, according toPtolemy, to Sogdiana. Accordingly they were found in the vicinity of the river Aces, and of the plain through which this river flowed. They chiefly inha- bited the mountains, and, according to Strabo, they were not very remote from the Baétrians and Sogdians. CHORASMENI, a people of Afia, mentioned by Ars rian, who’ places them in the neighbourhood of the country of the Amazons and of the Colchide territory. CHORASMIA, a country of Afia, in Sogdiana, ac- 4Z cording CHO cording to Ptolemy, whofe fituation he affigns near to that of the Maflagete —Alfo, a town of Afia, E. of the Par- thians. Steph. Byz. CHORAULES, Lat. A minftrel. CHORAULISTRIA, Lat. A female minftrel. CHORAZTIN, in Ancient Geography, a town of Paleftine, in Galilee, which our bleffed Lord deplores for increduitty, (Matth. xii. 22.) Dr. Lightfoot expreffes his furprize how {uch a woe fhouldbe denounced againit it, when we donot read, inthe whole New Teftament, that our Lord had ever beenthere ; however we read that he had frequently been at Bethfaida and Capernaum. Now, Chorazin being placed by Dr. Light- foot between thefe two towns, and being, according to St. Jerome, but two mies diftant from Capernaum, and in many maps ata [mall diftance from Bethfaida, and it being ex- prefsly faid ‘* that mighty works were done in her,’”? Chrilt mutt, without doubt, have been often there. CHORD, or Corp, primarily denotes a flender rope or cordage. ‘The word is formed of chorda, and that from open, agut ; whereof ftrings may be made. Cuorp, Cuorpa, in Anatomy. See CHorpa. Cuorp, Cuorna, in Geometry, a right line connecting the two extremes of an arc. Or, it is a right line, termt- nated at each extreme in the circumference of acircle, with- out paffing through the centre ; and dividing the circle into two unequal parts, called fegments. Such is the line AL, Plate 111. Geometry, fig. 43+ Cuorp of the complement of an arc is the chord that fub- tends the reft of the arc; or fo much as makes upthe arc a femicircle. P The chord is perpendicular to a line drawn from the cen- tre of the circle to the middle of the arc, as CE; and has the fame difpofition to it, as the chord, or fring of a bow, has to the arrow: which occafioned the ancient geometri- cians to call this line the chord of the are, and the other the fagitta, or arrow, the former of which names is {till conti- nued, though the latter is difufed. What the’ancients called fagitta, is now termed the verfed fine. Half the chord of the double are BD, is what we now call the right fine; and the excefs of the radius beyond the chord DE, the verfed fine. The chord of anangle, and the chord of its complement to a whole circle, are the fame thing ; the chord of fifty de- grees is alfo the chord of 310. f It is demonttrated, in geometry, that the radius CE, bi- feéting the chord BA in D, docs alfo bifeét the arc in FE, and is perpendicular to the chord AB, and vice verfa: and again, if the right line NE bifeét the chord AB, and be perpendicular to it; that it pafles through the centre, and does bifeét both the arch AEB, and the circle ANB. Hence we derive feveral ufeful corollaries: as, 1. To di- vide a given'are AB into two equal parts ; draw a perpen- dicular to the middle point D ot the chord AB; this bifects the given arc AB. 2. To defcribe a circle, that fhall pafs through any three points, A, B,C, fig. 44. From A and C deferibe arcs in- terfeGing in D and E.; and alfo others, Gand H, from C and B: draw the right lines DE and GH;; the point of in- terfeGion I, is the’ centre of the circle to be defcribed through A, B, and C. Demonfiration. For the points A, B, and C, are in the periphery of fome circle; and therefore the lines ACC and CB are chords, but ED is perpendicular to AC, and GH to BC; ED bife@s AC, and GH bifectts BC; whereof each paffes through the centre. Now as DE and GH only interfe&t in I; I will be the centre of a circle, paffing through the given points, A, C, and B. Hence, CHO affuming three points in the periphery, or arc, of any circle, the centre may be found, and the given arc completed : hence, alfo, if three points of one periphery do agree or coincide with three points of another; the whole periphe- ries agree, and therefore the circles are equal. And hence, lattly, every triangle may be infcribed in acircle. The chord of an are AB (fig. 43-) and the radius CE, being given; to find the chord of the half-arc AE. From the fquare of the radius CE, fubtra& the fquare of half the given chord AD, the remainder is the fquare of DC; from which, extraét the fquare root; and then DC fub- tracted from’ the radius EC, leaves DE. Add the {quares of AD, and EO; the fum is the fquare of AE: whence, the root being extra&ted, we have the chord of the half-are A FE. Cuorps, fine of, is one of the lines of the feétor and plain {cale. See its defcription and ufe under Secror and Prain Scare. See alfo Sine. Cuorps, or Corns, in M:%c, denote the ftrings, or lines, by whofe vibrations the fenfation of found is excited ; and by whofe divifions the feveral degrees of tune are de- termined. They are called cords, or chords, from the Greek xopdn, a name which the phylicians give to the inteftines ; in regard the ftrings of mufical inftruments are ordinarily made of guts: though others are made of brafs or iron wire ; as thofe of f{pinets, harpfichords, &c. See STRING. Chords of gold wire in harpfichords, yield a found almoft twice as {trang as thofe of brafs; chords, or ftrings, of fteel, yield a feebler found than thofe of brafs ; as being both lefs heavy, and Icfs ductile. Mr. Perrault obferves, that of late they have invented a way of changing the chords, to render the found ftronger, without altering the tone. The fixth chord of bafs viols, and the tenth of large the- orbos, confilt of fifty threads, or guts; there are fome of them a hundred, feet long twifted and polifhed with equife- tum, or horfe-tail. Cuorps, for the divifion of, fo as to conflitute any given in- terval, the rules are as follow: 1. To ajfign fuch part of a chord A B, as /hail conflitute any concord, v. g.a fifth, or any other interval, with the whole. Divide AB into as many parts, as the greateft number of the interval has units; v.g. the fifth being 2 : 3, the line is di- c vided into 3. Of thefe takheas A—— | —— |——B many of the leffer number, v. g. I pS 2=AC; then is AC the part fought; that is, two lines, whofe lengths are to each other as A Bto AC, make a fifth. Hence, if it be required to find feveral different fetions — of theline AB, v.g. fuch as fhall be Sve, fifth, and 3d g: reduce the given ratios 1: 2, 2:3, and 4: 5, to one fun- ) damental ; the feries becomes 30, 24, 20:15. The fun- damental is 30, and the feGtions fought are 24, the third g;5 20, the fifth ; and 15, the octave. 2. Fo find feveral fedions of a line AB, that from the leaf, ~ gradually to the whole, fall contain a given feries of iutervals . in any given order; viz. fo that the leait to the next greater contains a third g; that to the next greater, a fifth; and that to the whole, an odtave. Reduce the three ratios 4 : 5,2: 3,1: 2, to one feries;_ hence we have 8: 10: 15 : 30: divide the line § 10 5 30 into the number of parts ©A—— | —| ——]|——B of the greateit extreme co E of the feries ; viz. 30, we have the {ection fought at the points of divifion, an- {wering C-H OR DS. fwering to the feveral numbers of the feries, viz. at the points C, D, and E; fo that AC to AD isa third, A D to AE a fifth, and A E to A B o@tave. 3- To divide a line AB into two parts, to contain betevixt them any interval, v. g. a fourth. Add together the numbers containing the ratio of the in- terval, v.g. 3:4; and the line divided into as many parts as the {um contains, 4 7 v.g. 7; taken to any of the given numbers, v.g. 4, or C, gives the thing fought. 4. For the harmonical divifion of Cuorns. To find teva Sections of a line, which with the whole fall be in harmonical proportion, with regard to their quantity. Take any three numbers in harmovical proportion, as 3, 4, 6; and divide the whole line into as many parts as the greatelt of thefe three numbers, v. g. 6; and at the points of divifion anfwering to the other two numbers, v. g. 3 and 4, you have the fections fought. 5. To findiwo feGions of a line, which together with the whole all be harmonical, with refpeG to quality or tune. Take any three numbers, concords with each other, v. g. 2, 3, and 8, and divide the line by the greateft; the points of divition anfwering to the other two, give the feétions fought. 6. To divide a Cuorn, AB, in the mof fimple manner, fo as to exhibit all the original concords. Divide the line into two equal parts at C, and fubdivide the part C B into two equal parts at D; and again, the part C D into two equal parts at E. Here AC to A Bis anoG@ave; ACto AD a fifth; AD toA Ba fourth; AC toA LE athirdg: AE toADa third7/; AE to E Ba fixthg; and A Eto A Ba tixth / Malcolm’s Treat. of Mufic, ch. 6. feét. 1, 2, 3. ‘To find the number of vibrations made by a mufical.chord or ftring, in a given time, its weight, length, and tenfion being given. Before we proceed to the folution of this problem, we fhall premife and demonftrate the principle on which it is founded ; and, with this view, we fhall adopt the method of demonttration prefented to the Royal’ Society by Dr. B. Taylor, and publifhed in the Philofophical Tranfa¢tions, N° 337; or Jones’s Abr. vol. iv. p. 391. Lemma ty. Let ADF B, A A OB, (Plate III. Geometry, Jig. 45.) be two curves, the relation of which is fuch, that the ordinates CAD, EOF, being drawn, it may be CA: CD::E®:EF. Then the ordinates being diminifhed ad infinitum, fo that the curves may coincide with the axis AB; the ultimate ratio of the curvature in A will be to the curvature in D, as CA to CD. Demonft. Draw the ordinate ¢dd very near to C D, and at D and A draw the tangents D¢ and A §, meeting the or- dinate cd int and 9. Thenbecaufeofcd:cd::CA:CD (by hypothefis),.the tangents being produced will mect one another, and the axis, in the fame point P. Whence, becaufe of fimilar triangles CD P and c¢ P, CAP and cP, it will be c8:c#:: CO :CD::¢8:c¢d (by hypoth.) :: 89: (c§—c8):dt(ct—cd). But the curvatures in A and D are as the angles of contaé&t 9 A 3 and ¢ D d; and be- caufe 3A and dD coinciding with cC, thofe angles are as their fubtenfes 36, d¢; that is, by the proportion above, as CA,CD. Therefore, &. Q.E.D. Lemma 2. In fome inttant of its vibration, let a ftring, firetched between the points A and B, fg. 46. put on the C ED A——|—|—|—B form of any curve Afx B; then the increment of the velo- city of any point 0, or the acceleration arifing from the force of the tenfion of the ftring, is a8 the curvature of the {tring in the fame point. Demonf?. Conceive the ftring to confift of equal rigid par- ticles, which are infinitely little, as 0, ox, &c. and at the point o ereét a perpendicular » R, equal to the radius of the curvature at 0, which let the tangents pt, x4, mect in ¢, the parallels to them ws, fs, in s, the chord p = inc. Then by the princ!ples of mechanics, the abfolute force by which the two particles po and ox are urged towards R, will be to the force of tenfion of the ftring, as s¢totp; and halt this force by which one particle fo is urged, will be to the tenfion of the ftring, asc¢to ¢p3 that is (becaufe of fimilar triangles ctp, tpR) astporopto Rt, oroR. Wherefore, becaufle of the force of tenfion being yiven, the abfolute accelerating op force will be as R But the acceleration generated is in a 0 compound ratio ot the ratios of the abfolute force direG@ly, and of the matter to be moved inverfely ; and the matter to_ be moved is the particle itfelf op. Wherefore the accelera- 4 5 it : . tion is as ——; that is, as the curvature in o. For the cur~ oR vature 1s reciprocally as the radius of curvature in that point. Q: ED: : Prob. 1. To determine the motion of a ftretched ftring. In this and the following problem, we fuppofe the ftring to move from the axis of motion through an indefinitely little fpace; that the increment of tenfion from the increafe of the length, alfo the obliquity of the radii of curvature, may fafely be neglected. Therefore let the ftring be ftretched between the points A and B, fg. 47. and with a bow let the point be drawn to the diftance Cx. fromthe axis AB, Then taking away the bow, becaufe of the flexure in the point C alone, that will firft begin to move (by Lem.2.). But no fooner will the ftring be bent in the neareft points ¢ and d, but thefe points alfo will begin to move; and then E and e; and fo on, Alfo becaufe of the great flexure in C, that point will firft move very fwiftly ; and hence the curvature being in- creafed in the next points D, E, &c. they willimmediately be accelerated more {wif:ly , and at the fame time the curvature in C being diminifhed, that point in its turn will be accele- rated more flowly. And, in general, thofe points which are flower than they fhould be, being accelerated more, and the quicker lefs, it will be brought about at laft, that the forces being duly attempered one with another, all the motions will confpire together, and all the points will at the fame time approach to the axis, going and returning alter- nately, ad infinitum. Now, that this may be done, the ftring muft always put on the form of the curve ACD EB, the curvature of which, in any point E, is as the diftance of the fame E» from the axis ; the velocities of the points C, D, E, &c. be- - ing alfo in the ratio of the diftances from the axis Cz, D3, En, &c. For in this cafe the fpaces Cx, D3, Ex, &c. defcribed in the fame infinitely little time, will be as the velocities ; that is, as the {paces defcribed Cz, D3, &c. Wherefore the remaining {paces xz, 33, en, &c. will be to each other in the fame ratio. Alfo (by Lem. 2.) the accelerations will be to one another in the fame ratio. By which means the ratio of the velocities always continuing the fame with the ratio of the {paces to be defcribed, al] the points will arrive at the axis at the fame time, and always depart from it at the fame time, And therefore the curve ACDEB will be rightly determined. Q.E.D. 4Z2 Moreover CHORDS, Moreover the two curves ACDEB and AxdeB, being compared together, by Lemma, the curvatures in D and 3 will be as the diltances from the axis DS and 33; and therefore, by Lemma 2. the acceleration of any given point in the {tring will be as its diftance from the axis. Whence (by Se&. 10. Prop. 51. of Newton’s Principia), all the vibrations, both great and fmall, will be performed in the fame periodical time, and the motion of any point will be fimilax to the ofcillation of a body vibrating in a cy- cloid,. .QUE ds ' Cor. Curvatures are reciprocally as the radii of circles of the fame degree of curvature. Therefore let a be a given line, and the radius of curvature in E will be equal to aa Prob. 2. The length and weight of a ftring being given, together with the weight that ftretches the ftring, to find the time of a fingle vibration. Let the ftring be ftretched between the points A and B, Jig. 48. by the force of the weight P, and let the weight of the ttring itfelf be N, andits length L. Alfo let the ftring be put in the pofition A F 4 C B, and at the middle point C, let CS, a perpendicular, be raifed, equal io the radius of the curvature in C, and meeting the axis AB in D; and taking a point p near to C, draw the perpendicular ¢ and the tan- gent pt. Therefore it appears, asin Lemma 2, that the abfolute force by which the particle pC is accelerated, is to the force of the weight P, ascttop?; thatis,aspCtoCS. But the weight P is to the weight of the particle p C, in a ratio compounded of the ratios of P to N, and of N to the weight of the pare ticle pC, or of L to pC; thatis, as PaxplsitoyNex (pC, Therefore, compounding thefe ratios, the accelerating force is to the force of gravity, as P x LtoNx CS. Let therefore a pendulum be conftru&ed, whofe length is CD; then (by fect. x. prop, 52. of Newton’s Principia) the pe- riodical time of the ftring will-be to the periodical time of that pendulum as /N x CSto “Px L, Butbythe fame propofition, the force of gravity being given, the lon- gitudes of the pendula are ina duplicate ratio of the periodical Whence NixyC ine x7€ D PUG CS (by Cor. Prob. i.) was will be the length of a pendulum, the vibrations of which are ifochronous to the vibrations of the ftring. To find the line a, let the abfcifs of the curve be AE == z, and the ordinate EF = x, and the curve itfelf AF =v, and CD=4. Then (by Cor. Prob.1.) the : é 3 aa Rae Pare radius of curvature is F will be —. But v being given, ma . Ree Nau times. ? or writing G5 for Dx aa vx —. Whence — — 7 z “x 2% 3 and taking the fuents zaz = the radius of curvature is x and therefore gaz = yx? oy ag ; ‘ : 0 ge va’. Here the given quantity — — + # a’ is added, that it may be & = win the middle point C. And hence the calculus being completed, it will be 2 = 22 xoyap Fire aQx= x He x 2 zien So » Now letéand Vf a? bm @ xt mm Ext — Fh 4 4B x? x» vanith in repfe& to a, that the curve may coincide with the ax WV bb x x. centre C, and radius DC = 4, fig.49, a quadrant of a axis, and it willbe g = Now, with the circle D P E being deferibed, and making CQ = y, and erecting the perpendicular QP; then the arc D P being bi a bx b, = y, it willbe 7 = Vue Whence y = he, and z = a And making x = 5 = CD, in which cafe it is alfo y = quadrantal arc DPE, tookts E andz =AD= zL; it willbe ZL =a x cD =Lx — Let it be therefore C D:2DE :: dias meter of a circle : circumference :: d: c; and it will be aq dd = i=: ce ,and 2 Therefore this value being fubftituted for aa N x Lx 2 will be the length of a pendulum, ce P which will be ifochronous to the ftring, ‘Therefore let D be the length, whofe periodical time is 1, and-S \ c will be the periodical time of the fring. Op) Df For the periodical times of pendulums are as the {quare roots of their lengths. Cor.1. The number of vibrations of the fring in P*D the time of one vibration of the pendulum D, is Tatars NIA SI: Becaufe 4 x \/ 5 is given, the periodical time of the ftring is as af = x L. And the weight P being given, the time is a3 “ N x L. And the ftrings being made of the fame thread, in which cafe it is Nas L, the time will be as L. If we take L for the number of inches and decimals con« tained in the length of the chord, and the proportion of the tenfion to the weight of the chord as n to 1, then will the number of vibrations of the chord in one fecond be (by Cor 1.) er wh ue * portion of the circumference to the diameter of the circle ; and 39.12 the length of a pendulum vibrating feconds, in inches and decimals of an inch, Englifh meafure, This lait expreffion coincides with Mr, Enler’s rule (Tentam: Nov, Theor. Muf. p. 6, 7.), only we here exprefs in Englifh what he gives in Rhinland meafure, To illuftrate this rule by an example: fuppofe the length of the chord to be i8.7 inches, its weight 64 grains, and the tenfion or weight extending this chord to be 8lb. troy, or 45080 grains. Then L = 608 set 7432. The number of vibrations 6.2 therefore by the rule will be = \/ eT Ie = 391.4. See Taylor’s Method. Increm. Prop,29. Mac» laurin’s Fluxions, § 929. Smith’s Harmonics, Prop. 23 and 24. Malcolm’s Mulic, ch, ii. § 2. - Where 2 denotes the pro- 18.7, and 2 = : + W By logarithms the rule may be thus exprefied = ‘ C= V. Where L is the logarithm of the ratio of a pen- dulum, vibrating feconds, to the length of the given {tring ; W the logarithm of the ratio of the tenfion to the weight of the ftring ; C the logarithm of the ratie of the circum. ferenca CHO ference of a circle to its diameter, or 0.4972500 ; and laftly, V = logarithm of the required number of vibrations in one fecond. From what has been above laid down, we may ealily de- duce the following particulars relative to flretched chords or ftrings. (See Cavallo’s Philofophy, vol. ii.) 1, Ifa ttretched cylindrical chord be ftruck, and then be left to vibrate by itfelf, it will perform its vibrations, whether large or narrow, in equal times, and, of ceurfe, the found, though decaying gciadually, yet continues in the fame pitch ; excepting, however, when the ftring is {truck vielently ; for in that cafe its found is al ttle higher at firtt, viz. its vibra- tions are a little more frequent.at firft. 2. If various flrings be equally ftretched, and be of the fame fubftance; or, in thort, if they be equal in every refpedt, excepting in their lengths; then the duration of a fingle vibration of each ftring will be as the length of the ftring ; or (which is the fame thing) the number of vibrations per- formed by each {tring ina given time will be inverfely as the length ; for inftance, ifa {tring be four feet long, and another ftring, ceteris paribus, be one foot long ; then the latter will vibrate four times whillt the former vibrates once. Or if the length of the former be to that of the latter as 10 to 3; then the vibrations performed by the latter will be to thofe that are performed by the former, as 3 to 10; and fo on. Alfo, the fame thing muft be underftood of the parts of the fame ftring ; for inftance, if a cercain flring perform § vibra- tions in a fecond ; then, if that {tring be ftopped inthe mid- dle, and one half of it only be caufed to found, then that half will perform 16 vibrations in a fecond.—One-third part of the fame fring will perform 24 vibrations in a fecond; and fo on. The length of the ftring is reckoned from one bridge to the other, or from one refting place to the other. The ten- fion of the ftring is meafured by the weight which is ful- pended to one end of it. If initead of ftretching a ftring by fufpending a weight to it, the {tring be twilted rownd & peg, after the manner commonly ufed in matical in- ftruments, then the tenfion {till mutt be exprefled by a weight; meaning a weight which may be capable of ftretching the ftring a8 much as it is ftretched by turning the peg. 3» If various chords differ in tenfion only ; then the num- ber of vibrations which each of them performs in a given time, is as the {quare root of the ftretching weight. Thus, if a chord be ftretched by a weight of 16 pounds, and an- other chord be ftretched by a weight of 9 pounds; then the former will perform 4 vibrations in the fame time that the latter performs 3 vibrations. 4. If cylindrical chords differ in thicknefs only ; then the oumber of vibrations which they perform will be inverfely as the diameters, viz. if the diameter of a chord be equal to twice the diameter of another chord ; then the former will perform one vibration in the fame time that the latter per- forms two vibrations. é By a proper adjuftment of the lengths, thicknefles, and ftretching weights, diflimilar chords may be caufed to perform any required number of vibrations; which is evi- dently derived from the preceding paragraphe. 6, The a&ual number of vibrations, which are performed by a given ftretched cord, may be determined, without any great error, by ufing the following rule; provided the length and weight of the vibrating part of the chord, and likewife the ftretching weight be Liisi Riles Multiply the itretching weight by 39.12 inches (which is nearly the length of the pendulum that vibrates feconds), Alfo multiply the weight of the chord by its lengthin inches; divide the firlt © CHO produ& by the fecond; extract the fquare root of the quotient ; multiply this fquare root by g.1416, and this laft product is the number of vibrations that are performed in one fecond of time by the given chord.—Thhe refiftance of the air, as alfo fome other fluétuating caufes of obftru€tion, not being noticed in this rule; it is moft probable that the real vibra~ tions are not quite fo numerousas they are given by the rule. The pitch in mufic is denoted by the number of vibrations that are performed in a given time, or by the length of the {tring which emits each of thofe founds; for it has been already fhewn that, when ftretched ftrings are alike in all other refpects, excepting in their lengths, then the duration ofa fingle vibration of each ftring is proportionate to the length of the ftring ; or (which amounts to the fame thing ) that the number of vibrations performed by each ftring in a given time, is inverfely as the length of the ftring. If you take feveral {trings, or chords, precifely of the fame fubftance, the fame form, and the fame thicknefs, and ftretch them equally by fufpending equal weights at their extremities or otherwile ; ard their refpective lengths be made of the due proportions ; then thefe ftrings, when ftruck, will ex- prefs the proper mufical founds or tones, and the whole fet is called ‘*the Scale of Mufic.””? See Scare, Strinc, and ViBRATION. Mr. Euler informs us, that he found the chord, making 392 vibrations in a fecond, to be at unifon with the key called a in inftruments, that is, an o€tave and fixth major above the loweft C in our harpfichords or violoncellos. Confequently the note C, being to @ as 3 to 10, will make 118 vibrations in one fecond. And the higheft C, or c’”’, as Mr. Euler calls it, being four oétaves above the loweft c, will vibrate 1888 times in one fecond of time. Mr. Euler fuppofes the limits of the human ear to be, with refpect to gravity, two octaves lower than C; and with refpe& to acutenefs, two oétaves higher than c!”. See INTERVAL and VIBRATION. Cxorp, is fometimes alfo ufed for accord. Thus we fay, the common chords to fuch a bafs note, meaning its third, fifth, and o@tave. See Accorp. Cuorp is alfo ufed, in Mu/ic, for the note or {tring to be touched or founded, in which fenfe it is applicable to all the intervals of mufic. Cuorp is alfo a technical term in mufic, implying a com- bination of not lefs than three founds, as the third and fifth to any bafe, or the which compofe what, in practice, is called a common chord ; which may be written and played three feveral ways, as The firft of thefe is called the common chord; the fecond, the chord of the 6th; the third, the chord of the 4th; yet ftill each of thefe is but the common chord to C, the fun- damental or principal bafe, reverfed. See Common chord, PunpAmMenTAL Base, ACCOMPANIMENT, and THOROUGH. bafe. CHORDA Tympani, in Anatomy, avery flender ner- vous twig, forming a communication between the facial nerve, (portio dura of the 7th pair) end the lingual branch of the inferior maxillary. In its courfé it croffes the cavity of thetympanum. See Nervesand Ear, Cuorpa, Lat. the ftring of a lute, harp, violin, &c. CHORD Monsires, Lat. in Ancient Mufic. firings in the tetrachords which were changeable in the chromatic and enharmonic genera. QwuU oo Qur Orv Q ww Cuorpa CHO Cuorne fabiles, ftrings at the top and bottom of tetra- chords of the ancient lyre, of which the tuning was never al- tered by change of genus. CHORDAPSUS, in Medicine, a term ufed by fome of the ancient phyficians, to denote a violent pain in the abdo- men. There is a difference among them as to the precife fignification of the term; fome applying it only to {pafmodic affeGions of the bowels, and others to inflammatory pains, ortoboth. Ceifus (lib. iv. cap. 13.) obferves, that Diocles Caryitius danominated . the acute difeafe of the {mall intef- tines chordapfus ; and that of the large intettines, which is fometimes chronic, ileus; but he adds, that by moft phyfi- cians the former is called i/eus, and the latter colic. Czlius Aurelianus remarks, that fome phyficians denominate the acute difeafe (or ileus) chordapfus, becaufe the inteftines are {tretched, as it were, like chords. But he adds, that others apply the term to pains of the bowels in general, among whom are Hippocrates, Praxagoras, and Euriphon the Gni- dian. De Acut. Morb. mi. .17. By fome the word is derived from 0;08 and darropas, tango, becaufe the bowels feel hard and ftretched like a cord to the hand, applied to the abdomen; by others, probably with more correétnefs, from xopon and axrw, neclo, J bind, from the tenfion and conftriGion of the bowels during thefe pains. For Celius Aurelianus obferves, the ancient Greeks ufed the term yopdn for intefine. See Coric and Enteritis. CHORDEE, in Surgery, (from yopdn, the ftring of a mufical inttrument,) denotes a painful, involuntary, and fometimes diftorted, erection of the penis, happening at all times, but more commonly when the patient is warm in bed ; under which circumttance the penis becomes hard and pain- ful to the touch, and is moft frequently curved downwards in a cconfiderable degree. It fometimes remains, after she heat of urine, and other fymptoms of gonorrhoea, are gone off; but is ufually more fevere during the continuance of the inflammation, and becomes more or lefs violent, according to the greater or lefs urgency of that fymptom. Mr. Benjamin Bell ftates, that chordee is the effe&t of in- flammation, arifing from irritation, communicated from the nerves of the urethra to thofe of the contiguous mufcles, whereby thofe unequal degrees of contraction are produced over the whole fubftance of the penis, which univerfally take place in this difeafe. - Mr. Hunter fays, the chordee appears to be inflammatory in fome cafes, and fpafmodic in others. Speaking of the inflammatory, he fays, ‘¢ When the inflammation is not con- fined merely to the furface of the urethra and its glands, but goes deeper and afieéts the reticular membrane; it produces an extravafation of coagulable lymph, as in-the adhelive in- flammation, which, uniting the cells together, deftroys the power of diftention of the corpus fpongiofum urethrx, and makes it unequal in this refpeét to the corpora cavernofa pe- nis, and therefore a curvature on that fide takes place in the time of eretion, which is ca‘led a chordee. The curva- ture is generally in the lower part of the penis, arifing from the cells of the corpus caverrofum penis of that fide, having their fides united by adhefions, fometimes, as it were {fpontaneoufly, at other times, in confequence of the in- flammation attending bad chancres. Befides this effe&t of in- flammation, when the chordee is violent the inner membrane is probably fo much upon the ftretch, as to be in fome de- gree torn, which frequently caufes a profufe bleeding from the urethra, that often relieves, and even foreetimes cures. As chordee arifes from a greater degree of inflammation than common, it is an effec which may, and often does, remain after all infeGtion is gone, being merely a confequence of the adhefive inflammation.” CHO The fpafmodic chordee, Mr. Hunter fays, arifes from {pafm ; at leaft it cannot proceed from the fame caufe as the other, if his idea of that complaint be well founded. The {pafmodic comes and goes, but at no ftated times; at one time there will be an efeétion entirely free from it, at ano- ther it will be feverely felt, and this will often happen at fhort intervals. In the beginning of thiscomplaint, Mr. Hunter fometimes advifed bleeding from the arm, but, he fays, it is of more immediate fervice to take away blood from the part itfelf by leeches ; for we often find, by a veflel accidentally giving way in the urethra, and a confiderable hemorrhage enfuing, that the patient is greatly relieved.‘ Fomenting the penis by holding it over the fteam of warm water, will give eafe, as will alfo poultices ; and if camphor be added to tlic fomenta- tion and poultice, it will, in’ many cafes, affilt in taking off the inflammation. “Opium given internally is of fingular fervice, and if joined with camphor, the effect will be ftill greater; but opium, in fuch cafes, ats rather by leffening the pain than by removing the inflammation, though by preventing erec- tions, it may be faid to obviate the immediate caufe of the complaint.’’ For a chordee, continuing after all other fymptoms are gone, Mr. Hunter thinks evacuation feldom neceilary, the inflammation being gone, and a confequence of it only re- maining, which, he fays, will go off gradually by the abforp- tion of the extravafated coagulable lymph. Rubbing the parts, however, with mercurial ointments will promote the abforption of the extravafated coagulable lymph, for we ‘find that mercury has confiderable powers in exciting abforption; and the friction will alfo be of ufe. In one cafe Mr. Hunter thought he faw confiderable benefit from giving cicuta, af- ter he had tried the common methods of cure to no purpofe. Bark and ele&tricity may alfo be of ufe in fuch cafes; but evacuations, whether from the part, or from the conilitution, generally do harm rather than good. A chordee is often longer in going off than cither the dif- charge or the pain; but its declenfion is generally gradual and uniform, as is the cafe with molt of the confequences of inflammation. CHORDIRAZA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia in Mefopotamia, fitnated in the environs of Carrhz, accord- ing to Strabo. CHORDYLA, or Corvuta, a town of Alia in the Col- chide, in the country of the Lazi, on the left bank and near the mouth of the Acinafis. According to Ptolemy it was fituated about 6 or 7 leagues to the fourth of Gyganeum. CHOREA, Gr. xop:«, adance, /altare cum cantu. See Batiap, Barvara. CHOREA, in Medicine, more commonly written Cho- rea Sané&i Viti, or Saint Vitus’s Dance, from xg:ix, a dance, is a fpafmodic or convultive difeafe, in which the mufcles of the extremities and other parts are thrown into various in- voluntary motions, and perform in an irregular manner thofe motions which are diGiated by the will. : It is remarkable, that of a difeafe fo fingular and formi- dable in its appearance, fo obftinate in its continuance, and which reduces the patient to fuch a diftrefsful ftate, no fatis- fa&tory hiltory is to be colle&ted from the writings of phyfi- cians, except of thofe of our own country, and thofe of the later continental writers, who appeal to Sydenham as their authority. From the nature of its fymptoms it would feem probable that the difeafe is not of modern origin, but muft have been occafionally obferved from the earlicft times. The ancients, however, have either not defcribed it, or de- {cribed it indiftin@ly, and confounded it with fome other nervous CHOREA. nervous diforders, with which it exhibits only a few fymp- toms in common. : The difeafe, anciently denominated cxerorupSn, /celotyrbe, (quafi crurts perturbatio,) appears to refemble chorea in leve- ral circumitances, infomuch that fome modern authors have confidered the terms as fynonymous. Sauvages treats of chorea under the appellation of /chelotyrbe chorea viti. Nofol. Method. Clafs IV. See Langius, Epift. Med.—But the definitions of {celotyrbe, left us by the ancients, fcarcely ap- ply to chorea, as it has been underftood fince the time of Sy- denham. Galen defcribes it asa fort of paralyfis of the legs, which renders the patient unable to walk in a {traight direc- tion; he turns from one fide to the other, croffing the left foot over the right, or the right foot over the left, or both alternately; and fometimes elevates the feet as if afcending a great acclivity. This defeription will alfo apply to a partial or incipient palfy of the lower extremities : and indeed the term itfelf excludes the notion of any affection of the mufcles of the arm, or fuperior parts of the body. Pliny mentions the fcelotyrbe, asa difeafe which occurred toge- ther with the feurvy (fomacace) among the Roman foldiers encamped near the Rhine, in confequence of drinking for a confiderable time the waters of a certain fpring. He de- fignates it ina few words; ‘* compages in genibus folveren- tur ;”” which feem to imply a fimple paralyfis of the legs. Nat. Hilt. lib. xxv. cap. 3. The difeafe, of which we now treat, is widely differ- -ent in its nature: and the appellations of Chorea San&i Viti, Saltus Viti, &c. imply that it has been firlt diftinguifhed from other affe€tions in modern times. The writers, however, who have adopted thefe appellations, have by no means agreed in the congeries of fymptoms to which they apply them. ‘The conneétion of the name of this faint (Vitus) with a convullive difeafe feems to have Originated among the continental writers, during the days of fanaticifm and fuperftition in the feventeenth century. Gregorius Horttius and Juncker relate, that a fuperttitious belief prevailed in Germany, among the people addicted to worfhip the images of the faints, that by prefenting gifts, and dancing before the image of St. Vitus, on his feitival in the month of May, they fhould live in health and fafety during the enfuing year; and that for this purpofe they re- paired to a chapel dedicated to this faint. where they danced night and day, until they were feized with a delirium, and fell down in a fort of trance. They then returned home, having undergone a fuppofed renovation. But on the re- turn of May, in the following year, they began to perceive a reftleffnefs and agitation of their limbs, as if a freth rege- neration were become neceflary, and were compelled to af- femble again in the chapel, on the feftival of the faint. This Juncker attributes to the force of imagination and ha- bit! There were two chapels facred to St. Vitus, the one near Ulm, the other near Ravenfberg; both fsmous for the annual affemblies of dancing fanatics. Gregorius Horftius affirms that he had converfed with feveral perfons, who re- forted to this fuperftitious dance, as a prefervative from dif- eafe, and who were ftrenuous advocates of its efficacy ; one of them had paid the annual vifit for the fpace of 24, and another for jo years. Greg. Horft. Opera Med. tom. ii. lib. ii. obf. 45. Juncker Confpe&. Patholog. Such is the origin of the appellation given to this difeafe. It was applied, it would feem, in the firft inftance, chiefly to cafes of infanity, in which there was an extraordinary dif- pofition to violent exercife, whether of running, dancing, or otherwife; and as well to the temporary delirium of the fa- Natic, as to the more permanent derangement of the maniac. Such were two cafes related by Platerus, if they are not alto- 7 gether fabulous; in one of which, a woman danced vehe- mently, might and day, until the fkin was worn off her feet. Obferv. Med. lib. i. p. 88. Tulpius records the hiftory of a man feized with a fimilar infanity, who ran about night and day, until he fuffered the moft profufe perfpirations, and was unable to ceafe from his exertions, except when over- powered by fleep. Obf. Phyf. lib. i. obf. 16. See alfo Jo. Rud. Camerar. Sylloge Mem. cent xi. obf. 84—88. Our countryman, Sydenham, was the firlt writer, we believe, who defcribed the feries of fymptoms, which is now compre- hended under the term, chorea, or Saint Vitus’s Dance; and he has been copied or followed, in this defcription, by mott of the fubfequent writers on the fubjeG@t. Sydenham, however, fpeaks of it as a difeafe, which was vulvarly called chorea fan&ti Viti in his time. Dr. James Hamilton, in a late excellent treatife, on the utility of purgative medicines, has, from a more extenfive experience in the diforder, given a more correct and ample view of chorea. It is chara¢ter- ized by the following fymptoms. The approach of the difeafe is commonly flow, and is indicated by a lofs of the ufual vivacity and playfulnefs, by a variable and often ravenous appetite, a {welling and hard- nefs in the lower belly in moft cafes, in fome a lank and foft belly, and, in general, a conttipated {tate of the bowels- which is aggravated as the difeafe advances. Slight irref gular involuntary motions are fyon obferved, efpecially o, the mufcles of the face, which are thought to be the effe& of irritation, and are the harbingers of the more violent con- vulfive motions, which now attra& the attention of the friends of the patient. Thefe convulfive motions vary confiderably. The muf- cles of the extremities, and of the face, thofe moving the lower jaw, the head and the trunk of the body, are, at dif- ferent times, and in different inftances, affected by iz. In this ftate the patient does not walk fteadily; his gait refembles a jumping or ftarting; he fometimes can- not walk, and feems palfied, nor can he perform the common and neceflary motions with the affected arms. In a word, when the patient wifhes to be at reft, the mufcles are perpetually moving, and diftorting the limbs, face, and trunk ; and when any nition is attempted by the will, it is performed irregularly, and with difficulty, after feveral ufe- lefs efforts. “ I'husif the patient take a cup of drink in his hand, he performs,’’ as Sydenham has remarked, ‘“ a thou- fand ludicrous geiticulations, before he is able to bring it to his movth; for he cannot direét it ina flraight line, his hand being drawn hither and thither by the convulfions, but is compelled to move it about for fome time, till at length, reaching his lips, he flings the liquor fuddenly into his mouth, and drinks it greedily, as if the poor creature de- figned only to excite the laughter of the {pectators.”’ Thefe convulfive motions are more or lefs violent, and are conftant, except during fleep, when, in moft initances, they ceafe altogether: but fometimes they continue, and, when the difeafe is greatly aggravated, even fevere, info- much that the fleep becomes unfound and difturbed by the incefflant motions. Although different mufcles are fometimes fucceffively convulfed, yet, in general, the mufcles affected in the early part of the difeafe, re- main fo during the courfe of it. The difeafe advancing, articulation becomes impeded, and is frequently completely fufpended. Deglutition is alfo occafionally performed with difficulty. The eye lofes its luftre and intelligence; the countenance is pale and expreffive of vacancy and languor. Thefe circumitances give the patient an appearance of fa- tuity ; and indeed there is little doubt, that, when the dif- eafe hasfubfifted for fome time, fatuity, to a certain extent, interrupts CHO REA, interrupts the exercife of the mental faculties, Fever, fuch as arifes in marafmus, is not a neceflary attendant on chorea 3 neverthelefs, in the advanced periods of the difeafe, flaccidity aad waiting of the mufcular flefh take place, the confequence of con‘tant irritation, of abating appetite, and impaired digef- tion, the common attendants of protraGted chorea; and which, doubtlefs, may, in fome inftances, have been the forerunners of death; although no fatal inftances of chorea have been recorded. Chorea attacks the male and female fex indifcriminately ; and thofe chiefly who are of a weak conftitution, or whofe natural good health and vigour have been impaired by con- finement, or by the ufe of f{canty or improper nourifhment. Jt appears molt commonly from the eighth to the fourteenth year of age; but fometimes, efpecially in females, it has been obferved at the age of fixteen or eighteen y; breadth of the nave 27 fect ; the great pillars in circum- ference 36 feet 6 inches, in height 36 feet; height of the tower 120 feet. Inthe reign of Edward I. Chnitt-church received a precept, ordering the return of two members to the national council. ‘This was repeated in the frit and 6 fecond CHR fecond years of Edward II., but no returns were made, through the ‘* poverty of the burgeffes.” It was again fammoned 13 Eliz. as a prefcriptive borough ; and thre cir- cumltances of the times inducing compliance, it has ever fince been reprefented by two members. The right of clec- tion is exercifed by the corporation, which confilts of the mayor, recorder, aldermen, bailiffs, and common council ; in all 24: but Browne Willis and others have ftated the real right to be in the inhabitant houfeholders paying feot and lot. Chrilt-church is 105 miles S.W. of London; has a market on Mondays, and two annual fairs. The inhabit- ants, according to the return to parliament in 1801, were 1419; the number of houfes 295. Many of the former find employment in two large breweries that have been efta- blithed here; others in the falmon fifhery on the rivers Avon and Stour, or in fifhing round the neighbouring fhores, where various kinds of fine fifh abound. he Jower order of females, both in the town and its vicinity, are moftly en- gaged in: knitting ftockings; and children derive employ- ment from a manufaMory of watch-{pring chains lately efta- blifhed here. The poor-houfe is conducted on a very ex- cellent plan, by which confiderable fums are faved to the parifh. The former expenditure has elfo been greatly re- duced by the eftablifhment of feveral friendly focieties ; the advantages arifing from which have been confiderably in- creafed under the influence of Mr. Rofe. The Bay or Harbour of Chrilt Church is fpacious ; but, from various local caufes, it is too fhallowand dangerous to be frequented by veffels that draw more than five feet and a half of water. This imperfeGtion is chiefly owing to a bar or ledge of fand, that extends from the point called Hen- giftbury-head, on the Hampfhire fide, to St. Chriftopher’s Ciiff, in the Ile of Wight. The fituation of this bar is occafionally fhifted, either by a fucceffion of heavy rains, which increafe the force of the waters difcharged into the bay by the rivers Avon and Stour, or by fea ftorms attended by foutherly winds. Another circumftance peculiar to this harbour, and the neighbouring port of Poole in Dorfethhire, is that of every tide producing two high waters. This phe- uomenon, fo inexplicable from the general laws of tides, is occafioned by the fituation of this coaft with refpect to the Ifle of Wight, and from the contraction of the channel by the jutting out of the point of land on which Hurft Cattle ftands. The tide flows into this channel from the weft ; and though it fets in with uncommon violence at Hurit Caflle, it does not meet the tide that paffes round the ifland, till it has reached Spithead : the paflage being too narrow for all the water to pafs through, the time of high water at Hen- giltbury-head is of cgurfe much earlier than either at Portf- mouth or Chichefter ; at the fuil and change of the moon the difference is three hours and a half. When the water begins to ebb, by flowing off from the weft, the contra@ion in the channel at Hurit callle operates in a contrary direc- tion; and, by confining the water that has {pread itfelf over the whole furface of the Southampton water, and of the channel within the ifland, gives the water in Chrift-church bay an opportunity of flowing off much quicker, by which means it becomes fo low, that the water that now pours through with great velocity, at Hurit caitle is fufficient to produce a fecond rife in Chrift-church and Poole harbours of nearly three feet. “ CHRISTENING. See Baptism. CHRISTIAN, in a general fenfe, fomething that re- Jates to Curist. The king of France bore the title or furname of the moft Chriftian king. The French antiquaries trace the ori- gin of the appeljation up to Gregory the Great ; who, writing a letter to Charles Martel, occafionally gave him CHR that title, which his fucceffors during the exiltence of the French monarchy retained. Lambecius in the third tome of his Catalogue of the emperor’s library, holds, that the quality of mo? Chriflian was not afcribed to the ancient French kings, Louis le Debonair, &c. as kings of France, but as emperors of Germany: but the French hiltorians endeavour to refute this plea. Curistian, in a more reftriéted and peculiar fenfe, de- notes a difciple of Chrift. The followers of Chrift, or the profelytes to his religion, from among both the Jews and Gentiles, were diftinguifhed by various appellations. Thofe which they generally appropriated to one another were believers, brethren, faithful, faints, holy, and difciples. By the Gentiles and their adverfaries, they were called Naza- renes and Galileans. They were firft called Chriftians at Antioch; about A.D. 43 or 44, according to the vulgar computation, (Aéts xi. 26.) * The name of Chriftian,” fays Tertullian, (Apol.) ‘*comes from the union received by Jefus Chrift; and that of ‘Chniftianus,’ which you fome- times through miltake give us (for you are not particularly acquainted with our name) fignifies that gentlenefs and be- nignity of which we make profeffion ;”? thus deriving the name of Chriftian from the Greek xerros, good or ufeful. It was in confequence of the converfion of Cornelius and his family, that the believing Jews and Gentiles were formed into one church; and, therefore, in order to prevent the continuance of that feparation and diflance which fubfifted between them, under the former appellations of Jews and Heathens, this new name of Chriftians was given them; as fome conceive according to the prophecy mentioned (If. Ixv. 15). It has been maintained by learned commentators, (in loc.) among whom we may reckon Benfon and Dod- dridge, that this name was given them by divine direétion or appointment; accordingly, they allege that the word xpi4xxicas,implies as much, and Dr. Doddridge has tranflated the paflage: ‘‘and the difciples were by divine appointment firft named Chriftians at Antioch.”? (Compare Matt. ii. 12. 22. Luke, ii. 26. A@s, x. 22, Heb. viii. 5. xi. 7. xii. 25.) Some have faid, that Euodius was then bifhop of Antioch, and gave the difciples this name; but the filerce of St. Luke with regard to this circumftance renders it impro- bable; nor is there any fufficient evidence that it was given by Barnabas or Saul, as bifhop Pearfon (on the Creed, p.103.) feems to think. There is, however, a manifeft propriety in the name, as it expreffes their relation to Chrift; and re- minds them of their obligation to adhere to his do@rine ; and it is certain that they gloried in it, and avowed it be- fore the face of their enemies. (Tertull. Apolog. c. 3. 5. Enufeb. Hittor. Ecclef. 1. v. c. 1.) Witfius (de Vit. Paul. cap. ll. § 5.) thinks it a circumltance of remarkable wif- ‘dom, that this celebrated name fhould arife from Antioch, a church confiiting of a mixture of Jews and Gentiles, ra- ther than from Jerufalem, dignified in fo many other refpeéts; and that it was a kind of victory, gained over Satan, who from Antioch had, fome ages before, raifed fo many cruel perfecutors of the church of God. Witlius, however, does not difcern any particular emphafis in the word xencdioasy, and readily admits the interpretation of Grotius, that the Greck word, according to its ufual meaning in the belt Greck writers, and in the New Teftament itfelf, fignifies named, or valled. And he inclines to the conjeG&ure of archbifhop Uther, that this appellation was given to the believers by the Romans then at Antioch. Suicer, in his “ Thefaurus,”’ explains the original word, and underftands this text exa&tly as Grotius did. Dr. Heumann has a dif. fertation concerning the origin of the name of Chriflians, in which he fhews it to be very probable, that this name had not ms CHR its rife fromthe Jews. Nor did the difciples of Jefus take it to themfelves. But, probably, they were firft fo called by Heathens, particularly the Romans, as archbifhop Uther had argued ; the name not having a Greek but a Latin termina- tion, St. Paul, therefore, did not give the name, as bifhop Pearfon, after Chryfoftom, conjectured; and indeed Dr. Heumann fhews, that both St. Luke and St. Paul f-em to have declined the ufe of it; poffibly left our Saviour fhould have been efteemed an ordinary leader of a fet, like the philofophers at that time much celebrated among the Greeks and Romans. However, it was not long before it obtained, and was very acceptable to the followers of Je- fus. It is ufed by St. Peter i. iv. 16. And fome have thought it to be the “ worthy name,’ intended by St. James, ch. ii. 7, And it is certain, that afterwards it was much, and jultly valued by thofe whobore it. In the epif- tle of the churches of Vienne and Lyons, giving an account of their late fufferings, it is ftyled an honourable, and glo- rious, and reviving appellation. Benfon’s Hilt. Plant. Chrift. Rel. vol. i. ch. i, § 6. Doddr. in loc. \ Lardner’s Works, vol. vi. p. 265. The conduct of the firft Chriftians correfponded to the name by which they were diltinguifhed. ‘They were hum- ble, upright, and diligent in availing themfelves of the in- ftruétions of the apottles; they were refolute and perfever- ing in maintaining their profeffion of Chriltianity amidft va- rious reproaches and fufferings,and they tettified their fincerity by numerous exercifes of felf-denial, fortitude and patience, and by fubmitting even to death, in its moft awful forms, rather than incur the guilt of renouncing their faith in the gofpel and its divine author. Their general character was not only irreproachable, but exemplary; aud they recom- mended their religion by their uniform temper and practice, as well as by verbal declarations of its excellence and invin- cible adherence to their profeffion. We have many early tellimonies to this purpofe, delivered not only by perfons of ungueltionable integrity among themfelves, but alfo by their adverfaries and perfecutors. ‘lo their lives they were able to appeal, and did frequently appeal, in vindication of their character againlt the accufations of their enemies ; and they thus evinced the falfehood and inveterate malice from which fuch accufations originated. We fhall here feleét, out of a variety of ancient documents to the fame purpofe, the letter of Pliny the younger; who was proconful of Bithynia, in the third year of the reign of Trajan, about the 65th year after our Lord’s afcenfion, A. D. 100. In this letter Pliny, who was a perfon of good fenfe and moderation. explained to Tra- jan the difficulties which occurred to him in the execution of the fevere laws that were enacted againft the Chriltians. He informs him concerning the method which he had obferved in punifhing the Chriihans, gives him an account of their faith, worlhip, and manners, according to the account which he had received from thofe who had apoftatized to avoid per- fecution, and requetts the emperor’s advice how he fhould a@ towards them for the future. This letter is cited by Ter- tullian and Enfebius; and being ftill extant, does great honour to the Chriltian ‘religion ard its votaries. In the procefs of his examination of thofe who were brought before him under the charge of being Chrittians, he fays, that fome of them denied that they were Chriftians, or even had been of this number; and to other evidence of their not being jultly fubje& to this charge, they added, as he informs the emperor, that of reviling Chrift ; which none of thofe, as they themfelves acknowledged, who were really Chiriltians, could be compelled to do. Others of them affirmed, that the whole of their fault or error was, “that they were wout #u an appointed day to meet before it was light, and to fing CHR with one another a hymn to Chrift as a God, and to bind themfelves with an oath, not to do any wicked thing, but to commit no thefts, no robberies, no adulterics, to break on promife, and to refufe giving back no pledge when aflced. Thefe things finifhed, it was their cuftom to depart, then to meet again in order to take food, which, however, was inno- cent and eaten in common.” He adds, asa reafon for not proceeding againft them with rigour and feverity, that this was a matter worthy of deliberation, chiefly becauts of the number of thofe who are in danger. For many of all ages, of every rank, and of both fexes alfo, are called to account, and will be called. Neither throngh the cities only, but the villages alfo, and the country, is the contagion of that fuper- {tition fpread, which, it appears, may yet be {topped and cor- reGted: atleaftitis very certain, thatthe almottdefolate temples are begun to be frequented, and the facred riteslong neglected to be renewed. Moreover the viétims every whiere are fold, of which hitherto fcarcely any buyer was found. Hence it is eafy to colleét, what a multitude of men may be reclaimed, if there be allowed place for repentance.” A refcript of Antoninus Pius (fee his article) alfo bears honovrable tef- timony to the charaéter of the Chriftians. In this refeript Antoninus intimates that the Chrittians gained advantage over their oppofers, and manifetted their fupertority by their readinefs to lay down their lives in fupport of their canfe ; and that they incurred enmity and perfecution on account of their greater regard to religion; and he iffued an edict, ordering among other things, that “ if any fhall {till proceed to create trouble to one that is a Chriftian, or to accufe him of crimes merely becaufe he is a Chriflian, let him who is indifted be difcharged though he is found to be a Chrittian, and let the informer himfelf undergo the puniihment.” But it is needlefs to multiply inftances of this kind. Curistian Church. See Cuurcu. Curistian Court. See Court Chrifiian. Curistian Name, that given at baptifm. See Name. Curistians, perficution of. See PERSECUTION. © Curistian Religion, or Curistraniry, that inflituted by Jefus Chrift, comprehending do¢trines of faith and rules of practice, all of which are contained in the New Tefta- ment, and are defigned to recover mankind from ignorance and vice, from guilt and death, to true knowledge and vir- tue, to the.divine favour, and everlaiting hfe. Its aptitude to this end, its conformity to reafon, and to the ttate of man, the fublimity and excellence of its do¢trmes, the equally venerable and lovely charaéter of its author, the purity of its precepts, its benign tendency and falutary effeéts, concur, with the external evidence of Propuecy and Miracves, to eltablifh its divine origin and truch., Dr. Gerard, in the iptroduétion to his ‘* Differtations on Subjeé&ts relating to the Genius and Evidences of Chrifti- anity,” obferves, that the evidences of the Chriftian reli- gion may very properly be diftinguifhed into two kinds; the dire? and the collateral. The dire& evidences are internal and external. ‘The external evidences of Chriltianity are miracles and prophecy ; thefe are the molt dire& proofs of its divi- nity. The internal evidence, ariling from its excellence, has alfo great force. But when its excellence is urged as a di- re@ proof of its truth and divinity, it fhould be confidered in reference to the principal end of Chriltianity. The end which Chriltianity profeifedly aims at is the fpiritual improve- ment of mankind, the prefent virtue aud comfort, and the future perfection and happinefs of all who yield themfelvcs up toits power. This end it keeps continually in view 5 it reprefents all its doGtrines and precepts as means of pro- moting thisend ; and itis careful to fet them in that attitude in which they may molt direGtly and powerfully contribute to “SCHRISTIAN RELIGION. to it. folid grounds of joy, {uited to the condition of human crea- tures, it is excellent. _ It not only is fuch a religion as may have been revealed by God, and ought to be received as a pofitive proof that it was revealed by him; but its very ftru€ture indicates that it is actually divine, in a manner fimilar to that in which the wile and benign contrivance of the world proves it to be the work of God. It is fufficient, that Chriftianity is exactly adapted to itsown end. It is from the importance of this and from its fitnefs for promoting it, that the proper excel- lence of Chriftianity arifes. Whatever does not either be- ‘ long to its excellence confidered in this light, or falls under the head of miracles wrought on purpofe to attelt it, or of prophecies fulfilled ; and yet affords a proof of any real pre- fumption of its truth and divinity, is a collateral evidence of it. The ule of fuch arguments is either to roufe the inattentive and the prejudiced to a careful and impartial examination of the more direct evidences of the Gofpel, or to ftréngthen the conviction which thefe evidences have already produced. To keep it ttead:ly in view, that this is their proper ufe, is neceflary for profecuting arguments of this kind to the greateit alpnlans. All the col/ateral evidences of Chritti- anity are in one fenfe internal evidences; they all arife from fome particulars in the nature of this religion; from fome circumt{tances which have attended its reception or {pringing from it, or from fome remarkable facts connected with it, and related in the Gofpel-hiftory. Some of them are in the firiGteft fenfe internal. That excellence of Chriftianity, which conftitutes its internal evidence, may be fufficiently a{certained by an examination of the do¢trines and precepts of this religion: an examination of its nature is indeed the dire&t and proper method of bringing its excellence to the tria:; and if, on this trial, it be approved, the direct argu- nient thence refulting for its divinity is completed. If there be any topic from which a proof of its excellence can be deduced, additionally to, and dependent on, what arifes from the examination of its nature, that topic may really be confidered as affording a feparate and collateral proof of its truth. Such is the argument deduced from its great efficacy at its firlt appearance, in banifhing poly- theifm, idolatry and fuperftition, and the arts of magic, and in reforming the temper and manners of thofe who em- braced it. This efficacy gives us new affurance of the ex- cellence of Chriftianity, by fhewing us correfponding ef- feds, atually refulting from it. By this it ftrengthens our belief of its divine original; it likewife begets a general prefumption, that there muft have been very fatisfying evi- dence of its truth, or elfe men would never have made fo great facrifices to it. Again, though the virtue and {piri- tual good of man be the only main and ultimate end of Chriftianity, yet it may at the fame time be fit for promot- ing many other good ends fubordinate to this or confiftent with it. A fitnels for promoting fuch an end 1s a new in- ftance of the excellence of Chriftianity, diftinét, indeed, from its proper and effential. excellence, but ftrengthening the argument forits divioity arifing from this, and ftrength- ening it by a fimilar operation on the mind. Jt begets an additional degree of convition, by giving an additional per- ception of excellence. Thus, the fpirit of Chriftianity na- turally foftens the rigour of defpotilm, introduces modera- tion into government, banifhes many inconvenient civil laws once generally prevalent, gives rife to others. of a very happy tendency, refines the laws of war, humanizes the manners and improves the cuftomsof nations. See ** Montefquieu’s Spirit of Laws,” b. iv. ch..3,4. 6. 19. ~ Another, clafs of col/ateral arguments for the truth of the Vor. VII. If it contains powerful means of virtue; if it affords Chriftian religion arifes from particulars in its nature, or from effects produced by it, or from fa&ts in the Gofpel- hiftory which cannot be at all accounted for but on the fuppofition of a divine original, or which are, at leaft, moft naturally explicable on that fuppofition. Such arguments produce conviétion, not by fimply exciting a perception of excellence, but by making us feel, that we mutt offer violence to the natural principles of our underftanding, and be in- volved in abfurdities, if we deny the divinity of Chriftianity- Whatever. circumftance is unaccountable, without fuppofing the truth of Chriltianity, affords areal prefumption for it. See ‘*Duchal’sprefumptive Arguments, &c. into Sermons, 1753.” Some of thefe prefumptive arguments, with refpe& to the circumftances from which they arife, and the manner in which they affect the underftanding, are allied chiefly to the internal evidences of Chriftianity ; others to the external. The circumftances from which fome prefumptive arguments for our religion arife, are {uch in their nature as, while they are inexplicable without fuppofing its divinity, excite at the fame time a perception of excellence. Thus, the cha- racter of Jefus is fuch, and fo uniformly fupported, that, if it had not been real, the evangeliits cannot be fuppofed ca- pable of delineating it. here are feveral circumftances in our Saviour’s lait difcourfes with his difciples which prove that, if he had not really fpoken them, the evangslilts could never have feigned or afcribed them to him.. The charaéters of fome of the apoitles of Chrilt ; the controverfics among Chriftians, in the apoftolic age; the praCtice of Chrift and his apoftles in uniformly referring their claim to the impartial inquiries of men, aad renouncing every other method of re- commending it, have been fhewn by Dr. Duchal to contain {trong pre{umptions of the truth of Chriftianity. All thefe arguments have an affinity to the internal evideace of Chrilti- anity. There are others which bear affinity to its external evidences. They add credibility to them; they predifpofe the mind to admit them; or heighten its acquiefcence in their {ufficiency. They contain a mixture of fomething mi- raculous, which, by being fuch, implies the divinity of this religion, and which carries along with it fatisfying evidence of its own reality. Thus, Bell, in his ‘* Inquiry into the divine Miffion of John the Baptilt and Jefus Chrift,” has fhewn, that the claims of both mutually {apport each other ; and.that the circumftances attending their births, many of which were miraculous, and their whole conduc towards one another in their public life, afford a full proof that Je- fus was the Meffiah, and John his forerunner. The cafe is the fame with regard to the miraculous converfion and fub- fequent conduét of the apoftle Paul, forbidding us to afcribe the origin and prevalence of Chriftianity either to enthufiafm. or impotture; as has been difplayed with great ftrength of reafon by Lord Lyttelton and by Dr. Duchal. See Pau. ‘There are other arguments, which corroborate the truth of Chriftianity, by adding weight to its external evidence in a maoner ftill more diret. They arife from circumftances not abfolutely neceffary for rendering thefe evidences com- plete ; and therefore they may be confidered as feparate and independent evidences of the collateral kind. Thus, when we confider that many of the particulars predi&ted concern- ing the Meffiah and accomplifhed in Jefus are perfeétly. ex- traordinary in their own nature, and {eemingly incompatible with one another, this affords evidence of the truth of our rellgion, additional to what arifes merely from the accom- plifhment of any prophecy. A fimilar confirmation of Chriftianity has been deduced by Dr. Duchal, from fome circumftances in the charaéter of the Man of Sin, foretold by Paul, fo fingular, that mere imagination could fcarce- ly have fuggeited them; and if it had, they never could 5c : have CHRISTIAN RELIGION. have taken place. Thefe inftances have an immediate rela- tion 'to the proof of Chriftianity from prophecy, which fee. Others are related to the proof from miracles, which fee ; fuch is the argument from the quick and extenfive propaga- tion of the Gofpel, illuftrating the evidence from miracles in the fame way as the efficacy of the Gofpel corroborates its internal evidence; and the argument from the concef- fions of ancient infidels, ftated by Gerard, in one of his dif- fertations. The argument for Chriltianity from the conti- nuance and prefent ftate of the Jewith nation, is almoft equally related to the proof from miracles and to that {from prophecy. See “ Lardner’s Difcourfes on the Cir- cumftances of the Jewith People, an Argument for the Truth of Chriftianity.”” There are otherarguments, which }iave an equal relation to the internal and external evidences for Chriftianity, and which add weight equally to both. Such are the two arguments illuftrated by Dr. Gerard; the one de- duced from the manner in which Chrift and his apoltlcs pro- pofed the evidence of their miffion, which was the moft pro- per; and the other, from the refult of the fcrutiny and exa- mination of infidels. There are other arguments, deducible from the permanence of the pofitive inititutions of Chrif- tianity, which are a kind of monuments of its truth and di- vine original; and others again, of the prefumptive kind, furnifhed by the hiftory of the as of the Apojiles ; which fee. Dr. Leland has given an excellent fummary of the evidences of Chriftianity, in his ‘ View of the Deittical Writers, vol. i. p. 411, &c.”? See alfo Beattie’s “ Evi- dences, &c.’? and Paley’s “ View of the Evidences of Chrittianity, vol. i? Macknight’s “ Truth of the Gefpel Hittory.” “An Anfwer to the Queftion, Why are youa Chriftian 2? by John Clarke, minifter of a church in Botton, 6th ed. Lond. 1803. See Avosties, Brsre, Canon, Gospet, Rericion, Revevrarion, Testament, &c.” The argument in proof of the truth of Chriftianity, to which we have above referred, deduced from its fudden and extenfive propagation, and permanent duration, deferves, on various accounts, to be more amply ftated, and to be vindi- cated from the objections that have been alleged againf it. No juft and fatistactory reafon can be given for its fpeedy diffulion, general prevalence, and continued fubfiltence in the world; without admitting its divine original, and the fupernatural efficacy that contributed to its reception and propagation. In its own nature and avowed defign, it had to encounter with a hoft of enemies both among Jews and Heathens; whofe paffions and prejudices, fecular interelt and honour, and eftablifhed habits and ufages, would com- bine in difcouraging its advocates and raifing obftacles, which it would be difficult to furmount. More efpecially when we conlider that independently of its claims to a di- eine origin, and of the fupernatural power which accompa- pied it, the miffionaries in the Chriftran caufe laboured un- der a variety of perfonal and local difadvantages. They were deftitute of thofe natural talents and acquired accom- plifhments, and of that authority and influence ufually re- {ulting from rank and opulence, which would of themfelves have contributed to their favourable reception with the mul- titude. Neverthelefs, Chriftianity ‘grew mightily and prevailed ;” of the weapons that were wiclded againft it by prejudice and error, talents and learning, wealth and worldly power, none eventually prefpered. Many circum- flances concurred, indeed, to favour its reception and fpread foon after the time, when it was introduced. ‘This was the precife period, which had been predicted many ages before jt occurred. This was the time in which a general exped- ation of the Meffiah or Saviour prevailed. At thistime the Jewith fyftem both of dottriue and practice was become ex- tremely corrupt, and the inquiries of the ftudious heathens had been found infufficient to fatisfy them on the moft im- portant and interefting fubjeéts. There are alfo feveral other collateral circumftances, whicli mark the period in which our Saviour appeared as the moft proper for the intro- duction, eftablifhment, and propagation of the religion which he communicated to mankind. ‘This was an age of general knowledge and inquiry, when genius and fcience were culti- vated and promoted, both in Greece and Rome, and when the human mind was beginning to emancipate itfelf from that blind and obftinate attachment to old opinions and fy{tems, venerable merely on account of their antiquity, which is in- feparable from ignorance and barbarity. This was an age in which men began to difcover a very general dilpofition for moral inquiries; and in which fome of the moft diftin- guifhed fages and philofophers flourifhed. The Auguftan age is proverbially celebrated for its refinement and cule ture; for the knowledge and inveftigation by which it was diftinguifhed. This wasa period of general peace through the whole Roman empire. It was likewife a period of gene- ral toleration and liberty ; it was alfo atime, in which by the wide extent of the Roman empire, an intercourfe was opened and maintained between the inhabitants of very diflant na- tions ; and this intercourfe was farther promoted by the dif- pertion of Jews and Chriftians in confequence of the deflruc- tion of Jerufalem and the diffolution of the Jewifh ftate. The Greek language at this time was almoft univerfal ; and,. therefore, the infpired writers, whofe gofpels and epiftles were publifhed in this language, enjoyed peculiar advantage for extending the knowledze of the facréd doGrines, pre- cepts, and inititutions of Chrifianity. Our iimits will not allow our enlarging on thefe particulars; and we mutt, therefore, content ourfelves with merely fuggefting them. ; Of the fuccefs and prevalence of Chriftianity, during the apoftolic age, we have already given a brief account under the article Apostres. In procefs of time, it made a won- derful progrefs through Europe, Afia, and Africa; and its progrefs was much accelerated by means of the wide extent of the Roman empire, and by a variety of circumftances which took place, at and foon after the period of its fir{t introduction. In the third century there were Chriftians in the camp, in the fenate, and inthe palace ; in fhort, every where, as we are informed, except in the temples and the theatres; they filled the towns, the country, and the iflands. Men and women of all ages and ranks, and even tbofe of the firft dignity, embraced the Chriftian faith; infomuch that the Pagans complained that the revenues of their tem- ples were ruined. ‘They were in fuch great numbers in the empire, that, as Tertullian expreffes it, if they had retired into another country, they would have left the Romans only a frightful folitude. For the further illuftration of this ar- gument, we may obferve that the Chriftian religion was in- troduced everywhere in oppofition to the fword of the magil- trate, the craft and intereft of the priefts, the pride of the philofophers, the paffions and prejudices of the people, all clofely combined in fupport of the national worfhip, and to crufh the Chriftian faith, which aimed at the fubverfion of. heathenifm and idolatry, and the abrogation of the Jewifh law. Moreover, this religion was not propagated in the dark, by perfons who tacitly endeavoured to deceive the cre- dulous ; nor delivered out by little and little, fo that one doétrine might prepare the way for the reception of another; but it was fully and without difguife laid before men all at once, that they might judge of the whole under one view of it. Confequently mankind were not deluded into the belief of it, but received it upon proper examination and convics. tion. . CHRISTIAN RELIGION. tion. Befdes, the gofpel was firft preached and firft believed by multitudes in Judaa, where Jefus exercifed his miniftry, and where every individual had accefs to know whether the things that were told him were matters of fa& ; and in this country, the fcene of the principal tranfaétions on which its credibility depended, the hiftory of Chriit would never have been received, unlefs it had-been true, and known to all as truth; again, the doGrine and hiltory of Jefus were preached and believed in the moft noted countries and ci- ties of the world, in the very age when he is faid to have lived. On the 5oth day after our Lord’s crucifixion, 3000 perfons were converted in Jerufalem, by a fingle fermon of the apoftles ; and a few weeks after this, 5000 who believed were prefent at another fermon preached alfo in Jerufalem. (AGs ii. 41. iv. 4. vi. 7. vili. 1. ix. r. 20.) About 8 or ro years after our Lord’s death, the difciples were become fo numerous at Jerufalem and in the adjacent country, that they were objects of jealoufy and aiarm to Herod himfelf. (A@s, xii. 1.) In the 22d year after the crucilixion, the difciples in Judza are {aid to have been many myriads. (Acts, xxi. 20.) See Aposties. The age, in which Chiriftianity was introduced and received, was famous for men, whofe faculties were improved by the moft perfce& fkate of focial life, but who were good judges of the evidence offered in fupport of the faéts recorded in the gofpelehiitory. For it fhould be recolleéted, that the fuccefs of the gofpel was not reftri@ed to Judea; but it was preached in all the dif- ferent provinces of the Roman empire. The firft triumphs of Chriftianity were in the heart of Greece itfelf, the nur- fery of learning and the polite art$; for churches were planted at a very early period at Corinth, Ephefus, Berea, Theffalonica, and Philippi. Even Rome herfelf, the feat of wealth and empire, was not able to refift the force of truth, at a time when the fa¢ts related were recent, and when they might, if they had been falfe, have ealily been difproved. From Greece and Rome, at a period of cultivation and re- finement, of general peace, and extenfive intercourfe, when one great empire united different nations and diltant people, the confutation of thefe facts would very foon have pailed from one country to another, to the utter confulion of the perfons who endeavoured to propagate the belief of them. Farther, although moft of the early converts were perfons in the middle and lower claffes of life, yet even thefe, in an age of fuch general knowledge and intercourfe, were fufficiently fecured againft every kind of falfe pretenfions ; and as for the more ignorant, their attachment to their firft religious notions would be ftrong; and confequently, miracles, or unquef- tionable operations of divine power, would be neceffary to convince perfons of this rank and charafter, and to induce them to change their principles. Their conver- fion, therefore, affords an inconteftible argument in proof of the facts by which it was accomplifhed. It fhould here be confidered that the religion to which they were profelyted was exclufive. It denied, without referve, the truth of every article of heathen mythology, the exift- ence of every obje& of their worfhip. lt accepted no compromife $ it admitted no comprehenfion. It it pre- vailed at all, it mutt prevail by the overthrow of every flatue, altar, and temple in the world. It pronounced all other gods to be falfe, and all other worhip vain. Thefe are confiderations which muft have ftrengthened the oppo- fition to it, augmented the hoftility which it muft encounter, and enhanced the difficulty of gaining profelytes. More ef- pecially when we recollect, that among the firifl converts to Chriftianity in the earlieft age, a number of perfons re- markable for their {lation, office, genius, education, and for- fune, and who were perfonally interefted by their emolu- ments and honours in the continued’ fubfiflence either of Judaifm or heathenifm, appeared among the Chriftian pro- felytes. Its evidences approved themfelves, not only to the multitude, but to men of the moft refined fenfe and molt diftinguifhed abilities; and it diffolved the attachments which all-powerful intereft and authority created and up- held. Among the profelytes to Chriftianity we find Nico- demus, and Jofeph of Arimathea, members of the fenate of Tfrael; Jairus, a ruler of the fynagogue ; Zacchens, the chief of the publicans at Jericho; Apollos, diftinguifhed for eloquence ; Paul, learned in the Jewifh law ; Sergius Paulus, governor of the ifland of Cyprus; Cornelius, a Roman vap- tain; Dionyfius, a judge and fenator of the Athenian Areo- pagus; Eraftus, treafurer of Corinth ; Tyrannus, a teacher of grammar and rhetoric at Corinth ; Publius, governor of Malta 3 Philemon, a perfon of confiderable rank at Coloffe; Simon, a magician in Samaria; Zenas, a lawyer ; and even the domeltics of the emperorhimfelf. Thefe are noticed in the facred writings ; and the heathen hiftorians alfo mention fome perfons of great uote who were converted at an early period. ‘To all the preceding circumitances we may add a contideration of peculiar moment, which is, that the pro- feflion of Chriftianity led all, without exception, to renounce the world, and to expofe themfelves to the moft ignominious and excruciating fufferings. On the other hand, we fhould ree& on the charaéter and condition of the perfons, who perfuaded mankind to change their belief, and to abandon all their former conneétions and habits. They were a few, feleéted from the meanet of the people, and they belonged to a nation that was defpifed on account of the ill-will which they bore to the reft of mankind. By fuch perfons were thoufands prevailed upon in a very fhort time to change theirbelief and to reform their lives. And, without adding any more in this way, the Chriftian religion, thus introduced by the power of God and of truth, has been fupported is the world by the fame powers through a courfe of many ages, amidft the corruptions of its friends, the oppofition of its enemes, the dangers of profperous periods, and the perfecu- tions and violence of adverfe circumftances ; all which muft have deftroyed it, if it had not been founded in truth, and guarded by the protection of an Almighty providence. Mr. Gibbon, the elegant and inftruétive hiftorian, has endeavoured to account for the wonderful propagation of Chriftianity, independently of its truth and divine original, in a manner which tends, in our opinion, to make an ime prefiion on the mind of his reader not at all advantageous to ovr holy religion. To the inquiry by what means the Chriftian faith obtained fo remarkable a victory over the ellablithed religions of the earth, he fays, an obvious but fatisfaGtory anfwer may be returned ; that it was owing to the convincing evidence of the do@rine itfelf, and to the ruling providence of its great author. But afterwards, in affigning for this aftonifhing event, Ave fecondary caufes, de- rived from the paffions of the human heart and the general circumitances of mankind, he feems to have infinuated, that Chriftianity, like other impoftures, might have made its way in the world, though its origin had been as human as the means by which he fuppofes it was rapidly fpread, Whether it was his intention to depreciate the primary means by which Chriftianity prevailed, and to intimate his-diffatisfac- tion with the obvious anfwer which others have returned to the inquiry concerning its reception and {pread, we fhall not prefume to determine ; but we may be allowed to fay, with- out incurring the charge of want of candour, that his reafoning on this fubjeét has a tendency to divert the atten- tion of his readers from the principal caufe of the triumph of Chrilhianity to other canfes lefs favourable to its truth 5 C2 and CHRISTIAN RELIGION. and divine original, and altogether inadequate to this great event. As the fubje& is in a high degree important and intercfting, we fhall here avail ourfelves of the replies that have been made by the advacates-of Chriftianity, and particu- Jarly by the learned and ingenious Dr. Watfon, bifhop of Landaff, to the reafoning of the acute hiftorian. The fix? caule, which he alleges, is, “ the inflexible, and, if we may ufe the expreffion (he fays), the intolerant zeal of the Chriftians, derived, it is true, from the Jewih reli- gion, but purified from the narrow and unfocial fpirit, which, inftead of inviting, had deterred the Gertiles from embrac- ing the law of Mofes.” The zeal of the Chriftians is al- lowed to have been inflexible, as far as it concerned a fteady adherence to their religious principles and profeffion, and in- tolerant, in not admitting to Chriftian worthip thofe who fupplicated the image of Cafar, who bowed down at the altars of Paganifm, who mixed with the votaries of Venus, or wallowed in the filth of Bacchanalian feltivals ; but, in- ftead of deducing it, as Mr. Gibbon does, from the Jewith religion, it ought to be aferibed to a full perfuafion of the truth of Chriftianity. The zeal of: the apoltles or primi- tive Chriftians did not bear the flighteft fimilitude to the fiercenefs and bigotry of the Jews ; it was derived from very different caufes, and aimed at far nobler ends. It is not con- ceiveable, that a zeal refulting from the Jewifh religion fhould urge the Chriftians to propagate the gofpel amongit Jews as well as Gentiles; and that fuch a zeal as Mr. Gib- bon has defcribed, whatever might be its principle, fhould ever have been devifed by any human underftanding as a probable mean of promoting the progrefs of a reformation in religion; much lefs that it fhould have been thought of or adopted by a few ignorant and unconnected men. The fecond caufe to which Mr. Gibbon has attributed the rapid growth of Chriftianity is, « the doctrine of a future life, improved by every additional circumitance which could give weight and efficacy to thac important truth.” Such a doGtrine is unqueltionably congenial to the nature of man as amoral and accountable agent ; it is repeatedly inculcated in the gofpel, and mutt ultimately, and in a favourable {tate of things, have increafed its efficacy ; but, confidering the circumttances of the perfons to whom this doétrine, in its whole extent, as comprehending punifhments and rewards, and the immortality of the foul, in connection with the refurreétion, was delivered, it is not likely that, abftracted from the fupernatural tellimony by whichit was enforced, it could have met with any very extenfive reception among them. It was not the kind of future life, which they ex- petted. Future punifhments, which conftituted a promi- nent part of this doétrine, were reckoned by the philofophers among the aniles fabulas ; nor was the abfurdity of this part of the Chriftian do&trine confined to the writings of the phi- lofophers, and to the circles of the learned and polite ; but Cicero makes no fecret of it in his public pleadings before the people at large. Befides, its rewards were not attractive, nor were they fuch as the multitude wifhed. The pride of the’ philofopher was fhocked by the doétrine of a refurrec- tion, the mode of which he was unable to comprehend: and the imaginations of other men were feebly imprefled by the seprefentation of a future life, which did not pourtray the ferene {ky, the verdant garden, and the luxurious enjoyments of an Elyfium. Upon the whole, the Chriftian doétrine of a future life was neither agreeable to the expedtations, nor correfponding with the wifhes, nor conformable to the reafon of the Gentiles : and it, therefore, afforded no induce- ments for their receiving it, and, in confequence of their belief, regulating their loofe morals according to the rigid ftandard of gofpel purity, upon the mere authority of a few contemptible fifhermen of Judea, Mr. Gibbon him- felf obferves in another place, that the ** Pagan multitude, referving their gratitude for temporal benefits alone, rejected the ineflimable prefent of life and immortality, which was offered to mankind by Jefus of Nazarcth.?? When this writer afcribes the convertion of the Gentiles to the influ- ence of their fears, excited, as he pretends, but without fuffici- ent reafon, by the expeétation of Chrilt’s {peedy appearance, of the millennium (which fee,) and of the general conflagra- tion ; it is natural to afk from what fource they derived thofe fears which converted them? not, we may fay, from the labours of fuch men, as the apoftles and firft preachers of Chriflianity, who from their mean condition and rude fpeech were very ill adapted to infpire the haughty and the learned Romans with any other paffions than thofe of pity or cons tempt. : “The miraculous powers afcribed to the primitive. charch,” are the third of the fecondary caufes to which Mr. G. afcribes the rapid propagation of Chriftianity. It mutt be allowed that the miracles, not merely afcribed to the primitive church, but really performed by the apottles, ought to be confidered not only as a fecondary, but as one great primary caufe of the converfion of ‘the Gen- tiles. But the miraculous powers attributed by Mr. Gib- bon to the primitive church, and which he deferibes with a degree of derifion, implying his feepticifm or incredulity concerning them, were by no means calcu- lated, at leaft in any eminent degree, to {pread the belief of Chriltianity amongft a great and an enlightened people. When we confider that the pretended miracles of the hea- thens were fo numerous as to have infenfibly loft. their force, and funk in their efteem, thofe that were afcribed to the firlt propagators of Chriftianity mult have created an immediate and ftubborn prejudice againft their caufe; and nothing could have fubdued that prejudice, but miracles, really and vilibly performed. See Miracce. The utility of Mr. Gibbon’s fourth caufe, viz. “‘ the vir- tues of the firft Chriftians,”’ cannot be difputed ; as they very much conduced to the fpread of their religion: but _ thefe virtues are depreciated by his reprefentation of them, as proceding from their mean and timid repentance for having been the moft abandoned finners, or from an impetuous zeal in fupporting the reputation of the fect or fociety to which they belonged. matter,” fays Mr. G. in language that more than infinuates unmerited reproach, ‘the miflionaries of the gofpel dif- dained not the fociety of men, and efpecially of wo- men, oppreffed by the confcioufnefs, and very often by the effets of their vices.” The pernicious tendency of fuch a declaration, connected with the grofs mifreprefentation im- plied in it, reflects reproach on the character of the hittoriar, and feems to indicate a defign to degrade the importance of Chriftianity and to expofe it to contempt. But whatever may be its effe€t on the heedlefs and diflipated, it fupplies its own antidote in the eftimation of the impartial, thought- ful, and judicious, who will not fail to diltinguifh between affertion and faét. Very contrary to the declaration of Mr. G. was the condu& enjoined ‘on the firft teachers of Chrif- tianity ; for they were ordered to turn away from, to have no fellowfhip or intercourfe with, fuch as were wont ‘to creep into houfes, and lead captive filly women laden with fins, led away with divers lufts.”’? And if a few women, who had either been feduced by their paffions, or had fallen victims to the licentious manners of their age, fhould be found amongft thofe who were molt ready to receive a religion that forbade all impurity; this circumftance cannot warrant an infinuation of difcredit, either upon the fex, or upon 2 thofe “« After the example of their divine CHRISTIAN. thofe who wrought their reformation, "The attention ma- nifefted by the primitive Chriftians with regard to their condu& is invidioufly afcribed to improper motives; whereas their folicitude to avoid reproach in this refpeét might as candidly, perhaps. and as reafonably, be derived from a fenfe of their duty, and an honeft endeavour to difcharge it, as from the mere defire of increafing the honour of their confraternity by the illutrious integrity of its members. After all, the auitere morality of the primi. tive Chriftians, which Mr. G. deferibes as adverfe to the propenfities of fenfe, and abhorrent from all the innocent pleafures, and amufements of life, is exhibited under fuch difmal colouring, that inftead of alluring perfons to a clofer infpection of it, it muft have made every man of pleafure or of fenfe to turn away from it with horror or difguit ; and fo far from contributing to the rapid growth of Chriftianity, it mutt excite wonder, how the firft Chriftians ever made a fingle convert. The averfion of Chriltians from the bufinefs of war and government is charged upon them by Mr. G. as a criminal difregard to the public welfare. By way of ge- neral reply it may be obferved, that Chriltianity does not concern itfelf with ordering the conltitutions of civil focieties, but levels its whole influence at the hearts of individuals who compofe them ; and, as Origen faid to Celfus, if every indivi- dual in every nation was a gofpel Chriltian, there would be neither interna! injuftice, nor external war; there would be none of thofe paffions which embitter the intercourfe of civil life, and defolate the globe. It can therefore be no reproach to the Chriftian religion, that it fhould inculcate dodrines, which, if univerfally praGtifed, would introduce univerfal tranguillity, and the moft exalted happinefs among{t man- kind. Nothing but a total mifapprehenlion of the defign of the Chriftian difpenfation, or a mifinterpretation of particular injunctions, forbidding its votaries to make riches or honours a primary purfuit, or the prompt gratification of revenge a firft principle of ation, can lead any one to infer, that a Chriftian is obliged to offer his throat to an affaflin, and his property to the firit ’ plunderer; or that a fociety of Chriitians may not repel, in the beft manner they are able, the unjult affaults of hef- tile invafion.. No precepts of the gofpel, whatever may be afferted or infinuated to the contrary, debar a man from the poffeffion of domeltic comforts, or deaden the activity of his_ private friendfhips, or prohibit the exertion of his utmoit ability in the fervice of the public. The fifth and latt fecondary caufe of the rapid and extenfive {pread of Chriitianity, mentioned by Mr. G. is “ the union and the difcipline of the Chriflian church.”? Union, it mult be allowed, is ftrength to every affociation; and it is much to be wifhed, that it could be found even in the early period of the Chriftian difpenfation, and much to be lamented that the too geheral defect of it has been the reproach of Chrif- tians from the apoftolic age to our own. There was, in- deed, a certain community of doctrine, an intercourfe of hof- pitality, and a confederacy of dilcipline eftablifhed among the individuals of every church; fo that none could be ad- mitted into any affembly of Chrittians without undertroing a previous examination into his manner of life, and without protefting in the molt folema manner that they would not be guilty of murder, adultery, theft, or perfidy. It may be alfo granted, that thofe who broke this compact were ejected by common confent from the confraternity into which they had been admitted; and this confede- racy extended itfelf to independent churches; fo that thofe who had, for their immoralities, been excluded from Chriftian community in any one church, were rarely, if ever, admitted to this privilege by another :—but it is not admitted, that this feverity and this union of difcipline could ever have induced the Pagans to forfake the gods of their country, and to expofe themfelves to the contemptuous hatred of their neighbours, and to all the feverities of perfe- cution, exercifed with unrelenting barbarity, againit the Chriftians. After this brief abitraét of the reafoning of Mr. Gibbon, and the replies of the advocates of Chriftianity on the {ubjeét of its propagation, we mutt refer to Gibbon’s Hiftory of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. ii. chap. 15. Bp. Watfon’s Apology for Chriftianity, paflim; White’s Sermons, Serm. IIL. and other writers who have either di- re€tly or indireétly written on the fame fubject. See Com- MuNITY of Goods, Excommunication, PENANCE, Prr- SECUTION, &c. Curistian I., in Biography, king of Denmark, fon of Theodorie count of Oldenburg, was eleéted to the throne in the year 1448, and in him we behold the founder of the royal houfe of Oldenburg, which {till poffeffes the throne of Denmark. He owed his elevation as well to his lineal de- {cent from Eric VII. as to the moderation of his unele Adolphus, duke of Slefwick, to whom the crown was of- fered upon the death of Chriftopher of Bavaria without if- fue. Adolphus declined the honour on accouut of his ad- vanced age, and recommended, in his ftead, Chriftian, then twenty-two years of age. In the fame year that he afcend- ed the throne of Denmark, he was,crowned king of Nor- way, in right of his defcent from one of their ancient kings. After fome ftruggles he obtained alfo the crown of Sweden in 1558, upon the depofition of Charles Canutfon. About the fame time the duchy of Slefwick reverted to the crowa of Denmark, and Chriltian obtained poffeffion of the coun- ties of Holltein and Stormar. The Swedes, in a fhort time, grew difcontented with the government of Chriltian, who neglected to vilit them, and had applied the public money in the purchafe of Holltein and Stormar. To put an end to their machinations, Chriltian feized the archbifhop of Upfal, whom he fufpected, and fent him prifoner to Denmark. This action caufed an open revolt, and led to the depofition of the king. From this period Chriftian aban- doned all proje¢ts of ambition, and attended to the concerns of his own kingdom. He was diftinguifhed for his liberality to the clergy, and in 1473 made a pilgrimage to Rome, where he was received with extraordinary honours. On his return he founded the univerfity of Copenhagen, and died in 1481, aftera reign of thirty-three years. He was a fo- vereign of great moderation and humanity, whofe qualities, being lefs fhining than folid, were more adapted to the ad- miniftration of his own government, than to the exploits of war. By Mallet, the moft celebrated of Danifh hifto- rians, Chriftian I. is characterifed as one of thofe princes who do not attract the admiration of mankind, yet whom Providence never beftows upon a nation but asa fignal mark of favour. Chriitian was fucceeded by his fon John, whom he had already affociated with himfelf in this throne. Curistian IL. king of Denmark, was born in 1481, the fame year in which his grand-father died. In his youth he difcovered a lively genius and a good underltanding, which, if they had been properly cultivated, might have ren- dered him the ornament, inftead of becoming, as he proved, the difgrace of his country. The young prince was firlt en- truited to the.care of a common burgher of .Copenhagen, and was afterwards removed to the houle of a {chool-matter, who was canon of the cathedral. In this fituation his chief employment conflifted in regularly accompanying his matter to church, where he diltinguifhed himfeif beyond the other f{cholars and chorifters in chanting and finging pfalms. He was afterwards placed under the tuition of a German pre-~ ceptor, CHRISTIAN. ‘eeptor, under whom he made a conifiderable proficiency in >the Latin tongue. From this humble education, or from other circum{tances not known to the world, Chriftian im- bibed a tafte for bad company; was accuftomed to haunt common taverns, to mix with the loweft of the populace, and was, in fhort, guilty of almoft every excefs. The king, his father, who had, unintentionally, been the caufe of his fon’s mifconduct, was now indignant at the irregularitics which were become notorious to the whole country, but the bad habits which the prince had contraéted were too {trongly rooted to yield to any effort. He neverthelefs feigned con- trition for his paft behaviour, and recalled his father’s af- fections by his military prowefs and fucceffes in Norway, and by an unwearied application to the affairs of govern- ment. He fucceeded his father in 1513, and during the fir years of his reign, his adminiftration was in many refpects worthy of praife, and the excellence of his laws induced Holberg to affirm, that if the chara&ter of Chriftian II. were to be determined by his laws, and not by his ations, he would merit the appellation of Good, rather than of Ty- rant. Torefecing the difficulties he fhould meet with in ob- taining the crown of Sweden, he refolved to ftrengthen himfelf by an alliance with the houfe of Auftria, and ac- cordingly married Ifabella, filter to the emperor Charles V. Notwithitanding this marriage, which was merely political, he kept a miftrefs named Columbula, in whofe favours he fuf- pected that Torbern Oxy, a yourg nobleman, had partici- pated. The monarch, amid{t the feltivity of banquet, urged him to. avow the faét. “The young man poffeffed a mind in- capable of falfehood ; he acknowledged, that he had loved Columbula, and had folicited, but never obtained her fa- vours. He wasinftantly arrefted, imprifoned, and arraigned ; but by the fenate Vorbern was acquitted, becaule the ‘law had affigned no punifhment for fimple concupifcence. Diffatisied with this decifion, Chriftian affembled another tribunal, where he had him conviéted and immediately exe- cuted, In 1517 Lutheranifm began to excite attention; and in Denmark it was favoured by the king, who hoped it might lead to the confifcation of the church lands. He was, how- ever, obliged to fubmit to the pope, and to fue, through the houfe of Auttria, for a reconciliation with the holy fee. The domettic government of Chriftian became more oppref- five, chicfly through the extortions contrived by Sizebrette, the mother of Columbula, who had the complete confidence of the king. This bafe woman, who felt no compaftion for ‘the poor, nor regard for the rich: who paid no refpe& to the laws, and who acknowledged no other rule than the paflions of the monarch, commanded with defpotic autho- rity, difpofed of all placesand preferments, impofed taxes at pleafure, and exaéted them with fuch rigour, that the boufe- hold furniture and cloathing of thofe who did not pay thes were feized and publicly fold. In 1519 Chriftian re- newed the war againit Sweden, defeated and killed the ad- miniftrator of that country, and through the treachery of the archbifhop of Upfai, he was in the fucceeding year re- cognized) king of Sweden. He fixed upon the following November for his coronation, and then returned to Den- mark, where, with two of his prelates, he concerted one of the moft atrocious and fanguinary projeéts that ftands re- corded inhiftory. R-turning to Sweden, he convoked the aflembly of the flates, and was publicly crowned at Stock- holm. After the ceremonial, the Swedifh nobility were in- vited to a {plendid entertainment, and received with the ut- molt affability. In the midit of the feltivity, he caufed the foldiers to avrett the adminiftrator’s widow, the fenate, and the principal nobility ; and after accufing them of various srimes for which there was no pretence, he inflituted a mock . profecution by Danifh commiffioners. The procefs was, however, too flow for his blood-thirfty difpofition; he cauf- ed a fummary condemnation to be pronounced, and they were led to inftant execution. Fourfcore or ninety noble- men and fenators of the firft rank, both of the laity and clergy, were in one day hanged on gibbets, as felons or trai- tors. Not contented with this exhibition of his favage crus elty, to conclude the {cene, the foldiers were ordered to but- cher the furrounding fpeétators, and the burghers of the city. He even caufed the adminiftrator’s body to be dug from its grave, which, in its putrid ftate, he tore to pieces with his teeth and nails like a wild beaft. His progrefs on his return to Denmark was marked with blood, and he left no memorials behind him but thofe of cruelty. The maflacre of Stockholm, in which fix hundred perfons were murdered in cold bleod, and amidit the rejoicings of a coronation, exhibited fuch a ftriking inftance of the ma- lignant and implacable charaéter of the king, that upon the revolt of Guilavus Vafa, the fpirit of refiltance diflufed its felt rapidly from Sweden to Denmark, where he had exalpes rated his fubjeéts by repeated cruelties and oppreffions. In 1523 he was publicly depofed by the ftates of Denmark, and the crown transferred to his uncle Frederic, duke of Hol- ftein. The depofition of this infamous tyrant was in con- fequence only of the juft abhorrence in which he was held by all ranks of people. For feveral years he fubmitted without a ftruggle to the ignominy of banifhment, but in i532 he invaded the Danifh dominions, and was taken pri- foner. The place of his confinement was a dungeon in the caltle of Sunderborg, in the ifle of Alfen. Having enter- ed the gloomy cell, with a favourite dwarf, the fole com- panion of his mifery, the door was inftantly blocked up. In this ftate he remained till the year 1546, when he made a folemn renunciation for himfelf and heirs of all claims to the crowns of Denmark and Norway, and promifed never to go out of the fortrefs of Callemburg without the king’s con. fent, and never to fpeak to a ftranger but in the governor’s prefence. On thefe conditions he was allowed the privilege of hunting and fifhing, within certain limits, and received a handfome appointment, and other advantages were itipulat- ed for him in a treaty concluded between the king of Den- mark and the emperor at Spires. In this retreat did Chrif tian reach his feventy-eighth year, enjoying a degree of coms fort to which his many crimes gave no title whatever. He died in 1559, leaving two daughters, one ele€trefs Pala- tine, the other, duchefs firft of Milan, then of Lorraine. Of himfelf is left the chara@ter of the Nero of the North. Itis faid, that during bis imprifonment, he was occafionally fo much affeéted with refleGtions on his palt conduct, that he would burit into tears, throw himfelf upon the ground, utter the moit bitter lamentations, and continue for fome time ina ftate approaching to infanity. There were feveral other monarchs of Sweden of the name of Chriltian, concerning whom little need be faid. Curistian IIT. fucceeded Frederic in 1534; he em- braced the Lutheran religion, introduced it among his fub- jeats, end atlength eftablifhed it asthe religion of the ftate. This prince united in his charaéter firmnefs and moderation : he was a lover of letters and learned men, and founded a va- luable library at Copenhagen. He died in 1558, and was fucceeded by Frederic 11., who was followed in 1588 by Curistian IV. This prince afcended the throne before he was twelve years of age. The regency paid every atten- tion to his education, and mafters were procured in all the various accomplifhments of mind and body from different parts of Europe, to whofe exertions the prince did the greateft credit, He was able to converfe with all the ambaf- I fadors CHRISTIANA. fadors from foreign courts, and, at an early period, to dic- tate to hisown minifters who were abroad. In 1611 he made war againlt Sweden, and was eleéted chief of the Proteftant league againit the emperor for the re-eftabliihment of the prince palatine in 1625. The feveral wars in which he was engaged were detrimental to the finances of his country. Tie died in 1648, leaving a high charaéter for vigour of mind and body. He was a flave to violent paflions, which gained ftrength with increafing years. He was addi&ted to women, a circumftance that injured his reputation. Jt mutt, however, be admitted in his praife, that he was a firm and imtrepid warrior, a prince of extenfive genius, and poflefling great generofity and maznanimity. Curistian V. afcended the throne of Denmark in 1670. He found his kingdom involved in various foreign and do- meftic difputes, which led him to employ the firlt years of his reign in putting the revenue into a ttate of order, reftor- ing diicipline among his troops, and ftrengthening his forti- fications. In 1675 he joined the league againit Sweden, and ia the war between the Danes and their allies with the Swedes, Chriftian difplayed great aGtivity and enterprife. His fleet, in conjun&ion with that of the Dutch under Van Tromp, completely defeated that of the Swedes. Fortwo years the king was generally fuccefsful in all his undertak- ings, but in 1677 the tide of victory feemed to turn againtt him, and in 1679 he was glad to conclude a peace. From this period he aimed to fettle all difputes with foreign powers by means of negociation. He attempted to gain poffeffion of Hamburgh, and obtained at firlt a confiderable tribute from that city, but his condué& there led the neighbouring princes to guarantee its protection. Chriftian died in 1699, at the age of fifty-four, when his fubje&s were enjoying the fruits of his mature wifdom and reputation. As a prince he had eftablifhed a high charaGter, and claimed refpe& throughout Europe. As a man, he fpoke with fluency molt foreign languages, was a promoter of the {ciences, and had made great progrefs in thofe branches of the mathema- tics which relate to the military art. See Denmark, Mod. Univerf. Hitt. Coxe’s Travels. Du Frefnoy. Curistian, Awprew, born at Rippen, a {mall town in Denmark, in 1551. He received the rudiments of his edu- cation at Wittenburg, which he perfeéted at Bafle, where he took Ins degree of dodior in medicine. Being called to Copenhagen, he taught medicine there for fifteen years, at the end of which time he was fent by his fovereign, Chriftian IV. to prelide in the college of nobleffe lately eftablifhed’ at Sora. in this fituation he died in 1606. The work by which he is known, 1s entitled ‘* Enchiridion Medicum, de cognofcendis, curandifque externis et internis Humani Corporis Morbis,” Bafiiie, 1583, 8vo. It contains, in epi- tome, the method, then moft approved, of treating difeafes 5. as fuch it was feveral times re-printed. Did. Hit. CHRISTIANA, in Geography, a pol-town of America, in the ftate of Delaware and county of Néwcattle, feated on a navigable creek of the fame name, which falls into Dela- ware river from the fouth-weft, a little below Wilmington. The town, confifling of about 50 houfes and a Prefbyterian church, ftands ona declivity, commanding a pleafant profpe& of the country towards the Delaware, and carries on a con- fiderable trade with Philadelphia in flour. ‘his is the greatelt carrying-place between the navigable waters of the Delaware and Chefapeak, which are here 13 miles apart. It was built by the Swedes in 1630, and derived its name from that of their queen. It is g miles S.W. of Wilming- ton, and 37 S.W. of Philadelphia. Haller. Bib. Eloy. Cuerstrana, Great and Little, two iflets in the Grecian® Archipelago, fituated 2 leagues S.W. of Santorin. Curistrana, or Curistina, Santa, one of the Mar- quefas iflands, called by the natives Ohitahoo, or Waitahé,. lying under the fame parallel with St. Pedro, or Onateaya, 3 or 4 leagues more to the weft. Refolution bay, neat the middle of the weft coaft of the ifland, lies in S. lat. 9° 55’ 30". and W. long. 139° 8’ 40"; and the weft end of Dominica, or Ohevahooa, hes N. 15° W. Capt Cook gave this bay the name of his fhip. By the Spaniards it was called Port Madre de Dios. It is not more than 2 miles acrofs at its mouth by $ of a mile in depth; and the two points which form it lie, with refpe& to each other, ina north by eaft and fouth by welt direftion. ‘The fouth point is terminated by a fteep rock, “and a hill of gentle declivity terminates the north point, which is formed by bold and excavated rocks, and is covered with ‘‘ cafuarinas,” the large trees, whofe hard and heavy wood is ufed for making clubs and other weapons. The lands at the bottom of the bay prefent a chain of high hills, lightly broken at their fummits, and fteep in feveral places. Mr. G. Forfter fays, that the bot- tom of the harbour is filled up with a very high ridge, level at top, and refembling the Table-mountain at the Cape of Good Hope. With the exception of two {mall coves,. which both receive a rivulet, and where an acceffible beach occurs, the remainder of the circumference of the bay ex- hibits, throughout, nothing but bold rocks, clofe to which the lead indicates a coral bottom, with a depth of water of 20 fathoms and upwards. One of thefe coves is called the *¢ North Cove,” the other the “ South Cove.” Two val- lies, well covered with trees, terminate at the north cove, and a pretty rivulet, after having fertilifed the lands, affords, at its mouth, a good watering-place for fhips. The bottom of the bay is fandy, excellent for holding, over a depth of water, which fhoals, towards the fhore, from 36 to 13 or 14. fathoms. Freth water of the beft quality is procured in the North Cove, and wood is alfo eafily obtained. It appears from different accounts, that the fprings and rivers of the ifland are fubjes to confiderable augmentations and diminu- tions ; and alternate inundations or drought oblige the natives to removetheir dwellingsfromonepartof the ifland to another. The huts or cabins occupied by the inhabitants are built on a little platform of ftones, raifed fomewhat above the level of the ground. The walls are formed with bamboo-canes, 7 or 8 feet high, placed clofe together; and the roof, the middle of which rifes 9 or 10 feet above the foundation, is formed by other bamboos laid in a parallel direétion, one above the other, and covered with leaves of a fpecics of the fan-palm, or of the bread-fruit tree. The roofs are ridged, fo as to carry off the water by a double flope ; and in one of the fronts are a door and window. Thefe cabins are, in general, g or 10 feet long, by 5 or 6 broad, and fome are {quare. ‘The floor is paved with large {tones, joined together very neatly, and covered with mats. On the outfide of thefe habitations are platforms, on which the natives: fit cown and amufe themielves ; and thefe are paved, in order to guard again{t damp in the rainy feafon. The religious ceremonies of the inhabitants refemble thofe of the Society Iflands. The French, during their ftay here, difcovered nothing that had the appearance of worthip to a Supreme Being. Pleafure is the divinity of the country ; they have no fuperftition, no ceremony, vio priefts or jugglers, fays Mar- chand. In each diitriét they have a morai, where the dead are buried beneath a pavement of large ftones. They have a multitude of deities; and they only offer hogs in their {gerifices, but never men, They have no regular. govern ment,, CHRISTIANA, ment, eftablifhed law, or punifhments; but cuftom is the general rule. Their chief food is the hog, which they eat five or fix times a day, without having any regular meals. Their pork, and alfo their fowls, they drefs in ovens dug in the ground, and heated with ftoues ; fometimes in wooden veffels, where the water is made to boil by means of hot ftones, which they throw into it repeatedly. Not usfre- quently they eat fith raw, and even pork. They know how to extraét from the cocoa-nut an oil, which is probably em- ployed in the drefling of their difhes; but which is priaci- pally ufed for anointing the whole body: the women confume great quantities of it im maintaining the glofs and beauty of their hair. When they are deftitute of animal food, they ufe the roafted bread-fruit, fifh, mahie, pudding made of it and other vegetables, a kind of walnuts, and a pafte made of a yoot refembling the yam. Their commen drink is pure water, and alfo cocoa-nut milk. ‘They alfo prepare a ftrong liquor, either of pepper-root, which they ufe as a token of peace, or of the root of ginger; but they are temperate ir the ufe of it, and no inftance of intoxication occurs amongt them. To their friends they manifelt their civility in a fin- gular manner, by offering to thein bits which they have pre- vioufly chewed, in order to put them to no other trouble than that of {wallowing what is thus prepared. The women are not allowed to eat hog, and are probably under other prohi- bitions, as at Otaheite, and feem much more fervile to the men, and more harfhly treated. It has been faid that the ‘women are not allowed to mefs with the men, as is the cafe in other iflands; but Capt. Chanal fays that he was feveral times at their meals, and that he faw the men, women, and children eat in common, and feed on the fame difhes. They are employed in making cloth and matting, but not in cookery, except for themfelves. The men feldom work, fome old perfons excepted, who make cords and nets. The re{t bafk indolently in the fun, telling their ftories, and thus beguiling their time. The chief is faid to have three wives, and has feveral children ; but polygamy feems to be a privi- lege reftriGted to the chief. From what is known, however, of the difpofition and manners of the natives of St. Chrittiana, we may hefitate in admitting that they are at all acquainted with conjugal union ; at leaft it is certain, that the men know no more of jealoufy than the women do of fidelity. Every woman feems to be the wife of all the men ; and every man the hufband of all the women. Every man makes to ftrangers the offer of every woman without any diftin¢ction. The Spa- niards lead us to believe that the women are common without any diftinétion of age or kindred ; but furgeon Roblet aflures us, that the intimate union of the fexes between relations is rigoroufly prohibited ; but he cannot affign the degree of re- lationfh:p to which the prohibition extends. Thefe people appear to be very fond of their children. Before the age of puberty, the operation of flitting the prepuce, is performed ; and all the men are tattooed (fee Tartooinc), even tothe lips and eye-lids. ‘They have few difeafes, and, as the mif- fionari¢s fay, are yet happily free from the fatal malady which has made fuch ravages in the Society Iflands. Capt. Cook, inhis Second Voyage, defcribes them as furpaffing all other nations in fymmetry of fhape and regular features. His ob- fervations have been confirmed by thofe of Capt. Chanal aud furgeon Roblet, recorded by Marchand. Not a fingle de- formed or ill-proportioned perfon was feen on the ifland ; all were ftrong, tall, well-limbed, and remarkably active. The men are from 5 feet. 10 inches high to 6 feet. Their eyes are not fo full, nor their teeth fo good as thofe of many other nations; but Capt. Chanal fays, that they have fine large black eyes and handfome teeth; their hair is of various co- lours, but none red; fome have it long, but the general cuftom was to wear it fhort, except a bunch on each fide of the crown, which is tied ina knot. In thefe refpects there is.a great variety; and alfo in their treatment of the beard. Thofe who preferve it at full length, which is commonly the cafe, arrange it in different ways ; generally parting it into two tufts, and either fhaving or plucking out the portion which belongs tothe chin. When it is fuffered to grow to its fulllength, it is parted into locks, of which they form braids, or to which they falten the teeth of fifhes, or of men, or {mall pieces of bone, fhells, and beads of coloured glefs, which- they receive from the Europeans. Some eradicate the whole of the beard. On their heads they place various ornaments, formed of feathers, cloth, or cocoa-nut leaves, to which they fufpend pearl. oyfter-fhells, tortoife-fhell, and pieces of mother of pearl, of various fizes and differently ar- ranged ; all which pieces being concentric, and of unequal diameter, form together a large cockade, ftriped circularly. This kird of diadem is fometimes furmounted by a plume. They alfo ufc various kinds of ornaments for the neck, which are compofed of. fmall pieces of light wood, with {mall red feeds attached to them with gum or fize, or of red hufks, or of polifhed bone, fhells, white coral, or ftone. Men and wo- men have, in general, their ears pierced; but none habitually wear pendants. In the number of their moft curious orna- ments, they reckon all that they receive from firangers, and even all that they can fteal from them ; and every thing is hung to the neck, the ears, and the waift. They alfoadora their heads, arms, waifty knees, and even infteps, as well as clubs and other weapons, with treffes or locks of hair, which may be that of the enemies whom they have flain in battle, or rather, when we confider their miid and placable difpofi- tion, that of their friends or decealed relatives. To their waift, and on their fhoulders, they fufpend one, two, and fometimes three fculls; but they are not fo highly appreciated as the hair. They have, among their ornaments, large fans formed of the fibres of grafs and whitened with lime, which they ufe for cooling themfelves, and parafols made of large palm- leaves adorned with a variety of feathers. Their countenances are pleafing and open, and difplay much vivacity. Their com- plexion is tawny, and rendered almoft black by the pun¢tures of the whole body. Capt. Chanal thinks there are no fuch differences among individuals as warrant an interence, that there exift among them fpecies effentially different. But the phyfical differences in individuals, noticed by furgeon Ro- blet, feemed to him to indicate adifference in the fpecies. It is alfo known, that in order to defignate the fame obje€t, they have feveral names which feem not to belong to the fame Janguage. Poflibly the Mendogans, from their mild and hofpitable difpofition, have been induecd to receive {trangers among them, thrown by ftorms or the chances of war on their coafts, and to incorporate them in the primitive nation, with which they are at thisday confounded. ‘They were en- tirely naked, except a {mall piece of cloth round their waift and loins. Their punétures were difpofed with the utmoft regularity, fo that the marks on each leg, arm, and cheek, were in general fimilar. ‘The women, who are extolled for their beauty, are rather of tall ftature, though well-propor- tioned, and their general colour inclining to brown. Some few are puntured or tattooed. They wear a long narrow piece of cloth wrapped two or three times round their wailt, and having the ends tucked up between their thighs ; above this is a broad piece of cloth, nearly as large asa fheet, tied at the upper corners ; they lay the knot over one fhoul- der, and the garment, hanging loofe, reaches half way down the leg. Their garments, however, are of little ufe to the females ; 4 rs rege fn __= a ee el CHRISTIANA. females; as they are a fort of amphibious animals, who {pend a great part of the day in water; and appear there as much at their eafe as if they were reclined on a mofly carpet, or {porting on a feather-bed. Among thefe females a very great degree of libertinifm prevails ; and they either fell or gratuitoufly give their favours toany indifcrimigately who feek them. Surgeon Roblet defcribes the licentioufnefs of their amours, though in guarded language, in a manner that mutt difgult every chalte reader, and that fhews their extreme de- generacy and indecoram. ‘Their canoes are made of wood, and the bark of a foft tree, which grows near the fea} they are from 16 to 20 feet long, and about 16-inches broad. The head and ftern are formed out of two folid pieces of wood ;. the former is curved, and the latter ends ina point, which projeéts horizontally, and is decorated with a rude carved fivure, having a faint refemblance to a human face. Some of the canoes have a latteen fail, but they are generally rowed with paddles, Their naval architecture, however, is ftill in its infancy, if we compare it with that of the Ctaheitans. Sometimes two of theit il-conftructed and leaking canoes are joined toge- ther; but they molt commonly content themfelves with adapting to them an outrigger, compofed of two bamboos projecting laterally, and fattened at their outer extremities by a branch of a light wood, which forms the gunwale of the frame. Thefe canoes carry from three to feven men, and from ten to fifteen when two are lafhed together, Ifa canoe overfets, an accident not uncommon, the men jump overboard, right her, bale her out, and get into her again very quietly. Capt. Chanal fays, that the conftru€tion of their houfes and canoes evinces no inconfiderable fhare of in- duitry and patience. In the fabrication of their weapons, they difplay great care and ingemity. Thefe confilt of lances from nine to eleven feet long, a fort of fabre, pikes or javelins, and clubs, having at one extremity a large knob, and made of cafuarina wood, ornamented with carving. In the rainy feafon they maintain intercourfe with one another by means of ftilts, compofed of two pieces, fo adapted to each other, as to admit of being accommodated to fhallow or deep water. Their tools, rude as they are, their ffhing implements, dif- fering very little from ours, and the various utenfils, articles of furniture, garments and dreffes, all announce intelligence and indultry in the perfons by whom they were invented, and alfo in thofe by whom they are fabricated. Their hatchet, which is a black and fharp ftone, fhaped like an elongated wedge, ora mortife ch:fel, and faftened toa piece of crooked wood by fmall fennit made of cocoa-nut bafs ; their pieces of fhell, formed in fharp-edged inftruments and faws, and their rough flan of fome fith, ferve to fafhion and polifh their dif- ferent works of carpentry and of {culpture. Their fifhing im- plements, confilling of the {coop-net and the {weep-net, are made, fome of them with cocoa-nut bafs, others with the cortical fibres of a fpecies of nettle. The fame materials are employed for making ropes, fennit, and mats. Their houfhold utenfils confift of calabathes of different capacities, which they contrive to {top fo hermetically, that they may be employed for the conveyance of liquids, and of various wooden veflels ufed for their food ; and on thefe they amufe themfelves in carving and engraving figures of rn, fifhes, and birds. The fubftance of their cloths is the bark of the paper mulberry tree; and {ome are a!fo made of the cortical fibres of the bread-fruit tree ; and thefe not only wear tolera- bly well, but are fometimes dyed yellow. After all, the principal occupation of the natives of St. Chriftiana is to fing, dance, and amufe themfelves. The mufic of Otaheite and of this ifland are much the fame, and the inhabitants of both Vou. VII. make ufe of the fame kind of drums. They amnfe them. felves in running on their ftilts, and alfo in {wimming, to which exercife they devote whole days, without any other noutifhment befides the flefh and the milk of cocoa-nuts- Thus devoted to amufement and pleafure, the Mendogans are an amiable, hofpitable, and generous people. Although, from the levity and indolence that are natural to them, they are addicted to theft, yet they reftore on the firft demand, and even with laughter, the articles which they have pur- loined. Neverthelefs robbery is not authorized, nor even tolerated at Santa Chriitiana: and whilft they tteal from ftrangers, they obferve the molt fcrupulous fidelity among one another. It is not eafy to eflimate the population of this ifland; but Marchand, allowing rooo imbhabitants for every league of coalt, eftimates the whole number at 700d. On making a general comparifon between the ifland of St. Chriftiana and that of Otahcite, it is evident that the former does not exhibit the opulence, the luxury, the profufion of food, the {tudied varicty and valt quantity of cloth, which are remarked in the principal ifland of the great equinoxial ocean. ‘The Taheiteans have many fuperfluities; they have made great advances towards civilization, anc great progre(s, not only in the ufeful, but even in the agreeable arts. The Mendogans poflefs a re{pectable competence, and in every refpect a defirable degree of comfort, and their difpofition inclines them not to wifh for more than they enjoy ; divided between pleafure and idlenefs, they appear fheltered from the political ftorms which muft frequently difturb) the government, partly monarchical, partly feudal, which is eftablifhed among the Taheiteans, ‘The latter have loft-in li- berty what they have acquired in civilization ; one part lives by the labours of the other, and this is the natural and or- dinary routine of great focieties; they lead a fenfual life; and hereditary difeafes already begin to punifh them for their ex- cefles. ‘The Mendoganshave preferved their primitive liber- ty in its full perfeétion; and every one lives through him- {elf and for himfelf: the robuft health which they enjoy is, without doubt, far preferable to that voluptuoufnefs to which — they are yet ftrangers. An» European, I conceive, (fays Marchand) would for himfelf prefer Taheitee to Wahiheté ; but a Mendogan would be much to blame, if he envied the lot ofa Taheitean : by deviating more from nature, he could have little to gain, and, perhaps, much to lofe. The only tame fowls are cocks and hens, and their quad- rupeds only hogs; but the woods are inhabited by {mall birds, whofe plumage is exceedingly beautiful, and their notes fweetly varied. The Oceanic birds, which frequent the bay, are man-of- war birds, tropic birds, boobies, and different {pecies of terns and {wallows. Captain Cook, Mr. Reinhold Forfter, and Mefirs, Chanal and Roblet, have given a vocabulary of the words commonly ufed in this ifland ; from which it appears, that the Mendo- cans employ no difficult articulation, and that their language, notwithftanding the frequent afpirations, and the vehemence with which they are accuftomed to exprefs themfelves, pof feffes {weetnefs and a fort of harmony. The language of this ifland has a great affinity to that of the Society iflands, or it is rather, as Marchand fuggetts, the fame tongue; and if this be true, it proves, that, al- though the two archipelagos are feparated by an interval of fea of 260 leagues, and although it may be prefumed, that their canoes do not maintain between them an habitual com- munication, the people who inhabit them muft have had a common origin. A native of the Society iflands, who was embarked in the Refolution, converfed fluently with the na- 5D tives CHR tives of Ia Madre de Dios; but captain Cook fays, that the Englith, who muft in their vifits to Otaheite have ac- quired a knowledge of mott of the words fpoken there, could never fucceed in making themfelves anderftood at Santa Chriftiana. As far as it has been examined, the lan- guage of this ifland employs 5 vowels, a, ¢, i, 9, u, but the confonants, in 95 words that have been collected by captain Chanal, are only 8 in number, and perform the office of 12 of ours; viz. b or p, d, chard, g hard, and q, f, m, n, t, v. ‘The natives of Santa Chriftiana cannot articulate our r, and they fupply the defect by a fort of afpiration. Our confonants x, /; x, make no part of the articulations of the language of this ifland. Miffionary Voyage, 1797, p. 144. &c. Marchand’s Voyage, vol. i. and ii. In Marchand’s Voyage, (vol. i.) we have an account very much in detail of this ifland ; together with a ftatement of the circumftances in which the Spaniards, Englifh, and French, differ from one another. This ifland, it is faid, pre- fents itfelf under an agreeable afpect ; being very lofty, as well as the other iflands of the group. A narrow chain of high hills extends through its whole length, and from the fhore run other chains of equal elevation, which branch out and join the principal chain ; thefe hills are feparated by confined and deep vallies, into which run fome rivulets or cafcades, that water every part of the ifland; fruit trees of various fpecies here occafion coolnefs, and yield abund- ance to its inhabitants. According to the flatement of captain Cook, the ifland is in length, from N. to S. 3 leagues, of 20 to a degree, and in circuit 7 leagues, whereas Quiros extends it to g Spanifh leagues of 174 to a degree; but as neither of them examined more than a portion of the welt coaft of the ifland, its abfolute extent and circumfe- rence remain ftill undetermined. The fhores of this ifland prefent hollow rocks, the black, fpongy, hard, and brittle itone of which indicates the effet and the produce of a great volcanic eruption; fo that in regard to its origin and the nature of its minerals it is fimilar to the higher of the Society iflands, which appear to have been the feat of an- cient volcanoes. The foil of the vallies is a very {trong mould, fometimes black, fometimes red, and very fit for ye- getation, and it produces various fpecies of lichens, grafles, purflains, and fhrubs. Thefe vallies.are covered with trees ; fuch as the cocoa- palm, the bread-fruit tree, the plantain tree, the cafuarina, the paper-mulberry tree, (morus papyri- fera,) the fibres of the bark of which are employed by the natives in the fabrication of their cloths, &c. &c. Befides the fruits of the cocoa-nut, plantain, and bread-fruit tree, the ifland furnifhes a fort Br {weet potatoe, a fpecies of apple, ginger, cucumbers like thofe of the Weft-India iflands, water-crefs, and purflain, the yam, the chefnut, the walnut, &c. Santa Chniftiana poffefles the fugar-cane ; but the inhabitants are ignorant of its value. European animals, though left there by captain Cook, either could not accom- modate themfelves to this climate, or were neglected, and perhaps exterminated, by the inhabitants, fo that later voya- gers could not difcover any of them; neither could they find any of the European utenfils or commodities, fuch as looking-glafles, knives, hatchets, nails, glafs-beads, &c. left there by captain Cook, in 1774. The only quadruped found in Santa Chriftiana was the hog, {mall in fize, but of delicate and well-tafted flefh; if we except the rat, which, to the great detriment of the inhabitants, has exceedingly multiplied in the ifland. Poultry are fcarce ; and apparently reared merely for the fake of plucking the cocks, whofe large tail feathers, afforted forforming plumes, are employed in fhad- ing their head-dreffes, The fea furnithes excellent rock-fih ; 6 CHR the bonito is very common. The bay is often frequented by porpoifes and fhark. he climate is falubrious, and the natives appear healthy and robuit; but the temperature is fubject to great variations from one feafon to the other. In 1774 the variation obferved by Mr. Wales was 4° 22/ 15" E. and in 1791, it was obferved by captain Marchand to be 3° 14/18”, From comparing the ob{ervations of Mr. Wales and captain Marchand, it may be concluded, that in the fpace of 17 years, the variation of the compafs has no un- dergone any material change in this latitude. CHRISTIANIA, a city and fea-port of Norway, in the government of Aggerhuus; fituated at the extre- mity of an extenfive and fertile valley, forming a femicircular bend along the fhore of a beautiful bay, which, being en- clofed by hills, uplands, and forefts, has the appearance of a large lake ; and about 30 Englifh miles from the open fea. The navigation of the bay is fomewhat difficult, but it is fufficiently deep for the largeft veffels, having fix or feven fathoms of water clofe to the quay. It is efteemed the ca- pital of the kingdom; becaufe it contains the fupreme court of juftice. It lies in N. lat. 59° 56’ 37”, and E. long. 10” 50’, on the northern extremity of the bay of Bior- ning, an inlet of the fea, forming the northern extremity of the gulf o€ Chriltiania, whofe rocky thores are overfpread with thick foretts. The town is divided into three parts, viz. the city and the three fuburbs of Waterlandt, Peter- wigen, and Fierdingen, the fortrefs of Aggerhuus, and the old town of Opfloe, or Apfloe. The city contains 413 houfes, the fuburbs 652, Opfloe 400, including the epifcopal palace, (the bifhop of Chriftiania being metropolitan of Norway, and the fee yielding an annual revenue of 400l.): and the number of inhabitants amounts to about gooo. The city formerly occupied the fcite of Opfloe, and was rebuilt in its prefent fituation by Chriftian IV. in 1624, after a plan de- figned by himfelf: the ftreets are carried in ftraight lines, and at right angles to each other, and are uniformly 40 feet broad, and very neat and clean. It has a Latin {chool, founded by Chriftian IV. in 1635, and a public library. The caftle of Aggerhuus is built on the weit fide of the bay, at a fmall diltance from the city ; and was ereéted in 1310 by the Swedes, and ftrengtheged in 1633 by Chriftian IV. and by fucceeding kings of Denmark at fub- fequent periods. See AGGERHUUS. : Chriftiania has an excellent harbour, and carries on a con- fiderable trade. ‘The principal exports are tar, foap, iron, copper, planks, and deals; allum manufaétured at Mr. Cooper’s works for about 3000l. ; iron from the four works of Borum, Edfwold, Narkedahl, and Ondahlen, 14,000l. ; copper from Foldahl, 10,0001. ; planks and deals, g0,000l., principally to England. The planks and deals are faid to be of fuperior eftimatioa to thofe fent from America, Ruffia, and the different parts of the Baltic; becaufe the trees grow on the rocks, and are therefore firmer, more compact, and lefs liable to rot than the others, which chiefly fhoot from a fandy or loamy foil. The planks are either red or white fir or pine. The red wood is produced from the Scotch fir, and the white wood, which is in fuch high efti- mation, from the fpruce fir. Each tree yields three pieces of timber, eleven or twelve feet in length, and1s ufually fawed into three planks; a tree generally requires 70 or So years” growth before it arrives at the greateft perfection. The greateft part of the timber is hewn in the inland country, and floated down the rivers and cataraéts. Saw-mills are ufed for cutting the planks ; but they mutt be privileged, and they are reftricted to cut only a certain quantity. The pro- prietors are bound to declare on oath, that they have not exceeded CHR exceeded that quantity: and if they do, the privilege is taken away, and the faw-mill deftroyed. At Chriltiania there are 136 privileged faw-mills, of which roo belong to the family of Anker. The quantity of planks permitted to be cut amounts to 20,000,000 ftandard deals, 12 feet long, and 144 inches thick. - CuristianiA, a government of Norway, otherwife called AGGERHUUS}; which fee. CHRISTIANAO, Sr. a Portuguefe town on the coaft of Brafil; off which is a {mal] bay without the northernmoft reef of the river Serugippa, which is fix leagues from the river Francifco, where is good anchorage. CHRISTIANOPLE., a fortified fea-port town of South Gothland in Sweden. N. lat. about 56° 26’. E. long. 15° 41’. It is four leagues from the S. end of the ifland of Oeland to the point of Chriltianople, which is the breadth of the S. entrance of Calmar found. CHRISTIANOPOLIS, in Ancient Geography, an epif- copal town of the Peloponnefus, in Arcadia. CHRISTIANS of St. Fohn, in LEcclefiafical Hiflory, a corrupt fe& of Chriftians, very numerous in Baflora, and the neighbouring towns. They formerly inhabited along the river Jordan, where St. John baptized: and it was thence they had their name. But after the Mahometans became matters of Palettine, they retired into Mefopotomia and Chaldea. They hold an anniverfary feaft of five days; during which, they all go to their bifhops, who baptize them with the baptifm of St.John; their baptifm is always performed in rivers, and that only on Sundays. They have no notion of the third perfon of the Trinity; _tior have they any canonical books, but feveral which are full of charms, &c. Their bifhoprics de{cend by inheritance, as our eftates do; though they have the ceremony of an eleGtion. There is no fatisfatory account of the origin or principles of this fect. Sce Sanmans Cuaistians of St. Thomas, or San Thome, a fe& of ancient Chriftians found in the Eaft Indies, when the Europeans touched at the port of Calicut; who pretend to be defcend. ed from thofe of St. Thomas converted in the Eaft Indies; whence the name. ‘I'he natives call them, by way of contempt, Nazarenes ; their more honourable appellation is Mappuleymar. See THome#ans. Some learned men in Enrope fay, it was not St. Thomas the apoitle that converted that country, but another St. Thomas: others fay, it was a Neftorian merchant, called Thomas. It is certain they are Neftorians, and have been fo a long time ; infomuch that Chrifiians of St. Thomas now pafles for the name of a feét. ‘They have a patriarch, who refides at Moful. The pope has made feveral attempts to reduce them under his obedieuce, but to no purpofe. The number of thefe Chriftians muft have been very confiderable in the beginning of the 16th century, when the Portuguefe became firlt acquainted with them, fince they poffeffed about 110 churches, in the countries now fubject to the Travan- core and Cochin rajahs ; and, at the prefent time, after the manifold perfecutions, oppreffions, and fucceffive revolutions, that have almoft depopulated the whole coaft, they are com- ‘puted to amount to no lefs than 150,000 perfons. They are indiferiminately called St. Thomé Chriftians, Nefto- rians, Syrians, and fometimes the Malabar Chriftians of the mountains, by the Portuguefe writers of that time, and by the fubfequent miffionaries from Rome. ‘The mo{t common name given to them by the Hindoos of the country is that of «* Nazaranee Mapila,”? and more frequently ‘ Surians,’”’ or “ Surianee Mapila.” he appellation of * St. Thome CHR Chriftians,”? which the Portuguefe were fond of beltowing upon them, probably originated from the chief who fettled the firft colony of Syrians on the coaft, and who, according to their tradition, was their firlt bifhop and founder of their religion in thefe countries, whofe name was ‘* Mar Thomé.’’ His arrival may, perhaps, be afcertained to. have occurred during the violent perfecution of the feét of Neitorius, under Theodofius II., or fome time after. The Portuguefe, how- ever, pretend that St. Thomas the apoflle arrived in India, and, having converted a great number of idolaters on the coatt of Malabar, and afterwards on the other fide of India, as far as Malliapoor, now St. Thomé, fuffered martyrdom there. The Malabar Chriftians, as they fay, remained a long time without ecclefiaftical chiefs, and without inter courfe with the reft of the Chriftian world, till they pro- cured bifhops from Moful in Syria, who introduced into this country the herefy of Neftorius. Tis ftory, though very improbable, and unfupported by any hiltorical proof, has been repeatedly afferted, even by Proteftant writers. Com- mon tradition, which has been admitted by the Portuguefe writers of the 16th century, probably on the foundation of written records in the Syriac language, which then exifted, and were afterwards all deftroyed by the famous archbifhop De Menezes at the fynod of Odiamper, mentions Mar Thomé as the firft who introduced the Chrittian religion into Malabar. The Neftorians confider him as their firft bifhop and founder, from whom they derive their name of St. Thomé Chriftians. His arrival may be placed towards the middle of the sth century ; as notice is taken by Cof- mas Indepleuites of Chriftians in the pepper country or Malé, who received their bifhops from Perfia, where the Neftorian patriarch of that period refided, whofe firlt feat was at Seleucia in Perfia, afterwards removed to Babylon, and at Jaft to Moful. In the Malabar hiftories the firft mention of a Syrian colony of Chriftians is made in the reign of Cocoorangon Perumal, who probably lived in the 6th century ; and again we have an account of two Syrian or Chaidwan bifhops, named Mar Sapor and Mar Perofes, who arrived at Coilan, about 100 years after its foundation, where they were extremely welk received by the raja, and permitted to build a church, which fubfifted when Cabral firlt vifited Coilan. The grants and privileges, which they received from the raja, were engraved; upon copper-plates, which many centuries after were hewn to archbifhop de Menezes, probably the fame that are now in pofleffion of the Jews at Cochin. Other circumftances, fuch as the name of Syrians retained by the St. Thome Chrifians, their peculiar features and complexion, the ftyle of their buildings, efpecially of their churches, and above all, the general ufe of the Syrian or rather Chaldzam lan- guage preferved in all their religious funétions, concur in confirming the opinion, that the St. homé Chriltians were originally a colony of Nettorians. ‘They formerly poffeffed, according to the Portuguefe account, upwards of 1009 vil- lages, fituated moltly in the mountainous part of the fouth- ern divifion of Malabar. They were diitinguifhed from the other inhabitants in a variety of refpeéts; and as to their religious tenets, they generally followed the doctrine of Nef- torius. Upon the arrival of the Purtuguefe, attempts were made to profelyte them to the church of Rome; and, when perfuafion failed, recourfe was had to open force. At length Menezes, archbifhop of Goa, made a perfonal vilit to the Malabar Chriftians, and having appoiuted a fynod at Odiamper, in the vicinity of Cochin, in 1599, he aflembled the Syrian priefts of “ Caffanas’” and 4 elders from each village, and after fome fhew of difputation and explanation of the controverted tenets of the church of Rome, he dic- 5 Dz tated CHR tated the law to them; and overpowering them by his au- thority, effeted in appearance an union of the Nelftorians of Malabar with the Romifh church; and they were for fome time governed by Roz and his fucceffors, under the title of archbifhop of Cranganore. But this union.was nei-' ther general, tincere, nor permanent; for foon after fome Maronites, or Neftorian prie{ts, found their way to the mountains of Travancore, where they revived the old doc- trines and rites, and ever fince Kept up their communication with the Jacobites, Maronites, and Neltorians of Syria. A\t prefent there are 32 churches of this defcription remain- ing, which are called Schifmatic Chriltians by the Portu- guefe and Roman clergy... They have a bifhop or ‘ Mar Thomé,” who refides at Narnatte, about 10 miles inland from Porca, and was confecrated by fome Jacobite bifhops fent from Antiochia, for that purpofe, in 1752. He adheres more to the doétrine of Eutyches than of Neftorius. About 34 of the old St. Thomé churches remain united to the Roman catholic religion, and are governed by the arch- bifhop of Cranganore, or, as he ftyles himfelf, the archbifhop of the Malabar Chriltians of the monntains. Since the death of the latt archbifhop, the government of Goa, which had formerly the nomination, has thought proper to appoint euly a vicar-general, who refides at prefent at Packepalli- porte. The Chaldzan language is fti!l ufed in their churches, and they are furnifhed with the neceffary books by the s‘ Congregatio de propaganda fide.”” The St. Thomé or Syrian Chriftians, of both deferip- tions, never claimed the particular protection of either the Portuguefe or Dutch, as the new Chriltians do, but confi- dered themfelves as fubjeéts of the different rajassin whofe diftris they lived, and for a confiderable time remained un- molefted. But when the rajas of ‘Travancore and Cochin had fucceetied in fubjeGting the petty rajas and chiefs, that were fituated within the lines of ‘Travancore, they eftablifhed an oppreffive defpotifm. The new or Portuguefe Chriftians confift of that race of new converts, gained by the Portu- guefe moftly from the loweft calts along the fea-fhore, where they built many churches; which, by way of ditinétion from the Syrian churches, are generally called’ the Latin churches. They formerly enjoyed the protection of the Portuguefe and Dutch governments, without confidering themfelves as fubjeéts of the rajas in whofe territories they refide ; and acknowledged only their jurifdiction in civil and criminal matters, and paid no taxes to their native princes. This exemption they maintained til the year 1735, when the governor of Cochin entered, for the prefervation of their privileges, into a written agreement with the raja of Co- chin, which ftipulated that they fhould pay a yearly fum to the raja, and in delay or failure of payment, the Dutch, and the raja, were to enforce it; the raja, however, did not adhere to his ftipulations; but compelled, by oppreflive treatment, a great part of them to aban- don his dominions. The number of thefe Chriftians who confider themfelves as under the protection of the fort of ‘Cochin, is eftimated at about 36,000. In eccleftaftical matters they were formerly fubject to the Portuguefe bifhop of Cochin; but being expelled by the Dutch, when they got pofleffion of the fort, he fixed his refidence at Coilan, retain- ing his former appellacion of bifhop of Cochin, and alfo his eccletialtical jurif{diGion over fuch churches as were not un- der the immediate controul of the Dutch. His fucceffors continue to prefide over the fame diocefe, which extends as far as the Cavery river, on the other coat, including the ile of Ceylon; comprehending more than 100 churches of the new or Latin Chriftians. When the Dutch had expelled the Portuguefe bifhops from Cochin, they applied to the CHR fee of Rome for a new bifhop fubject to their controul ; and the pope fent out a Carmelite prior, with epifcopal powers, under the name of vicar-general, to whom the Scates-Gene- ral granted a diploma to that purpofe in 1698. ‘Tnis eccle~- fiaftical dignitary has an annual ftipend of about 490 rupecsy paid him by the ‘* Congregatio de propaganda fide ;”” and. he refides at Varapoly, ina convent of his own order, fup- ported by the ‘ Propaganda.”? His diocefe and power gradually declined ; and at prefent only 14 churches are fub- ject to his epifcopal jurifdigtion. - The St. Thomé Chrif- tians formerly poffeffed a great number of churclies or temples, fumptuoufly built, in the inland parts of the Trae vancore and Cochin dominions; fome of thefe have colt up- wards of a lack of rupees, and few lefs than half that fum, Now they are reduced to a wretched condition, being fearcely able to ere a fhed for their religious meetings over the fplendid ruins of their famous churches. As their opri~ lence has decreafed, their population has alfo dimimfhed. Formerly the converts to Chriftianity were allowed to retain’ their patrimonial eftates ; and under the ancient mild Hindoo government, and even in modern times, till Hyder Ally made his firft irruption, impofts on landed property were unknowa in Malabar. Another fource of the opulence of the Sr. Thomé Chriftians was trade; for they were, in faét, the only, or at leaft the principal merchants in the country, till the Arabs fettled on the coatt. See Afiatic Refearches, vol. vii. CHRISTIANSAND, in Geography, one of the governs ments into which Southern Norway, or Norway Proper, is divided. It occupies the fouth weftern part of the king- dom; and contains 113,024 inhabitants. It is a bifhopric yielding an annual revenue of 6ool. CHRISTIANSAND, a fea-port town of Norway in the government or diocefe of Chriftianfand, oppofite to the ifland of Flekker or Fleckeren. N. lat. 55° 10’. E. long. 8° 14’. i CHRISTIANSBURG, a fortrefs of Africa on the gold coa{t, belonging to Denmark. It was taken by the negroes in 1693, who pillaged it, and kept it for fome time. CurisTiaAnspurG, the chief town of Montgomery coun- ty, inthe ftate of Virginia, North America. It containg few houfes; has a court-houfe and gaul, fituated near a branch of Little river, a water of the Kenhaway. N. lat. 37° t Wa CHRISTIANSHAFEN, a part of the city of Copen- hagen, built on the ifle of Amak. See Amackx. CHRISTIANSOE, a fortrefs of Denmark, built on a rock, on the eat coat of the ifland of Bornholm. CHRISTIANSTADT, a ftrong fortified town of Sweden, in the province of Skone, or Scania, built in 1614, by Chriftian EV. king of Denmark, when this province be- longed to the Danes, and finally ceded to the Swedes by the peace of Rofchild in 1658. The town is {mall, but neatly built, and is efteemed the ftrongeft fortrefs in Sweden. The houfes are all of brick, and moftly ftuccozd white. It ftands on a marfhy plain clofe to the river Helge-a, which flows into the Baltic at Ahus, at the diftance of 20 miles, and is navigable only for {mall craft of 7 tons burden. Englih veffels annually refort to this port for alum, pitch and tar. The inhabitants have manufadtories of filken cloth and ftuffs, and carry onafmall degree of commerce: 57 miles W. of Carl- ferona. N. lat. 55°58’. E. long. 14” 6" CurisTIANSTADT, a town of Silefia, on the weft fide of the Bober, 32 miles W. of Glogau, and 54 N.E. of Dref- den. CHRISTIANSTED, the principal town in the ifland of Santa Cruz, feated on the north fide of the ifland, oy a ne cue fine harbour, Tt is the refidence of the Danith governor, aud is defended by a {tohe fortrefs. CHRISTIANSUND, a {mall ifland of the Northern Ocean on the Weitern coaft of the province of Drontheim in Norway. N. lat. 63° 10’. E. long. 7° 58’. CHRISTIGNETH, a river of North Wales, which runs into the Dee, in the county of Denbigh. CHRISTINA, in Biography, queen. of Sweden, the only child of the great Guftavus Adolphus, who fucceeded to the throne of her father in 1632, when fhe was only five years of age. During her minority Sweden enjoyed internal re- pole, but involved in a long ftate of warfare with the Ger- man empire, in confequence of the invafion of Guftavus, as {upporter of the proteltant league. The war was conducted by able men whom the king left behind him. The abi- lities of Oxentiern, who purfued the plans laid down by Guf- tavus, preferved for Chriltina that preponderancy which the cabinet of Sweden poffefled in the affairs of Germany. The young queen, at an early age, difcovered but little talte for the fociety and occupations of her fex. Her education was conducted upon a very liberal plan. She poffeffed a ftrong underitanding, and a great turn for abftract ftudies. At an early age fhe was capable of reading the Greek hiftorians, Thucydides, Polybius and Tacitus were her favourite au- thors, and as fhe advanced in life, the love of letters became her ruling paffion, which influenced the fortune and condu& of her whole life. At the age of eighteen fhe aflumed the reins of government, and proved herfelf fully able to conduct the affairs of a powerful kingdom. The general peace of Weitphalia had in 1648 reftored tranquillity to Sweden on terms fufficiently honourable and advantageous to a nation which had attained to a military reputation in no wife infe- rior to that of any European ftate. Several princes of Eu- rope afpired to the hand of Chriftina, but fhe rejected their propolals, pleading as the motives of her conduét, political interefts, contrariety of religion, and diverfity of manners. Her people, anxious for her marriage, recommended to her Charles Guftavus, count palatine, her coufin; fhe rejected their folicitations, having an infuperable averfion to the mar- riage ftate, of which fhe made no fecret, declaring, in reply to one of the remonftrances made to her on the occafion, * that there were certain duties required in the nuptial ce- remony with which fhe could not perfuade herfelf to com- ly.?”. Thefe words were varioufly interpreted, but fhe pro- bably regarded the conjugal connection, as a complete hu- miliation, as it regards the female fex. To prevent a renew- al of applications on this fubjeét, fhe folemnly appointed Guttavus her fucceffor, but without the fmalleft participa- tion inthe rights of the crown during her own life. In the year 1650 fhe was crowned with great f{plendour. From this time fhe entertained a philofophical contempt for pomp and parade, and a kind of difguit for the affairs of ttate. She feemed to be only interefted in that part of the fovercign power which gave her the opportunity of aéting as the pa- tron of the learned throughout Europe, and the encourager of the fine arts. She invited to her court men of the firft reputation in various ftudies ; among thefe were Grotius, Defcartes, Bochart, Huet, Voflius, and others who were highly celebrated. Her choice with regard to thefe feems to have been dire€ted more by general fame, than by her own judgment, or taite for their feveral excellencies, and in general eftimation fhe has derived no great credit either as a learned lady, or as a difcriminating patronefs of literature, She was much under the influence of a Bourdelot, a phyfi- cian who gained his afcendancy by outrageous flattery : and her inattention to the high duties of her ftation dif- gulted her fubjeéts, She was a collector of books, manu- CHR fcripts, medals, paintings, antiques and other curiofities, and. by her profufion, and indifcreet grants, fhe foon brought the finances of her country into a ftate of diforder. In 1652 the refolved to refign the reins of government to her fucceffor, and communicated her intentions to the {tates, who diffuaded her from the purpofe; Charles Guftavus, who had manifelted no defire to reign in her ftead, and who fince the fettlement of the crown had avoided meddling with ftate affairs, joined the ftatesin theirremonftrances. Foratime fhe renounced the projet, but in 1654, when fhe was only in the twenty-eighth year, Chriftina abdicated the crown, in order that fhe might live a life of freedom, and indulze un- reftrained in the purfuits to which fhe was irrevocably ad-- dicted. With her crown, fhe renounced the Lutheran, and embraced the Roman catholic religion: fhe had however ex- hibited too great an indifference to the duties and modes of any religion to be {ufpeéted of having taken this ftep through conf{cientions motives. It was probably preparatory only to her refidence in thofe countries of Europe which for other reafons were molt agreeable to her. In quitting the {cene of her regal power, fhe appeared, or affe€ted to appear, as one who had efcaped imprifonment; at Infpruck fhe made her abjuration, and proceeded from thence to Rome, where fhe intended to fix her abode. Some difgult which. fhe received at Rome, induced her in the fpace of two ycars to determine to vifit France. Here fhe was treat- ed with refpe&t by Louis XIV. but the ladies were fhocked with her mafculiue appearance and demeanor, and the unguarded freedom of her converfation. The learned of Paris paid her every attention, but the perfon whom fhe molt diftinguifhed was Menage, whom fhe appointed mafter. of the ceremonies, an office rarely conferred upun a man of letters. Apartments were affigned to her at Fontainbleau, where fhe committed an ation which. has indelibly ftained her memory, and for which in other countries fhe would have paid the forfeit of her own life. This was the murder of an Italian, Monaldefchi, her mafter of the horfe, who had betrayed fome fecret entrufted to him. He was fummoned into a gallery in the palace, letters were then fhewn to him, at the fight of which he turned pale, and intreated for mercy, bat he was in{tantly ftabbed by two of her own domettics in an apartment adjoining ti.at in which fhe herfelf was. The French court was jultly offended at this atrocious deed, yet, it met with vindicators, among whom was Leibnitz, whole name was difgraced by the caufe which he attempted to juftify. Chriftina was fenfible that fhe was now regarded. with horror in France, and would gladly have vilited Eng- land, but fhe received no. encouragement for that purpofe from Cromwell; fhe therefore, in 1658, returned to Rome, and refumed her amufements in the arts and {ciences. Her deranged finances were put in order by cardinal Azzolini, but fhe till manifefted much levity and inconftancy in her plans and character. In 1660, on the death of Charles Guttavus fhe took a journey to Sweden for the purpole of recovering her crown and dignity. She found, however, her ancient fubjeéts much indifpofed again{t her and her new re- ligion. They refufed to confirm her revenues, cauled her chapel to be pulled down, banifhed all her Italian chaplains, and, in fhort, rejeted her claims. She fubmitted to a fecond renunciation of the throne, after which fhe returned to Rome, and pretended to interett herfelf warmly, firit in be- half of the ifland of Candia, then beficged by the Turks, and afterwards to procure fupplies of men and money for the Venetians. Some differences with the pope, made her re- folve, in 1662, once more to return to Sweden; but the conditions annexed by the fenate to her refidence there, were now fo mortifying, that fhe proceeded no farther en ee urgh.. CHR “burgh, She returned to Rome, and cultivated a corre- fpondence with the learned men there and in other parts of Europe, which was her chief folace under the negle& of perfons in power. At the peace of Nimeguen, fhe fent a plenipotentiary to take care of her interefls, who with difficulty procured remittances of her arrears. In'1679 fhe took a decided intereft inthe do@rines of Molinos, the founder of the feét of Quietifts, who was perfecuted by the French government: and on the revocation of the edi& of Nantz, in 1685, fhe wroteto the French embaffador in Swe- den, animadverting with much freedom and good fenfe on the project of making converts by perfecntion, and the want of real policy in bamifhing ufeful artifans on account of differ- ences in religion. Bayle publifhed this letter, with his own remarks, which offended Chriltina, but the difpute was amicably fettled. In a letter written in 1687 to mademoi- felle Scudery, fhe expreffes herfelf with great tranquillity on the profpect of approaching death, an event, however, which did not take place till #689. ‘The laft fcene the paffed with philofophical compofure; fhe died at the age of fixty-three, leaving behind her many letters; a © Collection of Mifcel- laneous Thoughtsor Maxims,”’ and “ Reflections on'the Life and Aétions of Alexander the Great.”? In Chriftina we behold qualities worthy of commendation and even high ap- plaufe; but it cannot be concealed that fhe poffefled faults me- riting a {trong and decided reprobation. In her we fee a prin- cefs difcrediting her great endowments by a vain parade and affeCtation of fingularity, and apoftatizing toa religion which fhe fometimes affected to ridicule and defpife. While upon the throne, fhe was defirous of a private ftation, and after fhe had attained her wifhes by the voluntary facrifice of her authority, inceffantly repining, and anxious to recover, upon the moft humiliating conditions, that crown which fhe had fo capricioufly refigned. Coxe’s Travels. Univerfal Hittory. Curistina, Santa. See Curistranta, St. CHRISTINESTADT, in Geography, a fea-port town e Sweden, in the province of Eaft Bothnia, built in 1649. CHRISTIPOLIS, in Ancient Geography, an epifcopal town of Cappadocia. CHRISTISEE, in Geography, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Braclaw; 44 miles S.S.W. of Braclaw. CHRISTMAS, the feaft of the nativity of Jefus Chrift. It appears from St. Chryfoftom, that in the primitive times, Chriftmas and Epiphany were celebrated at one and the fame feaft ; that father obferves, that it was but ofa little while that Chriftmas had been celebrated at Antioch on the 25th of December, asa diftin&t feaft ; and that the ufe there- of came from the Weft. The Armenians made but one featt of them, as low as the 12th century. It is commonly maintained, that pope Telefphorus was the firft who ordered the feat of the Nativity to be held on the 25th of December. John, archbifhoo of Nice, in an epiltle upon this fubjeét, relates that at the inftance of St. Cyril of Jerufalem, pope Julius procured a ftri& inquiry to be mad, into the day of our Saviour’s nativity, which being found to be on the 25th of December, they began thence- forth to celebrate the feaft on that day. However, the pre- cife day, or even the month, in which our Saviour was born, is extremely uncertain. Some, as Clemens Alexandrinus in- forms us, affixed it to the 25th of the month Pachon, cor- refponding to the 16th of May. But there are fome cir- cumttances which fhould rather Jead us to conclude, that he was born in autumn; as this was, in every reipeét, the molt proper feafon of the year for a general affeflment, which took place at the birth of Chrift, and which required perfonal at- CHR tendances and as there were fhepherds watching their flocks by night at the time when Chrift was born; and there- fore it is probable, that the ara of the Nativity was either in September or O€tober, A. U. 7485 or 749. See Epocua. Cuaistmas harbour, in Geography, a fafe and commo- dious harbour, with good anchorage and plenty of frefh water, fituated on the N.E. coaft of Kerguelen’s land, otherwife called Defolation ifland. S. lat. 48° 41’. E. long, 69° 4’. Variation, in 1777, 27° 45° W. Curistmas i/land, an ifland of the Pacific ocean, fo called by capt. Cook, on account of his firft landing there on Chriftmas day. It is fituated between the Sandwich iflands on the N., and the Marquefas on the S., at about an equal diftance from the one and the other. It is about 15 or 20 leagues in circumference, covered with wood, and bounded by a reef of coral rocks; having on the W. fide a bank of fine fand, which extends a mile into the fea, and affords good anchorage. In digging no frefh water cou!d be found; and this almoft defolate and uninhabited ifland furnifhes no- thing but turtle, fifh, and a few birds. Capt. Cook caufed the feeds of the cccoa-nuts, yams, and melons to be planted in this ifland. N. lat. 1° 59’. E. long. 202° 30’. CuristmAs rofe, in Botany. Sce Heresorus niger. CuristmAs found, a bay on the S. -coaft of Terra del Fuego, at the extremity of S. America, in S. lat. 55° 22’. W. long. 70° 3’. The entrance into this bay is 3 leagues wide, and bears from St. Ildefonfos’ iflands, at the diftance of ro leagues, N. 37° W. The fhore is generally a rocky bottom, fo that fhips fhould not anchor very near it. The E. point of this found is named Point Nativity ; and the E. fide of York Minfter forms the W. point of this found ; the variation here is 23° jo’ E., and it has high water on full and change days at half paft two o’clock. The adjacent land appeared to capt. Cook, when he vifited this coaft, defolate beyond any thing which he had yet experienced. It feemed to be entirely compofed of rocky mountains, with- out the leaft appearance of vegetation. Thefe mountains terminate in pointed precipices, theferaggy fummits of which rife to a vaft height, fo that fearcely any thing in nature can prefent a more barren and favage afpeét than the whole country. Barren and dreary, however, as the coaft was, it was not totally deftitute of accommodations about Chriftmas found. Frefh water and wood for fuel were found about every harbour; and the country every where abounds with fowl, particularly geefe. A confiderable number of plants was alfo found upon it, almott every {pecies of which was new to the botanilts. CHRISTO, Monre, an ifland in the Mediterranean, S.E. from Corfica, in N. lat. 42° 17’. E. long. 10° 55’.— Alfo, an ifland, due W. from Port Plata, on the N. fide of the ifland of Hifpaniola——Alfo, a remarkable mountain on the coaft of Peru in S. America, a little to the fouthward of Point de Cames. . Curisto, Ponta, a point of land on the Afiatic fhore, forming the S. limit of the gulf of Nicomedia; nearly S. from Scutari, and almoft due E. acrofs the Hellefpont, from Conttantinople. CHRISTOFHER, in Geography, a town of Poland; in the palatinate of Sandomirz; 16 miles S.S.W. of Sando- mirz. CHRISTOGENON, from Xpisos, Chrift, and yivonm, gq am born; in the Greek Church, a taft of 40 days, immediate- ly preceding the fuppofed time of Chrift’s nativity. CHRISTOLYTI, from: Xpisos, Chrift, and Aux, J dif Jolve, a fe& mentioned by Damafcenus; fo called, becaule they maintained that Chrift defcended into hell, ae and oul 5 - tn. CHR foul; and that he left both there ; afcending te heaven with his divinity alone. CHRISTOMACHLI, Xproucexa, from the Greek Xpisos, Chrifl, and puyomes, J fight or oppofe, a defignation given to all forts of heretics who deny the divinity of our Saviour, or hold hetevodox opinions concerning his incarnation. CHRISTOPHER, Hers, in Botany. See Acrz#a Spicata. - CuristopHer’s, Sf. commonly called St. Xiti’s, in Geo- graphy, is one of the leeward Charibbee or Charaibean afands in the Weft Indies, which was called by its ancient pofleffors, the Charaibes, Liemuiga, or the fertile ifland. It was difcovered, in November 1493, by Columbus, who, pleafed with its appearance, gave it his own Chrittian name. It was neither planted nor poffcfled by the Spaniards ; never- thelefs it is faid to have been the mott early Britifh territory in the Weft [ndies, and the common parent both of the Englifh and French fettlements in the Charaibean iflands. It was fuggefted by an experienced friend to Mr. Thomas Warner, that St. Chriftopher, though defpifed and deferted ‘by the Spaniards, afforded the profpect of a favourable fettle- ment fora colony ; and in 1620 he formed the refolution of executing the proje& of his friend. Accordingly, he and 14 other companions took their paflage in a {hip bound for Virginia, and from thence they failed to this ifland in January 1623, and by the following September they had raifed a ‘good crop of tobacco, which they propofed to make the ftaple commodity. Thus it appears, that the firit aétual eftablifhment in this ifland was prior to that in Barbadoes, which did not take place before the latter end of 1624. The plantations of the Englifh fettlers were deftroyed by a hurricane before the clofe of the year 1623 ; and Mr. War- ner was obliged to return to England, where he fought and obtained the powerful patronage and {upport of James Hay, earl of Carlifle, and thus by a feafonable fupply in 1624, he preferved the exiftence of the fettlement. In the following year Mr, Warner returned to the ifland, accompanied by a large body of recruits, and at the fame time arrived M. D’Efnambuc, captain of a French privateer, who, after a fevere engagement with a Spanifh galleon, fought refuge in thefe iflands. Having brought with him to St. Chriltopher’s about 30 hardy veterans, they were holpitably received by the Englifth, who thought themfelves thus fecured againit au apprehended attack on the part of the Charaibes. The fa& feems to have been, that Warner’s firft colony lived on friendly terms with thefe favages, who liberally fupplied it with proviiions; but when their lands were feized by the planters, the latter, confcious of meriting retaliation, appre- bended an attack, though none was really intended. The French and Englith feeling, or perhaps feigning, the alarm of a projected revolt, determined to feize the confpirators. With this view they fell on the Charaibes by night, and having in cold blood murdered from: 100 to 120 of the {toutett, drove all the reft from the ifland, except fuch of the women who were young and handfome, of whom, fays Pere Du Tertre, they made concubines and flaves. The Charaibes who had efcaped the maflacre, united with their countrymen in the neighbouring iflands, made a vigorous attack in order to re- venge themfelves ; and, after a fevere confliat, the Europeans, indebted to the fuperiority of their weapons more than to that of their valour, obtained a complete conquett, purchaf- ing their triumph with the lofs of 100 men, who were left dead on the field of battle. After this exploit the Charaibes quitted this and fome of the fmall iflands in the neighbourhood, and retired to- wards the fouth. Warnerand d’E{nambuc returned to Eu- rope in order to folicit farther fuccour. ‘The former was CHR knighted, and was fent back as governor in 1626, with 400 new recruits, amply fupplied with neceflaries; and D’ EL nambuc, patronized by Richelieu, then minilter of France, projected the eftablifhment of an exclufive company for trad- Ing to this and fome of the neighbouring iflauds. The French, however, in general, either mifunderftood or dif- approved the projeét ; and though D’Efnambuc failed from France in 1627 with 532 recruits, they were fo {cantily fup- plied with provilions and neceflaries, that the greater part perifhed miferably at fea for want of food. The furvivors were kindly received by the Englifh ; and for preventing fu-: ture contefts, the commanders of each nation agreed to di- vide the whole ifland pretty equally between their refpeétive followers. In May 1627 they figned a treaty of partition, which comprehended a league defenfive and offenfive; but this was of little avail againft the Spanith invafion in 1629. For fome time the French and Englifh lived amicably ; but at length national rivalry and hereditary animofity rendered the ifland a feene of internal contention and bloodfhed. Who were the firlt agreffors it is not now eafy to afcertain; it is probable, however, that each nation would lay the blame on the other. In the reign of Charles II., during thé firft Dutch war, the French king declared for the United States, and his fubjects in St. Chriltopher’s, difdaining an inglorious neutrality, attacked the Englifh planters, and drove them out of their poffeffions ; which were afterwards reftored to them by the treaty of Breda. In 1689 the French planters, taking part with the intereft of the abdicated monarch, again attacked and expelled their Englifh neighbours ; and laying walte their plantations, committed outrages that are unjultifiable among civilized nations, even in a time of open and avowed hoflility. So cruel and treacherous was their conduct, that it was affigned by William and Mary as one of the caules which induced them to declare war againft the French nation. The French, after having continued about eight months fole matters of the ifland, were compelled by the Englith, under the command of general Codrington, to fur- render, and 1800 of them were traniported to Martinico and Hifpaniola. In 1705 many of the Englifh poffeffions were again laid walte by a French armament, which com- mitted fuch ravages that the Britifh parliament found it ne- ceflary to diftribute the fum of 103,000/, among the fuffer- ers, in order to cnable them to re-fettle their plantations. At the peace of Utrecht, this ifland was ceded wholly to the Englith, and the French poffeflions were publicly fold for the benefit of the Englith government ; part of this fum, viz. 80,000/. was appropriated in 1733, as a marriage portion to the princefs Anne, who was betrothed to the prince of Orange. Some few of the French planters, who confented to take the oaths, were naturalized, and permitted to retain their eftates. In 1782 it was compelled by a fupe- rior force to furrender to the French, after a very vigorous and noble defence; but by the general peace of 1783 it was re(tored to Great Britain. St. Chriftopher lies in N. lat. 17° 15’, and W. long. 63° 17’. It is about 14 leagues in circuit, and contains 43,726 acres of land, of which about 17,000 acres are appropriated to the growth of fugar, and 4000 to pafturage. Sugar is the only commodity of any account that is raifed, except provifions and a little cotton, and confequently it is probable, that nearly one-half of the ifland is unfit for cultivation. Lhe interior part confilts of many rugged precipices and barren mountains. Of thefe the highelt 1s Mount-Mifery, (evidently a decayed volcano), which rifes 3.711 feet in per- pendicular height from the fea. The flerility of the moun- tains is, however, amply compenfated by the fertility of the plains, The foil, whichis peculiar to this ifland, is in gene- tal CHR val a dark grey loam, very light and porous and conceived to be the produétion of fubterraneous fires, the black ferru- ginous pumice of naturalifts finely incorporated with a pure ‘loam, or virgin mould. The under ftratum is gravel, from 8 to 12 inches deep. Clay is only found at a confiderable height in the mountains. Sugar-canes planted in particular {pots of this ifland yield 8000 Ibs. of Mufcovado fugar from a fingle acre. The general average produce for a feries of years is 16,000 hogfheads of 16 cwt., which, as one-half only ‘of the whole cane-land, or 8.500 acres, is annually cut, (the remainder being in young canes) gives nearly 2 hogfheads of 16 cwt. per acre for the whole of the land in ripe canes ; and even this !s a return fuch, it is conceived, asis not equalled by any other fugar country in any part of the globe. The planters of St. Chriltopher’s, it 1s faid, are at a great ex- pence for manure; they never cut ratoon-canes, 1. ¢, fhoots from old roots; and although f{prings and rivulets are fuffici- ently plentiful in the country for the fubfiltence of the inha- bitants, their plantations fuffer much in dry weather, as the fub-ftratum does not long retain moitture. his ifland is divided into 9 parifhes, and contains 4 towns and hamlets; viz. Baffe-terre, the prfent capital, containing about 800 houfes, Sandy-Point, Old Road, and Deep Bay. ‘Of thefe, the two firlt are ports of entry eftabuthed by law. The fortifications confit of Charles-fort and Brimftone- hill, both near Sandy-Point; three batteries at Baffe-terre, one at Figtree bay, another at Palmeto point, and fome {maller ones of inferior mpertance. The proportion which St. Chriftopher’s contributes, with the other iflands, towards an honourable provilion for the go- vernor-general, is rooo/. currency per annum; which is fet- tled on him by the affembly immediately on his arrival. He has alfo fome perquifites, which, in time of war, are conh- derable. Each ifland within this government has a feparate council, and each of them an aflembly, or houfe of repre- fentatives. In St. Chriftopher’s the council fhould confit of ro members, but more than 7 are feldom prefent. ‘The houfe of affembly is compofed of 24 reprefentatives, of whom 15 make a quorum. . The requifite qualification is a freehold of 40 acres of land, or a houfe worth 40/. a-year. OF the eleétors, the qualification is a freehold of 1o/. per annum. The governor of this, and the other iflands in the fame government, is chancellor by his office, and in St. Chriftopher’s fits alone. In this :fland the jurifdiction of both the King’s Bench and Common Pleas centres in one fuperior court, in which juttice is adminiltered by a chief juitice and 4 puifne judges. The chief is appointed by the crown, the other by the governor in the king’s name; and they hold their commiffions during pleafure. ‘The office of chief judge is worth about 600/. The emoluments of the afliftant judges are trifling. The prefent number of white inhabitants is computed at 4000, and taxes are levied on 26,020 negroes ; and there are about 300 blacks and mulattoes of free condition. All the white men from the age of 16 to 60 are obliged to enlit in the militia, and they ferve without pay. They form two regiments of foot, al- though the whole number of effeétive men in each regiment feldom exceeds 300. ‘There is alfo a company of free blacks. The natural ftrength of this ifland is fuch, that a garrifon of 2000 effective troops, properly fupplied with ammunition and provifions, would, in all human probability, have ren- dered it impregnable to the formidable invafion of 1752. St. Chriltopher’s is feparated from the ifland of Nevis by a narrow {trait about 2 of aleague broad ; W. from Antigua, as fome fay, 15 leagues, and according to others 21; and St. Euttatia is about 3 leagues W. by N. from the W. point of this ifland. Edwards’s Hitt. of the Welt Indies, vol. i. 38 CH RI CurisTopHep’s, St. an ifland in the channel between the ifland of Madagafcar and the coaft of Africa. S. lat. 17°, 20'. E. Jong. 42° 13!. ; CuristopHer’s, St. River, lies on the S.E. coaft of Afri- Cas Sulat. 32°47’. E.ilong, 27° 33’. CHRISTOPHORIANA, in Botany, Africana ranun- euloides, Boerh. Lugdb. . See Aponts capen/is. CurisrorHortana, Cluf. Hitt. \See Acrz#a /picata. CrrisrorHoriAna arbor aculeata, Pluk. Alm. See Aras LIA fpinofa. CurisToOPHORIANA virginiana, Pluk. Alm. LIA nudicaulis. Curistopnoriana canadenfis, Morif. Hil. See Ana- LIA racemofa. CHRiSTOPHORSON, Joun, in Biography, a learned divine, a native of Lancafhire, who ftudied at) Cambridge, and afterwards was malter of Trinity college. He was pro- moted to the deanery of Norwich, but his attachment to pa- pacy obliged ‘him to retire from the kingdom duriog the reigns of Henry VIII. and his fon Edward VI. He re- turned to England in the reign of Mary, and was by her made bifhop of Chichelter in 1557, an office which he en- joyed only a fingle year, when he paid the debt of nature. He was a man of great induftry, and tranflated from the Greek the ‘works of Philo, Eufebius, Socrates, Sozomen, and Evagrius. His ttyle is obfcure, and from an almoft total ig- norance of the Roman antiquities, -he has made a raultitude of errors in the names and duties of civil and military em- loyments. CHRISTOPOLIS, in Ancient Geography, an an- cient epifcopal town of , Afia, under the metropolis of Boltra. CHRISTOPHORUS pict, a name by which fome have called the fader, or as we call it the doree, or jaune doree, the ‘gilded fifh. CHRISTORF, formula, in modern netes, being BCDE; B the itrings common to the three genera; thefe re f{tyled Chorde fabiles. Whence I con- g s never executed their different formule ely ; whence we may infer, that they were not the inventors of their formule. on *‘ adly. That in each, formula of the chromatic genus, the firft femi-tone 1s always equal to the fecond; (fee the table of Arittoxenus’s fyftem at the head of his treatife). Hence I conclude, that the Greeks had not the lealt notion of what’ we call a key ; becaufe they had not the curiofity, I durit not fay the {cience, to ufe every tetrachord in one fole key. Now it is impoffible to produce two confecutive fimilar in- tervals in one fingle key. But Ptotemy, in re-eftablifhing the ratios of the Greek fyftem in their ancient fimplicity, de- monilrates that thefe femi-tones were rendered equal only by temperament. (What fays the abbé Rouffier to this?) What ought to confirm us more and more in this idea, that the Greeks were not the inventors of their fyftem, is their ignorance of its harmonic chara¢ter, its modulation, and its relations. ‘Thouyh the tetrachord was the moft ancient fy{- tem of the Greeks, we muft not conclude that it was the only’ one in each geuus; they had likewife pentachords and dia- pafons, of which the intrinfic form has not been always the fame: (could the diapafon or o€tave have a latitude?) But in the laft analyfis, each of thefe fyftems is refolved, ulti- mately, in the tetrachord, which is, properly fpeaking, the gamut of the Greeks. « Crromatic,in Modern Mufic. The chromatic may be practifed in modern mufic by\ufing at pleafure different gamuts, paffages, tranfitions, and ,chromatic graces or em- beilifhments. : © 1ft. Of Gamuts. The natural, phyfical, and primitive form of a gamut is progrefflive, fince every {cale is included in a progreffion of the harmonics of a generator, that is, of akey note. Thus the diatonic gamut is the refult of the. regular produ@ion of founds, comprehended between the extremes of the 4th oftave from C the generator. The chromatic gamut immediately follows the diatonic in the acute, and is comprifed between the 16th and 32d harmo- nic of C, Thus this gamut forms the 5th o€tave of the . 16 17 mS PxOM ee (2 a2 key note C, Cx, D, Dx, E, Ex, C. But much is want- ing to render our chromatic gamut progreflive, in which the femi-tones decreafe uniformly. from grave to acute. For in- cluding only femi-tones major and minor, its melody is lefs- natural than a melody formed of progreffive founds; and the accompaniment is forced, being reduced to three or four chords at moft. . For, when the chromatic melody pro- ceeds by femi-tones major, in afcending each note is fucceffively 7th and Sth of a key, or 3d and 4th, and reciprocally in defcending. When the melody pro- ceeds by femi-tones minor, we are driver: to different combi- nations of the chord of the extreme flat 7th. When a fuc- ceflion of founds alternately major and minor is, ufed, we have a feries of minor tones. But it is eafy to procure a chromatic accompaniment faperior. to all. thofe which have been in ufe hitherto, in fuppoling our gamut really pro- greffive and altered only by temperament. Now temperament: ought not to chanze the harmony. Upon this fuppofition, when we fing C,Cx, D, Dx, E. we are fuppofed to found the- 16°34 38 19 20 3 natural gamut, C, Cx, D, Dx, E, and we accompany it Bi Ke 1h 239 with this fundamestal bafe only C,C,C, Cc, C, (which is making the intermediate half notes between C and E paffing: notes; and in a rapid fucceffion of half notes rifing or fale ing, allowing a bafe to the frft and lait note is fufficient, And this is the beit‘apology that can be made for rapid femi- tonic fucceffions.) “Curomartic Paffages, which we have hitherto accompa- nied by the feveral revolutions of the extreme flat 7th, and extreme fharp 6th, may be regarded as parts of the natural gamut. With a little ufe we may refer them to the true chord to which they appertain; in remembering that the major CHR major femi-tone has no place in the chromatic feale, and that ‘its true and only place, even in the modern gamut, is be- tween the fharp 7th and Sth of the key note ; and, confe- quently, in afcending, it may be accompanied by all the chords which include the fharp 7th; as in the key of C: GBDI, CEGB, DFAB, DF GxB, FAB Dx &c. and by the chords upon which they ought to be refolved ; and in defcending, by a contrary motion ; i.e.in making the refolved chord precede and follow the difcord. “ But a general rule is, that every time the femi-tones fucceed each other chromatically, that is, without being fe- parated by wider intervals, we ought never to fuppofe them equal; but always gradually, and progreflively unequal. If this rule is violated, you will have paffages, but never chro- matic melody, and a harmony which, far from determining the key of the treble, wili have no other effe&, than to puzzle and miflead the hearer. “CHRomArICc tran/itions confift in changing thekey at each note of the melody ; which is fuppofing all the half notes equal. But this fuppofition is more favourable to the-igno- rance of the compoter than to the effect of the harmony and melody. The compofer regards each found as 7th and Sth of a key fucceffively, as fupecfluous 5th and 6th, or indeed as 3d and 5th below the key note, fo that one form only of re- folution ferves him for the moll confiderable traits in har- mony; an harmonic mechanifm more likely to degrade the melody than to enforce the effet. In general, it is the ig- norance of the key of a chromatic melody, and of its true har- mony, which drives compofers to tranfitions (modulatious). To this there are fome exceptions, but they are rare. “ Cu#romartic graces, or embellifiments, are paflages not al- jowed for in the time, by which piano-forte players, when the right hand is low on the keys, mount up to the point where the melody re-commences. It is, however, a feat Which deftroys all idea of the key of the piece, if fuch runs are not very fhort and rapid, and the performer has not the tafte and addrefs to make the principal chords of the key heard ; which would require a profound knowledge of har- mony, and a very active finger. But good harmonitts leave to mediocrity thefe childifh ornaments, which are truly offen- five to delicate ears,’’ For our own parts, the running up and down the keys in femi-tones is now become fo common, affected, mechanical, and unpleafant a trick, that we never wifh to hear it performed more frequently than once a year. The nice difcriminations of major and minor femi-tones in the abbé Feytou’s ingenious article Chromatic, whence we have made fuch long extra¢ts, are {peculations for difcuffion, and materials for difputation, rather than practice. In com~ pofing for our keyed inftruments, and in playing on them, boththe compofer and performer are at the mercy of the tuner, and of his habitual temperament. The compoter writes; and the performer plays, as if the inftrument were perfect. Our forefathers, knowing where the cwé/f lay in the organ and harp- fichord, touched that key and its reiatives as feldom as poffible. A compofition in Ep or Ey, with a fharp 3d, is hardly to be found in mufic of 200 years old; and we have old organs where Eb and Ab feem, by the duft with which they are covered, as if they had never felt the finger fince the inftrument was ereGted. But now the bold modulations of Emanuel Bach, Haydn, and Mozart, have provoked another temperament ; the tuners have, by degrees, been obliged, much agaiult their will, to try at equal harmony ; and compofers and performers may now ramble about, without the fear of offending nice ears by one key more than another. ‘There is not time for calcu- lation during the performance of a written piece, much lefs ofavoluntary. If a keyed-inftrument is out of tune, the C¢ HR auditor knows that it is the fault neither of the compofer nor player, and accommodates his auricular organ to the evil ; but if a vocal performer fings out of tune, or the intonations of a violin player are falfe, it is never forgotten or forgiven. ImperfeGticn of intervals in finging, however, depends on the chelt of the finger, and on the itrength of hand in the yiolin player, more than on the ear of either; the mifchief be- ing done before the ear of either is oif-nded. ‘Tne abbé Feytou juttly calls chromatic paflages in which whe key is fo difguifed as not to be known, chromatic graces ; very different things from chromatic modulations. | See in Plates of Mufe examples of modern chromatic to a fundamental bafe; of unto d’oppio in gencro chromatico; and of Rouffeau’s alic Jucceffions. Crromaric, in Painting, is fometimes ufed to fignify the colouring. See Corour. CuHROMATICS, in Philofophy, denote that branch of the {cience of optics, which itates and explains the properties of the cojours of light and of natural bodies. See the detail under Corour and Rerracrion. CHROME, Chrome is a metallic fubftance of a greys ifh-white colour, extremely brittle, acidifiable with great difficulty by nitric acid, and then capable of combining with caultic potafh into a lemon yellow falt. This falt being added to a folution of nitrat of lead occafions a deep orange- red precipitate of chromated lead. Chrome has hitherto been found only in the acid ftate combined with lead and with iron. Sp. 1. Chromat of Lead. Red Lead Spar. of Kirwan. The colour of this mineralis aurora red, paffing into hya- cinth red. It occurs fometintes diffeminated, but mott com- monly cryfta'lized, either in re@angular prifms, or in fix or eight-fided prifms. The cryftals are of moderate fize, ad- hering laterally to each other, and generally very imperfect and ill defined; they have a brilliant external luftre. The fracture is fine-grained uneven, pafling into conchoidal and irregularly lamellar. It breaks into blunt edged indeter~ minate fragments. It is tranflucent, paffing into femi-tranf- parent, is brittle, eafily frangible, and, when feraped, gives a yellowifh orange-coloured powder. Sp. gr. 6.02. Chromat of lead, when expofed to the blow pipe, crackles a little, and melts into a blackifh flag. With borax it is, in part, reduced to the metallic ftate, and communicates a greea colour to the flux. It has been analyfed by Vanque- lin with the following refult : ‘ 69.96 Oxyd of lead 36.40 Chromic acid 100.36 This mineral has hitherto been found only in the gold mine of Berezof, to the north of Ekaterinenburg, on the eaftern fide of the Uralian mountains :- it is thinly difperfed in a vein paffing through gneifs and micaceous {chiltus, ac- companied by quartz, galena, and auriferons pyrites ; none of the cryftallized varieties have been found for fome ears. . Sp. 2. Chromat of iron. The colour of this mineral is greyifh, or blackifh brown; it occurs in mals; it poffeffes a flight degree of metallic Inftre ; its fragture is compact uneven, fometimes imperfectly lamellar ; when ‘pulverized, it is of an afh-coloured grey. It is hard enough to feratch glafs, is difficultly frangible, opaque, and gives an argilla- ceous odour when breathed ppon, Sp. gr. 4.03. It is infufible before the blow-pipe without addition, but, with borax, melts into a beautiful green-coloured glals. It contains, according to aa analylis by Vauquelin, 5 2 43 Chromic CHR 43 Chromic acid 35 Oxyd of iron 20 Alumine 2 Silex — 100 Chromat of iron is faid to have been found in Siberia ; it has alfo been difcovered in France near Goffin, in the de- partment of Var, forming nodules and veins in ferpentine. The metkod of analyfing the chromat of lead is very fimple : Vauquelin has pointed out two ways, both of which we fhall mention. Take one part of finely pulverized chromat of lead, three parts of perfectly faturated carbonat of potafh, and forty parts of water, and boil the mixture for the {pace of an hour. As foon as the fub{tances begin to at on each other a brifk effervefcence will take place, the orange-colour of the lead will change to brick red, and finally, when the effervefcence has ceafed, there will remain at the bottom of the veflel a powder of a dirty yellow colour, confiting of carbonat and chromat of lead. covered by a liquor of a bright golden yellow, which is chromat of potafh. The liquor being poured off, and the powder well wafhed, fome very dilute nitric acid is to be poured on the powder till it ceafes to effervefce ; the colourlefs folation, thus obtained, is nitrat of lead, while the undecompofed refidue of chromated lead will remain unaltered, and is afterwards to be decompofed by afecond digeition with thrice its weight of carbonated potath. The nitric folutions of lead being mixed together are to be decompofed by fulphat of foda, and the lead contained in the ore is to be eftimated from the fulphat of lead thus pro- cured. The alkaline folutions of chromated potafh are to be mixed with weak nitric acid, as long as any carbonic acid from the undecompofed carbonat of potafh is given out, and the liquor, by fubfequent evaporation and cooling, de- pofits cry{tals of chromat of potafh mixed with nitre. The other method of decompoling this fubftance is, to digeit together, at a moderate temperature, equal parts of chromat of lead very finely pulverized, ftrong and pure mu- riatic acid, and water; taking care to ftir the mixture from time to time. The-chromat of lead will change to a white colour, and will be decompofed, being converted for the moft part to muriat of lead. When the acid has ceafed to act, the liquor mutt be poured off, and frefh muriatic acid, (di- luted a3 before with water,) to the amount of about one-fourth of the former quantity, is to be digefted with the refidue, till no more orange-coloured grains appear among the white muriat. This liquor being added to the former, together with the wafhings, the whole, after being heated, is to be placed for a few days in a cool place, that the {mall quantity of muriated lead that it holds may be depo- fited ; when thists removed, fome oxyd of filver (precipitated from its folution in nitric acid by pure potath), is to be added very gradually till’ the lait portions acquire a red pur- ple colour ; thus the whole of the muriatic acid will be got rid of, and the liquor will contain only chromic acid, which, by flow evaporation, is depofited in {mall prifmatic ruby-red ory tals. The decompofition of chromat of iron is not effected by any means fo eafily as that of chromated lead. ‘The a&tion of cither. muriatic or oxymuriatic acids upon it is very flow and: imperfect ; nor is.a boiling folution of either pure or carbonated potath attended with better fuccefs. The mott effeGual way of proceeding is, to fufe ina platina crucible the finely pounded ore, with an equal weight of cauitic pot- afh; then to feparate by water all that. is foluble in this CHR fluid, and treat the refidue with hot muriatic acid. By the alternate ufe of thefe menttrua fix or feven times each, the whole of the ore will be taken up and diffolved. The mu- natic folution being evaporated to drynefs, and then left to cool, will become gelatinous, thus announcing the prefence of filex, which may be feparated by drying the jelly, and then digefting the refidue in boiling water, in confequence of which the filex will remain uadiffolved : the clear liquor being then treated with ammonia, the iron will be obtained in the ftate of oxyd. The muriatic folution being thus ex- haufted, the alkaline folution is to be carefully neutralized by nitric acid, by which means the alumine will be precipi- tated, and nothing will remain in the liquor but chromat of potath and nitre, from which the chromic acid may be obtained pure, by adding nitrat of lead till no further pre- cipitate takes place, and then treating the chromat of lead thus formed with muriatic acid, as mentioned above. Chromic acid is of an orange-red ‘colour, and a pungent metallic tafte ; it is very foluble in water, and by gentle eva- poration cryftallizes in lengthened prifms. Like other acids it combines with the falifiable bafes, whence refults a genus of compound falts called chromats, the chief of which we fhall proceed to defcribe. Chromat of barytes is formed by mixing together the aqueous folutions of barytes and chromic acid: it appears as a pale lemon-yellow precipitate, is fparingly foluble in water, and has no perceptible tate. When heated, it gives out oxygen gas, and aflumes a green colour. Chromat of lime is prepared, like the preceding, by add- ing the liquid acid to lime water; an orange yellow precipi- tate falls down ; differing from the chromat of barytes only in being lefs foluble, and in a fomewhat different order of affinities. The carbonated alkalies are decompofed with effervef- cence by chromic acid, forming very foluble and cryftalliz- able falts of a lemon yellow colour. Chromat of ammonia is deftroyed by a red heat, the alkaline bafe being decom- pofed, and deoxygenating the acid, fo that only a green oxyd of chrome remains behind. The a-kaline chromats are decompofable with abftraction of their acid by barytes, lime, and ftrontian, and with ab{tra&tion of their bafe by the mineral acids; when added to any of the foluble metallic falts a double decompofition takes place, and the chromated metal is precipitated in the form of a coloured powder ; mercury gives a vermilion red precipitate, filver a carmine red, Jead an orange yeHow, tin a green, &c. Chromic acid appears to be very eafily reduciblé to the ftate of oxyd, in which flate it is generally of a green colour. Thus, when heated on charcoal before the blowpipe, it firft boils, and when the moilture is evaporated, a green pulveru- lent infufible oxyd remains. By fufion with borax and glafs of phofphorus, it affords vitreous globules of a bright eme- rald green. . With tan it forms an infoiuble yellowith brown flocculent fediment ; and with hydrofulphuret of potafh a brownifh green one. Muriatic and chromic acids, when heated together ina retort, occafion a confiderable effervefcence ; part of the mu- riatic acid is converted into oxymuriatic, which flies off, and the chromic acid is changed into the green oxyd. Ether or alcohol, when heated for a few minutes with this acid, pros duce on it a fimilar effe@t ; as does alfo muriat of tin, and the fame metal in the reguline ftate, aifoiron, zinc, and mot otber metallic fubftances. Even light will decompofe chro- mic acid, for a paper wetted with it, and expofed for a few days to the fun, affumes a permanent green colour. In order to reduce chromic acid to a regulus, it is fufficient to heat it ftrongly in a crucible lined with charcoal; the re- 2 fult CHR fult will be a brittle, brilliant, greyifh white, meta'lic button, amounting to about 67 per cent. of the acidemployed. Ata high temperature it aflumes the form of feathery cryltals, A fragment of this metal, when expofed to the blowpipe, firft tarnithes, and then acquires a thin coating of greenifh oxyd. When finely pulverized, and treated with boiling concentrated nitric acid, it is oxydated, though with ex- treme difficulty, and gives the acid a light bluih green co- lour; by repeated abftractions it is at length completely acidified, and then exhibits exaétly the fame charaéters as the native acid. Chrome, on account of its fcarcity, and the fhort time that it has been known, has not yet been applied to any ufe; it is probably, however, capable of furnifhing fome fine pigments to the painter and enameller; in particular it will tinge glafs with a true emerald green; the colouring matter of this beautiful gem having been recently proved to be this very metallic oxyd. CHROMIS, in J/chthyology, the name of a little fith caught frequently in the Mediterranean, the chief colour of which is dufky brown. Linneus deferibes it after Artedi as a /parus, with the fecond ray of the ventral fins fetaceous. See Sparus chromis. CHRONIC difeafe, in Medicine, from xyeows, time, is a difeafe which, from its nature, may be of long duration. The term chronic is ufed in contradiftinGion to acufe, which im- plies a ftate of violent and febrile action in the conttitution, which muft neceffarily foon terminate, either in recovery or death. See Disrase. Crronic weakuefs, a term employed by fome phyfi- cians in a vague and fomewhat general fenfe, to denote a variety of modifications of difeafe, which have often been called nervous, and which are accompanied with a general debility of the conftitution, and a failure in the performance of certain funétions, efpecially that of digeflion. It includes thofe varieties which Dr. Cullen included in his genus of - dyfpepfia, and Sauvages in that of a/thenia, as well as hypochon- driafis, chlorofis, and other difeates, where the dybility is fymptomatic of fome derangement of the ftomach and bowels; or of the other vifcera. The caufes and the means of cure are fuch as belong to the varieties of dyfpeplfia and afthenia. This term is rejected from the more correct medical vocabulary of the prefent day. Wither on Chronic Weaknefs. See Dyspepsia and AsTHEnis. CHRONICLE, Curronrcon, denotes a hiftory dizefted in order of time; though the term is feldom vfed but in {peaking of our old Englifh hiftories, as Holinfhed’s Chro- nicle, Stow’s Chronicle, &c. See ANNALS. Curonicre, Parian. See ArunDELIAN Marbles, and Parian Chronicle. Curonicres, in the Canon of Scripture, are two facred books called by the Greeks Paralipomena, Wagururousa, becaufe they c:ntain many fupplemental relations omitted in the other biftorical books. The Hebrews, fays Dupin, (Complete Hilt. of the Canon, &c. p 86.), make but one book of them, under the title of ‘ Dibre-Haiamim,” the fayings or actions of days or years, i. e. journals or annals ; either becaufe the order of time is more exaétly obferved in them, or elfe becaufe they were taken ont of the records, journals, or annals of hiflory. They are an abric¢gment of facred hiftory frem its beginning, to the return of the Jews from the Babylonifh captivity, taken out of the books which we have, and out of other annals which the author had by him in his time. The defign of the author was to reprefent to the Jews the feries of their hiftory, which might have been obliterated from their memory during the captivity. and thus to put them in mind of their original. Accordingly, the CHR firft book traces the genealogies of the Ifraelites from Adam, relates the death of Saul, and jives a brief account of David’s reign. The fecond traces the progrefs of the kingdom of Judah, its various revolutions, its period under Zedekiah, and the reftoration of the Jews by Cyrus. It has been generally fuppofed, that thefe books were compiled by Ezra; and that they were written after the termination of the Babylonifh captivity, and the firlt year of the reign of Cyrus, who is mentioned in the laft chapter of the fecond book. Some paflages feem to have been tran- {eribed verbatim from the hiftories and records that were made at the time when the temple {tood, and when the Jews were in poffeffion of Judsa; and others were probably in- terpolated or added after the time of Ezra. Dr. Kennicott has fatisfaGtorily fhewn (Differtations, vol. i. and ii.) that feveral apparent contradi€tions between the accounts in Chronicles and in the books of Kings, with regard to num- bers, have arifen from the corruption of the Hebrew text ; which may be eafily accounted for when we confider that numeral letters, ufed to exprefs numbers, might eafily be changed into one another by tranfcribers. See CHARACTERS, Hebrew. Several words are alfo omitted, e¢. g. 34.1n 1 Chron. x!. 13, preferved in the parallel piace in 2 Sam. xxiii. ; and others are interpolated, e. g. two whole verfes at the end of Chronicles ; which interpolation is difcovered by means of the beginning of the book of Ezra, which has the fame words, fully proving that part, and a very ebrupt part, of the decree of Cyrus had been fubjoined to Chronicles, through the inadvertence of fome tranferiber. Thus, the two verfes at the end of the book, which are far from being chronclogically conne@ed with the preceding, mention, and merely mentiop, the decree of Cyrus. They begin that memorable decree, but leave it unfinifhed ; breaking offin the very midit of a fentence, in a manner perhaps unparalleled. Thofe two laft verfes have, probably, bren added impro- perly. Some tranferiber, having finifted the book of Chro- nicles at verfe 21, proceeded, without Jeaving the ufual di- flance between different books, to write the book of Ezra, but, finding his miftake, he broke off abruptly; and fo began Ezra at the cultomary diftance, without publifhing his error, by erafing or blotting out thofe lines, which he had carelefsly fubjoined to Chronicles. Hence we may perceive, that the book of Ezra once followed that of Chro- nicles. ) CHRONOGRAM, a kind of compofition, whofe nume-« ral letters, joined together, make vp fome date, or epocha.. See ANAGRAM. The word is compounded of xov0s, time, and ypeppere, letter. CHRONOLOGICAL, belonging to cHRoNoLoGY. Chronological chara@ers, are charaéters by which times are diftinguithed. See Cuaracters. Of thefe fome are natu~ ral, or aflronomical ; others are artificial, or hiforical. Na- tural chronological charaGers ave {uch as depend on the mo- tions of the ftars, as eclipfes, folltices, equinoxes, the dif- ferent afpedts of planets, &c. Artificial chronological charac- ters are thofe which men have citablithed, as the folar cycle, the lunar cycle, &c. Hiflorical chronclogical charaéiers are thofe which are fupported by the teltimontes ctf hutorians, when they fix the dates of certain events to certain periods. We fay alfo chronologicaltables, abridgments, machines, &c. See Curonometer, and Curonorocicat Zable at the clofe of the next article. CHRONOLOGY, compounded of x¢ov05, ¢ime, and royor, difcourfe, is the ait or meafuring time (See Time), diltinguifh ing its feveral conftituent parts, fuch as centuries or ages, years, months, wecks, days, hours, &c. (which fee re{pec- tively,) by appropriate marks and characters, and of adjalling CHRONOLOGY. adiufting thefe parts, in an orderly manner, to palt tranf- aétions, by means of zras, epochas, cycles, &c. (which fee -refpedtively) to the illuftration of hiftory. See History. Sturmius divides chronology into five diftin@ branches ; viz. metaphifical, phyfcal, political, hifforical, and ecelefiaftical ; accordig to the various relations, or habitudes, in which time is confidered; viz. as it is in itfelf; as conne&ted and fubj-@ed to the affections, ftates, and alterations of natural things; as accommodated to civil ufes; as matched with events that pafs in the world ; and particularly as it relates to the celebration of Eatter, which fee. The importance and utility of chronology, as it comprehends the diftribution of time into its fubordinate parts, and the arrangement of hiftorical events by means of thefe feveral divifions in the order according to which they occurred, fo that their re- {pective dates may be accurately fixed, muft be untverfally acknowledged. Chronology has been, therefore, not unaptly denominated -“ one of the eyes of hiltory ;”? and it’ alfo ferves many interefting purpofes in theology, and in various other departments of iiterature and f{cience.- As its ufe is extenfive, the difficulty of acquiring it is not inconfiderable. It derives neceffary affi{tance from altronomy and geography, aud alfo from arithmetic, geometry, and trigonometry, both plain and fpherical; and likewife from a fludious and laboured appiication to various fources of information, fup- plied by the obfervation of eclipfes, by the teftimonies of credible authors, and by ancient medals, coils, monuments, and inferiptions. Its hiltory, however, is comparatively of modern date, as we thall fhew in the fequel of this article! Crronorosy, Chinefe. No nation has boalted more of its antiquity than the Chinefe: but though we allow them to trace their origin as far back as the deluge, they have few, if any, authentic records of their hiftory for, fo long a period as five hundred years before the Chriftianzra. This, how- ever, may probably be owing to the general defru@ion of ancient remains by the tyrant ‘Tfin-chi-hoang,in the year 213, or, a3 fome fay, 246, before the Chriftian era. We learn from a chronological table of the Chinefe hiftory, for which we are obliged to an illuftrious ‘Tartar, who was Vice- roy of Canton in the year 1724, and a Latin tranflation of which was publifhed at Rome in 1730, that the meft remote epocha of the Chinefe chronolecy does not furpafs the firft year of a prince called Guei-lie- wang, who began his reign four hundred and twenty-four years before the vulgar zra. This opinion is confirmed by the teftimony of two of the moft approved hiltorians of China, who admit nothing into their hiftories previous to this period. ‘The Chinele in their com- putation make ule of a cycle of fixty years, called siat/e, from the denomination given to the firft year of it, which ferves as the bafis of their whole chronology. Every_year of this cycle is marked with two letters, which diltinguifh it from the others; and ‘all the years of the emperors, for above two thoufand years, have names in hiltory common to them with the correfponding years of the cycle. Phil. Tranf. abr. vol. viii. part iv. p. 13, &c. According to M. Freret, in his Effays, the Chinefe date the epocha of Yao, one of their firlt emperors, about the year 2145, or as others itate it, 2057, or according to Du Halde 2357 years before Chrift ; and reckon their firit aftronomical obferva- tions, and the compofition of their famous calendar, to have preceded Yao a hundred and Gfty years: and thence it is saferred, that the aitronomical cbfervations of the Chinefe and Chaidzans coincide. Accordingly Mr. Whifton (Short View of the Chronology of the Old Teftament) maintains that the Chinefe chronology, when rightly underttood, is exactly agreeable to that which he has deduced from the Hebrew text of the Old Teflament. Later authors date the rife and progrefs of the fciences in China from the grand dynafty of Tcheou, about twelve hundred years before the Chriftiaa era, ard fhew, that all hiltorical relations of events prior to the reign of Yao are fabulous. Mem. de |’ Hiftcire des Sciences, &c. Chinois ; a work compiled by the miffionaries of Pekin, vol. i. Paris, 1776. See Cuixs. Curonotocy, Hifery, and Newtonian principles of. Many ‘ages muft have elapfed before the mode of computing time, or of dating events, was brought into eitablithed ufe. The moft ancient philofophers and hiftorians wrote in verfe, and were unacquainted with chronology. Intheage of Homer, a formal calendar feems to have been unknawn ; and atthat early period time was meafured by the feafons, the revo- lutions of the fun and moon, and the fucecffive returns of labour and reft ; but we read of no political diftribution of time into fuch parts, as months, weeks, cr hours, ferving the purpofe of guides to biltory or as regifters of events; nor do we difcover any allufions to clocks, dials, or clepfydrz, Several centuries intervened between the Olympic ara, and the firt hiftorians; and feveral. more clapfed before the peried in which the firft chronolozers appearcd. We find that even after the computation of time commenced, its firlk meafures were very indeterminate. See the fequel of this article. . Sir Ifaac Newton has fhewn that all nations, before they began to keep exa&t accounts of time, have been prone to advance their antiquity. hus Herodotus informs us (lib. ii. c. 43.) that the priefts of Egypt reckoned from tke reign of Menesto that of Sethon, who put Sennacherib to flighr, 341 generations of men, as many priefts of Vulcan, and as many kingsof Egypt ; and es 3 generations were computed to amount to 100 years; the whole interval from Menes to Sethon was eftimated at 11340 years. ‘The Chaldzans alfo boafted of their antiquity ; for Callifthenes, the difciple of Ariftotle, fent aftronomical obfervations from Babylon to Greece, which were faid to have comprehended an interval of 1903 years before the time of Alexander the Great; and they farther boafted, that they had obferved the ftars 473000 years. There were alfo others, who made the kingdoms of Affyria, Media, and Damafcus, much older than the truth. Someof the Greeks, {ays fir Haac, called the times before the reign of Ogyges unknown, becaufe they had no hiftory of them ; thofe between his flood and the beginning of the Olympiads, fabulous, becaufe their hiftory was very much blended with poetical fables; and thofe after the beginning of the olympiads, biftorical, becaufe their hiftory was free from fuch fables. The fabulous ages, however, wanted a good chronology ; and fe alfo did the hiftorical, for the firft 60 or 70 olympiads. Hence it appears, that the chrono- logy of ancient kingdoms was involved in the greate un- certainty ; and this illuftrious philofopher has fhewn, that the Europeans in particular had no chronology before the Perfian empire, which began 538 years before Chrift, when Cyrus conquered Darius the Mede, and that the chrono- logy which they now have of more ancient times has been fince framed by reafoning and conjeGture. In the beginning . of that monarchy, Acufilaus made Phoroneus as old as Ogyges and his flood; and that flood 1020 years older than the firft olympiad, or 680 years more ancient than the truth ; and in order to warrant this computation, his fol- lowers have increafed the reigns of kings both in number and duration. The antiquities of the Greeks are full of fables, becaufe their writings were compofed only in verfe. The ancient philofuphers, as Orpheus, Hefiod, Parmenides, Xenophanes, Empedocles, and Thales, anciently delivered their opinions in verfe, but this mode was afterwards difcon- tinued. Plutarch farther informs us, (Oper. tom. ii. p. 402.) I that CHRONOLOGY, that Ariftarchus, Timocharis, Ariflillus, and Hipparchus, defcribed aftronomy in profe, without rendering it the more contemptible, after Eudoxus, Hefiod, and Thales had written concerning it in verfe. We learn from Pliny (Nat. Hitt. 1. vii. ¢. 56.) that Pherecydes Syrius taught to com- pofe difcourfes in profe in the 9th olympiad, or the reign of Cyrus; and Cadmus Milefius to write hiftory. In another place. (1. v. c. 29.) he fays, that Cadmus Milefius, who flourifhed at a period fomewhat earlier than the Perfian monarchy, was the firft who wrote in profe. Jofephus (Cont. Apion.) informs us, that Cadmus Milefius and Aculildus, the eldeft hiftorians among the Greeks, flourifhed a little before the expedition of the Perfians againft the Greeks ; and Suidas fays of Aculilaus, not only that he was a moit ancient hiftorian, but that he wrote genealogies out of tables of brafs, found in a corner of his father’s houfe. Pherecydes, already mentioned, wrote of the antiquities and ancient genealogies of the Athenians, in ten books, and was one of the firft and beit of the European writers of this kind, whence he obtained the name of “© Genealogus ;’’ and Dionyfius Halicarnaffenfis (1. i. c. 13.) efteems him to be fecond to none of the genealogers. Epi- menides, the hiftorian or genealoger, who was a different perfon from the Cretan philofopher of the fame name, wrote of the ancient genealogies ; and Hellanicus, who was x2 years older than Herodotus, digefted his hiltory by the ages, or fucceffions of the prieltefles of Juno Argiva. Others digefted theirs by the archons of Athens, or kings of the Lacedemonians. Ephorus, the difciple of Ifocrates, digefted his records by generations. Accordingly Polybius is of opinion, (lib. v. §. 33.) that this hiftorian of Cume was the firft who at- tempted to reduce chronology into a regular fcience, under the form of an univerfal hiftory ; and we know that he flou- rifhed in the time of Philip of Macedon, about 350 years before Chrift. He began with the return of the Hera- elide into Peloponnefus, and ended his chronological hif- tory with the fiege of Perinthus, in the 20th year of Philip, the father of Alexander the Great, that is, eleven years be- _ fore the fall of the Perfian empire. We may obferve, how- ever, that the Arundelian marbles (which fee), compofed 60 years after the death of Alexander the Great, take no notice of olympiads, and reckon backwards from the then _ prefent time by years ; and that in the hikories of Herodo- _ tus and Thucydides, the dates of events are not afcertained by any fixed epochs ; nor were the olympiads applied to this purpofe at fo early a period. ‘Timeus of Sicily, who flou- _ rithed in the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, about the mid- dle of the third century before Chrift, or in the 129th olym- piad, was the firlt who attempted to eftablifh an wra, by comparing the dates of the olympiads, the Spartan kings, the archons of Athens, and the pricitefles of Juno, and adapt« ing them to one another, according to the belt of his judg- ment. Where he left off Polybius began, and continued the hiftory. Before this time nothing fatisfactory on the fubje&t of chronology feems to have appeared ; and the true reafon is obvious, becaufe before the conqnelts of Alexander, the Greeks had very fcanty materials for {uch a work, as their "knowledze was confined to a very narrow tra€t of country; ‘and to the annals of a very fhort period of time. Their tra- vellers could not eafily impart the. hiltorical memoirs of ‘the countries through which they paffed, as they wanted “the neceflary advantages for this purpofe; fuch were a “thorough knowledge of the language of the country, a free accefs to all their principal records, and a perfeverance in fuch laborious refearches for feveral years. But general wars, notwithftanding the numberlefs difattrous calamitics e that attended them, afforded opportunittes for obferving the fituation, nature, and improvements, of other countries; and thus the progrefs and circulation both of learning and- of other ufeful arts were the more ealily propagated into dif- ferent countries. Strabo informs us (Geog. lib. i.) that the Greeks derived great advantages, even in their know= ledge of geography, from the conquelts of Adexander; for by his means they became more perfeétly acquainted with the larger tracts of Afia, and ali the northern parts of Eu- rope to the river Ifter; and he might have added the whole extent of Egypt; fo that, at the fame time, they obtained the full poflctiion of Babylon and Egypt, the two great fountains of ancient learning. The Romans, fays Strabo, in like manner diffufed the fame light over the weltern parts of Europe, up to the river Elbe, which divided Germany into two parts; and they went beyond the Ifter even to the Ty- ra; and as for the countries round the lake Mzctis, and the fea coatt to Colchis, they were undifcovered till the days of Mithridates firnamed Eupator, king of Pontus; and the Parthian empire made Hyrcania, Bactria, and the Scythians that lived beyond them, to be better known. We may therefore take it for granted that no general hiftory could be properly compofed, till the geography of thefe countries was fufficiently known, in order to defcribe the ftrength of each particular kingdom, the number of its inhabitants, the progrefs of its armies, or the provinces that might be loft or acquired in its quarrels with other kingdoms. But when- ever the accefs to all thefe countries was laid open by the conquefts of Alexander; when fo many new kingdoms were eftablifhed under the Macedenian government, into which the citizens of all the Greek ftates were freely admitted ; when it extended the Greek tongue, as an univerfal lan- guage, over Afiaand Egypt; it gave the moft favourable opportunity to feveral eminent men to write the hiftorics of different nations. Berofus compiled the hiltory of Chaldza, from the records of Babylon ; and Manetho that of Egypt, from the records of Memphis and of Lhebes; and the Arundelian marbles gave a complete feries of the annals of Greece from their earlieft times; all of which were com- pofed in that age, by contemporary writers. And when we add to this, that the great library of Alexandria was firtt formed under Ptolemy Philade!lphus, into which the writ- ings of alk nations were collected; we may well conclude fromhis induétion of particulars, that it was at this period, and not before, that chronology became a fcience. More- over, if we confider the fituation of the world at this time, . we fhall be confirmed in the fame opinion. For, -till there was a colle&tion of proper materials brought together, fuch a3 the manufcripts of all nations mult contain, it was im- poffible to feparate the truth of hiftory from the rubbifh of fable; becaufe faéts are only to be canvafled from a multi- tude of circumftances, which combine together to give light to each other, while the cotemporary hiltory of one coyn- try correfponds to the cotemporary {tate of another. As a library was neceflary to furnifh the materials. for this pur- pofe, we accordingly. find «that the firlt ‘ great father of chronology” was Eratofthenes, appointed by Ptolemy Euergetes, the librarian of Alexandria, who flourithed about 1co years after the death of Alexander the Great, who had ascefs to that invaluable treafure of learning. The pofleffion of fuch~a multitude of hiftorical memoits both prompted and enabled him to determine the dates of many remote faéts. And we are informed by Dionyfius of Hali- carnaflus (lib. i. §. 46.) that in the execution of this work, he had laid down to himfelf certain ‘‘ chronological canons,” which that great writer declares he found to be accurate and ‘uncorrupted; having examined them, in a treatife written ) CHRONOLOGY. written upon that fubjeét, which, to the regret of the learned world, has been irrecoverably loft. ‘The chronographic canons, or general principles of the chronology of Eratofthe- nes, are found in the Stromata of Clemens Alexandrinus (p. ™45); and they are as follow; Years. From the. taking of Troy to the return of the Heraclide - - - - - 80 From the return of the Heraclidz to the fettle- ment of Jonia ° = = - 606 From the fettlement of Ionia to the guardianfhip of Lycurgus - = 2 - 159 From the guardianfhip of Lycurgus to the year next preceding the 1{t olympiad - - 108 From that year to the invafion of Xerxes - 297 From the invalion of Xerxes to the beginning of the Peloponnefian war - 3 - 48 From the beginning to the end of that war - 27 From the end of the Peloponnefian war to the bat- tle of Leudira - - “ - 34 From the battle of Leuétra to the death of Philip 35 From the death of Philip to the death of Alex- ander - - - - - 12 Thefe numbers are fortunately confirmed by a paflage of Dionyfius Halicarnaflenfis (p. 60); from which we learn, that the 432d year from the taking ot Troy was, according to the canons of Eratofthenes, the 1{t of the 7th olympiad; which agrees with the Clementine numbers. Eratotthenes was fucceeded by Apollodorus, the difciple of Panztius, the ftoic philofcpher, who flourifhed in the time of Ptolemy Phyfcon. The following circumftances may lead us to pre- fume, that in his fy{tem of chronology, he followed Era- toithenes. They both agreed concerning the interval, that elapfed between the taking of Troy and the return of the Heraclide, both making it 80 years. They alfo agreed concerning the age of Homer, and likewife concerning the age of Lycurgus; and they purfued the fame method in de- termining it. Apollodorus adopted Eratofthenes’s ht of the kings of Thebais. Lratofthenes and Apollodorus have been followed by ail fucceeding chronologers. Neverthelefs, after all the improvements made in chronological computation by the writers above-mentioned, chronology was ftill, ina very confiderable degree, uncertain; and that it was reputed doubtful by tic Greeks of thofe times is evident from feve- ral paflages in the beginning of Plutarch’s life of Lycurgus, and alfo in his life of Solon, to which we refer the reader. As Cambyfes dettroyed all the records of Egypt, imper- fe& and dubious as they were, we have no account of its inhabitants, which can be depended upon before their inter- courfe with the Greeks, from whom we derive all that jis known of them, and that was not before the time of Pfam- metichus, whofe reign began in the year 600 B.C. Of this we are informed by Herodotus, who, fpeaking of thofe Grecians who had aided in fetting Pfammetichus on the throne of Egypt, fays, that the Iontans and Carians conti- nued fora long time to inhabit thofe parts which lay near the fea, below the city of Bubaftis, on the Pelufiac branch of the Nile, til] in fucceeding times Annalis, king of Egypt, caufed them to abandon their habirations, and fettle at Mem- phis, to defend him againlt the Egyptians. But from the time of their eftablifhment, he fays, they had fo conflant a communication with the Greeks, that one may juflly fay we know all thivgs that paffed in Egypt from the reign of Piam- metichus to our age. The chronology of the Latins was ftill more uncertain than that of the Greeks, &c. Plutarch (in Romulo et Numa), and Servius (in /Encid. vii. v. 678.) reprefent the originals of Rome as attended with great uncertainties ; nor can we wonder at this, when we confider that the old records of the Latins, or at leaft a confiderable part of them, were burned by the Gauls in the year 390 B.C., or 120 years after the regifuge, in 509 B.C., and 64 years before the death of Alexander the Great, in 454 B.C. Quintus Fa- bius Piétor, the oldeft hiftorian of the Latins, lived 100 years later than Alexarder, and took almoft every thing from Diocles Preparethius, a Greck. At the time when tlie Greeks and Latins were forming their technical chronology, there were among them great-difputes about the antiquity of Rome. (See Epocua and Rome.) The chronologers of Gallia, Spam, Germany, Scythia, Sweden, Britain, and Ircland, are of a ftril later date; for Scythia, beyond the Danube, had no letters, till Ulphilas, its bifhop, introduced them, about, Goo years after the death of Alexander the Great; and Germany had none till it re- ceived them from the weltern empire of the Latins, above 700 years after the death of that king. The Huns had none in the days of Procopius, who flourifhed 850 years after the death of that king ; and Sweden and Norway received them at a {till later period. And it mutt be allowed, that things, faid to be done above one or two hundred years before thie ufe of letters, are of little credit. After a general account of the defe&ts and obfcurity of the ancient chronology, fir Ifaac obferves, that, though many of the ancients computed by generations and fucceffions, yet the Egyptians, Greeks, and Latins, reckoned the reigns of kings equal to generations of men, and three of them toa hundred, and fometimes to a hundred and twenty years; and this was the foundation of their technical chronology. He then proceeds to evince, from the ordinary courfe of nature, and a detail of hiitorical fats, the diffrence between reigns and generations ; and that, though the latter, from father to fon, may at an average be reckoned about thirty-three years, or three of them equal to a hundred years, yet when they are taken by the eldeft fons, three of them cannot be com- puted at more than about feventy-five or eighty years; and the reigns of kings are fliil fhorter, fo that eighteen or twenty years may be allowed a jult medium. He then fixes on four remarkable periods, viz. the return of the Heraclide into Peloponnefus, the taking of Troy, the Ar- gonautic expedition, and the return of Sefoftris into Egypt, after his wars in Thrace; and fettles the epocha of each by the true value of a generation. We fhall confine ourfelves at prefent to his eftimate of that of the Argonautic expedi- tion. Having fixed the return of the Heraclidz to about the hundred and fifty-ninth year after the death of Solomon, and the deltru€tion of Troy, to abuut the feventy-fixth year after the fame period (fee Heractip# and Troy), he ob- ferves, that Hercules the Argonaut was the father of Hyllus, the father of CleoJus, the father of Ariltomachus, the father of Arittodemus, who conduéted the Heraclide into Pelopon- nefus ; fo that their return was four generations, reckoning by the chicf of the family, later than the Argonautic expe- dition, which therefore happened about forty-three years after the death of Solomon. This 1s farther confirmed by another argument. /&{fculapius and Hercules were Argo- nauts. Hippocrates was the eighteenth inclufively from the former by the father’s fide, and the nineteenth from the lat- ter by the mother’s fide; allowing twenty-eight or thirty years toa generation, the feventeen intervals by the father, and the eighteen intervals by the mother, will, at a medium, give five hundred and feven years; and thefe, reckoning back from the commencement of the Peloponnefan war, or four hundred and thirty-firlt year before Chrift, when Hip- pocrates began to flourith, will place the Argonantic expedi- tien CHRONOLOGY. tion in the forty-third year after Solomon’s death, or nine hundred and thirty feven years before Chrift. If we date the commencement of the Peloponnefian war in the 2d year of the 87th olympiad, and count back 507 years, we fhall come to the 162d before the olympiads, which is about the 37th year after the death of Solomon. Sir Ifaac Newton afcertains the Argonautic expedition, and feveral other principal events in the Grecian hiltory, by fuch a variety of independent arguments, drawn from the fame and different mediums, ail fo agreeable to the prefent courfe of nature, that it feems impoffible for a perfon who pays a {ufficient regard to it not to be determined by them. It is furprifing, indeed, that the manifeft inconfiftencies of the commonly received chronology with the courfe of nature, fhould not have prevented the eftablifhment of it; and it is abfolutely unaccountable, but upon the difpofition which all men have difcovered, to admit any hypothefis which tends to give dignity to their rations and families, by add- ing to the antiquity of them, But muft it not bea more unac- countable attachment to eftablifhed hypotheles, which can in- duce any perfon of the prefent age, after thefe inconfiltencies have been fo clearly pointed out, {till to adhere to a chrono- logy, which, in thofe turbulent unfettled times, fuppofes kings to have reigned one with another in fome fuccefiions pss in fome 38, in fome 40, in fome 42, in fome 44, and in ome 46 years a-piece; and which generally allows about 60 years to a generation, and in one inftance 85 ? With refpe& to the chronology of the kings of Rome, Mr. Hooke has fhewn, by feveral independent arguments, deduced from the connexion of events in the hiltory of their reigns, that to fuppofe them to have reigned ozie with ano- ther 19 or 20 years, makes a more confiftent feries of facts, than to imagine them to have reigned 35 ycars a-piece, which is the common hypothefis. The chief inconveniencies attending the old chronology in the Roman hiftory are, that it fuppofes an interval of 63 years of peace in that reftlefs nation before the acceffion of Tullus Hottilius. It makes the reign of Servius Tullius fo long in proportion to the few cenfufes, which (according to the moft authentic records) were taken in his reign, as would . argue a molt unaccountable negle& of his own favourite in- ftitution. It obliges us to fuppofe Tarquinius Superbus not to have been the fon of Tarquinius Prifcus, Dido not to have been contemporary with /Eneas, or Numa with Pytha- goras, as well as Solon with Croefus in the Grecian hiltory ; all which have the unanimous voice of all tradition tn their favour, and what Dionyfius Hialicarnaffenfis, Livy, and Plutarch, exprefs their extreme unwillingnefs to give up, but that they were compelled to it by a regard to a chronology which in their times was unqueftioned. Indeed, the congrefs of Solon and Creefus Plutarch expreffes his determination not to give up, notwithftanding his general attachment to a theory which would not admit of it, and the fallacy of which he did not expect. To this purpofe he fays, ‘ The congrefs of Solon with Croefus fome think they cc. confute by chronology. But a hiftory fo illuftrious, verified by fo raany witneffes, and, which is more, fo agreeable to the manners of Solon, and worthy of the greatnefs of hismind and of his wifdom, I cannot perfuade myfelf to reject be- caufe of fome chronological canons, as they call them ; which x00 authors correéting have not been able to conftitute any thing certain, and have not been able to agree among them- felves about repugnances.”” If the number of kings that reigned at Alba be joined to thofe who reigned at Rome, and they be allowed to have reigned 19 or 20 years a-piece, they will place the coming of ALneas into Italy, and the fiege of Troy, exaétly at the Vor. VII. time in which arguments drawn from generations and fuecef- fions in Greece, as well as aftronomical calculations (as we fhall fhew in the fequel), place that event, which isa recipro- cal confirmation of the jult corre@tion both of the Greck and Latin chronology. For from Latinus to Numitor are 16 kings, who reigned at Aiba; Romulus was contemporary with Numitor, and after him Dionyfius and other hiltorians reckon 6 kings more at Rome to the beginning of the con- fuls. Now thefe 22 reigns, at about 18 years toa reign one with another (for many of thefe kings were flain), took up 396 years, which, counted back from the confulihip of J. Brutus and Valerius Poplicola, the two firlt confuls, place the ‘T'rojan war 78 yearsafter the death of Solomon. See Troy. This computation likewile agrees, as Sir [faac has fhewn, with what Appian, in his Hiftory of the Punic Wars, relates, out of the archives of Carthage, which came into the hands of the Romans, viz. that Carthage flood 7co years. his is a round number, but Solinus adds the odd years when he fays, «¢ Carthago polt annos 737 quam fuerat ext:uéta exci- ditur,”? which places Dido, the founder of Carthage, about 76 years after the death of Solomon. See Carruace. It likewife agrees withthe Arundelian marbles, which fay that Teucer came to Cyprus 7 years after the deftruGion of Troy, and built Salamis, in the days of Dide. It is in- deed an argument very much in favour of Newton’s compu- tations, that they agree very nearly with allthe moft ancient monuments, the moft correct tradifions of antiquity, and the oldeft hiforians; particularly Herodotus and Thucydides, who wrote before chronology was corrupted by the van'ty of their nation, or the abfurd fyftems of later hiftorians. Moreover, it conduces very much to the credibility of the Old Teftament hiftory, that the courfes of generations and defcents which are mentioned in it, parallel to thofe in the fabulous period of the Grecian hiltory, fall within the fame intervals of time with thofe which have been meafured fince hiftory has been authentic. Confequentiy, it is another ar- gument in favour of Newton’s correGlion of the ancient. Greek chronology. that it brings the courfes of generations and fucceffions in the one to correfpond to thofe in the other. DBefides, in feveral other refpeéts it brings them to a greater harmony than can be attained on any other princi- ples ; and, in particular, it places the expedition of Sefoltris (probably the fame perfon with Sefac) at the precife time ia which it 1s {poken of in the Scriptures. See Sesostais. The other kind of reafoning, by which Sir Ifaac endea- vours to eftablifh the epocha of the Argonautic expedition, is purely altronomical. The {phere was formed by Chiron and Mufzus at the time, and for the ufe of the Argonautic expedition, as feveral of the afterifms, mentioned by Aratus, and referring to this event, plainly fhew ; and at this time (as feveral ancient writers teftify) the cardinal points of the equinoxes and folftices were placed in the middle of the con- ftellations of Aries, Cancer, Chelz, and Capricorn. Our author eftablifhes this point by a confideration of the ancient Greek calendar, which confifted of 12 lunar months, and each month of 3o days, and which required an intercalary month. Of courfe this lunifolar year, with the intercalary month, began fometimes a week or a fortnight before or af- ter the equinox or folftice; and hence the firft aftronomers were led to the above-mentioned difpofition of the equinoxes and folftices ; and that this was really the cafe, is confirmed by the teflimonies of Eudoxus, Aratus, and Hipparchus. On thefe principles, Sir Ifaae proceeds to argue in this man- ner. In the end of the year 1689, the ftar called the Prima Arictis was in op 28° 51’ with north latitude 7° 8’ 58”; and the ftar called the U/tima caude Arietis was in § 19° 3! UE 5 42" CHRONOLOGY. 42"-with north Tatitude 2° 34 5”5 confequently the equi- noétial colure at this time cut the ecliptic in % 6° 44’, or by the calculations of bifhop Horfley in 8 6° 50’ 20”, and by this reckoning the equinox was then gone back (accord- ing to Newton) 36° 44’, and according to his editor Horfley 36° 50’ 20”, fince the Argonautic expedition. But it recedes 50” in a year, or 1° in feventy-two years, and con- fequently 36° 44’ in 2645 years; which counted backward from the beginning of 1¢g9, will place this expedition about twenty-five years after the death of Solomon. According to Horfley’s calculations the equinoGial points recede 36° 50’ in 2642 years. From the end of the year 1689, i. e. of the Julian period 6402, count back 2642, and you come to the year of the Julian period 3760, the 22d from Solomon’s death, according to Petavius. But, as there is no necefliry for allowing that the middle of the conftellations, according to the general account of the ancients, fhould be precifely the middle between the prima Arietis, and ultima Caude, Sir Ifaac Newton proceeds to examine-what were thofe fara, through which Eudoxus made the colures to pals in the primitive fphere, und in this way to fix the pofition of the cardinal points. From the mean of five places he finds, that the great circle, which in the primitive {phere, deferibed by Eu- doxus, or at the time of the Argonautic expedition, was the equinoStial colure, did, in the end of 1659, cut the ecliptic in ¥ 6° 29’ 15”; or according to the calculations of bithop Horfley, in § 6° 30! 08”, and according to Ra- per’s copy of Newton’s chronology, § 6° 30’ 17", written by his own hand in the margin. He likewife, in the fame manner, determines the mean place of the folftitial colure to be Q 6° 28’ 46", or, as Horfley ftates it, 9 6° 28’ 48"; and as it is at right angles with the other, concludes that it is rightly drawn. Hence he infers, that the cardinal points, in the interval between that expedition, and the year 1689, have receded from thefe colures 5 fign 6° and 29’; which, al- lowing feventy-two years to a degree, amounts to 2627 years ; and thefe counted backwards, as above, will place the Argon- autic expedition forty-three years after the death of Solo- mon, or about 37 years after this event, as placed by Petavius. The principles on which the preceding calculation is founded are thefe: Let op pe (Plate 111 Aftronomy, jig. 22.) be an are of the ecliptic, being the equino¢tial point at the end of the year 1689. Let the point P be the place of laft in the tail (+ of Bayer). Tmagine a great circle of ite fphere drawn through P and O; and bifcG& the arc pe in H. Then is H the middle point between P and’C, through which the equinoétial colure of the primitive fpheré paffed. Therefore through Fi draw a great circle H Aj which may make an angle of 66° 30' with the ecliptic, tte acute angle looking ealtward. Then H A will be the equi- noétial colure of the primitive fphere, and A the equinoétial point of that {phere. : To find the diftance of A from 7, the equinoétial point of the fphere of 1690; find If the pole of the ecliptic ; and through P, C, and H, draw circles of latitude, 11 P, MC, IIH, meeting the ecliptic in the points p, c, and A: and from P and H draw ares of great circles, PB and HD, perpendicular to 1ICc. Now theares yp, pc, are given ; being the given longitudes of the ftars P and C at the end of the year 1689. Therefore pc, the difference of thefe arcs, is given, and the.angle p II c, which is meafured by that given arc pc; But the arc 11P is given, being the complement of the given latitude Pp. Confequently in the right-angled fpherical triangle, P Bit, the hypothenufe Prt is given, and the angle PIT B. Therefore both the legs, PB, 1B, will be given by trigonometry. But 1B being given; fince ILC is alfo given, being the complement of the given latitude Cc; their difference, BC, is given. Therefore in the right-angled fpherical triangle, PBC, the two legs, PB and BC, are given. Confequently the hy- pothenufe PC, and theangle PC B will be given by trigo- nometry. But PC being given, its half, HC, will be given, Therefore, in the right-angled {pherical triangle, H D C, the hypothenufe C H being given with the angle HCD; the legs HD, DC, will be given by trigonometry. But DC being given, fince IC isalfo given, their difference, It D, is given. Andin the right-angled {pherical triangle, 1 DH, the two fides 11D, D H, being given, the angle Dit H and the hypothenufe 11H will be given bv trigonometry. But 11H being given, its complement, H 4, which is. the lati- tude of the point, H, is given. And in the right-angled fpherical triangle H 4A, the fide HA being given with the angle HAA; the fide 4A, will be given by trigonome- try. But the arc 4c is given, being the meafure of the givenangle DITH. ‘Therefore the arc cA, the fum of ch and/A, is given. But pc is given; confequently pA is the firft ftar in Aries (y of Bayer) and C the place of the given. Q.E I. Computation. i Given 7 p = 28° 51’ oo” ua ALG ic=yeg) boaislall t confequently pe = 20° 12’ 42 Pp= 7 8 58 confequently p= 82 51 02 CrpSteni gas F confequently Ile =87 25 54 Hence, in the right-angled triangle MBP, Ip = 82° 51’ 02” : PIB ="207 Bra Ae Therefore the legs LE BZA 8). Doll 12 TB = S2ee25” ‘ra But Coy 25 ae ‘herefore? ae, bi C'— 5 oraaas Hence, in the right-argled triangle PBC, PB i= 207 92 tom, BC= 5 2 43 Therefore PCB=176 27 co And RC — 20) 4shecer Therefore HC=2PC=10 19 25 Hence, i CHRONOLOGY. ae Hence, in the right-angled triangle HDC, | HC = 10° 19! 25” Fe . And HCD= 76 27 00 = Therefore HD= 10. 1 59 And er Butt LCi Srias Jae n Therefore mD=84 59 18 boas lence, in the right-angled triangle 1 DH, TDi yor. JON 18 ie, And: ED = 210. .L4 59 7 Therefore DNH=10 4 15=he ; And 5A tS Ly ‘i Therefore BA, 7 Ae SO) oo 6 at Hence, in the right-angled triangle HAA, rp" aes. 5 : And HA4A= 66 3e oo Therefore Db ae Oty But LO. MART Therefore BACH 1s 7156 82 But (ic = 49 3 Ae Y Therefore” yA = 36 50 (20 It fhould be obferved, fays bifhop Horfley, that in finding the place of the equinoGtial colure of the primitive {phere on the {phere of 1690; theobliquity of the ecliptic, on the pri- mitive {fphere, has been fuppofed to be juft 23° 30’, and the complement of the obliquity 66° 30’; and computing from thefe elements, we have found reafon to conclude, that the primitive fphere of the Greeks was 2627 years older than the {phere of 1690. But at that diftance of time, before the commencement of the year 1690, Dr. Horfley finds, by Mayer’s tables, that the obliquity of the ecliptic was 23° 48' 54". He therefore aflumes 23° 48’ 30” for the obliquity on the primitive fphere, and repeating his calculations, he found the following five places of the primitive equinox on the {phere of 1690: The primitive equino@ial colure being drawn Through » of Aries - - - 87° 05! 34” Through the middle point between vand = Ceti6 56 25 ‘Through e of Cetus =o - gr Bg 4r6 Through + of Perfeus - - 6 03 co Through » of Perfeus Sight odubee 4 39 39 The mean place of thefe five is § 6°25! 23”: and if this be the place of the primitive equinoétial point on the fphere of 1690, the place of the fummer folftice fhould be 1 6°25’ 23”. But by the defcription of the folfticial colure it fhould be 9 6°28’ 46"... It may be reafonable, therefore, to take 3% 6°27’ and §L 6° 27’ for the places of the primitive equi- nox and folftice on the {phere of 1690; by which reckoning thefe points will be lefs advanced by 2’ than fir Ifaac Newton has fuppofed. But thefe two minutes will not make a difference of 3 years in the age of the primitive fphere. Our illuftrious author hath, by other methods of a fimilar nature, eftablifhed the epocha of the Argonautic expedition, as well as others, and reduced the age of the world about 500 years. What gives great weight to this argument, from the preceflion of the equinoxes is, that if we reckon from what- ever time the pofition of the equinoctial points hath been mentioned by altronomers whole age is known, this motion, counted backwards, fixes that great event in the fame year. Tt likewife demonftrates, that the obfervations of the ancients, though coarfe enough, as fir Ifaac Newton acknowledges, are fufficiently exaG for the purpofe. This being a remark- able circumilance, the particulars of it are as follow. Ac- cording to Pliny, and the calculations of Pctavius, Thales, who wrote a book of the tropics and equinoxes, fixed the equinoxes and folftices in the 11th degree of their refpetive figns; fo that they had receded 4° 26’ 52” from their original place at the time of the Argonautic expediticn. This anfwers to 320 years, and calculated backwards from the 41ft olympiad, when Thales was a yourg man, fit to ‘apply to aftronomical ftudies, will place that event 44 years after the death of Solomon. Petavius, in the calculation above referred to, deriving information from Pliny (I. xviii. c.25.), who fays, that Thales determined the ‘ occafus matutinus’’ of the Pleiades to be upon’ the 25th day after the autumnal equinox, thence computes the longitude of the Pleiades in 23° 53’, and confequently that the Lucida Pleiadum had, fince the Argonautic expedition, moved from the equinox 4° 26’ 52”, asabove itated. From the paflage of Pliny, to which we have now referred, an objeétion has been deduced againft the chronological computation of Newton. Pliny’s authority, “it is faid, avails as much to prove, that Hefiod places'the morning-fetting of the Pleiades on the very day of the equinox, as that Thales placed it 25 days later. And ifit be true, that Lucida Pleiadum did really fet at fun-rife on the day of the autumnal equinox, ia the age of Hefiod ; this will much more refute fir Ifaac’s date of the Argonautic ex- pedition than the aflumption, that the morning-fetting of the fame ftar was 25 days later in the age of Thales, confirms it. For it is agreed, that Hefiod was fome time later than the Argonautic expedition ; for we have his own teftimony, that he lived after the war of Troy. The Argonautic expedition happened, according to fir Ifaac Newton, in that age when the longitude of Lucida Pleiadum was in the 20th degree of the fign of Aries. But when this ftar fet at fun-rife, on the day of the autumnal equinox, its longitude muft have been rather behind the vernal equinox ; as any aftronomer, who will take the trouble to make the neceffary calculations, may eafily perceive. So that between the age of Hefiod, as thus defined by the morning fetting of the Wucida Pleia- dum, and that time which fir Ifaac Newton affigns to the Argonautic expedition, the ftars muft have advanced more than 20 degrees in longitude ; and a change of 20 degrees, at the rate of 1° in 72 years, requires 1440 years. Confequently, it may be faid, his date of the Argonautic expedition cannot be Jefs than 1500 years too late. 4 To this fpecious obje€tion Newton might have replied, that Pliny reports the feafon of the r orning-fetting of this ftar, in the age of Hefiud, from a book of altronomy, of 52 which CHRON OL O'CY®. which he fays only, that it was extant under the name of Hetiod: and that this book could not be Heficd’s. For Hetiod {peaks of Aréturus as rifling at fun-fet Go days after the winter folftice. And it is impoffible that any ftar of the Pleiades could fet at fun-rife, on the day of the autumnal equinox, in the fame age when ArGurus rofe at fun-rife 60 days after the winter folflice ; or that thefe two circumfances « of the {phere fhould be removed from each other by a lefs interval of time than the fpace of 1440 years. ‘This book of altronomy, extant in Pliny’s time, under the name of Hefiod, mutt have been a fuppolititious work, and probably the im- polition of fome petty retailers of fcience in the decline of the Grecian learning. ‘The extravagant antiquity, which it gives to the Greek aftronomy, entirely deftroys its credit. According to Columella, Meton, and EnG@emon, who publifhed the lunar cycle of 19 years (fee Cycve), and for this purpofe obferved the f{ummer folitice in the 316th year of Nabonaffar, the year before the Peloponnefian war began, placed the fummer folitice in the eighth degree of Cancer, which ts at leaft 7° more backwards than at firlt. "his in- terval anfwers to 504 years, which counted backwards from the year of obiervation, makes the Argonautic expedition fall upon the 44th year after the death of Solomon. Laftly, Hipparchus, who firit difcovered that the equinoxes had a regular motion backwards, made his obfervations about the 6o2d year of Nabonaflar, and fixed the vernal equinox in the fourth degree of Aries. Confequently, the equinoc- tial points had receded eleven degrees {ince the Argonautic expedition, which is equivalent to 792 years, and’ which counted backwards, places the expedition in the 43d year after the death of Solomon. Thefe coincidences are re- markable, and could not have placed the fame event fo near the fame year, unlefs all the ob{ervations had been fufficiently exa&. And when we confider the coincidences of a great many more independent evidences, derived from the courfe of generation, and the order of fucceffion, with thofe which are deduced from aftronomical principles, nothing feems to be better eftablifhed than that the Argonautic expedition, an event on which the whole Greek chronology depends, really happened about 43 years after the death of Solomon, and not in the days of Gideon, above 300 years before, as the common opinion has ftated it. The rifing and fetting of the ftars with refpe& to the rifing and fetting of the fun depend alfo upon the preceffion of the equinoxes. Any writer, therefore, who mentions the riftng or fetting of any ftar, at any particular time of the year, with refpect to the fun, furnifhes us with data fufficient to determine the time in which he wrote. Thus Hefiod tells us, that 60 days after the wirter folftice the ftar Arc- turus rofe juit at fun-fet ; from which circumftance it is eafily valenlated that Hefiod flourifhed about 100 years after the death of Solomon, or in the generation, or age, next after the Trojan war, as Hefiod himfelf declares; and this aifords another independent argument for the date affigned by Newton to thet war, and the whole Greek chronology connected with it. Biihop Horfley, in his edition of New- ton’s works, obferves that he cannot deduce fir Ifaac Newton’s conclufion from his premifes. When Arurus rofe at fun-fet Go dzys after the winter folftice, he finds the longitude of that flar to have been my 13° 28° 38”, which exceeds its longitude on the primitive {phere by no more than 1°46". Taking the longitude and latitude of Ar&urus, each fuch as it was in the primitive fphere, viz. the longitude ny 13° 26! 52", the latitude 30° 52’ 18”; he finds, that when the itar rofe at fun-fet, the fun’s true place mult have been P-) 3€ 00° 59'3 and according to the fituation of the aphelion of the earth’s orbit, which obtained in that age of the world, when the equinoxes were in ¥ 6’ 27”, and m1 6! 27” of the {phere of 1690, the fun was in this place 60 days after the winter folftice. So that the conclufion from this paflage of He- fiod fhouldrather be that he flourifhed in that very age when the Greeks firlt formed their {phere ; that is, according to New- ton’s fyftem, in the ageof the Argonautic expedition. The bifhop fuppofes the truth to be, that before the retrograde motion of the equinoétial points was difcovered, all writers {peak of the rifings and fettings of the ftars, as they were {tated by the altronomers who firft formed the fphere. This was probably the cafe with regard to Hefiod in particular, if he lived fo near the age of the Argonautic expedition, and the beginning of the Greek fphere, as fir Haac {up- pofes. No conclufion is therefore to be drawn, concerning the particular age of any writer, much older than Hip- parchus, from what he may fay of the phenomena of the fphere; unlefs it be certain, that he was a prac tical aftronomer, and lived at fuch a diftance of time from the commencement of the Greek altronomy, as might produce fenfible changes in the feafons of the rifings and fettings of the ftars. Such writers might, in deed, without any knowledge of the motion of the equi- noxes, defcribe the phenomena according to their own obter- vations, and impute the difference, between what they faw and what their mafters had delivered, to the coarfenefs of the firt obfervations. Bifhop Horfley, when he {peaks of the appearances of the primitive {phere, means the appears ances in the latitude of 40° N., at that time when the vere nal equinox was in & 6° 27’ on the {phere of 1690. Sir Ifaac Newton having, by the concurring aids of Scripture and reafon, re€tified the chronology of the Greeks, made ufe of this re€ified chronology to adjult the cotem- porary affairs of the Egyptians, Affyrians, Babylonians, Medes, and Verfians. His elaborate fyftem, hewever, has not efcaped cenfure. M. Freret and M. Souciet have at- tacked it on much the fame ground : the former hath con~ founded reigns and generations, which are carefully diftin- guifhed in this fyftem. The aftronomical objeGtions of both have been anfwered by fir Ifaac Newton himfelf, and by Dr. Halley. Phil. Tranf. Abr. vol. viii. part iv. p. 4, &c. Newton’s Chronology, ch. r. Mr. Gibert, in a letter publifhed at Amfterdam in 1743, has attempted to reduce the Babylonian, Egyptian, and Chaldean annals to our chronology. He begins with fhew- ing, by the authorities of Macrobius, Eudoxus, Varro, Dio- dorus Siculus, Pliny, Plutarch, St. Auguftin, &c. that by a year the ancients meant the revolution of any planet in the heavens; fo that it confilted fometimes only of one day. Thus, according to him, the folar day was the aftronomical year of the Chaldeans ; and the boalted period of 473,000 years affigned to their obfervations is reduced to 1297 years, g months ; the number of years which elapfed, according to Eufebius, from the firft difcoveries of Atias in aftronomy, in the 384th year of Abraham, to the march of Alexander into s\fia in the year 1682 of the fame gra; and the feven- teen thoufand years added by Berofus, to the obfervations of the Chaldeans, reduced in the fame manner, will give forty- fix years, and fix or feven months, being the exaé interval between Alexander’s march, and the firit year of the 123d olympiad, or the time to which Berofus carried his hiftory. Epigenius attributes 720,000 years to the obfervations pre- ferved at Babylon; but thefe, according to M. Gibert’s fyftem, amount only to 1971 years, three months, which differ from Califthenes’s period of 1903 years allotted to the fame obfervations, only by 6S years, the period elapfed from the taking of Babylon by Alexander, which tepminated the latter CHRONOLOGY. latter account, and to the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus, towhich Epigenius extended his account. Curonoroay facred. The fy {tems of facred chronology have been very various, Nor is this to be wondered at, fince our three biblical copies of principal note give a very different account of the firlt ages of the world. ‘The Hebrew text reckons about 4000 years from Adam to Chrift, and to the flood 1656 years; the Samaritan makes this interval longer, and reckons from Adam to the flood only 1307 years ; and the verfion of the Septuagint removes the creation of the world to 6000 years before Chrift. The interval between the creation and flood, according to Eufebius and the Sep- tuagint, is 2242 years ; according to Jofephus and the Sep- tuagint, 2256 years; and according to Julius Africanus, Epiphanius, Petavius, and the Septuagint, it is reckoned at 2262 years. Many attempts have been made to reconcile thefe differences; but none are quite fatisfa@tory. See Eprocua, Samaritan, &c. Walton, and I. Voffius, give the preference to the ac- count of the Septuagint. Walton’s Prolegomena. Voflii Chronologia Sacra. Others have defended the Hebrew text. ~The reader may find an abftract of the different opi- nions of learned men on this fubjeét, in Strauchius’s Brev. Chron. tranflated by Sault, p. 166, &c. and p. 176. The more eminent writers on chronology, among the ancients are, Julius Africanus, in the third century ; Dio- nyfus Exiguus, Eufebius, and Cyril. Among the moderns, Bede, Funccius, Mercator, Lilius, Clavius, Scaliger, Victs, Petavius, Caffini, Munfter, Cal- vifius, Hardouin, Capellus, Uther, Newton, Marfham, Helvi- cus, I. Voffius, Pagi, Strauchius, Perron, Blair, Playfair, &c. It will be proper to add to the akove account of the hiftory and principles of chronology a few words on the conftruétion and utility of Chronological Tables. By means of fuch tables hiftory is reduced into a fhort compafs, and the reader is aided in the ftudy of it. Thus an entire courfe of hiftory is eafily comprehended, and at the fame time a proper diftinc- tion may be obferved between its feveral parts. If fuch tables confift of nothing more than an enumeration of the capital events in hiltory, thrown together promifcuoulfly, without any diftin€@tion of kingdoms, regard being only had to the orderof time in which the events happened, they have their ufe. We thus fee, at almolt one view, the principal things which hiftory records, and from the dates annexed to each article, we foym an idea of the interval of time between one and another of them ; fuch tables are often compiled for fingle hiftories; of this kind is the ‘ short Chronicle” refixed to ‘* Newton’s Chronology.”? But in a more complex and extended hiftory, it will be ufeful to keep A the feparate parts diftinét, and, for this purpofe, to ar- range them in different columns. By fuch means we obtain a diftin&® idea of the courfe of any fingle hif- tory; and at the fame time a clear comparative view of the cotemporary ftate of any other hiftory which was parallel with it, The negleét of this method has intro- duced confufion into the chronological tables publifhed with the * Univerfal Hiftory,”? and the advantage refulting from it may be perceived in thofe of Marfhall, Tallents, &c. Befides a diftin& view of the fucceffion of events in different hiftories, it is an advantage to have, in feparate columns, an account of the “ great men,”’ in arts or in arms, which each age has produced. . This has been exhibited by the latt- mentioned authors and others. For this purpofe two co- lums are quite fufficient ; one for ftatefmen and warriors, and the other for men of learning and fcience. Another im- provement in chronological tables has been to anuex a variety of dates, in diftinét columns, to every event, to fave the reader the trouble of reducing the different methods of co.n- putation to one another. But many chronologers | ave mul- tiplied thefe different epochas far beyond any real ufe, fo as greatly to encumber their page, and leave little room for more valuable matter. Helvicus furnifhes an example of this kind. Four zras are abundantly fufficient, viz. the year before and after Chrift, and the Julian period to run through the whole extent of the work ; the olympiads for the courfe of the Grecian hiltory ; and the year of the city forthe Roman. Thefe are ufed by Blair. The laft, and capital improvement in chronological tables, which has been effeted in fome meafure by Tallents and Marfhall, more perfeGly in Helvicus, but moft completely by Blair, is to difpofe the’ events in fuch a manner, as that the dittance at which they are placed, without attending to the date in the margin, fhall give a juit idea of the real interval of time between them. This is done by having a fin- gle line, or any fit interval appropriated to any certain period of time, or number of years.. In the chronological tables engraved by Sturt, we fee a great deal of matter, by a fingular method, and the help of arbitrary and fymbolical characters, crowded into a fhort compafs; fo that we fee the ftate of the feveral kingdoms ef Europe for any cen- tury fince the Chriltian zra ina fingle page. This author has alfo annexed an alphabetical index to his work, in which, by the help of fymbols, he has expreffed the character of every prince mentioned in his tables, and the principal events of his life. This fmall work is valuable for its concifenefs, but is not fo muchrecommended by its diftintnels. Ge- nealogical tables are of very confiderable ufe in fubordination to thofe of a chronological kind ; foran account of which, feeGeneaLocy. Prieltley’s Lectures on Hiltory, &e. 1788, CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF Remarkable Events, Difcoveries, and Inventions, from. the Creation to the Year 1807. B.C. 4004.—Creation of the world, at the autumnal equinox, on 210 Sunday, O@tober 23, accordiag to archbifbop of the Uther and the Hebrew text. Julian 5872, according to the LXX. period, 4700, according to the Samaritan. Creation of Adam and Eve, on Friday, O&. 28, Bic, 4003.—The Birth of Cain, the firft who was born of a wo~ man. 3375.—Abel murdered by Cain. 3374.—The birth of Seth. 3017.—Enoch tranflated to heaven for his piety, at the the age of 365. 3317.—Birth of Methufalem, who died at the age of 060. i 2048, CHRONOLOGY. Bac: 2948.—Birth of Noah, who died at the age of 950. 2446,.—Birth of Shem, who died at the age of 600. 2349-—Noah entered the ark on Sunday, Nov. 30th, and on Sunday, Dec.’7, it began to rain. 2348.—The deluge—On Wednefday, May 6, the ark refted on mount Ararat.—On Friday, Dec. 18, Noah left the ark, built an altar, and offered facrifice to God for his deliverance. 2247.—The tower of Babel is built about this time by Noah’s pofterity in the valley of Shinar, upon which God miraculoufly confounded their lan- guage, and thus difperfed them into different na- tions. 3234.—Celeftial cbfervations begun at Babylon, a regifter of which was fent by Callifthenes to Ariftotle for 1903 years to the capture of that city by Alex- ander in the year 331 B.C. 2321.— The Chaldean monarchy founded by Nimrod. 2207.—The Chinefe monarchy founded, according to fome hiftorians. 2188.—The kingdom of Egypt commences under Mifraim, the fon of Ham, which laited for 1663 years, to the conquelt of Carmbyfes, in the year 525 B.C. 2089.—The kingdom of Sicyon eftablifhed. 2059.—The kingdom of Affyria begins. 1996.—Abram born, who died 1821, xt. 175. 1921.—The covenant made by God with Abram, when the 430 years of fojourning commenced. 1897.-—The covenant renewed with Abram, his name changed to Abraham.— Circumcilion initituted.— The cities of Sodom, &c. deitroyed. 2896.—The birth of Ifaac. 1871.—Trial of Abraham’s faith by the command to offer his for Ifaac. 1856.—The kingdom of Argos begins.—Ifaac marries Re- bekah. i 1827.—The 17th dynafty of the fix fhepherd kingsin Egypt begins, and continues 103 years. 1$22.—Memnon, the Egyptian, invents the letters. 1796.—The reign of Ogyges begins 1020 years before the firft olympiad. 3764.—The deluge of Ogyges, which laid wafte Attica for more than 200 years, till the coming of Cecrops. 1759.—Jacob, bleffed by his father, goes to Haran, and marries the two daughters of his uncle Laban. 1728.—Jofeph fold into Egypt. 1715.—Jofeph interprets Pharaoh’s dreams, and is pro- moted.—The 7 years of plenty begin. i708.—The 7 years of famine begin. 1706.—Jofeph difcovers himfelf to his brethren. 1702.—All the lands in Egypt, fold to Jofeph, who let them out with a perpetual tax of a filth part of their produce. 1689.—Jacob predicts the advent of the Meffiah, and dies zt. 147. 1635.—Jofeph foretels the egrefs of the Ifraelites from Egypt, and dies et. 110, having been prefect of Egypt for 80 years. His death terminates the book of Genefis, containing a period of 2359 years. 1615.—The Ethiopians, coming from the Indus, fettle in the neighbourhood of Egypt. 1582.—The chronology of the Arundelian marbles begins, at which time Cecrops is fuppofed to have come into Attica. 1574.—Aaren born, and in the following year Pharaoh pub-. B.C. ; lifhes an edi& for drowning all the children of the Tfraelites. 1571.—Mofes born. 1556.—Cecrops brings a colony of Saites from Egypt into Attica, and founds the kingdom of Athens, 780 years before the 1ft olympiad. 1546.—About this period Scamander comes from Crete into Phrygia, and begins the kingdom of Troy. 1531.—Mofes vifits the Ifraclites; flies into Midian, and continues there 40 years. 1503.—The deluge of Devucalion in Theffaly. 1497-—The council of Amph’&yons eftablithed. 1493-—Cadmus carried the Phoenician letters into Greece and built the citadel of Thebes. 1491.—God appears to Mofes in a burning bufh, and fends him into Egypt, where he reriormed many mi- racles, and infli€ted on Pharaoh 10 fucceflive plagues, till he allowed the Ifraelites to depart, In number amounting to 600,000 befides children, on Tuefday the 5th of May, which completed the 430 years of fojourning. On Monday, May the 11th, Mofes opened a paffage for the Ifraclites through the Red Sea into the defert of Etham, when Pharoah’s hoft attempting to follow them, were drowned; about the 22d of Jure they ar- rive in the defert of Sinai, near mount Horeb, where they remain near a year, during which Mofes receives from God and delivers to the peo- ple the 10 commandments, with other laws, and {ets up the tabernacle, containing the ark of the covenant. 1490.—Sparta built by Lacedzmon. 1485.—The firft fhip that appeared in Greece, brought from Egypt by Danaus firnamed Armais. 1480.—Troy fuppofed to have been built by Dardanus. 1453.—The firlt Olympic games celebrated at Elis by the Idxi Daétyli. 1452.—The 5 books of Mofes written in the land of Moab, where Mofes died in the following year, zt. 110. 1451.—The Ifraelites, under Jofhua, pafs Jordan and enter Canaan, on Friday, April 30. 1445.—Jofhua divides the land of Canaan, and refts from his conquefts upon the fabbatical year, which be- gins from the autumnal equinox. 1426.—Jofhua dies at Timnath-Serah, zt. 110. 1413.—The Hraclites, funk into idolatry, continued in flavery under Cufhan, king of Mefopotamia, for § years. 1406.—Minos gives laws to the Cretans, and acquires a great maritime power.—Tron is found’ by the Idzi Datyli from the accidental burning of the woods of mount Ida in Crete. 1405.—Othniel, the firft judge of Ifrael, defeats Cuthan, and gives reft to Ifracl, in the goth year after that given them by Jofhua. 139¢0.— Benjamin almof totally deftroyed by the other 11 tribes, Phineas being high-prieft. 1383.—Ceres came to Athens, and taught them to fow corn, 1356.—The Eleufinian myfteries firft introduced at Athens, 1344-—The kingdom of Mycenz begins about this time, when the kingdom of Argos was divided ; Myce- nz forming the molt confiderable part. 1343.-—The Ifraelites, relapting into idolatry, enflaved by Eglon, king of Moab, for 18 years. 1326.—The Ithmian games firit inftituted. 1325. CHRONOLOGY. 1325.—Ehud, the 2d judge of the Ifraelites, kills Eglon, ; and releves them from their 2d bondage ; the great Egyptian canicu'ar year began on Saturday, July 20, and confifted of 1460 years. 1307.—The Olympic games inttituted by Pelops. 1305.—Th> 3d fervitude of the Ifraclites under Jabin, king of Canaan, which continued 40 years. 1300.—The Lupercalia inftituted, 1285.—Deborah the prophetefs defeats the Canaanites under Sifera, and _Ifrael had reft in the goth year after that given by Ehud. 4284.—The Siculi pafs out of Italy into Sicily, about 3 generations before the Trojan war. Others fay the firft colony arrived in 1294, and a fecond in 1264. 1263.—The Argonautic expedition, 79 years before the taking of Troy. According to others, in 1225. About this time the firft Pythian games were cele- brated by Adraftus. 1252,—The 4th fervitude of the Ifraelites under the Mi- dianites, which continued for 7 years.—The city of Tyre was built. 1245.—Gideon routs the Midianites, and Ifrael had reft in the goth year after that given by Deborah. 1243.—A colony of Arcadians, conduéted by Evander in- to Italy. 1234.—Thefeus fettles a democracy in Attica, and-renews the Ifthmian games3 others fay in 1231. | 1233.—Carthage founded by the Tyrians. 2225.—The Theban war of the 7 heroes. 1222.—The celebration of the Olympic games by Hercules. 1213.—The rape of Helen by Thefeus. : r206.—The 5th fervitude of the Ifraelites under the Philif= tines and Ammonites, which continued 18 years. 1198.—The rape of Helen by Paris; others fay in 1204. 1194.—The Trojan war begins, and continues to years. 1188.—Jephtha, the 7th judge of Ifrael for 6 years, his : rafh vow with re{peét to his daughter. y184.—Troy is taken and burned by the Greeks, in the 7 night, between the rth and 12th of June, 408 . years, before the ft olympiad.—/Eneas fet fail in the begitining of autumn for Thrace. 1182.—The kingdom of the Latins begins under Eneas, who builds Lavinium. 1179.—The maritime power of the Mediterranean acquired by the Lydians. 1176.—Salamis in Cyprus built by Teucer. 1157.—Eli the high prieft, rith judge of Ifrael for 40 years. 1156.—The 6th fervitude of the Lfraelites under the Philif- tines, which continued go years. 1152.—The city of Alba-Longa built by Afcantus, 2d king of the Latins. 1141,—The Amazons burned the temple of Ephefus. 1136.—Sampfon ki'ls 3000 Philiftines. 1124.—The migration of the A%olian colonies 80 years be- fore that of the Ionians.—Thebes built by the Becotians, ¥122.—The 3d dynafty of China, called Tcheou, begins. 1117.—Sampfon betrayed to the Philiftines.—Eli dies. 1116.—Samuel the 12th and laft judge of Ifrael for 21 ears. II 13s mariner’s compafs faid to be known in China. 1104.—The return of the Heraclide into Peloponnefus; they divide it.—The kingdom of Lacedemon be- gins.—That of Mycene ends——Others fay that the kingdom of Lacedemon, or Sparta, com- menced in 1102. Bie. 1095.—The Ifraclites obtain a king, and Saul anointed by Samuel. 1093.—Saul rejected, and David anointed kine. 1¢088.—The kingdom of Sicyon ends; others fay in 1130. 1o70.—The kingdom of Athens ends in Codrus, and gos verned by archons. 1058.—The Pelafgians, the 2d people who acquire the ma- ntime power of the Mediterranean. 1055.—Saul confults the witch of Endor, and kills himfelf on mount Gilboa. 1048.—Jerufalem taken by David from the Jebufites, and made the feat of his kingdom. 1044.-—The migration of the Ionian colonies from Greece, 60 years after the return of the Heraclidz, and their fettlement. 1034.—David reproved by Nathan, and repents. 1023.—Abfalom rebels, and is killed by Joab. 1012.—Solomon begins to build the temple, 480 years efter the exodus from Egypt: others fay in 1016. 1004.—The temple dedicated on Friday, O€tober 3oth, 1009 years before Chrift = others fay in 1008. 10ce.—The Thracians acquire the maritime power of the Mediterranean, about this time, and hold it for 19 years. 996.—Solomon’s fleet prepared in the Red Sea, and fent te jt Ophir. 992.—Solomon’s palace finifhed, which with the temple employed him 20 years. 986.—Samos, in the ifland of the fame name, and Utica, built about this time. 975-—The divifion of the kingdoms of Judah and Ifrael ; others fay in 979. 971 or 974.—Selac, king of Egypt, takes Jerufalem, and plunders the temple and palace. 926.—Lycurgus, the Spartan lawgiver, is born, 150 years before the i{t olympiad. 916.—The Rhodians are the 4th who acquire the maritime power of the Mediterranean, and hold it for 23 years. 907.—Homer wrote his poems and flourifhed. 9co.—The kingdom of Affyria ends. 896.—Elijah the prophet is taken up into Heaven. 893.—The Phrygians are the 5th people who acquire the maritime power of the Mediterranean. §S4,.—Lycurgus, after travelling 10 years, eftablifhes his laws in Lacedemon.—-Iphitus, Lycurgus, and Cleofthenes, reftore the Olympic games at Elis, 108 years before the vulgar era of the ft olym- piad. 872.—The art of fculpture in marble faid to be found out. 86).—Phidon, king of Argos, invented feales and meafures,, and coined filver at Aigina.-—-The city of Car- thage is built by queen Dido about this time ; others fay it was enlarged by this queen in 864. 868.—The Cyprians are the 6th who acquire the mari- time power of the Mediterranean. 839.—The army of Hazael, king of Syria, defolates a}great _ part of the kingdom of Judah. 826.—The Pheenicians are the 7th who acquire the maritime power of the Mediterranean. 820.—Niniveh is taken by Arbaces, and Belefis, which finifhes the kingdom of Affyria.-—Sardanapalus burns himfelf to death. The kingdom is fubdi- vided. 814.—The kingdom of Macedon begins, and continues 646 years, till the sar Pydna, Box. CHRONOLOGY. B.C. 801.—Capua, in Campania, built. "97.-—The kingdom of Lydia begins. *go.—Amos the prophet flourifhed, and began his prophe- cies In 737. “87,—The Egyptians are the 8th who acquire the maritime power of the Mediterranean. 786.—The Corinthians invented fhips called Triremes. 779.—The race of kings ended at Corinth, and was fuc- ceeded by annual magiflrates, called Prytanes. >76,—Corebis conquersin the 28th olympiad from their inltitution by Iphitus, though vulgarly called the Sift olympiad, which, according to Scaliger, was celebrated on the 23d of July. *70.—Phul invades the kingdom of Ifracl, and is bribed to depart with 1o0o talents. >6e.—The Ephori eltablifhed at Lacedemon by Theopom- us. na. Thaiah begins to phrophefy, and contiaues his pro- phecies for above 60 years ; was fawn afunder by order of Manaffes in 696. + 5q+—The decennial archons begin at Athens.—Micah the prophet. —The Milefians are the gth who acquire the maritime power of the Mediterranean. 153.—Rome is built, according to Varro, April the zoth, j or the r2th of the calends of May. 550,—The rape of the Sabines. 747-——The Romans and Sabines unite. —The zra of Na- bonaffar begins. 743+—The firft war between the Meffenians and Lacedz- monians begins, and continues 19 years: >34.—The Carians about this time have the command of the Mediterranean. 732.—Syracufe built by a colony of Corinthians under Ar- chias; others fay in 758. 431.—Habbakuk the prophet. »24.—The 1{t Meffenian war ended by the capture of Itho- me, which rendered them vaffals to the Lacedz- monians, 522..~The Chinefe empire divided into principalities. >21.—Samaria, after 3 years fiege, taken. —The kingdom of : Ifrael finifhed by Salmanafer, king of Affyria, who carried the ten tribes into captivity. —The rf eclipfe of the moon on recerd, according to Pto- lemy, March 19th, 3 hours 20’ before midnight. 420.—The 2d and 3d eclipfe of the moon on record; the 2d on March 5th, 50’ before midnight; and the 3d on September 1ft, 4 hours 20’ before midnight, according to the meridian of Alexandria. 517.—Ineffeétual tiege of Tyre for about 5 years by Sal- manafer, king of Affyria. >13.—Gela in Sicily founded. —Senacherib’s army deftroyed in one night by an angel, to the amount of 185,000 men. »og.—The Salii, az order of priefts, inftituted by Numa. 3¢S.—Ecbatana built by Dcjoces. . 707.—Tarentum built by the Lacedzmonian baftards, called Parthenians, on being expelled Sparta. 403.—Corewra built by the Corinthians. $90.—Holofernes befieyed Bethulia, and killed by Judith. 686.—Archilochus the poet flourifhed, and invented the Tambic verfe. 655.—The fecond Meffenian war begins, and continues 14 years. 684. Athen begins to be governed by annual archons. —T'yrtzus the poet flourifhed. 583 —The Lacedemonians defeated by Ariftomenes. BC: 680,—Affaradinus, or Efarhaddon, king of Affyria, takes poffeffion of Babylon—the chariot race inftituted at the Olympic games. 678.—Dejoces extends the Median empire to the river Halys. 677.—Manafleh king of Judah is taken prifoner, and carried in chains to Babylon. 676.—The Lefbians about this time acquire the command of the Mediterranezan, and retain it about fixty- nine years. 675.—The feftivals of Carnia inftituted at Sparta, annual in Auguft, and continued nine days—Terpander the poet the firft vitor. 673.—Terpander adced about this time 3 ftrings to the lyre.—Thaletas of Gortynius, in Crete, the mufi- cian. 671.—The fecond Meffenian war finifhed after a fiege of eleven years, and the Meffenians expelled the Peloponnefus. 670.—Alcman of Sardis, the lyric poet. 667.—The combat between the three Horatii and the three Coriatii. 66§.—The city of Alba deftreyed—the Meffenians fettled in Italy—war between the Romans ard the Fidenates. 659.—Cypfelus ufurps the government of Corinth, and re tained it for 30 years. 658.—Byzantium built by a colony of Argives, or, accord- ing to fome, of Athenians and others—others fay, it was built in 670, 17 years later thaa Chalcedon. 65t.—Ai five years’ war between the Romana and Sabines : begins.—Cyrene in Africa founded. 648.—The Thoth of the year of Nabonaffar was on February tft, having fhifted 25 days in 100 years. 641.—Amen, ing of Judah, treacheroufly put to death by his domeftic fervants. 636.—The Tartars defeated the Chinefe with great flaugh- ter. 631.—War between the Romans, and the Fidenates and Sabines, which continues, at intervals, for fifty years. 630.—Cyrene built by Battus, who begins that kingdom. 629.—The government of Corinth ufurped by Periander. 627.—Jeremiah the prophet. 626.— Zephaniah the prophet. 625.—The Pentateuch found by Hilkiah. 624.—The Scythians invade Media, Lydia, &e. and keep pof- feffion of feveral provinces for 28 years.—-Draco the lawgiver, archon at Athens. 623.—Draco eftablifhes his laws at Athens. 621.—A war between the Lydians and Milefians, which continues eleven years. The fourth eclipfe on record, which was of the moon, on Saturday April 22d, three hours after midnight, according to the meridian of Alexandria. 610.—Necho about this time began the canal between the Nile and the Red Sea; but did not fiuifh it. 608.—Jofiah, king of Judah, flain at Megiddo by Pharaoh Necho, king of Egypt. 607.—Alczus the poet flourifhed. 606.—Nineveh taken and deftroyed by the joint armies of Cyaxares and Nabopolaifar. 6e5.—The act captivity of the Jews, dated by others in 60 6c4.—By Necho’s order fome Pheenicians about this time failed CHRONOLOGY. Bac. failed from the Red Sea round Africa, and re- turned by the Mediterranean. 600.—Sappho the Lyric poetefs. 597-—Jehoiachin, king of Judah, carried captive to Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar. 596.—The Scythians expelled upper Afia by Cyaxares, after 28 years poffeffion.—Epimenides of Crete, the firft builder of temples in Greece. 594-—Solon, archon and lawgiver of Athens.—Thales of Miletus. §93-—Ezekiel the prophet. 592.—Anacharfis the Scythian. 591.—The Pythian games firft celebrated at Delphi. 590.—The Lydian war begins, and continues 6 years. 587.—The city of Jerufalem taken by Nebuchadnezzar after a fiege of 18 months, June the roth. 586.—The temple of Jerufalem burned on the feventh day of the fifth month. 585.—A battle upon the river Halys between Cyaxares and Halyattes, interrupted by an eclipfe of the moon, May the 28th, which was predicted by Thales— this brought the Lydian war to a conclufion— ZEfop the mythologift flourifhed. 582.—The Lithmian games reftored. 580.—Money firft coined in Rome. 579-—The Megarenfian war—Stefichorus the poet flou- rifhed. §72.—Tyre taken by Nebuchadnezzar after a fiege of 13 years. 571-—Apries, king of Egypt, dethroned by Nebuchad- nezZar. F 569.—Daniclinterpreted Nebuchadnezzar’s dreams, accord- ing to Jofephus. 508.—The Nemzan games reftored—Anaximander of Mi- letus flourifhed.—Phalaris tyrant of Agrigentum lived. 566.—The firlt cenfus at Rome—84,700 citizens. 562.—The firft comedy at Athens, a¢ted upon a {caffold by e Sufarton and Dolon, the inventors of comedy. §60.—Pififtratus firft ufurped the tyranny of Athens, which he recovered after expulfion in 557, und from which he was again expelled in 556. 549.—Daniel the prophet delivered his prediGtions.—Cyrus afcended the throne of Perfia. 556.—Anaximenes of Miletus flourifhed. 550.—Cyrus king both of Media and Perfia.—The king- dom of Lydia ended, after a fubfiftence of 249 years. 549.—Theognis the poet flourifhed—The Piliftratide burned the temple of Apollo at Delphos. 548.—Creefus having croffed the Halys by an artificial bridge contrived by Thales, is defeated by Cyrus. 539-—The Phoczans, leaving their native country, fettle ia Gaul, and build Marfeilles—Pythagoras flou- rifhed. 538.—Cyrus takes Babylon, and terminates the kingdom of Babylon. 537-—Simonides of Cea, the post, flourifhed. 530.—Cyrus iffues an ediét for the return of the Jews, and rebuilding the temple, the foundations of which were laid in the fecond month of the fecond year after their return.—Thefpis the inventor of tra- gedy lived. $35-—The firlt tragedy acted about this time at Athens, by Thefpis in a waggon.—According to the Arun- delian marbles in the preceding year. "Vor. VII. B.C. 532.—Anacreon the poet flourifhed. 530.—Cyrus marched againft the Scythians. §29.—Daniel’s vifion, ch. xi. 5 28.—Haggai prophefied. 527-—Zachariah propheficd. 526.—Learning encouraged at Athens.—A public library firft founded.— War between the Romans and Sa- bines. 525.—Cambyfes conquered Egypt.—A comet appeared in China, near Antares, and extended to the milky way. 523-—The sth lunar eclipfe obferved at Babylon, on Wed- nefday, July 16th, one hour before midnight, and es than 6 digits eclipfed on the northern difk. Se lived.—The fecond edi& to rebuild Jeru- alem. 519.—A great earthquake in China. 515.—The temple of Jerufalem finifhed March 10,—The paflover celebrated, April 18. 512.—Babylon revolts from Darius, but is recovered two years after. 5t0.—The tyranny of the Pififtratide abolifhed at Athens by aid of the Lacedemonians. 509.—The confular government begins at Rome, on the expulfion of Tarquin and his family, Feb. 26. being the Regifugium of the calendar. 508.—The firft alliance between the Romans and Cartha- ginians. 507.—The fecond cenfus in Rome—130,000 citizens, 506.—Heraclitus the philofopher lived —Megabyfus fub- dued Thrace and Macedonia.—Porfenna king of Etruria made war againft the Romans.—War be- tween the Romans and Sabines. 505.—Parmenides of Elea, the philofopher, lived. 504.—Sardis taken and burned by the Athenians, which occafioned the Perfian invafion of Greece. 503.-—The leffer triumph, called Ovation, begins at Rome by Pofthumius, who entered the city with a myr- tle crown. 502.—The fixth lunar eclipfe obferved at Babylon on Monday, Nov. 19, 24’ before midnight—3 digits eclipfed on the fouth part of the difk. 498.—The firft diGator, Lartius, created at Rome.—The Tonians, after a revolt, fubdued by the Perfians, and Miletus. taken. 497-—The Saturnalia inftituted at Rome—150,700 citi- zens. 495-— Tarquin the proud dies at Cuma. 494.—War between the Romans and Sabines. 493-—The populace of Rome retire difcontented to the Mons Sacer.—Tribunes created at Rome, or as fome fay in 488.—The Athenians built the port of Pirzus. 491.—The kingdom of Syracufe ufurped by Gelo.—Corio- lanus banifhed from Rome.—T'he 7th lunar eclipfe obferved at Babylon, on Wednefday, April 25 — 2 digits eclipfed to the fouth. 490.—The battle of Marathon, Sept. 28th, in which the Perfians were defeated by Miltiades. 488.—Coriolanus, by the intreaty of his mother, &¢. with. draws the army of the Volfci from Rome. 487.— Egypt revolts from the Perfians. 486.— Eichylus firlt gains the prize of tragedy, at the age of 39 years.—The Agrarian law firlt propofed at Romie, by Caffius. 5G 485. CHRONOLOGY. psc: 485.—Caffius punifhed for ufurping the fovereignty.— The Volfci and /Equi fubdued. 484.—Arittides banifhed from Athens.—Xerxes recovers Egypt, and commits the goverament to his brother Achamenes- 483.—Quzttors firft created at Rome.—An eruption of mount /Etna. 481.—Xerxes begins his expedition againft Greece. 480.—The affair of Thermopyle finifhed, Aug. 7th—The Perfians defeated at Salamis ina fea-fight, O&. 2oth.—Pindar the lyric poet flourifhed, ob. 435, zt. 86. 479.—The Perfians, under Mardonius, defeated at Platza, Sept. 22d—on which day occurred the battle of Mycale.— War between the Romans and Hetru- rians —Charon of Lampfacus, the hiltorian, lived. 477.—The 3co Romans, of the name of Fabius, killed by the Veientes near Cremona, July 17. 476.—Valerius triumphed over the Veientes and Sabines, 103,000 citizens ia Rome.—A great eruption of mount /Etna. =» 471.—Themiltocles, accufed of confpiring againft the liberty of Greece, retires to Xerxes in Alia. 470.—Cimon defeats the Perfian fleet at Cyprus, and the army near the river Eurymedon in Pamphylia.— s\n eruption of mount /&tna.—Anaxagoras of Clazomene, the philofopher, ob. 428, xt. 72. 465.—The fir folemn contelt between the tragic poets, when Sophocles, at 28 years of age, was declared vitor over AE fichylus.—An earthquake at Sparta. —Capua founded by the Tufcans. 466.—The Syracufans recover their liberty, and maintain it for 61 years. 463.—Egypt revolts from the Perfians, under Inarus, but obtains the affiltance of the Athenians.—A great peftilence in Rome.—Sophocies, the tragic poet, ob. 406, xt. gt. 462.—The Pefians defeated by the Athenians, in a naval engagement, in Egypt. 461.—Earthquakes and numerous prodigies in Rome. 460.—The 3d Meffenian war with the Lacedemonians be- gins, and continues 10 years.—The tribunes con- tend with the confuls about making laws. 459.—The Athenians begin to exercife tyranny over the other Grecian ftates. 458.—Ezra fent from Babylon to Jerufalem with the captive Jews, and veffels of gold and filver, &c. by Arta- xerxes, in the 7th year of his reign, being 70 weeks of years, or 490 years, before the crucifixion of our Saviour.—Cincinnatus appointed dicta- tor.—War between the Corinthians and Mega- reans. 456.—The Athenians, deferted by the Egyptians, retire out of Egypt by capitulation with the Perfians.— Nehemiah the prophet.—The ludi feculares cele- brated for the firft time at Rome.—The tribunes affert their right of convoking the fenate. 454.—The Romans fend deputies to Athens for a copy of Solon’s laws. —An eruption of Etna. 453-—Arilftarchus the tragi¢ poet. 451.—The decemvirs created at Rome, and the laws of the 12 tables compiled and ratified. 450.—Cimon triumphed over the Perfians by fea and land. —Zaleucus the lawgiver of Locri. 449.—The decemvirs banifhed—The Perfians make an ig- nomivious peace with the Greeks, B.C. 448.—The rft facred war about the temple of Delphi. Hellanius the hiftorian, ob. 411, xt.85. 447.—The Athenians defeated by the Beeotians at Che. ronda. 446.—A 30 years’ truce between the Athenians and Lace- dzmonians.—Charondas the lawgiver of Thurium, —Thucydides, the Athenian general, banifhed by oftracifm. 445.—Herodotus reads his hiftory in the council at Athens, and receives public marks of honour, at the age of 39 years.—Military tribunes with confular power created at Rome.—Nehemiah returned to rebuild the walls of Jerufalem. 444.—The Athenians fend a colony to Thurium in Italy, of which number were Herodotus, Thucydides, and Lyfias.—Empedocles, of Agrigentum, the philofopher, flourifhed. 443.—Cenfors firft created at Rome.—Herodicus called the gymnattic phyiician. 442.—Profound and univerfal peace.— Euripides firft gained the prize of tragedy at Athens, at the age of 43 years, ob. 407, zt. 78. 441.—Artemones of Clazomenz invented the battering- ram, the teftudo, and other military inftruments. —Pericles fubdued Samos.—A great famine at Rome. 440.—-Comedies prohibited at Athens, which continued for 3 years.—Phidias the feulptor flourifhed, ob. 432. 439 —War between Corinth and Corcyra.—Acron the phyfician called the empiric. 437-—Cratinus, the comic poet, ob. 431. 430.—Malachi, the laft of the prophets, delivered his pre- dictions. 435-—Fidene taken by the Romans.—The Corinthians de- feated by the Corcyreans.—Eupolis the comic poet lived, ob. poft 415. 434.—Anitophanes, the comic poet, ob. poft 389. 433-—The temple of Apollo confecrated—A comet ap- peared ia China. 432—The Metonic cycle begins. See Cycxe. poft 415. 431.—The Peloponnefian war begins May 7, and continues near 27 years.—Euctemon the aftronomer. 430.—The hiftory of the Old Teftament finifhes about this time.x—A plague at Athens for 5 years, which was of great extent. 429.—Socrates the philofopher flourifhed, ob. 400, zt. 70. 428.—Democritus of Abdera, the philofopher, ob. 361, zt. 109. 427.—Gorgias of Leontium, the orator, ob. 400, zt. 108. 426.—The plague broke out at Athens a fecond time.— Thucydides, the hiftorian, flourifhed; ob. about 391, et. about 80.—An eruption of A&tna. 425.—Hippocrates of Cos, the phyfician, ob. 361. zt.gg. 424.—Ariftophanes’ firft comedy of the Clouds firft acted again{t Socrates. 423.—A truce between the Lacedemonians and Athenians, which lafted from about the 3d of O&ober to the 12th of April following. 421.—A peace of 50 years, concluded April roth, between the Lacedemonians and Athenians, kept for 6 years and ro months. 420.—Alcibiades, the Athenian general, ob. 404, zt. 46. 419.—Protagoras of Abdera, the fophift. 418,—A fignal viGory gained by the Lacedzmonians over the Argives and Mantineans. Meton ob, 416 — CHRONOLOGY. B.C. 416.—The Agrarian law moved at Rome. 415.—Parrhafius, of Ephefus, the painter.—Alcibiades ac- . cufed at Athens. 414.—Ezypt revolts from the Perfians.—The 2d part of the Peloponnefian war called the Decelean begins ; the fcene of it Sicily. 413.—A lunar eclipfe, Auguft 27, by which Nicias was fo terrified, that he loft the Athenian army in Sicily. 412,.—The Athenians, on account of their mifcondu& in Sicily, are deferted by their allies. —Lyfias the orator, ob. 37%, wt. 81.—400 perfons elected to the government of Athens. 410.—The Lacedemonians defeated at Cyzicum by the Athenians. —Three quettors elected for the firtt time at Rome.—The hiltory of Thucydides ended, and that of Xenophon begun.—The Carthagi- nians attacked Sicily. 408.—The Romans defeated the Volfci.-—The Athenians become mafters of the Hellefpont.—The Medes, after a revolt from the Perfians, obliged to fubmit. 407.—The Carthaginians renew their attack on Sicily. 406.—Agathon the comic poet. 405.—The Athenian fleet of 180 fhips totally defeated at ZEgofpotamos by Lyfander—Syracufe ufurped - by Dionyfivs.—Cebes the philofopher. 404.—Athens taken by Lyfander, which finifhes the Pelo- onnefian war.—Athens governed by 30 tyrants. —Euclid of Megara, the philofopher. 402.—Teleftes the dithyrambic poet. 401.—Cyrus killed in an expedition againft his brother, Ar- taxerxes.—The retreat of 10,c09 Greeks from Babylon under Xenophon.—The 30 tyrants ex- pelled Athens by Thrafybulus, and the democratic government eftablifhed. 400.—Socrates put to death by the Athenians.— Xenophon, the philofopher, called the Attic mufe, ob. 359, wt. about go. 399.-—The fealt called Le&ifernium inftituted at Rome. 398.—Military catapulte invented about thts time by Dionytius.—Ctefias, the phyfician and hiltorian, ob. after 384.—Many prodigics at Rome. 397-—War againft the Carthaginians by Dionyfius of Syra- cufe, continues five years.x—Zeuxis of Heraclea, the painter. 399.—Antilthenes, called the Cynic philofopher. 395-—An alliance of the Athenians, ‘Thebans, Corinthians, and Argives, again{ft the Lacedemonians. 394-—A fea-fight at Cnidus, between the Perfians and La- cedemonians.—Contefts at Rome about the Agra- rian law.—The Corinthian war begins —The hif- tory of Theopompus ended.—Archytas of Taren- tum, the Pythagorean philofopher and mathemati- cian, ob. after 360. 393-—Argives become matters of Corinth. 390.—The battle of Allia, in which the Romans were de- feated by the Gauls, who marched to Rome, which was taken and burned. 389.— Plato’s firlt voyage into Sicily, ob. 348. xt. Sr. 388.—Rhegium taken by Dionyfius—Philoxenus, the di- thyrambic poet. 387.—The peace of Antalcidas between the Lacedemonians and Perfians.—152,583 effective men in Rome. —Damon and Pythias, the Pythagorean philofo- phers and friends. 385.—The war of Cyprus finifhed, after a duration of two years, and given up by the Perfians. _ B.C. : 380.—Ifeus of Chaleis, the Athenian orator, ob. about” 360. 378.—Hfocrates the rhetorician, ob. 388. xt. 99. 377-—The Lacedemonians defeated in the fea-fight at Naxus, Sept. 20th. —Arete of Cyrene, the female philofopher. 370.—Artaxerxes concludes a peace with the Greeks. —The Licinian law propofed in Rome. 374.—The unfuccefsful expedition of the Perfians under Artaxerxes in Legypt.—Philolaus, the Pythago- rean philofopher. 373-—A great earthquake in Peloponnefus.—A comet ap~ peared in Greece, &c. 372-—Diogenes, the Cynic philofopher, ob. 324. zt. go. 371.—The battle of Leuétra, July Sth, in which the Lace- dzmonians were defcatcd by the Thebans under Epaminondas. 370.—The Mcflenians return to Peloponnefus, after a ba- nifhment of about 300 years. 368.—Eudoxus about this time brought the celeftial {phere from Egypt, and carried it into Greece, ob. about B52 cet yS 3. 367.-—The populace at Rome obtain the privilege of having one of the confuls a Plebeian.—The Gauls, who invaded the Roman territories, were defeated by Camillus. —The Licinian law paffed. 365.—The Romans renew the cuflom of fixing the chrono- logical nail in the temple of Jupiter, on the 13th of September.—Livy places it in the next year. 363.—The battle of Mantinea, in which Epaminondas was killed.—Ariltippus jun. the Cyrenaic philofo- her. Gan sR AEE of feveral Perfian governors in Leffler Afia againit Artaxerxes. 360.—Philip’s firft battle, gained at Methon, over the Athenians.—Plato’s fecond voyage into Sicily. 359.—Philip’s fecond battle gained over the Illyrians.— The obliquity of the cliptic 23° 49’ 10”. 357-—The fecond facred war begins.—Dionyfius jun. ex- pelled Syracufe by Dion.—Anitotle obferved the moon’s tranfit over Mars, April 4th. 354.—Dion put to death—Theopompus. of Chios, the orator and hiltorian. 353-—The Phocwans defeated in Theffaly by Philip. 352-—Ephorus of Cume, the hiftorian. 351.—The Sidonians befieged by the Perfian army ; burn their city; and put themfelves to death.—The monument of Maufolus ereGed. 350.—Egypt conquered by Ochus. 348.—Philip of Macedon, having taken all the cities of the Phocwans, concludes the facred war.—Speufippus, the academic philofopher, ob. 339.—A comet ap- peared in Greece. 347-—Dionyfius recovers Syracufe. 345.—Ariftotle the philofopher flourifhed, ob, 322. xt. 63. 343.-—War between the Romans and Samnites begins, and lafts 714 years.—Timoleon recovers the liberty of Syracufe ; banifhes Dionyfius, and fertles a democracy.—Protogenes of Khodes, the painter, ob. about 320.—The Syracufan zra commenced. —Philip makes Thrace tributary.—A pettilence at Rome. 341.—A comet appeared, near the equator, in Greece. 340.—The Carthaginians defeated by Timoleon near Agri- gentum, July 13th. 339.— Xenocrates, the academic philofopher, ob. 314, xt.82. 5 G2 338 CHRONOLOGY. 438.—Philip defeated the Athenians, &c. in the battle of Cheronea, Aug. 2d. 336.—Philip killed by Paufanias—A Plebeian admitted to the pretorfhip at Rome.—A comet appeared in Greece.—Stilpo of Megara, the philofopher, ob. ; after.294. 335.—Alexander enters Greece.—Deftroys the city of Thebes, but preferves the houfe of Pindar.—A temple was built on mount Gerizim.—Demades, the Athenian orator, ob. 322. 334.—Alexander defeated the Perfians on the river Gra- nicus, May 22d.—Apelles of Cos, the painter. 35 3-—Alexander gains a fecond battle at Iffus, in Oétober. —Callifthenes, the philofopher, ob. 328. 332.—Alexander takes Tyre Augult 20th, gains poffeffion of Egypt, and builds Alexandria.—Dinocrates the mathematician. 331.—The battle of Arbela, in which Alexander defeats Darius, O@. 2d, 11 days after a total eclipfe of the moon. 330.—The cycle of Calippus commences from Darius’sdeath, July 1ft.—ABichines the orator banifhed.—A trial for witchcraft at Rome. 329.—Hy perides the Athenian orator, ob. 322. 328.—Philetas of Cos, the poet and grammarian, ob. about 280.—Alexander pafled the mountain of Caucafus. 327.—Alexander’s expedition into India againit Porus. 3260.—Lyfippus, the ftatuary. 325.—Menedemus of Eretria, the philofopher, ob. about 301, et. 74.—Demotthenes the erator banifhed from Athens, recalled in 323, and died in 322, wt. 60. 324.—Crates of Thebes, the Cynic philofopher, ob. after 287. Fay SC dies April 21ft, and his empire divided. —Praxiteles, the ftatuary, ob. after 288. §22.—The principal Athenian orators, viz. Demofthenes, Hyperides, and Demades, are put to death by An- tipater —Theophraftus, the Peripatetic philofo- pher, ob. about 288, zt. 85. 321.—The Romans, defeated by the Samnites, pafs under the yoke. 320, —General liberty proclaimed to all the Greek cities by ~ Polyfperchon.—Ptolemy carried 100,000 Jews captives into Egypt.—Menander, the inventer of the new comedy, ob. 293, xt. 52. 319.—The Samnites {ubdued by the Romans. 318.—Phocion unjuilly put to death by the Athenians.— Caffander becomes matter of Athens. 317.—The government of Syracufe and of Sicily ufurped by Agathocles—Demetrius Phalereus governs Athens for 10 years, banifhed from Athens in 307, ob. about 284. 315.—Caflander rebuilt Thebes, and founded Caffandria.— Rhodes almoft deftroyed by an inundation. 314.—The cities of Peloponnefus recover their liberties. — Dinarchus, the Athenian orator, banifhed in 307. 313.—Polemon, the Academic philofopher, ob. 270. 312,—Seleucus takes Babylon, from which begins the era of the Seleucide.—Zeno of Cittium in Cyprus, the firft of the Stoic philofophers, ob. 264, et. 98. 310.—Agathocles defeated by the Carthaginians July 22d, carries the war into Africa; during his paflage the fun was eclipfed Aug. 15th, 11 digits 10’.—A comet appeared.in China.—Crantor, the Academic philofopher, ob. before 270, B.C, 305.—Fabius defeats the Samnites, Marfi, and Peligni.— Philemon, the comic poet, and rival of Menander, ob, about 274. 307.—The oligarchy of Athens changed into a democracy by Demetrius Poliorcetes. 306.—The fucceflors of Alexander affume the title of kings. 305.—Megalthenes, the hiftorian. 304.—Seleucus founded Antioch, Edeffa, Laodicea, &c.— Pyrrho, the 1ft of the Sceptic philofophers, ob. zt. QO. 301.—The battle of Ipfus, in which Antigonus is defeated. 300.—Euclid of Alexandria, the mathematician. 298.—Arcefilaus the philofopher ; founder of the 2d or middle Academy, ob. about 241, zt. 73. 296.—Athens taken by Demetrius Poliorcetes—Epicurus, the philofopher, ob. 270, xt. 72. 294.-—Timocharis of Alexandria obferved, March gth, 4 hours before midnight, a conjunétion of the moon with the Spica Virginis, 8° according to him W. from the equinoétial point; ob. after 272.— 270,000 effective men in Rome. 293.—The firft fun-dial erected at Rome by Papirius Curfor, and their time divided into hours.—Erafiitratus, the phyfician, ob. abont 257. 292.—Ariflyllus of Alexandria, the aftronomer. .—Seleucus has built about 40 new cities in Afia, which he peopled with different nations. .—The Samnite war terminated.—Painting brought to Rome by Fabius.—Bion Bory {thenites, the philo- fopher, ob. 241. 288.—Strato, the Peripatetic philofopher, ob. about 270. 287.—The Athenians revolt from Demetrius Poliorcetes.— Zenodotus of Ephefus, the firit librarian of Alex- andria, ob, about 245. 286.—Macedon taken poffeflion of by Lyfimachus, and Pyrrhus expelled. 285.—Diony hus, the aftronomer of Alexandria, beganhiszra on Monday June 26th, being the firlt who found the exact folar year to confilt of 365° 5" 49’—ob. 241. 284.—The Septuagint tranflation of the Old Teftament fup- pofed to have been made about this time.—The pharos of Alexandria built.—The foundation of the Achat republic laid——A_ great earth- quake in the Hellefpont and Cherfonefe——The Gauls attacked the Romans and defeated. 283.—Softratus of Cnidus, the architect —The college and library of Alexandria founded. 282.—Timocharis obferved, Nov. gth, 34 hours after mid- night, a fecond conjunGion of the moon with the Spica Virginis.—Theocritus of Syracufe, the pal- toral poet. 280.—Pyrrhus aflits the Tarentines in Italy —Ariftarchus of Samos, the aflronomer. 279.—Dionyfius Heracleotes, the philofopher.—A new cen- fus at Rome—278,222 citizens. 273.—A large army of Gauls under Brennus cut to pieces near the temple of Delphi.—Philo, the dialectic philofopher, ob. about 260. 277.—Aratus of Tarfus, the aftronomical poct. 276.—The firlt regular body of grammarians or critics began at this time.—Lycophron of Chalcis, the poct. 275.—Pyrrhus defeated by the Romans, retires to Epirus. —Perfeus, the Stoic philofopher. 272.—The Samnites and Tarentines defeated by the Ro- mane, CHRONOLOGY, B.C, ‘ mans.—On Jan. 14, a conjunétion of Mars with the N. ftar, in the fide of the front of Scorpio. —Lycon, the Peripatetic philofopher, ob. 226, 2te94. : 269.—Silver firtt coined at Rome.—Crates, the Academic philofopher, ob. about 250. 268.—Athens taken by Antigonus Gonatas, who retains the government 12 years.—Berofus, the Chaldzan hittorian. 267.—Hermachus of Mitylene, the Epicurean.—-Ptolemy made a canal from the Nile to the Red Sea. 265.—A cenfus at Rome—292,226 citizens. 264.—The ficft Punic war.—The chronicle of Paros, or the Arundelian marbles, compofed.—Cleanthes, the Stoic philofopher, ob. about 240, zt. 8o. 263-—Homer, jun. the tragic poet. 262.—The battle of Sardis.—'Timzus of Sicily, the hifto- rian, ob. xt. 96.—The tranfit of Mercury over the bull’s horn, April 26, Mercury being in 23° Taurus, and the fun in 29°30’ ». 261.—The Romans firlt concerned themfelves in naval af- fairs.—Manetho, the Egyptian hiitorian. 260.—The Carthaginians defeated at fea by the Romans.— Callimachus of Cyrene, the poet, ob. about 244. 259.—Zoilus the critic, called Homero-Mattix. 25%.—Duris of Samos, the hiltorian. 257-—Neanthes of Cyzicum, the orator and hiftorian. 256.—Regulus defeated and taken prifoner,— Athens reftor- ed to its liberty by Antigonus.—Ctefibius, the hiftorian, ob. zt. 104. 255-—Solibius of Lacedemon, the critic. 254.—Hieronymus of Rhodes, the Peripatetic philofopher. 252.—A cenfus at Rome - 297,897 effective men.—The Carthaginians matters of the fea. 251.—Aratus with his fellow citizens join the Achwan league. 250.—The Parthians revolt from the Macedonians. 249.—The fea-fight of Drepanum, in which the Romans : are totally defeated by the Carthaginians. 248.—Antigonus Caryltius, the hiltorien. 247.—Jefus the fon of Sirachh—A cenfus at Rome— 251,212 citizens. 246.—Ali the records, &c. in China deftroyed.— Ptolemy kills Laodice, queen of Antiochus, and overruns great part of Syria.—Conon of Samos, the aftro- nomer, ob. after 223. 245.—Eratoithenes of Cyrene, librarian of Alexandria.— ; ob. 194, et. 82. 243-—The citadel of Corinth taken by Aratus.—Sphezrus, i the Stoic philofopher and hiltorian. 242.—The Carthaginians defeated —The firft Punic war terminated. —A pollonius of Perga, called the great : geometrician. 241.—Agis king of Sparta, attempting to fettle an Agrarian law, is put to death.—Lacydcs, the philofopher, of the fecond Academy, ob. after 215.—September the 3d, Jupiter obferved in 7° 33’ ny, and in conjunGion with the S. ftar of the Afelli. 240.—The firlt plays a&ed at Rome, being thofe of Livius Andronicus, the firlt Roman dramatic ’ oet. $fo-c 08 papain of Cilicia, the Stoic philofopher, ob. 207, et. 73. = 238.-—The Carthaginians finifh the Libyan war.—Polyitra- : tus, the Epicurean philofopher. B.C, 237-—Hamilcar leads a Carthaginian army into Spain, with his fon Hannibal.—Euphorion of Chalcis, the poet, ob. about 220. et. 56. 236.—The Tartars expelled from Chinax—Archimedes of Syracufe, the mathematician, ob. 212. 235.—-The temple of Janus hut the firft time after Numa and univerfal peace.—M. V. Meffala, the Roman painter, ob. after 226. 234.—The Sardinian war begins.—C. Nevius, the comic poet, ob. 203. 232.—The Agrarian law revived.—The Gauls revolt. 231.—The firit divorce at Rome.— Sardinia and Corfica fub- dued by the Romans. 230.—Apollonius the Rhodian, the poet and third libra- rian of Alexandria.—Eratolthenes obferved the obliquityof the eclipticto be 23° 51’ 20”. 229.—The Romans declare war againft the Llyrians. 228.—The Roman ambafladors firlt appear at Athens, Co:inth, &c—Philochorus of Athens, the hiito- riax, ob. 222. 226.—Arilto Ceus, the Peripatetic philofopher, ob. about 193. 225.—Cleomenes kills the Ephori, and reftores the Agrarian laws of Sparta.—The-Gauls enter Italy and are defeated—Tabius Pi@tor, the firft Roman hifto- Ler: tery 224.—The Romans for the firft time croffed the Po.—The Coloffus of Rhodes thrown down by an earth. quake. 221.—Phylarchus, the hiftorian. 220.—A cenfus at Rome—270,213 citizens.—The focial war in Greece begins, and continues three years. —Plautus of Umbria, the comic poet, ob. 154. 219.—Saguntum taken and deftroyed by Hannibal.— Archagathus, the 1ft phyfician at Rome.—The art of furgery introduced into Rome. 218.—The fecond Punic war begins with Hannibal’s pafling the Alps, and continues 17 years. 217.—The Romans defeated at Thrafymene. 216.—'The Romans totally defeated in the battle of Canna, 215.—Evander, the philofopher of the fecond Academy. 212.—Syracufe, after a fiege of three years, taken by Mare cellus. 210.—Hermippus of Smyrna, the Peripatetic philofopher, and grammarian. 207.—Afdrubal defeated and killed by Claudius Nero.— Zeno of Tarfus, the Stoic philofopher. 205.—Ennius of Calabria, the poet, brought to Rome by Cato the queftor, and firlt gave harmony to the Roman poetry.—Sotion of Alexandria, the gram- marian. 204.—Scipio befieged Utica. 203.—Scipio in one day took the two camps of Afdrubal and Syphax.— Hannibal recalled. 202.—Scipio defeated Hannibal at Zama, O&. 19. 201.—Peace obtained on very ignominious terms, by the Carthaginians, and the clofe of the fecond Punic war. 200.—The firft Macedonian war begins, and continues near 4 years.— Anriltophenes of Byzantium, the gram- marian, ob. zt. 80. 198.—Sidon taken by Antiochus, after the battle of Panius. —Atclepiades Myrlianus, the grammarian. 197.—The Romans fend two pretors into Spain — Defeat Philip Cynocephalus.—Licinius Tegula, the comic poet. 106 CHRONOLOGY, B.C, 196.—Caius Lelius, the Roman orator.—The Roman f[ena- tors firft fat in the orcheftra at the {cenic fhews. 195.—Ariftonymus, the fourth librarian of Alexandria, ob. et. 77. 194.—Sparta and Hither Spain fubdued by the Romans. 193.—Hyginus of Pergamus, philofopher of the fecond Aca- demy. 192.—The war of Antiochus the Great with the Romans begins, and continues 3 years. —A cenfus at Rome —243,704 effective men. 191.— Earthquakes at Rome, 38 days. 190.—The Romans under Scipio defeat Antiochus in the battle of Magnefia. 189.—The Romans make peace with Antiochus.—A fiatic luxury firfl brought to Rome by the fpoils of An- tiochus. 188.—Philopeemen obliges the Lacedemonians to renounce the laws of Lycurgus. 187.—Antiochus defeated and killed in Media, after plun- dering the temple of Jupiter Belus in Elymais.x— Scipio Africanus banifhed trom Rome. 185.—Diogenes of Babylon, the Stoic philofopher. 183.—Philopaemen defeated and killed by Dinocrates, tyrant of the Meffenians.—Critolans Phafelites, the Peripatetic philofopher, ob. about 140.—The Tranfalpine Gauls march into Italy. 182.—The ftars appeared in China in the day time. 181.—Pettilence at Rome. 180.—Demetrius, accufed by his brother Perfeus, is put to death by his father Philip.—Statius Cwcilius, the comic poet, ob. after 1606. 179.—A cenfus at Rome—273,244 effeCtive men.—Some books of Numa found at Rome ina ftone coffin, fuppofed by Livy to be forged—aud burned. 177.—Agarthacides of Cnidus, the hiltorian. 176.—Heraclides, called Lembus, the hiltorian. 175.—A great earthquake in China.—Pettilence at Rome. 173.—Ennius finifhes the 12th book of his annals.—Atta- lus of Rhodes, the aftronomer and grammarian. 172.—A comet appeared in China, in the ealt.—Antio- chus’s firft expedition in Egypt. 171.—The 2d Macedonian war begins.—Antiochus defeats Ptolemy’s generals. :70.—Paper invented in China.—Antiochus takes Jerufa- lem, and plunders the temple.—An irruption of the Tartars into China.—Metrodorus, the philofo- pher and painter of Athens, afterwards carried to Rome by Amilius. 169.—A cenfus at Rome—212,805 citizens: 168.—Perfeus defeated in the battle of Pydna.—An eclipfe of the moon happened the preceding night, fore- told by Gallus.—C. Sulpicius Gallus, the tribune, and rft Roman aftronomer. 167.—The iit library ereGed at Rome, confilting of books brought from Macedon. 166.—Terence of Carthage, the comic poet, ob. 159, xt. 35. His firft play, Andria, aéted at Rome.—Apollo- nius killed by Judas Maccabeeus. 165.—Judas purified the temple of Jerufalem.—An eruption of 2tna.—Crates Mallotes of Pergamus, called the critic. 164.—A_ cenfus at Rome—327,032 citizens.—Polybius of Megalopolis, the hiftorian, ob. 124, xt. 82. 163.—The government of Judea under the Maccabees be- gins, and continues 126 years.—M. Pacuvius, the tragic poet, ob. about 331, xt. go. By G; 162.—Hipparchus begins his aftronomical obfervations at Rhodes, and continues them for 34 years.—Deme- trius takes poffeffion of Syria. 161.—The philofophers and rhetoricians banifhed from Rome. 160.—Terence’s laft play, Adelphi, ated at the funeral of - P, Aimilius.—Carneades of Cyrene, the’ philofo- pher, and author of the 3d or new Academy, ob. 128, zt. go. 159.—Time meafured at Rome by water, invented by Sci- pio Nalica. 158.—An irruption of the Tartars into China.—Hipparchus obferved the autumnal equinox on Sunday, Sep- tember 27, about mid-day 157-—A comet appeared in China, in the gth month. 156.—Several temples of Pergamus plundered by Prufias, king of Bithynia.—Ariltarchus of Alexandria, the great grammarian, ob. et. 72. 152.—Andrifcus, perfonating the fon of Perfens, afflumes the tyranny of Macedon. 150.—Demetrius, king of Syria, killed by A. Balas.— Ariftobulus of Alexandria, the Jew and Peripate- tic philofopher, ob. after 124. 149.—The jd Punic war commenced, and continued 3 years.—Prufias put to death. 148.—Jonathan Maccabzus defeats Apollonius in the bat- tle of Azotus, and takes that city and Afcalon. —A comet appeared in the N. part of China, in the 4th month.—Satyrus, the Peripatetic philofopher and hiftorian. 147.—A cenfus at. Rome—322,090 citizens.—The Ro- mans make war againit the Achzans, 146.—Carthage deltroyed by P. Scipio, and Corinth by L. Mummius, who brought to Rome from thence the firft fine paintings; of which the two princi- pal were Bacchus by Aritlides, and Hercules in torture.—Hipparchus obferved the vernal equi- nox March 24, at mid-day.—Dlair refers this ob- {ervation to 135.—A remarkable comet appeared in Greece. 145.—The Romans defolated Greece, 144.—Tryphon murdered Jonathan and his brethren.—An- tipater of Tarfus, called Calamoboas, the Stoic philofopher. 143.—Hipparchus obferves the autumnal equinox on Wed- nefday, September 26th, about fun-fet ; from the new moon of Sept. 28tu he began his new cycle of the moon. See Cycre.—A great earthquake in China. 142.—Simon, the high prieft, takes the caltle of Jerufalem ; repaired it, and refcued Judea from Syrian fer- vitude. 1.41.—The Numantian war begins, and continues 8 years. — An eclipfe of the moon obferved at Alexandria, on Tuefday, Jan. 17, 2 hours before midnight.— Mnafeas Patrenfis, the grammarian. 140.—Diodorus, the Peripatetic philofopher. 13y.—Lucius Accius, the tragic poet. 138.—Panatius of Rhodes, the Stoic philofopher. 137.—Ptolemy Phyfcon began a new reftoration of learning at Alexandria by inducing ingenious foreigners to fettle there-—Nicander of Colophon, the phyfi- cian and poet. 136.—Scipio Africanus, &c. made an embaffy into Egypt, Syria, and Greece.—Ctefibius of Alexandria, the mathematicianandinventorof hydraulicin{truments, 135. CHRONOLOGY, -C, 135.—The hiftory of the Apocrypha ends.—A comet ap- peared in the N.E. part of China in autumn.— The Servile war begins in Sicily. 133-—Numantia in Spain deftroyed by Scipio.—The king- dom‘of Pergamus annexed to the Roman empire, —Tiberius Gracehus put to death for attempting an Agrarian law. 330.—Antiochus, king of Syria, defeated and killed—A comet in Afia.—The revival of learning in China. 129.—The temple on Gerizim dettroyed by Hyrcanus. 128.—Hipparchus obferves the vernal equinox to be on Thurfday, March 23d, about fun-fet, and after- wards the ftar Cor Leonis was 29° 50’, from the fummer folfticial colure.—Clitomachus of Car- thage, philofopher of the third Academy, ob. about 100. 127.—Hipparchus. on May 2d, about fun-rile, obferved the fun in 7° 35’ §, the moon in 21° 40’ , and their mean diftance to be 312° 32/—he obferved Spica Virginis 6° W. of the autumnal equino@tial point. 124.—Apollonius of Nyfa, the Stoic philofopher. 123.—Carthage is rebuilt by order of the Roman fenate.— Herodicus called Cratiteus, the grammarian. 121.—A great eruption of A&tna.—Caius Gracchus killed for attempting an Agrarian law.—L, Celius An- tipater, the Roman hiftorian. 120.—A comet appeared in the E. part of China.—Caftor of Rhodes, the chronologer and hiltorian. * 119.—Menecrates of Nyfa, the grammarian.—Two comets appeared in China—one in the N.E, in fpring, and another in the N.W. in fummer. 118.—A colony fettled at Narbonne by the Romans—who defeated the Gauls near the Alps.—Dalmatia conquered by Metellus. — 116.—Cleopatra aflumes the government of Egypt.—Luci- lius, the firft Roman fatyrilt, ob. 103, xt. 46. 115.—Apollodorus of Athens, the chronologer and gram- marian. 113.—Marcus Antonius, fen. the Roman orator, ob. 87, zt. 6. Il eT Jugurthine war begins, and continues five years. x10.—A comet appeared in China, in the autumn.—The fumptuary law, called /ex licinia, made at Rome. —Lucius Craffus, the Roman orator, ob. g1. xt. 49. 109.—Hyrcanus took Samaria. —The Teutones and Cimbri attack the Roman empire. y08.—Athenion, the Peripatetic philofopher, ob. about 95. —The Romans defeated by the Cimbri. 107.—Cicero is born. 106.—Ptolemy dethroned by Cleopatra.—Jugurtha deliver- ed up to Marius. 105.—The Cimbri and Teutones defeated the Romans, 80,000 of whom were killed on the banks of the Rhone. yo4.—Ariftobulus, the firft high-prieft who wore a crown.— Artemidorus of Ephefus, the geographer. 103.—The Roman people obtained the power of eleGting the pretors. 102.—The Teutones defeated by Marius—200,000 killed, and 70,000 taken prifoners. 1o1.—The Cimbri defeated by Marius and Catullus— 120,000 killed, and 60,000 taken prifoners. 100,—'The Agrarian law revived by Saturninus.—Julius Czfar is born.—Philo, the philofopher of the 3d Academy. B.C. 99-—Lufitania conquered by the Romans under Dolabella. 97.—Ptolemy Appion dies and bequeaths his kingdom to the Romans.—Mefopotamia occupied by the Ro- mans. 96.—The king of Parthia fends ambafladors to China. 95.—Charmidas, the philofopher of the 3d Academy. 94-—Hortenfius begins to plead at 19 years of age. 93-—Apellicon Teius, the proprietor of a famous library at Athens, ob. about 86. g1.—The Social or Marfic war begins, lalts three years, and is finifhed by Sylla.—L. Sifenna, the Roman hifto- rian. 90.—Afclepiades of Prufias, the phyfician, and author of a new fe in phyfic, ob. after 63. 89.—The Mithridatic war commenced and continued 26 years—in 94 Playfair. 88.—The civil war between Marius and Sylla begins and continues 6 years.—Alexander, called Polyhiftor, the grammarian and hittorian. §7.—Photius Gallus, the firft Latin rhetorician.—A comet appeared in the N.W. of China in the fpring. 8¢.—Sylla takes Athens—defeats Archelaus—fends ‘Apetli- con’s library to Rome, in which was the original MS. of Ariftotle’s works. 85.—Diotimus, the Stoic philofopher, ob. after 83.—A cenfus at Rome—464,000 citizens. 84.—Q. Valerius Antias, the Roman hiftorian—A comet appeared in the N.W. of China in the fpring.— Peace between Mithridates and Sylla. 83.—Zeno of Sidon, the Epicurean philofopher.—Sylla de- ftroyed the Capitol. S2.—Sylla plundered the temple of Delphos—defeated Ma- rius—committed the greatelt cruelties at Rome— was created di€ator.—Quintus Hortenfius, the Roman orator, ob. 50, zt. 63. $1.—Cicero begins to plead at the 26th year of hisage.—A. Licinius Archias, the poet. So.—Antipater of Sidon, the poet. 79.—Sylla refigns the ditatorfhip.— Alexandra governs Ju- dza.—Pofidonins of Apamea, the Stoic philofo- pher and aftronomer, ob. after 51, et. S4. 77-—Geminus of Rhodes, thealtronomer and mathematician. 76.—Apollonius of Rhodes, the rhetorician. 75-—Nicomedes, king of Bithynia, dies and bequeaths his kingdom to the Romans.—Theodofius of ‘l'ripoli, the mathematician. 73-—The Servile war begins. 71.—The Servile war ends.—Tyrannio, the grammarian and Peripatetic philofopher, ob. after 56. 70.—The cenforthip revived at Rome.—M.Terentius Varro, called the moft learned of the Romans, ob. 28, zt. 88. ; . 69.—The Roman Capitol rebuilt.—A cenfus at Rome.— 450,000 citizens.—Lucullus defeats Mithridates and Tigranes.— A comet appeared in the weft of China in the {pring. 68.—Ariftodemus of Crete, the grammarian. 67-—The war of the Pirates. 66.—Crete reduced to a Roman province. 65.—The reign of the Seleucide ends.— And Syria reduced to a Roman province. —T. Lucretius Carus, the the poet, ob. 54. zt. 44. 64.—Dionyfius, the Thracian, the grammarian. 63.—Catiline’s confpiracy— Detected by Cicero.—De- feated by Antony.—Mithridates killed himfelf.— Jerufalem taken by Pompey. ” 2 2. CHRON ADC. 62.—Antiochus, the philofopher of the third Academy. 61.—L. Taruntius Spurina, the mathematician, ob. after 44. 60.—The firft triumvirate between Pompey, Cefar, and Craffus.—Q. V. Catullus, the lyric peet, ob. about 40, xt. 46. 59.—Andronicus of Rhodes, the Peripatetic philofopher, and reftorer of Ariltotle’s works. 58.—Cicero banifhed Rome by the inftigation of Clodius. 57.—Cicero recalled from exile.—C. Crifpus Salluftius, the hiftorian, expelled the fenate in 50, ob. 35, zt. 51. 55.—Cefar paffes the Rhine, and defeats the Germans.— , Makes his firlt expedition into Britain.—Ptolemy king of Egypt reltored to his kingdom.— Pompey built a ftone theatre for public fports. 54.—Czfar’s fecond invafion of Britain.—Timagenes of ' Alexandria, the hiftorian and rhetorician. 53-—Craffus killed.—His army defeated by the Parthians. * . —Cratippus, the Peripatetic philofopher. 2.—Clodius murdered by Milo. 51.—Gaul becomes a Roman province. 50.—The civil war begins, Ot. 22d.—A cenfus at Rome. —320,090 citizens. 49.—Cefar proclaimed dictator—A comet appeared in China. —Cornelius Nepos, ob. about 25. 48.—The battle of Pharfalia.—Antipater, procurator of Judza.—P. T. Varro, called Atacinus, the poet. 47.—Alexandria retaken by Julius Cefar—The library deftroyed. 46.—The war of Africa—Cato kills himfelf at Utica.— This year, called the year of confufion, being cor- reGted by Sofigenes, of Alexandria, the mathema- . tician, and confifting of 15 months, and 445 days. 44.—Cefar killed in the fenate-houfe, zt. 56.—A comet appeared in China, and at Rome after Czfar’s death.— Diodorus Sjculus, the hiftorian. 43.—The fecond triumvirate between Oétavius, Antony, and Lepidus.—Cicero put to death, Dec. 7th. 42.—The battles of Philippi.—Caffius and Brutus de- feated. 41.—A great famine at Rome.—An earthquake in China. Trogus Pompeius, the hiftorian. ; 40.—Jerufalem occupied by Antigonus, affifted by the Par- thians.—Hyrcanus expelled.—Herod receives the -kingdom of Judza from the Romans.—Didymus, the {choliait. 39.—The Romans recover Syria and Paleftine. 38.—The fenate made 67 pretors—The Spanifh zra com- menced. 37.—Pompey gained the empire of the fea.—Sofius took Jerufalem’and Herod.—Antigonus put to death. —The Afmonzan family terminates 126 years after Judas Maccabzeus. 36.—Sextus Pompeius defeated in Sicily.—Lepidus de- graded from the triumvirate, and banifhed.—Vir- gilius Maro, ob. 19. 2t. 51. 34.—Antony feizes the kingdom of Armenia.— Marcus Manilius, the aftronomical poet. 33-—Diofcorides, phyfician to Antony and Cleopatra. 32.—A comet appeared in China. 32.—The battle of AGtium, Sept. 2d.—Antony and Cleo- patra defeated.—The Roman emperors properiy begin.—An earthquake in Judea.—The fetts of the Scribes and Pharifees commence.—Afinius _ Pollio, the orator and hiftorian, ob. A. D. 4. xt. 80. OLOGY. Be go.—Alexandria taken by OGtavius.—Antony and Cleo- patra put themfelves to death.—Egypt reduced to a Roman province.—Strabo, the geographer, ob. A.D. 25. 29.—Oétavins difluaded by Macenas from -divefting him- felf of the empire.—Horatins Flaceus, ob. 8. zt. 57.—Czfar triumphed three days in Rome.— The temple of Janus fhut.—A_ cenfus at Rome —4,101,017 citizens. 28.—/Emilius Macer, of Verona, the poet, ob. 16. 27.—The title of Auguitus conferred upon O€tavius, by a decree of the fenate, Jan. 13th ——The power of imperator for ten years; next the cenforfhip; then the tribunefhip; and, at laft, an abfolute exemption from the laws.—The Pantheon at Rome built.—A great famine in Paleftine—S. Aurelius Propertius, the elegiac poet. ‘2g—The Egyptians adopt the Julian year, and fix their thoth to begin always on Aug. 29th.—Titus Livius, ob. A.D. 17. et. 76. 24.—The fenate, by a folemn oath, Jan. 1ft, confirm to Augutftus the tribunefhip and exemption from the laws. 23.—Antonius Mufa, the phyfician, whofe great remedy was the cold bath. 22.—A great peftilence in Italy. 21.—Auguttus goes to Greece and Afia; recals Agrippa 3 gives him Julia in marriage, and the government during his abfence.—Made Syracufe a colony — Tibullus, the elegiac poet, ob. about 19. xt. 24. 20.—Tiberius recovets the Roman enfigns from the Par- thians.—Porus, king of India, folicits an alliance with Auguftus.—Ovidius Nafo banifhed to Tomi, A.D. g. ob. 17. et. 59. i 19—Rome at the meridian of its glory—Herod rebuilt” the temple of Jerufalem.—Agrippa conftruéted the magnificent aquedudts at Rome. 18.—Auguftus reduces the fenate to 300; afterwards limits them to 600.—Celibacy is difcouraged — Pylades and Bathyllus, two famous Roman ators. 17.—The Secular games revived.—Varius and Tucca, critics and editors of the /Eneid. : 16.—Agrippa goes to Syria, and thence to Judza. 15.—Drufus defeats the Rhetians—M. Vitruvius Pollio, the archite&. 14.—A great conflagration at Rome. 13.—Auguftus affumes the office of Pontifex Maximus ; burns about 20c0 pontifical books; referving thofe of the Sibyiline oracles. 12,.—Tiberius conquers the Pannonians.— Many prodigies in China, and a comet.—Nicholas Damafceaus, the Peripatetic philofopher and hiltorian. 11.—Drnufus conquers feveral German nations. 1o.—Herod built the city of Czfarea. g.—Drufus’s expedition into Germany, where he dies, July 2oth.—C. Julius: Hyginus, the grammarian and oet. 9\—Auguftus correéts the calendar.—The month Sextilis- named Auguitus by a decree of the fenate—A cenfus at Rome.—4,233.050 citizens.—Vetrius Flaccus, the grammarian, and tutor to the two grandfons of Auguitus, and fuppoied author of the Capitoline marbles. 6.—Tiberius retires to Rhodes. 5.—Q. Varus appointed governor of Syria.—A comet ap- peared in China.—Ovr Saviour Jesus Cuaist born, CHRONOLOGY. Bac, born, on Monday, Dec. 25th, or Sept. four years before the common era.—Cyrenius appointed governor of Judea.—Dionyfius of Halicarnaflus, the hiltorian, 4.—An eclipfe of the moon obferved at Jerufalem, March 13th, middle 2 hours 45’ after midnight.—-Herod king November 25.—A comet appears in China. 2.—Julia banifhed by Auguttus.—Dionyfius the geogra- pher. 1.—Avn interview between Caius Czfar and Tiberius. The First Century of the Vulgar Chriftian Aira, A.D 1.—C. Cefar made peace with the Parthians. 2,.—Tiberius returns to Rome.—L. Cefar dies. 3.—G. Cefar dies. —Cinna’s confpiracy dete&ed. 4.—Leap year corrected, having been formerly every third year.—Phedrus. 6.—A great famine at Rome. 7,—Germanicus fent again{t the Pannonians. &.—Jssus Curis, at the age of 12 years, difputes with ~ the Jewifh doGors in the temple, in April, when the paflover was ended.—Afinius Gallus, ob. 33.—Germanicus, ob. 19, xt. 34. Q.—Dalmatia fubdued by the Romans. 10o.—Arminius, a German general, defeated the Romans. 13.—A comet appeared in China. i4-—A cenfus at Rome—4,037,000 citizens.—Auguftus dies at Nola Aug. rgth, et. 76. 15-—Velleius Paterculus, ob. 31. 16.—Mathematicians and magicians expelled Rome. 17.—Cappadocia reduced to the form of a province.x—An earthquake in Afia deltroyed 12 cities—Cornelius Celfus. 18.—Herod built Tiberias. 19.—Caiaphas high-prielt of the Jews.—Jews banithed from Rome. 21.—Theatre of Pompey confumed by fire.—A comet appeared in China. 23.—Valerius Maximus. 26.—Tiberius goes to the ifland Caprea.—John the Baptiit begins his miniftry. 27.—A conflagration at Rome.—Pilate made governor of Judea, kills himfelf 39.—Jesus baptized by John. 32.—Columella. 33-—Our Saviour Jesus Curist crucified on Friday, April 3d, at 3 o’clock P. M. refurrection on Sunday, April 5th.—Afcenfion, Thurfday, May 14th.—Apion of Alexandria, the grammarian, called “the trumpet of the world.” 36.—St. Paul converted. 37-—Tiberius dies. 39.—A conjunétion of Saturn, Jupiter, and Mars.—St. Matthew, according to Blair, writes his gofpel. —Philo Judeus. 40.—The name of Curistians given at Antioch, (Blair). — Petronius appointed governor of Syria. 41,—Caligu'a put to death.—St. Peter, ob. 67. 43.—Claudius’s expedition into Britain.—St. Paul, ob. 67. 44.—Peter imprifoned.—James put to death.—St. Mark, according to Blair, wrote his gofpel. 45.-—Vafpafian’s fuccefsful war in’ Britain.—Pomponius ~ Mela, the geographer. 47.—A new ifland appeared in the Ai gean fea. —The fecular games celébrated at Rome.—Caratiacus the Britifh king. Vou. VII. A.D: 50.—London built by the’ Romans about this tinie. 5%.—Caractacus carried in chains to Rome.—St. John, ob. 99; xt. 92. 52.—The council of the apoftles at Jerufalem.—A ftrolo- gers expelled Italy.—Paul preaches at Athens.— Seneca, ob. 65, xt. 53. ‘ 54-—Claudius dies.x—Nero fucceeds. 55-—Cefar landed in Britain— Aug. 26, a comet appeared ’ in China.—Paul preached at Ephefus. 56.—Rotterdam built about this time. 57-—Perfius, ob. 62, zt. 30. 59-—Nero caufed his mother Agrippina to be put to death. —Paul’s defence before ’elix. 60.—The Chriftian religion publifhed in Britain. —A co- met appeared at Rome, and in China. —Paul’s de- fence before Feftus. 61.—Boadicea, the Britifh queen, defeats the Romans, but foon after is conquered by Suetonius.—Petronius Arbiter, ob. about 66. 62.—St. Paul fent in bonds to Rome.—Lucan, ob. 65, zt. 26. : 63.—A great earthquake in Afia. 64.—A conflagration in Rome.—The “frp perfecution of the Chnitians.—Quintus Curtius. 65.—Many prodigies feen at Jerufalem.—Seneca, Lucan, and others put to death. : 66,—Nero goes into Greece, and has public trials of {kill with tragedians, muficians, and charioteers.—The Fewifh war begins in May.—Pliny the hittorian, ob. 79. 67.—St. Peter and St. Paul put to death about June 29th. —Vefpafian defeats the Jews and takes Jofephus prifoner. 68.—Nero dies. 69.—Galba put to death.—Otho kills himfelf. 70.—Titus takes and deftroys Jerufalem, Saturday, Sept. 8th; puts an end to the war.—The lands of Ju- daa fold by the Romans. 71.—Jofephus, ob. 93, xt. 56. 73-—The_ philofophers expelled Rome by Vefpafian. — Frontinus. 74.—The ttates of “Achaia, Lycia, Samos, Thrace, &c. formed into diftinét provinces.—Silius Italicus, ob. zt. 753 75-—Vefpafian dedicated a temple to Peace.—A comet ap- peared in China. 76.—Afconius Pedianus, ob. xt. 85. 77-—A comet appeared in China——A great plague at Rome.— The Parthians revolt. 79.—Velpatian dies—Herculaneum and Pompeii are bu- ried by an eruption of mount Vefuvius, Nov. rit. 8o0,.—The Capitol, Pantheon, &c. of Rome confumed by fire.—Titus builds the hot-baths and amphi- theatre. : 81.—Titus dies——Martial, ob. 104, zt. 75. 52.—Agricola reduced South Britain to the form of a Ro- man province.—Apollonius Tyanaus, ob. 97.— All the philofophers banifhed from Rome by Domitian. 84.—Valerius Flaccus. 85.—Britain difcovered to be an ifland. 86.—The Capitoline games inftitated by Domitian, and celebrated every 4th year.—Solinus. 88.—The fecular games celebrated.—The Dacian war be- gins.—Epictetus, the Stoic philofopher, ob. about 161. 89.-——Quiatilian, ob. about 95. 5H go. CHRONOLOGY. A.D. oo.—Agrippa of Bithynia, the mathematician. 91.—Statius of Naples, the poet, ob. 96.—St. Clement I. 92.—A veltal buried alive,for proftitution.— Agrippa, be- ing in Buithynia, obferves a conjundlion of the moon with the Pleiades, Nov. 29th, 5" before inidnight.—St. Ignatius, ob. 103. 93-—The empire of the Huns, in Tartary, deftroyed by the Chinefe.—Tacitus the hiftorian, ob. after 99. —John banithed to Patmos. 95-—The 2d perfecution of the Chriftians, under Domitian, begins about November.—Juvenal. ob. 128. 95.—Domitian put to death. 97.—The evangelift John recurned from banifiment. 98.—Nerva dies.—Menelaus, the mathematician, obferved at Rome a tranfit of the moon over Spica Virginis Jan. rith, 5° after midnight. 99-—Julius Severus, governor of Britain. The Seconn Century of the Vulgar Chriftian “ra. 102.—Pliny, pro-conful in Bithynia, fends Trajan his ac- count of the Chriflians. y03.—Dacia reduced to the form of a Roman province.— Pliny junior. 10s.—A great earthquake in Afia and Greece.—Dion Pru- feus. 106.—Trajan’s expedition againft the Parthians, &c.— Philo-Byblius, ob. 133, zt. So. 107.—The 3d perfecution of the Chriftians under Trajan. 109.—A comet appeared in China.—Plutarch, ob. 119. £11.—Suetonius, the hiftorian, ob. after 117. 114.—Trajan ere€ts his column at Rome—Armenia be- comes a province of the Roman empire.—A great earthquake in China.—J/Elian, ob. about 140, zt. 40. 115.—An infurreétion of the Jews of Cyrene.—Trajan fub- dued Affyria.-—An earthquake at Antioch. 116.—The Jews make an incurfion into Egypt.—L. An- neus Florus. rr7.—Adrian’s expedition into Britain—Trajan, dies.— Theon, fenior, the altronomer of Smyrna. 118.—The 4th perfecution again{ft the Chriftians, under drian. xz0.—Nicomedia and other cities {wallowed up by an earthquake. 21,—Adrian builds a wall between Carlifle and Newcaftle. 22.—Phlegon Trallian. 26.—Adrian goes into Afiaand Egypt for 7 years. 27.—Ariftides. 28.—Cefarea and Nicopolis deftroyed by an earthquake. —Aquila, the interpreter, tranflated the Oid Teftament into Greek. yjo.—29.—Two comets appear this year, one before fun-rife, the other after fun-fet. vw 730% CHRONOLOGY. AxT), 73°:—Pope Gregory excommunicated the emperor. 732-—The Saracens defeated by Ch. Martel, near Tours. 735»—Ch. Martel becomes malter of Aquitaine.—The pope’s nuncio inflituted about this time. 736.—Leo deftroys all the images in his empire, and perfe- cutes the monks. 737:-—Joannes Damafcenug, ob. 760. 740.—The Lombards feizg the duchy of Spoleto, and the pope recovers it.~-An earthquake at Conftantino- ‘ ‘ple, &c. 443 —Fredegaire, the French hiftorian. 744.—The monaftery of Fulda in Germany founded. 740.—A dreadfal peftilence over Europe and Afia for three years. 748.—The computation of years from the birth of Chrift begins to be ufed in hiftories from this time. 749.—The race of Abbas become caliphs of the Saracens, and encourage learning; the empire of the Sara- cens 1s divided into 3 parts. — Many cities in Syria are deftroyed by an earthquake. 452.—The Merovingian race ends in France. 751.—'The 2d race of the French kings begins. 752s;—The Exarchs of Ravenna are conquered by the Lombards. ~The defenders of images are perfe- cuted. —The rft confecration of the kings of France.—The exarchate ends by the capture of . Ravenna. ® 453.—The king of the Lombards declared war again{t the ope. 754e—Pepin affitts the pope with a numerous army.—The kingdom of Cordova, in Spain, founded. 755.— The temporal dominion of the pope commences. 757-—The firt organ fent by Conftantine to France.—Pepin reduces the Saxons. 761.—Conttantine perfecuted the worfhippers of images. — Acomet appeared at Rome, its courfe from E. to . “62.—Bagdad built by Almanfor, and made the capital for the caliphs of the houfe of Abbas.—Burials per- mitted in towns; which ufed to be in the high- ways. 763.~A violent froft begins O&. ft, and continues about 150 days. 766.—The Turks ravage Armenia and Afia, 770.—Conttantine diffolves the moralteries in the Eat, obliging the monks and nuns to marry. 2.— Chariemagne makes war again{t the Saxons. 4.—The kingdom of the Lombards terminates by Charle- magne’s capture of Pavia, after a duration of 266 years. 9775.—Alcuinus, ob. 804. 770,—Charlemazne reduced the Saxons. 778. ~ Charlemagne reftored learning in France. +80.—"The worfhip of images re-eltablifhed. 781.—Paulus Winifridus, firnamed Diaconus, the hiltorian, ob. Sor. 784.—Charlemagne defeats Wittikind and the Saxons, fo that they fubmit. 787.—The Danes, for the firft time, arrive in England, — The feventh general council, or {econd of Nice, be- gins. 788.—Pleadings in courts of judicature are initituted. 790.—An earthquake at Conttantinople. 791.—Charlemagne defeats the Avari in Pannonia.—The Moors defeated by the Spaniards with great flaughter. : 6 YaNe! iii 792.—An Academy founded in Paris. Ethelbert, king of Ealt Anglia, treacheroufly murdered by Offa, king of Mercia, who thus takes poffeffion of Eat An- "glia.— Georgius, firnamed Syncellus and'the monk, the chronoleger, 794-—Charlemagne extirpated the Huns.— Offa, by way of atonement for his viliany to Ethelbert, begins the tax, called Peter-pence, in Mercia. é 796.—The pope fent legates to Charlemagne to requeft him to confirm his eleétion. 9 magne proclaimed at Rome emperor of the Welt ; and thus the emperors of the Welt, or of Ger- many, begin Dec. 25. The Nixntu Century of the Vulgar Chriftian Zéra. So1.—A great earthquake in France, Germany, and Italy. Soz.—The emprefs Irené depofed and banifhed.— Joannes © Damafcenus, firnamed Mefuc, the Arabian, a Chriftian, and phyfician to the caliph Rafchid, ob. about 846. 807. — Jan. 31. 3" after midnight, Jupiter was eclipfed by the moon, both being in 2° 27’ of Libra —March 17, a large fpot was feen on the fun for eight days. - $08.—The fir defcent of the Normans into France. $10.—A civil war among the Saracens. S1z.—Nicephorus killed by the king of the Bulgarians.— Eginhard, the hiftorian, ob. S42. S14.—Leo ordered tne images in churches to be demo- lifhed. 815.—An infurretion againft the pope in Rome. $10.—Learning encouraged among the Saracens by Alma- mon, who found the fun’s greateit declination to be 23° 34’ §17.—Ecclefialtics exempted from military fervice —Lewis divides his kingdom among his children. 819.—Almamon ordered his aftronomers to meafure a de- gree of latitude on the plains of Sinjar near Baby- lon, who found it to be 563 Arabian miles. §20.—Leo V. killed in the temple at Conitantinople by Michael. 822.—Conftantinople befiezed by the Saracers under Thomas the Slave; but the fiegé is raifed by the Bulgarians. 823.—The Saracens of Spain take poffeffion of Crete, and call it Candia. 825.—Benimula obferved the obliquity of the ecliptic to ADE ae 8 5 by 826.—Harold, king of Denmark, embraces the Chriftian religion, and is dethroned by his fubjeéts. 827.—The Almageft of Ptolemy tranflated into Arabie by order of Almamon.— The Saracens took polleffion of Sicily, Calabria, &c. é 828.—The feveral Kingdoms of England united under Eg- bert.— Rabanus Maurus, ob. 856.—The kingdoms of Navarre and Arragon founded. 829.—MifMfionaries fent from France to Sweden'—St. F Mark’s at Venice is built. 830.—Theophilus pablithed an edi& againit images. 832.—Painters banifhed from’ the eaftern empire by Theo- ‘ philus, on account of his hatred of images. ae - vu - ‘ CHRONOLOGY. ALD) 835 —The feaft of All-Saints inftituted. 837—A comet appeared in China.—Alfo, in Europe, which moved in 25 days through 1, %, QL, and difappeared in §. 838.--The Pitts defeated, and their nation extirpated by Kenneth, king of Scotland. $40,—Lewis le Debonnaire dies, xt. 64. 841.—The battle of Fontena1, where Lotharius is defeated. —A|bumafar, the Arabian aftronomer. 841.—Theophilus dies —The worfhip of images reftored.— —CGermany feparated from the empire of the Franks. 843.—A new partition of the French dominion in an af- fembly of the peers at Thionville among the three 3 brothers.—Godefcalchus, the heretic, ob. 870. 844.—The king of Spain defeated the king of Corduba.— Vhe king of Germany defeated the Vandals. 845.—The Normans penetrate into Germany.—Hincmarus, archbifhop of Rheims, ob. 882. $46.—The Saracens befiege Rome. * 547.—A great earthquake in Italy. 848.—The Venetian fleet totally defeated by the Saracens in the bay of Crotona. $49-—The Saracen fleet defeated by the pope’s allies. 850.—Abeut this time the gofpel was preached by Anfcha- rius, bifhop of Hamburgh, &c. in Denmark and Sweden. S51.—The Normans invade England.—The Moors defeat the Spaniards. ~The Saracens ravage Sardinia and Corfica. 852.—The Englifh defeat the Danes at Okley. —The Moors . perfecute the Chriftians in Spain. 853.—The Normans get poffeffion of tome cities in France. 855-—The emperor Lotharius, fick of the world, retires to a monattery and dies. 856.—The Normans plunder the coafts of Holland.—An earthquake over a great part of the known world. —Odo, the hiftorian, ob. 874. 857-—The Scots defeated by the Britons. 859.—A fevere winter and froft; carriages ufed on the Adriatic.—Photius, patriarch of Cont{tantinople, depofed in 886. 860.—The {chifm of the Greeks begine. §61.—Ruric, the firft prince of Ruffia, begins to reign. $62.—Miffionaries fent to convert the Sclavonians.—John Scotus, called Erigena, ob. 833. 865.—Civil war among the Saracens in the eaft.—They ra- vage Italy. $66.—Anattafius, the librarian, ob. about 886. $67.—The Danes under Jvar, being brought into England, conquer Northumberland.—'The Chriftian religion propagated in Bulgaria. 868.—The government of Egypt becomes independent of the Saracen caliphs of Bagdad under Ahmed. 370.—The Danes fuceefsfully ravage England. 871.—Ethelred fought nine pitched battles with the Danes : in one year. 872.—Clocks firt brought to Conftantinople from Venice. —The Danes defeat Alfred near Wilton.—The Greeks fuccefsful againft the Saracens. —Charle- magne makes war again{t the Saxons. 373.—The dynafty of Soffarides begins to reign in Khora- fan.—France is laid wafte by locutts and peftilence. 874.—The Danes invade Scotland. £75.—A bearded comet appeared in France. 878.—Alfred concealed himfelf in the ifle of Athetney ; Vou. VI. A.D. but foon after defeats the Danes, and caufes them to leave England. 879.—The Normans invade Germany.-- The kingdom of Arles begins.—Alfraganus, the Arabian altro- nomer, called Logitta. 880.—The Normans ravage France.—Sept. roth, A. M. rth. 45’ Albategni obferves the obliquity of the ecliptic to be 23° 35’.--The French menarchy divided between Lewis and Carloman. 88 r.— Lewis defeats the Normans in a great battle. 582.—Albategni, the mathematician, firnamed Mahomet of Aracius, obferves the autumnal equinox at Arac- tus, on Sept. roth, 1° 15’ after midnight, ob. about 888. §83.—Albategni obferved the fun’s apogee in 1 22° 27'.— The fir ttar of Aries diltant from the equinoce tial point 18° 2’. 884.—Reginon, the hillorian, ob. go°. §85.—The Normans beliege Paris. $86.—The univerfity of Oxford founded by Alfred about this time.—The Scythians become matters of Croatia.—Charles made a difhonourable peace with the Normans. 888.—The dominions of Charles le Gros, whe poffeffed al thofe of Charlemagne, are divided into five king- doms. 889.—The Bulgarians ravage Greece.—The Hungarians fettle about the Danube. 890.—The Normans ravage France and the Low Countries. —Alfred divides England into counties, and con- pofes his body of laws about this time. 89t.—The Danes again invade England.—Arnolph of Germany defeats the Normans between the Meufe and the Rhine.-—'The firft land-tax in England. — A comet appeared in China. 895.—The monaftery of Cluny is founded. 896.—Arnolph takes Rome. 897.—War between the Greeks and Bulgarians.—A great famine in Germany.—Johan Affer, the hiltoriaa, ob. gag. . 899.—The Hungarians ravage Lombardy. The Tentu Century of the Vulgar Chriftian Aira. go1.—Civil wars in France and Germany. go2.—The Saracens defeated by Himerius at fea.—A comet appeared with its tail to the eaft. 903-—The Normans ravage France. 904.—The Hungarians ravage Italy.—A froft of 120 days begins at the clofe of the year. 905.—Haron; caliph of Egypt, conquered and killed by Ma- homet, the Saracenian general—A very remark- able comet appeared in China. g10.—War begins in England again{t the Danes, and conti- nues 12 years. g11.—Thebit obferves the obliquity of the ecliptic to be 23° 33’ 30’.—Leo VI., who wrote feveral trea- tifes in the age of ignorance, dies. g12z.—The Normans eltablifh themfelves in France under Rollo. —The Carlovingian race of emperors ends in Lewis [11]. —The empire of Germany becomes elective. 913.—The Danes feize on the crown of England, 9!4-—The Hungarians defeated by Conrad.—‘The Saracens defeated by Conftantine’s generals. 915.—The Hungarians ravage Saxony.—The univerfity of Cambridge founded. sl Qi6. Fi CHRONOLOGY. A.D. 916.—Ordonno II. defeats the Saracens in Spain, kills 70,000, a few days after an eclipfe of the fun on April 5. 917-—The Bulgarians befiege Conftantinople. 919.—Phocas raifes a {edition at Conttantinople, is killed by Romanus, who is advanced to the empire. 920.—The Moors defeat the Chriftians in Spain. y22.—The Hungarians pillage Germany. —Rodolph defeats Berenwer in the battle of Placentia. 923-—TJhe Moors defeated in Spain.—Tiefs eftablifhed in France.—A comet appeared in China. 924.—The Hungarians ravage Italy. 925.—Sigifrid ele&ted firft marquis of Brandenburg. 926.—Arles united to Burgundy. 928.—The marquifate of Mifnie eftablithed. 929.—Eudes de Cluni, ob. 942. 930.—Henry fubjects the Danes to the payment of tribute. 932-—Arnolph of Bavaria defeated by Hugh, king of Italy. . 933-—The Hungarians defeated in Germany.—A froft of 120 days begins at the end of the year. 934.—Azophi, the Arabian altrenomer. 930-—The Saracen empire divided, by ufurpation, into .7 kingdoms. 937-—L.uitprand, thehiftorian, ob. g7o. 939.—Ramirus, king of Spain, defeats the Saracens at Si- manca. 941.—Arithmetic brought into Europe. 942.—The eaftern emperors take poffcflion of the kingdom of Naples. 945-—The Turks ravage Thrace, and the Danes invade : France. —Berenger agrees with Hugh for the re- verfion of Italy. 947.—Alfarabius, the Arabian aftronomer. 950.— Otho made Bohemia tributary. 051.—Otho drives Berenger out of Italy. G53.—Otho overcomes the Hungarians in Bavaria. 957-—Otho defeats the Sclavonians in Saxony. o5S.— War between the Normans and Saracens in Italy. 959.—Berenger plunders Italy.—The power of the monks very great in England.—Rhazes, the Arabian phyfician; ob. 1010, zt. about go. 960.—Otho’s expedition againft the Vandals. g61.—Phocas recovers Candia from the Saracens. g64—lItaly conquered by Otho, and united to the German empire. 665.—Geber, the Arabian aftronomer. 9660.—'The Roffidus invade Bulgaria. 967.—Antioch recovered by Niccphorus from the Saracens. y68.—A famine in Germany.—The Normans ravage Spain. —-Aneclipfe of the fun obferved at Conftantino- ple, Dec. 22, about 10 o’clock A. M. 969.—Otho, jun. defeats Nicephorus, and drives the Sara- cens out of Italy.—The race of Abbas extin- cuifhed by the Fatimites, who build Grand. Cairo. o71.—The Raffians, Bulgarians, &c. defeated by Bardas in Bolgaria, tothe number of 300,000 perfons. 975-—A comet appeared in Augnit. 970.—Bardas pfurps the Ealtern Empire for 10 years. 977--—Otho defeats and fubdues the Bohemians. 978.—Abbo, the monk and altronomer, ob. 1003. 979.—War between Otho and Lothaire. gSo.—The two emperors of Conftantinople recover Apulia and Calabria. 982.—Albiraoius, the Arabian geographer.—The Vandals and Bohemians ravage Saxony, &c.—A civil war in Spain, AD. 983.—Violent commotions and diffenfions in Venice. g85.—The Danes invade England and Scotland under Sucno. 986.—An earthquake in Greece.—Aimoin, the hiftorian, ob. 1008. 987.—The Carlovingian race ends, and the 3d race of kings in France begins. 988.— Peftilence in Germany. 990.—LEngland invaded by the Normans. gg!.—The figures in arithmetic brought into Europe, by the Saracens from Arabia.—Gerbert, afterwards pope Silvefler II., ob. about 1003. 993-—A great eruption of Vefuvius. g94-—The king cf Denmark and Norway invade England wich a great army. 995-— Almanzor defeats the Chriftians. 996. ~The empire of Germany declared ele€tive by Otho Ill 998.— The Chriftians defeat Almanzor. 999-—Aboul Wafi, and Abu Hamed obferved the obli- quity of. the ecliptic to be 23° 35’. 1000.—Batilius defeats the Bulgarians, and drives them out of Theffaly. The Eveventu Century of the Vulgar Chriftian Zra. roor.—An infurre&tion in Rome againft Otho. 1002.—The emperor Henry aflumes the title of king of the Romans.—A general maffacre of the Danes in England, on Sunday, Nov. 13.—Avicenna of Bochara, the Arabian phyfician, ob. 1050. zt. 80. 1004.—Sueno invades England. 1005.—All the old churches are rebuilt about this time in a new ftyle of archite€ture. 1006.—A pettilence over Europe for 3 years. 1007.—A great eruption of Vefuvius.—Mefué, of Maridin, called Jacobite, phyfician to Hakem, caliph of Egypt. 1009.—The Saracens befiege Jerufalem; a civil war among them in Spain, which contiaues till 1091, when they become tributary to the Saracens of Africa. tor1.—An earthquake at Conttantinople. tor2.—Ethelred grants an annual tribute to the Danes. 3013.—The Danes under Sueno get poffeffion of England. 1o14.—A violent ftorm Sept. 18th, which inundated Flanders. 1015.—The king of Poland agrees to pay a yearly tribute to the emperor of Germany. 1016.— Edmund Ironfide fought 6 battles in England, with Canute II. king of Denmark, moft of which he lot by the treachery of Edric. 1018.—The Normans firft enter Italy in a body. 1019.—Bulgaria reduced to the form of a Roman province. 1020.—A dreadful plague in Saxony. 1021.— Guy d’Arezzo, in Italy, or Aretin, the monk. 1022.—A new fpecies of mufic under 6 notes introduced by Aretin. 1023.—The caliph of Egypt ravages Paleftine, and plun- ders the temple cf Jernfelem. ¢ 1028,—Carate conquers Norway.—Conftantin, emperor of the Ealt, dies zt. 70, and is fucceeded by Romanus. ro030.—Campanus of Novarro, the altronomer.— Romanus defeated in Syria by the Saracens. ¥o31.— Romanus drives the Saracens out of Syria, and be- gins to build the temple at Jerufalem.—The Nor- mans conquer Apulia, 3032, CHRONOLOGY. A.D. 1032.—The kingdom of Arles or Burgundy bequeathed to the emperor Conrad by Rodolph. 1033.—A great eclipfe of the fun obferved June 29th, about mid-day, in France.—Glaber, the hiftorian, ob. after 1045.—The Peace of God publithed. 1035.—Capua taken from the pope by the king of Sicily. —The kingdoms of Caltile and Arragon begin.—- The Vandals ravage Saxony. £036.—The kingdom of Norway begins. 1038.—An earthquake and famine at Conttantinople.—The dynafty of Ommiades ends in Spain, after a dura- tion of 308 years. 1040.—@myrna deftroyed by an earthquake.—The Sara- cens of Africa invade Italy —Lhe Greeks ravage Bohemia. 1041.—Hermannus, called Contractus, the monk and ma- thematician. 1042,—A comet appeared O&. 6; moving from E. to W. 1043.—The Ruffians come from Scythia, and land in Thrace.—The Turks become matters of Perfia. 1046.—Three ufusping popes depofed by a council con- vened at Sutrium by the emperor Henry ILI. 1047.—Franco, the mathematician, 1050.—The Greek church feparated from the Latin. 1052.—Peter Damiani, ob. 1072. 1053-—Pope Leo IX. taken prifoner in Naples by the Normans.—Michael Cerularius, ob. 1058. 1055.—The Turks take Bagdad, and overturn the empire of the Caliphs. 1057.—Geo. Cedrenus, the hiftorian. 10558.—Guifcard drives the Saracens out of Sicily. 1059.—Berenger, ob. 1088, zt. go. 1060.—A fevere famine in Germany. 1061.—Sirnames appointed to be taken in Scotland, by a parliament at Forfar. 1c62.—Seventy thoufand perfons and more undertook a voyage to Paleftine, and were killed or made pri- foners.—Michael Pfellus of Conttantinople, the Peripatetic philofopher and hiltorian, 1063.—The maffacre of Goflar, 1065,.—Jerufalem taken by the Turks from the Saracens. 1066.—A comet appeared in May, moving in the fame courfe with the fun.—The conqueft of England by William duke of Normandy in the battle of Hattings on Sat. O&. 14. 1069.—The Danes land in England, Sept. 11. 1070.—The feudal law introduced into England.—Arza- chel of Toledo obferved the declination of the fun to be 29° 34’—he left 402 obfervations on the apogee of the fun. eee Turks defeated Romanus, and took him pri- oner. 1072.—Roger took poffeffion of Sicily.—Sirnames were firft ufed in England about this time. 1073.—Marinnus Scotus, ob. 1086. 1074.—The king of Bohemia obliged to pay a tribute to the Holy See. 1075.—The king of Germany defeats the Saxons in Thu- ringia.—The famous wars of the Saxons againt{t Henry begin about this time. 1076.—The emperor Henry IV. and the pope. quarrel about the nomination of the German bifhops.— An earthquake in England.—Afia Minor, having been fubdued by Solyman two years ago, was, from this time, called Turkey.—Arzachel found the fun’s apogee in m 17° 50’. A.D. 1077.—The emperor goes barefooted to the pope at Ca- nufio, about the end of January. 1079.—Arzachel, the Spamih mathematician.—Avicenna obferved the vernal equinox, March 14, P. M. 2" o'—The Pertian year reformed. 1080.—Domefday book begins to be compiled from a furvey of all the eftates in England, and was finifhed in To86. 1081.—Henry lays fiege to Rome.—William of Spires, the mathematician. picture nt pofleflion of Rome on Friday, June the 2d. 1085.—Toledo taken from the Saracens, and made the ca- pital of Cattile. 1086.—The order of Carthnfians founded by Bruno. 1087.—An expedition of the Chriftians againtt the Saracens in Atrica.—Williamthe Conqueror ravayes France. —Suidas, author of the Greck Jexicon. 1089.—Rofaliaus of Compiegne, the fcholaltic head of the fect of Nominalitts. togo.—The dynaity of Affaffins began in Irak, and fubfitt- ed 117 years. togt.—The Saracens in Spain call in Jofeph, king of Mo- rocco, who thus gains poffeffion of all their domi- nions in that kingdom. 1092.—Peter, firnamed the Hermit. 1c94.—Margaret conquers Sweden, and annexes it to Denmark. 1095.—Ul{tan, bifhhop of Worcelter, is deprived of his bifhopric for not underftanding the French lan- guage.—Sicebert, the hiftorian, ob. Pores 1096.—The iit crafade into the Holy Land.—A comet appeared.—The emperor took Naples and Sicily, 1097.—Godfrey of Boulogne takes Niceea.—The Chriltians defeat the Saracens, 1098.—The crufade-s take Antioch.—'The order of St. Benedi& inttituted. 1099.—The crufaders take Jerufalem.—Godfrey. ele@ed king of Jerufalem, and the order of knights ‘of St. John inftituted. rtco.—An earthquake in Sicily. The Twetrru Century of the Vulgar Chriftian ZEra. 1102,—Baldwin defeats the Saracens near Joppa.— William, duke of Aquitain, undertakes a voyage to Palef- tine, with a numerous army. 1103.—William’s army maffacred at Conftantinople. 1104.—Baldwin defeats the Saracens, and takes Ptolemais. 1105.—Henry, king of England, invades Normandy. 1108.—Hungary refcued from fervitude to Germany. 110g.—Jofeph, king of Morocco, defeats the Spaniards in the famous battle of the feven counts near Badajos. —The crufaders take Tripoli. 1110.—Learning revived at the univerfity of Cambridge. — Writing on paper made of cotton became com- mon. 1113.—War between France and England begins. 1114.—Peter Abelard, ob. 1143, zt. 63. r117-—An earthquake in Lombardy.—Ann Comnena, the hiftorian. ‘ 1118.—The order of Knights Templars inflituted. 1119.—Baldwin defeats the Turks at Antioch.—DBohemia ereéted into a kingdom. 1520.—Prince William, with a number of Englith lords, drowned in their return to England from Bar. fleur, Nov. 26. - 5I2 1125. CHRONOLOGY. A.D. y121.—The order of Premontre inftituted. 1122.—The Scythians, &c. who had paffed the Ifter, de- feated by John Comnenus, 1125.—Baldwin overcomes the Saracens near Antioch.— Germany affliGed with the plague. 1127.—The pope declares war againft Roger, duke of Sicily, who is proclaimed king in the vear 1130. 1130.—Athelard, monk of Bath. the mathematician, Pi 32.—The kingdom of Portugal begins. —The Ciftertians exempted from tythes.—St. Bernard, ob. 1153. ¥135.—Roger, king of Sicily, takes Beneventum, Capua, &c. from the pope. 3136.—Averroes of Corduba, called the Commentator, ob. 1206. ; 4137.—The pande& of Juftinian found in the ruins of Amalfi. y438.—The Scots invade England, and are defeated. —A comet appeared in China. ¥139.—A civil war in England. — Alphonfo, having defeated the Moors, July 25th, is proclaimed king of Por- tugal. s140.—King Stephen defeated, and taken prifoner at Lin- coln, Feb. 2d.—The doétrine of Abelard con- demned. —The canon law introduced into England. —William of Malmefbury, the hiltorian. 1141.—Stephen exchanged ; begins to recover his kingdom. —The factions of the Guelphs and Gibellines prevail. — Peter Lombard, bifhop of Paris, called the Mafter of the Sentences, ob. 7164. t143.—The Koran tranflated into Latin. 1144,—Otho Friligenfis introduces the Peripatetic philofo- phy into Germany, ob. 1158.—The primacy of the church of Toledo confirmed. 114.6,-- The emprefs Matilda retires out of England. 1147.—A quarrel between Stephen, and ‘Theoba!d, arch- bithop of Canterbury.—The fecond crufade into the Holy Land by the preaching of St. Ber- nard. 1148,—The Chriftians befiege Damafcus, without fuccefs.— Conrad and Louisarrive at Jerufalem.—Humenus, the Egyptian aftronomer. 3149.—Henry of Anjou arrives in England to affert his family claim to the crown.—Roger VI. of Sicily, invades and ravages Greece. 1150.—The civil law revived at Bologna by Wernerus, who was the firit reftorer after Juitinian, and died in T1go. TI5 othe. canon law compoefed by Gratian, after 24 years labour. 1152.—Jcffrey of Monmouth. 1153.— Treaty of Winchefter between Stephen and Henry, by which Stephen grants the reverfioa of his kingdom to Henry. 1154.—Nouradin took Damafcus.—Chriftianity introduced into Finland.—A1 Edrifius, the Arabian geogra- pher. 1156,—The city of Mofcow founded. 1157-—An earthquake in Spain.—Baldwin defeats Noura- din near Gennefareth. 115S.—Frederic received the title of king of Bohemia at the diet of Ratifbon. 1159.—Infurrections. in Scotland.—War between England and France.—The emperor excommunicated by the pope.—John Tzetzes, the critic and hiftorian, ob. about 1176. 1160.—The order of Carmelites inftituted.. A;D, 1161. —Eutftathius, the commentator on Homer. 1162.—The affairs of the Crufaders on the decline in Palef- tine. —Tne emperor Frederic deftroys Milan, leay- ing only the churches. 1163.—Nouradin defeats Raymond I1.—John of Salifbury, ob. 1187. 1164.—The firlt king of Sardivia created by Frederic.—A contelt between Henry of England and Becket.— The council of Clarendon againft him, —The Teu- tonic order begins. 1165.—Two comets appear in Scotland.—Simeon of Dur- ham. 1166.—Maimonides of Corduba, the moft learned of the Jews, ob. 1208. 1167.—Frederic takes poffeffion of Rome.— War between England and France.—The caliph of Perfia in- vaces Egypt.— Henry of Huntingdon. 1169.—An interview between the kings of England and France at St. Dennis. 1170.— Peace concluded between England and France.—An earthquake at Antioch. 1171.—The Venetians take the ifland of Chio.—The dynafty of Fatimites ends in Egypt.—The fove- reigns of Egypt henceforth ftyled fultans. 1172.—Henry II. of England takes poffeffion of Ireland.— Peter, called Comeitor, ob. 1198. 1173.—The city of Catania deftroyed by an earthquake. 1174.—William acknowledges the kingdom of Scotland a fief of the crown of England. 1176.—Frederic totally defeated by the Milanefe.—The difpenfing of juftice by circuits firft appeinted in England.— Genghis-kan begins to reign. 1177.— Baldwin defeats Saladin before Jernfalem. 1178.—The pope fends a legate to Prefter- John. 1179.—Saladin defeats the crufaders.—The French king vifits Becket’s tomb in England.—The univerfity of Padua founded. 1181.—The laws of England digefted by Glanville. 1182.—Saladin takes Damafeus. 1183.—Seven thoufand Albigenfes maflacred by the inha- bitants of ‘Berry— Peter of Blois, the hiltorian, ob. 1200. é 1184.—Andronicus orders all the Latins in Conftantinople to be murdered. 1186.—The Bulgarians throw off the Roman yoke.— Sept. 16th a conjunction of ali the planets at fun-rife ; fun in 30° ny, Jupiter in 2° 3’ =~, Venus in 3° 49’, Saturn in 8° 6’, Mercury in 4° 10’, Mars in 9° 8’, tail of the Dragon 18° 23’ =. 1187.—The kingdom of Jerufalem finifhed, that city being taken by Saladin, O&. 2d. 1188.—The third crufade.—The tax, called Saladin’s tythe, impofed.—The Dutch and Zealanders defeat the Saracens.—The duchy of Mecklenburg held as a fief of the crown of Denmark. 1189.—The kings of England and France go to the Holy - Land.—Richard renounces his fuperiority over Scotland for a fum of money. 1190.—Frederic fubdues Cilicia, and defeats the Saracens. The Teutonic order of knights faid by Playfair to be inftituted at Prolemais:. 1191.—The crufaders take Ptolemais. 1192.—King Richard made prifoner by the emperor Henry V1.— Guy, of Lufignan, elected king of Cyprus. —Richard defeats Saladin in the battle of Afca- lon.— Roger de Hoveden, the hiftorian. DS) 1195, CHRONOLOGY, A.D. ; 1195.—The Saracens from Africa invade Spain, defeat Alphonfo, king of Caftile, and kill 50,000 Spa- niards, 1196.—The emperor Henry VI. takes poffeffion of Naples and Sicily. —The 4th crufade. 1197.—Henry fends an army into Paleltine.—William of Newburgh, the hiltorian, 1198.—The 5th crufade.—The order of the Holy Trinity inftituted. 1199.—Peace between Philip king of Prance and Richard king of England.—Campanus, of Lombardy, the altronomer. ; 1200.—The vniverfity of Salamanca, in Spain, founded,— William, king of Scotland, performs his homage to the king of England, at Lincoln, Nov. 21. The Tairrernrx Century of the Vulgar Chriftian Era. 1201.—The city of Riga, in Livonia, founded.—War de- clared between France and England. 1202.—The principality of Antioch united to that of Tri- poli.—Gervafe, of Canterbury, the hiftorian. 1203.—The 6th (4th, Blair) crufade fets out from Venice. 1204.—Conftantinople taken by the Venetians and French. — Normandy conquered and re-united to France.— The Inguilition eltablifhed. —'Lhe empire of ‘l're- bifond eitablifhed. ¥205.— Baldwin defeated near Adrianople by the Bulgarians. 1207.—The firlt towns ereéted into corporatioys in Nor- mandy, were thofe of Rouen and Falaife, this year. y208.—The order of Fratres minores eftablifhed.—King ' John, of England, excommunicated by the pope. 1209.—The works of Arittorle, juft imported from Con- ftantinople, are condemned by the council of Paris in 1210.—The filk manufacture imported from Greece into Venice.x—Ralph de Diceto, the hif- torian. i210,—The perfecution againft the Albigenfes, begun in the preceding year, is now very violent.—'The emperor Otho excommunicated by the pope. y2t1,—The king of Englaad fubdues Wales.—Saxo-Gram- maticus, the hiltorian. 1212.—The Chriftians defeat the Moors at Thouloufe, and kill 200,000 of them. 1213.—The king of England, reconciled to the pope, be- comes his vaflal. —Walter of Coventry. 12t4.—War between England and Scotland.—Philip de- feats Otho near Bouvines.—'The Turks defeat the Perfians. 1215.—The order of Dominicans inftituted.—A comet in March.—The order of Knights-Hofpitallers founded.—A conteft between the king and barons of England. — Magna Charta figned June 15.— The dodrine of tranfubftantiation introduced. 3216.—Alexander and the kingdom of Scotland excommu- nicated by the pope’s nuncio.—Accurfius, the famous lawyer, and author of the Glofles, ob. 1229. 1217.—Peace between England and Scotland.—-The French defeated in the battle of Lincoln. 1219.—The Chriftians take Damietta from the Saracens. 3220,—Aitronomy and geography brought into Europe by the Moors about this time. 1221,—The univerfity of Padua enlarged.—St. Anthony of Padua, ob. 1231. 1222.—A great earthquake in Germany.—The Chriftians forced to evacuate Damietta. A.D. 1223.—All the flavesin France franchifed by Louis VIII, —Avn extraordinary comet appeared in Denmark. 1223.—John de Sacro-bofco, a mathematician, of Halifax, in Yorkthire, ob. at Paris 1244. 1226.—The king of France, and many prelates and lords, form a league againft the Albigenfes. 1227.—An expedition of zll the European powers ta Pa- leftine.—The power of the Englih barons abridg- ed.—The Tartars, under Genghis-kan, over-run the whole Saracen empire. 1228.—The univerfity of Thouloufe founded. 1229.—A treaty between the Saracens and Chriftians. A confpiracy againft the crown of Sweden.— Alexander Halenfis, ob. 1245. 1230.—Denmark defolated by pellilence.—The kingdoms of Leon and Caftile united.—-The Teutonic knights fubdue Prufliaa—The univerfity of Naples founded.—Several murdered in the univerfity of Paris on occafion of the difputes about Ariftot'e. 1231.—The Almegett of Ptolemy tranflated from the Ara- bic into Latin. 1232.—William, bifhop of Paris, ob. 1248. 1233.—The Inquilition entrufted to the Dominicans. —The order of the Knights of the Bleffed Virgin infli- tuted. 1234.—Peter de Vigneo, chancellor to Frederic II., ob. 1249. 1236.—The firft irruption of the Tartars into Roffia, Poland, &c. - 1238.—The univerfity of Vienna founded.—The Tartars fubjeét the Ruffians to the payment of tribute. 1239.—A writing of this date, on paper made of rags, is ftill extant. 1240.—The king of Denmark publifhed a code of ancient Cimbrian laws.—The Tartars invade Poland and Hungary. 1241.—The Ruffians defeat the Swedes and Livonians near Narva.—-The Hanfeatic league formed.—-Tin mines difcovered in Germany.—Matthew Paris, the hiftorian, ob. 1259. 1242,—A plague in I'rance, Italy, and Greece.—Grotet, buhop of Lineoln, ob. 1254. 1244.—The Mharifmians defeat the Chriftians, and take Je- rufalem.—The order of the Celeftines inftituted. 1245.—The general council of Lyons for renewing the cru- fades.—A clear red ftar, like Mars, appeared in VS. 1248.—The 5th crufade under Lewis LX, 5 1249.—Damietta taken by Lewis. 1250.—Lewis defeated in Egypt and taken prifoner.— Painting revived in Florence by Cimabue.—The Sorbonne in Paris founded. 1251.—Wales fubdued, and Magna-Charta confirmed. 1252.— Alphonfo of Spain found the fun’s apogee in 28° 40'.—Albertus Magnus, ob. 1280, zt. 75. 1253.—The Alphonfine tables compofed. 1254.— War between Denmark and Sweden.—St. Thomas. Aquinas, ob. 1274. 1256.—The order of the Auguttines eftablifhed. 1257-—St. Bonaventura, ob. 1274, xt. 53. 1258.—The empire of the Saracens finifhed by the Tartars taking Bagdad.—Reprefentatives of the commons of England prefent tor the firft time in parliament. (Playfair. )—John de Toinville. 1259-—The Tartars invade Poland.—Naflar Eddin, of Tufa, the Perfian aftronomer and geographer. 3260.—Alphonfo of Spain orders all publie records to be written CHRONOLOGY. #Ds written in the vulgar tongue, notin Latin. The fe@ of FVlagellants appear in Italy. 326t,—The Greck emperors recover Conftantinople from the French, and the empire of the Franks there ends.— Roger Bacon, ob. 1284, ext. 78. .—The Norwegians invade the Wedtern iflands of Scotland —Civil wars in England, between the barons and the king. 1264.—The battle of Lewes, in which Henry is taken psi- fones.—The commons firft fummoned to partia- ment. (Blair.)—The annual feftival of the Holy Sacrament, inilituted by pope Urban.—The d+ puties of towns and beroughs firft fummoned to parliament. (Playfair..—A comet with a tail of great extent appeared; courfedireét; perihelion, July, 6°. 8. 1265. ~ The battle of Evctham, in England, Aug. 4. 1266.—The battle of Benevento, Feb. 26.—Peace be- tween Scotland and Norway. 1267.—The police of Paris efablithed about this time. —C:mabue, the firft of the modern painters at Florence, ob. 1300. 1263.—'The muflulmen gain Antioch.—The battle of Cc- Jano, in Italy, fatal to Conradin, Aug, 29th.— The Tartars invade China, and expel many of the natives. ; 1269.—Louis’s expedition to Paleftine.x—Cozah Nafirodni obferved the obliquity of the ecliptic to be 23° 12€3 30: 1270.—The king of Hungary reduced Bulgaria.—The x Scots guard in France embodied. 1272.—The academy of Florence founded.— All the orders of Mendicants reduced to the four following, viz. Dominicans, Francifeans, Carmelites, and~ Her- mits of St. Auguttin. 1273-—The empire of the prefent Auftrian family begins. —Cheouching, in China, obferved the obliquity of the ecliptic to be 23° 33’ 39”. 1274.—The rft commercial treaty between England and Flanders. : 1275.—Durandus, ob. 1296. 5 1277.—The fultan of Egypt defeats the Tartars near Da- mafcus.—Nepotifm firlt avowed at Rome by pope Nicholas IIT. 1279.—King Edward relinquifhed his right to Normandy, —The mortmain a& pafled in England.—Henry of Ghent, ob. 1293, xt. 76. 1280.—The fultan of Egypt defeats the Tartars near Emeffa. r281t.—A revolution in Bulgaria. 1252.—Twelve thoufand (Sooo Blair,) French maflacred at the Sicilian vefpers, March 20.—A great pel- tilence in Denmark.—Peter, king of Arragon, feized on Sicily.—The academy of de la Crufca founded. 4283.—Wales conquered by king Edward, and united to England.—A_ new feparation between the Latin and Greek churches.—The ftates of Segovia adopted the vulgar Chriftian 2ra.—Raymond Lulli, ob. 1315, zt. So. 1285.—The Tartars ravage Hungary, and defeat the Hun- garians.Alphonfo of Arragon deprives his uncle of Majorca, and in the following year, becomes matter of IMinorca.—Jacobus de Voragine, ob. 1298. i A.D. 1287,—An irruption of the Tartars into Poland, 1283.—The fultan of Babylon takes Tripoli. 1289.—A great earthquake in Europe.—Albertet, the ma- thematician and Provencal poet. 12y0.—The Jews banifhed out of England.—The univer: fity of Lifbon founded. 1291.—The fultan of Babylon conquered Syria—The Latin patriarchs of Jererufalem ended.-—A con- telt between Bruce and Baliol for the crown of Scotland.—Ptolemais taken by the Turks by affault.—The crufades ended. —John Duns, called Scotus, ob. 1308, zt. 43. ¥293.—A regular fucceffion of parliaments in England from this year.— A comet appeared in China. 1294.—Parliaments eftablifhed in Paris. 1296.—A war between England and Scotland.—An intenfe froft in Denmark.—Thebit, the Arabian aftrono- mer, difcoverer of the motion of trepidation. 1297.—The coronation chair, asd records of Scetland, car- ried off by Edward. 12¢8.—The Ottoman empire founded. 1299:—An earthquake in Germany.—A comet appeared, its perihelion in the beginning of February; its afcending node m 25°— inclin. 20°— retrograde. — Speétacles invented by a monk of Pifa.—The famous year of Jubilee inftituted at Rome by Boniface VIII. 1300.—The Ottoman empire began.—Edward invades Scotland. The Fourreentu Century of the Vulgar Chriiliaa AZra. 1301.—The pope excommunicates Philip, king of Franee. —Peter de Apono, ob. 1316, zt. 66. 1302.—The fultan of Egypt defeats the Tartars near Da- mafcus.—The mariners’ compafs invented (or im- proved) by Flavio.—The univerfity of Avignon founded. 1303.— The Scots defeat three Englifh armies, in one day, near Roflin. 1304.—Dante, ob. 1321, et. 56. 1300.—The Jews banifhed out of France.—Edward of England invades Scotland, and is oppofed by Bruce.—Arnoldus de Villa Nova, ob. 1340. 1307.—Coals firt ufed in England.—The univerfity of Pe- roufe, in Italy, founded.—The eftablihment of the Swifs cantons. 1308.—The univerfity of Lifbon removed to Coimbra.— The feat of the popes removed to Avignon, for 70 years. ghee knights of St. John take Rhodes, and fettle there. 1312.—The order of knights Templars abolifhed by the council of Vienna.—The univerfity of Orleans founded.—Durandus, bifhop of Anicium, called doétor refolutiffimus, ob. 1333. 1313.—Molay, grand mafter, with a number of Templars, burned alive at Paris. 1314.—The cardinals fet fire to the conclave, and feparate. —The battle of Bannockburn, July 25th, in which the Scots defeat the Englith. 1315-—Germany afflicted with famine and peftilence.—The Scots invade Ireland.—A comet appeared in De- cember. 1316.—A comet appeared in February. 1317.—Nicholas de Lyra, ob. 1340. 1318. re Ee CHRONOLOGY. A.D. 1318.—A fevere famine in Great Britain. 1319.—The univerlity of Dublin founded.—Willam Occam, ob. 1343. 1320.—An earthquake in England.—Gold coined in Chriftendom. y321.—A civil war in England.—Abulfeda, the Saracen prince of Hamah in Syria, a great Arabian geo- grapher, finifhed his Arabian geography,—ob. 1383. 1322.—The battle of Muldorf between Frederick IIT. and Louis V.—the former being taken prifoner. 1323.—A truce between England and Scotland for 13 years. —A great eruption of Etna. 1325.—The firit treaty of commerce between England and Venice. - ¥327.—Edward II. depofed by parliament. 1329.—The battle of Mount Caffel gained by King Philip over the Flemings. 1330.—Gun-powder invented by a monk of Cologne. 1331.—'Phe Turks take and plunder the city of Nice.—The knights of the Teutonic order fettle in Pruffia.— ~The art of weaving cloth brought from Flanders into England. 3332.—The King of Poland feizes upon Silefia-—The pope accufed of herefy.—Nicephoras Gregoras, the aftronomer and hiftorian, ob. 1350. 3333-—The Moors gain pofleffion of Gibraltar.—T he Scots defeated at Halidown hill, near Berwick, July 19. 3337.— War between Egland and Frauce. ~The firit comet, whofe courfe is defcribed with an aftronomical exactnefs, appeared in the beginning of this year —its perihelion June 2, 6" 25’; its afcending node m 24° 21’—inclin, 32° r1’—retrograde. $.—The empire of Germany declared to be independent on the pope.—King Edward begins his war againit France. 1339. —The academy of Pifa eftablifhed-—Denmark defo- lated by war, famine, and peftilence. 3340 —The French defeated in a fea-fght by Edward ITI. 3 near Helvoetfluys—followed by a truce which lafted 4 years—copper money firft ufed in Scot- land and Ireland. 1341.—Cantacuzenus ufurps the Eaftern empire for 17 years. —Barlaam the Calabrian. —A comet appeared in 2, firft feen near Spica Virginis, difappeared near SL. . 3342.—The fieze of Algiers, in which powder was ufed.— Edward’s expedition to the continent. — The knights and burgeffes firlt fat together in the fame houfe of the Englifh parliament. 1343.—Leontius Pilatus of Theffalonica, reftorer of Greek learning in Italy. 1344.—The Madeiraiflandsfaid to be difcovered by Macham, an Englifhman.—Gold firft coined in England.— The Tartars invade Poland, and are defeated. he battle of Creffy, between the French and Eng- ith, Auguf 26.—A treaty of commerce between the Venetians and the fultans of Egypt.—The Scots defeated by the Englifh, and David taken prifoner. ; 31347-—Peftilence ravages Europe, faid to carry off ith of the inhabitants —The admiralty court inftituted. — Edward takes Calais Aug. 4th.-—A code of laws publifhed in Poland, and the univeriity of Cracow founded, 333 1345-— A.D. 1348.—The univerfity of Prague founded. 1349.-—The order of the Garter inftituted in England, April 23.—A plague in England, Scotland, and Ireland—The_ king of Arragon adopts the Chriftian zra Dec. 17. 1350.—The Jubilee fixed to every soth year. 1352.—The Turks firft enter Europe. 1353.—Locults defolate Africa and Afia—A comet ap- peared—its courfe from N. to S. 1354-—Francis Petrarch, ob. 1374, xt. 76. 1355-—A confpiracy at Venice.—Iovanni Boceacio, ob. 1376, zt. 62. 1356.—The French defeated at Poitiers, and king John taken prifoner September 19.—An earthquake in Germany.—The golden bull publithed De- cember 29. 1357-—A great fedition in France. 1358.—The vulgar Chriftian zra adopted in various parts of Spain.—Tamerlane begins to reign in Perfia.— The treaty of Calais figned, O&. 24. 1361.—Matthew of Weitminfter, firnamed Florilegus, ob. about 1380. 1362.—The law pleadings in England changed from French to Englith, as a favour of Edward II. to his peo- ple, in his soth. year.—Military order of Janiza- ries eftablifhed among the Turks. 1364.—The battle of Cockerel, May 6, and of Avrai, Sep- tember 29. 1365.—The univerfities of Vienna and of Geneva founded. 1366.—Adrianople made the feat of the Turkifh empire. 1367.—The battle of Neiara in Caftile, April 4. 1368.—The battle of Montial, March 14. 1359.— Wickliff begins to teach in England, ob. ¥385. 1370.~ Chivalry flourifhed about this time.— The office of grand vifier eftablifhed. 1371.—The French defeated the Englihh fleet near Rochelle, June 23.—The family of Stewart begins to reign in Scotland. 1373-—The Genoefe become mafters of Cyprus.—John Gower, the firft Englifh poet, ob. 1402. 1375.—A three years truce between England and France, 1376.—John Froiffart, ob. r400. 1377-—The French invade England.—The feat of the popes transferred from Avignon to Rome.—The fea breaks in upon Flanders. —Wickliff’s do@rine condemned in England. 1378.—The {chifm of double popes, which continues 33: years. — Greenland difcovered:by a Venetian. 1379.—Civil commotions in Flanders. 1381.—Bills of exchange firft ufed in England. —A plague in Germany.—Watt Tyler’s infurre&tion in Eng- land, July. 1332.—The battle of Rofebeck in Flanders, Nov. 17,— —The Turks take Hierapolis. 1383.—Cannon firft ufed in the Englith fervice by the go- vernor of Calais. 1384.— The firft aét of navigation in England.—No goods to be imported or exported by Englishmen on foreign bottoms.—Holtikities between England and Scotland. 1385.—The king of Portugal defeats the king of Caftile at Aljubaroba, Aug. 14.—The ancient race of Swedifh kings ended.—Nicholas Flamel, ob. 1409. 1386.—Andronicus Paleologus takes Conftantinople—foon retaken CHRONOLOGY. A.D. retaken by John and Manuel.— Tamerlane fub- dues Georgia.—The firft company of linen-weavers in England. 1387.— The firft lord high admiral of England appointed. —Tamerlane fubdues Turkeftan. 1388.—Bombs invented at Venloo.—The Scots defeat the Englifh at Otterburn, July 31.—Margaret of Denmark defeats the Swedes at Falcoping, Sept. 21—and unites the crowns of Sweden and Den- mark. 1390.—-The facred war in Pruffia. 1391.—Cards invented for the amufement of the French king.—The papal power abolifhed in England by act of parliament.—InfurreGtions in Scotland. —The academy of St. Luke founded in Parts. 1392.—Annats eftablifhed.— Jews banifhed out of Germa- ¢ ny.— Cape of Good Hope difcovered by the Por- tuguefe.-—Emanuel Chryfoloras, ob. 1413, at. 60, of Conttantinople, preceptor in Greek. 1393.—The Turks ravage Walachia, and defeat the Hun- garians at Nicopolis——The doctrine of Hulfs pro- pagated in Bohemia. 1394.—The Jews banifhed out of France, Sept. 17.—Leo- nard Aretin, fecretary of Florence. 1395-—Bajazet defeats the Chrifians at Nicopolis, Sept. 28, and afterwards fubdues the Bulgarians. 13,96.—Geoffroy Chaucer, the Englifh poet, ob. 1449. 1397-—The union of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, at Calmar.—Owen Glendour, ob. about 1408. 1398.—A rebellion in Ireland.—Dukes firft created in Scotland.—Tamerlane penetrates into Hindoof- tan, and took Delhi in January following.—In- tenfe froft in Denmark. 1399.—Tamerlane becomes matter of Novogorod. 1400.— War between England and Scotland.—Tamerlane invades Afia Minor, with a great army. The Firreenta Century of the Vulgar Chriftian /Era. y401.—The emperor Rupert invades Italy, and is repulfed. — Tamerlane becomes mafterof Bagdad, Aug.oth. 1402.—Tamerlane defeats Bajazet in the battle of Angora, July 28th, and takes him prifoner. 1403.—The battle of Shrewfbury, July 22d, in which Hotf{pur is killed. : 1505.—Great guns firft ufed in England at the fiege of Berwick.—Famine and peftilence in Denmark.— The Canary iflands difcovered by Bethencourt; a Norman. 1406.—Leonard Aretin, ob. 1443, et. 74.—Brunus of Arezzo, fecretary of Florence. 1407.—The kingdom of France laid under an interdi&@.— Hufs propagates his opinions.—Balthazar Coffa becomes matter of Rome. 1409.—The Lollards multiplied in England.—The coun- cil at Pifa begins, March 25th. 1410,—Painting in oil colour invented at Bruges by John Van-eyck.—A civil war.in France. ; 1411.—The univerlity of St. Andrews in Scotland founded. —War between king Ladiflaus and the pope. 1412.—Algebra brought from Arabia inte Europe, about the beginning of this century. 1414,—The council of Conftance begins, Nov. 16th, in which two popes voluntarily fubmitted to depo- fition. a415.—John Hufs condemned and executed, July 6th— A.D. Henry of England invades Normandy.—The Englifh defeat the French in the battle of Azin- court, O&. 25th. 1416.—The Englifh defeat the French fleet at the mouth of the Seine. 1417.—Henry’s fecond expedition into Normandy.—Paper made of linen rags invented. 1418.-—The maffacre of the Armagnac faétion in Paris. — Poggio, the Florentine, ob. 1459, zt. 80. 1420,—Thetreaty of Troyes figned, May 21.—'The ifland of Madeira difcovered by the Portuguefe. Two kings, two queens, to regents, two parliaments, and two univerfities of Paris, in France. —The battle of Beaugé, April 3, in which the duke of Clarence is killed. 1421.— The revenue of England amounts to 55.7541. 1422.—The vulgar Chrittian era introduced into Por- tugal. 1423.—The Englifh defeat the French and Scots in the battle of Crevant. 1424.—The Englifh defeat the French in the battle of Verneuvil.— Ang. Flavius Blondus, ob. 1463, wet. 75. 1426.—An earthquake at Naples. 1427.—The academy of Louvain founded.—Theodore Gaza, ob. 1478, xt. go. 1428-—The fiezge of Orleans begins, O&. r2th, and re- pulfed by Joan of Arc. 1429.—The battle of Herrings, Feb. 12th.—Francis Phi- lelphus, ob. 1481, zt. 53. 1431.—A great earthquake at Lifbon.—Henry, king of England, crowned king of France, —- Geo, Trape- zuntius, ob, 1485, et. go. 1433.—G. Gemiltius Pletho, ob. 1490, xt. 100. 1434.—A civil war in Sweden. — Cofmo de Medici recalled from banifhment, which began the rife of that family in Florence. 1435.—The treaty of Arras between Charles II. and the duke of Burgundy. ‘ 1436.—Paris retaken by the French, April 13th,—Lau- rentius Valla, ob. 1465. zt. 50. 1437-—An expedition of the Portuguefe into A frica.—The Turks invade Hungary.— Ulugh Beigh, emperor of Samarcand, author of the Perfian aftronomical tables, obferved the obliquity of the ecliptic to be 23° 30/17", ob. 1449, xt. 57. 1439.—The re-union of the Greek and Latin churches.— The Pragmatic fanétion fettled in France. 1440.—The art of printing invented at Mentz, and gra- dually improving for 22 yearse—John Gutter- burg, ob. after 1460. 1441.—John Fauftus, ob. about 1466. 1442.—The Turks invade Hungary.—Peter Scheffer, ob. after 1479. 1444.—Famine in Sweden.— Truce between France and England at Tours, June 1{t.—Weflelus, ob. 1489, zt. 70. 1446.—The fea broke in upon Dort, April 17th, and drowns f 100,000 perfons.—Frederick declares war againlt the Swils. 1447.~The Vifconti family ends in Milan; fucceeded by the Sforzas.—The Turks, for feveral years, de- feated by Scanderbeg in 22 battles. 1448.—The houfe of Oldenburgh begins to reign.in Den- mark.—The Scots defeat the Exglifh at Sark.— The CHRONOLOGY, A.D. The crown of Sweden feparated from that of Denmark.—A bloody conteft between the houfe of York and that of Lancafter.—The Vatican _ at Rome founded. 1449.— War between England and France.—Ulugh Beigh put to death by his fon.—Geo. Purbachius, ob. 1462, et. 87. 1450.—The battle of Fourmigni, April 18. t451.—The Englith compelled to evacuate Rouen, and feveral other parts of France.—War between Sweden and Denmark.—/Eneas Sylvius Pius II. ob. 1464. 1452.—Cardinal Beffarion, ob. 1472, zt. 77. 1453.—Conttantinople taken by the Turks, May 29th, which terminated the Greek empire.—The Eng- lifh government in France ends with the battle of Caftellon, July 7th. £454.—A_ confpiracy in Rome againft the pope.—The Pruffians and Poles carry on war for twelve years, againft. the Teutonic knights.—Thomas a Kempis, ob. 1471. 1455-—The battle of St. Alban’s, May 31ft. 1450.—A great earthquake at Naples—The Turks are repulfed at the liege of Belgradex—T wo comets appear. 1457-—Glals firft manufaétured in England.—Joannes Argyropulus, ob, 1480, et. 70. apg ney Turks take Corinth.—A fedition in Eng- land. 1450.—The arts of engraving and etching invented.—Al- honfo’s firft expedition into Africa. 1460.—The battle of Northampton, July roth. ~The bat- tle of Wakefield, Dec. 31.. Alum mines dif- covered in Italy.—Purbachius and Regiomon- tanus, (ob. 1470, zt. 40.) obferved the ebliquity of the ecliptic to be 23° 29’.—An academy founded at Bafil, and at Friburg. ¥461.—King Edward defeats king Henry at Towton, in Yorkfhire, March 2gth. 1462.—An expedition of the ‘Lurks into Walachia.— Re- gular polts eftablifhed in France.— The tirft book printed, viz. the Vulgate Bible in 2 vols.—Bap- tifta Platina, ob. 1451, xt. 6o. 1463.—Peftilence rages in Saxony and Thuringia. —War : between the Turks and Venetians.—Alp%onfo’s fecond expedition into Africa. 1464.—The league againft Louis XI. of France, called «¢ La Guerre du bien public.”—Rod. Agricola, ob. 1485, xt. 43. 1466.—The fecond printed book, viz. Cicero de Officiis. 1467.—Sheep from England firft permitted to be fent to Spain. 1468.—Warwick’s confpiracy againft Edward.—Jo‘. Jo- vianus Pontanus, ob. 1503, zt. 70. 1469.—The battle of Banbury, July 26th.—The order of St. Michael inftituted in Trance. 1470.—The battle of Stamford, March 14.—King Edward attainted, and king Henry VI. reftored. 2471.—The battle of Barnet, April 14.— Edward reftored. —The battle of TewSibury, May 4th.—Marfilius Ficinus, ob. 1499, xt. 56. 1472.— War between the Turks and Parthians. —A comet appeared—its perihelion, Feb. 29th 10” 23! A. M.—its afcending node V3 11° 46! 20’—in- clin. 5° 20’—retrograde—it pafled through 40° in 24h.—John Lafcaris, ob. 1513, xt. 90, Voi, WII. A.D. 1473-—The ftudy of the Greek language introduced into France by Gregor* Tiphernas. 1474.—The Cape de Verd iflands difeovered by the Portu- guefe. — Annius of Viterbo, ob. r492.—Abraham Zaguth obferved Spica Virginis in x 17° 10!. 1475.—The treaty of Amiens, Aug. 29—Poland and Hungary infelted with locutts. 1476.—Ferdinand of Cattile defeats the king of Portugal. —Waltherus obferved the obliquity of the eclip- tic to be 23° 30’.—George Merula, ob. 1494. 1473.— Laurence de Medici ex;elled Florence, and an ana- thema againft him by Sixtus FV. which greatly diftreffed learning.—Peace between France and Caflile, Nov. 9.—Waltherus obferved the vernal equinox in March ir, 8h. 5’. 1479-—The univerlity of Upfal founded.—The kingdoms of Cattle and Arragon united. 1480.— The Turks befiege Rhodes. 1451.—A great famine in France.—Savonarola, ob. 1498, wt. 46. 1482.—The coat of Guinea difcovered by the Portuguefe. —A court of inquifition ereéted at Seville. fo. Picus, of Mirandola, ob. 1494, xt. 37. 1483.—A confpiracy in England againft Richard.—Poft- horfes and ftages eftablithed. 1484.—Famine and peltilence raged in Denmark, 1485.—The battle of Bofworth, Aug. 22. —The union of the houfes of York and Lancatter.—Demetrius Chalcondyles, ob. 1513. 1486.— War between the fultan of Egypt and the Turks. —The Roffians fubdue the kingdom of Cafan.— Brazil difcovered.—Angelo Politian, ob. 14945 wt. 46. : 1487.—The court of Star-Chamber inftituted in England. —Hermolaus Barbarus, ob. 1493, xt. 39. 1485.—The battle of Aubin, June 28, in which the French king defeats the duke of Brittany. ~The Cape of Good Hope difcovered. 1489.—Geographical maps and fea charts brought into England. An earthquake at Conftantinople.— The kingdom of Cyprus ceded to the Venetians. William Grocyn, ob. 1522, zt. 80. 149°.—Poetry begins to flourifh in Germany. 1491.—The ftudy of the Greek tongue introduced into Eng- land, by Grocyn.— Baptiita Mantuanus, ob. 1516, xt. 68. 1492.—Brittany re-united to the French crown.— America difcovered by Columbus.—Ifle of St. Domingo difcovered.— Peace between England and France, —Ferdinand expelled the Moors from Granada, after a poffeflion of above 800 years. 1493-—Montferrat difcovered.—Jo. Reuchlin, called Cap- n1o, introduced the Hebrew and Greek languages into Germany, ob, 1521, xt, 67. 1494.—Poyning’s aé& paffes in Ireland. 1495.—The king of I'rance feizedon the kingdom of Naples. —Algebra taught by a friarat Venice.—The diet of Worms for the peace ef the empire. —The ve- nereal difeafe introduced into Europe.—A treaty of commerce between Henry of England and Phi- lip, duke of Burgundy, : 1496.—The Jews and Moors banifhed out of Portugal.— John Colet, ob. 1519, @t. 53- 1497.— North America, difcovered by Americus Vefputius, —Vafquez di Gama’s expedition tothe Ealt Indies. 1498.—The Walachians ravage Poland, and carry off above 5K 100,00 CHRONOLOGY. AD. y00,C09 prifoners, whom they fold to the Turks. Alexancer ab Alexandro, ob. 1521, et. 50. +499.— War betv een the Turks and the Venetians. — Lewis XTLI. takes pofleffton of the Milanefe.—Dr.Thomas Lyracre, ob. 1524. 15c0.—Brazil difcovered by the Portegnefe.—Florida dif- covered by John Cabot, an Englifhman.—Maxi- milian divides the empire into fx circles.— Painting ia chiar» obfcuro difcovered.—A great plague in England. The SixreentH Century of the Vulgar Chriftian ZEra, 1501.—The tribunal of ftate inquifitors eftablihed at Ve- ~ nice.—Ifhmael Sophi, of the fe& of Ali, begins to reign in Perfia.— Louis of France ard Ferdi- nand of Caftile, feize on the kingdom of Naples. —Aldus Manutius, ob. 1513. 1502.—St. Helena difcovered.—Pomponatius of Mantua, ob. 1525. zt. 63.—Gonfalvo, called the great captain, ob. 1515, xt. 72. 1503.—The battle of Cerignole, April 28, which finithed the French power in Naples.--Leonards da Vin- ci, ob. 1520, xt. 75.—Cardinal Kimenes, ob. 1517, xt. So.—Waltherns obferved the fummer folftice at Nuremberg, June 12, 12" 46’ 34”.— The fun’s apogee & 4° ’. 1504.—King Henry VII. built a chapel at Weftminfter Abbey.—Gawin Douglas, ob. 1521. 1505.—Shillings firft coined in England.—Two comets ap- peared.—Albert Durer of Nuremberg, ob. 1528, xt. 57. 1506.—The Academy of Frankfort on the Oder founded. : —Ceylon difcovered.—Nicholas Machiavel, ob. 1529. 1507.—Louis reduced the Genoefe to fubje&tion.—The ifland of Madagafcar difcovered by the Portu- guefe—Lewis Ariotto of Ferrara, ob. 1533. 1508.—The league of Cambray againft the Venetians, Dec. 10.— Budzus of Paris, ob. 1540, xt. 73. 1509.—The battle of Aignadel, May 14, in which Louis defeats the Venetians.—The expedition of Xi- menes to the coaft of Barbary, May 26.—An earthquake at Conftantinople, Sept. 14. 3510.—Wernerus obferved the obliquity of the ecliptic to be 23° 28’ 30”.—The pope grants to Ferdi- nand the inveftiture of Naples, July 23. 1511.—The ifland of Cuba conquered by the Spaniards.— A league between the emperor, the pope, and the Venetians againit the French, Oc. 4.—Raphael, ob. 1520, xt. 37. a512.—The battle of Ravenna, April rr.—The river de la Plata difcovered.—Erafmus, ob. 1536, et. 70. 1513.—War between Scotland and England.—The battle of Navarre, in which the Swifs defeat the French. —The battle of the Spurrs, Aug. 16.—The bat- tle of Flodden, Sept. 9 —Sannazarius of Naples, ob, 1530- 31514.—Cannon bullets of ftone, ftill in ufe—War between the Ottoman empire and Perfia.—Polydore Virgil, ob. 1555, xt. So. 3515.—Copernicus obferved the vernal equinox, March 11, 4° 30’ morn. at _Fruemberg.—He obferved Spica Virginis in + 17° 3’ 2", and the fun’s apogee in % 6° 40’—The rit Polyglot Bible printed at Alcala.—A battle between the French and Swifs A.D, at Marignan, Sept. 13 and 14.—Ferdinand annexe ed the kingdom of Navarre to that of Caftile.— Cornelius Agrippa, ob. 1534, et. 45. 1516.—Barbarofla feizes the kingdom of Algiers —War between the Turks and Perfians.—The treaty of Noyou, Aug. 16.—Franeis Guiccardin, ob. 1540, xt. 58. 1517.—The Reformation begun in Germany by. Luther— ob. 1546, et. 63.—The Turks terminate the kingdom of the Mamalukes in Egypt.—Five books of the Annals of Tacitus found. 151$.—New Spain and the Straits of Magellan difcovered- Zuingtius, ob. 1531. 1519.—Francis I. and Charles -¥. competitors for the Im- perial throne.—Cardinal Bembo of Venice, ob. 1547, xt. 68. 1520.—Wer between Poland and Pruffia.—Sweden and Denmark united.—An interview between the kings of England and of France at Guifnes, June 4.—The confederacy of the Holy Junta formed in Spain.—Ludovicus Vives of Valentia, ob. 1536. 1521.—A league between the. emperor and Henry VIII. againft Francis 1.—The diet of Worms, April 17. —The Turks take Belgrade, Aug.—A confpi- racy of the king of Sweden againit the nobility. —The title of “ Defender of the Faith’? con- ferred on Henry VIII.—Copernicus of Thorn in Pruffia, ob. 1543, et. 60. 1522.—The Turks take the ifland of Rhodes, Dec. 25.— The firlt voyage round the world, bya fhip of Ma- gellan’s {quadron.—Michael Angelo Bon‘. ob, 1564, zt. 89. 1523-—A league formed againft Francis I. by the pope, the emperor, the Venetians, &c.—Sweden and Denmark difenited.—Paracelius, ob. 1541,2t. 48. 1524.— Clement Marot, ob. 1544, zt. Go. - Queen Katha- rine of England, ob. 1536, 2t. 50. 1525-—The battle df Pavia, Feb. 24, in which Francis I. was made prifoner.—Julio Romano, ob. 1546, zt. 54.—Sir Thomas More, lord chancellor, ob. 1535. 1526.—The treaty of Madrid, Jan. 14.—The inquilition eftablithed in. Portugal—The pope, Venetians, and French, form a league againtt the emperor.— Lutheranifm eftablifhed in Denmark.— Paul Jo- vius, ob. 1552, et. 70. ‘ 1527.—War between the pope aad the viceroy of Naples.— The -pope’s territories invaded by the army of Charles V., and Rome taken and plundered, May 6th.—Bermuda ifles difcovered.—Francis Rabe- Jais, ob. 1553, zt. 70. 1528.—Popery abolifhed in Sweden.—Francis challenges the emperor to fingle combat.—A new form of government eftablifhed in Genoa by Andrew Do- ria, (ob. 1560, zt. 93-)—Olaus Magnus, ob, 15446 ig2g. The diet of Spires, March 15, againft the reformers, from which the name of ‘ Proteftants”? begius. — The peace of Cambray, Aug. 5, between Charles and Frencis.—The Turks beliege Vienna, and are repulfed.—J. Geo. Triflino, ob. 1550. 1530—The diet of Augfburg, June 25.—The union of the Proteftants at Smalcald, Dec. 22.—The fe- cretary of ftate’s office inftituted in England.— Parochial regifters firlt appointed,—Martin Bu- cer, ob. 1551, xt. Gos 1531s i PE IE I CHRONOLOGY. A.D. £531.—Poft-offices in England.—A great earthquake at Lifbon.—A comet appeared—its perihelion, Aug. 25, 9° 18’ A. M.—afcending node ¥ 19° 25! —inclin, 17° 56'—retrograde.— Hieron’ Vida, ob. 15606. °1532-—The court of feffions inftituted in Scotland —Peace between the emperor and German princes, July 23.—A comet appeared—its perihelion, O&. 20, ro" 12’ A. M.—afcending node m z0° 27/—in- clin, 32° 36'—dire&t.—Treaty of Nuremberg, Aug. 2.—Lilio Giraldi, ob. 1552, wt. 74. ¥533.—Papal authority abolifhed in England.—An infur- re€tion of the Anabaptifts ia Weitphalia.— A co- met appeared—its perihelion June 17, 7" 30! A.M.—afcending node QU) 5° 44’—inclin. 35° Pag eon y nena Loyola, ob. 15506, xt. 05. 1534.—Darbarofla fcizes the kingdom of Tunis—-The pope’s fentence cenfuring the marriage of Henry VIII.—The reformation takes place in Engiand, March 30th.— Julius Cefar Scaliger, ob. 1558, zt. 75.—Aane Bullen, queen of England, ob. 1536. £535-—The reformation introduced in Ireland.— Charles Vth’s expedition into Africa ends, Aug. 14th. — The fociety of the Jefuits formed.—Arch? Cran- mer; ob. 1556, zt. 67.—Barbarofla, the Turkifh general, ob. 1547. 1536.—James king of Scotland’s expedition into France. —A\ league between Solyman and Francis againit Charles V.—John Leland, ob. 1552.-- Jane Scy- mour, queen of England, ob. 1537. 1537-—Fracaitorius, ob. 1553, wt. 71. 1539.—A truce for ro years, concluded at Nice, between Charles and Francis, which lafts 4 years, June 18. —Peter Aretin, ob. 1556, xt. 65. 1539.—A rebellion at Ghent, which occalions Charles V. to pafs through France—The Bible printed in Englith.—The ancient conttitution of the cortez in Spain fubverted by Charles V.—645 monafterics aud religious houles fupprefled in [england and Wales.—Jolin Sleidan, ob. 1456.—Ann of Cleves, queen of England, divorced 1540. 4540.—The variation of the compafs ditcovered by Sebaf- tian Cabot.—The order of knights of St. John abolifhed.— Copernicus obferved the obliquity of the ecliptic to be 23° 28’ 8", Sept. 27.— ‘The fo- ciety of Jefuits eftablifhed.— Robert Stephens, ob. 1559, et. 56.— Catharine Howard, queen of Eng- land, ob. 1542. 3541.—Solyman reduced Hungary to the form of a province. —Charles V. befieged Algiers, Oct. 21.—Me- lan&hon, ob. 1560, wt. 64. 1542.—A treaty ‘between Solyman and Francis I. againft Charles V.—Japan difcovered.—Hier® Wollius, ob. 1550, xt. 64.—The Englifh invade Scotland, and deteat the Scots at Solway Mols, Nov. 23.— Titian Vecelli, ob. 1576, xt. 99. 4543.—Iron cannon and mortars made in England.—A league between Henry and Charles V. againit Francis 1.—The academy of Verona founded.— California difcovered.—Pins brought from France, and firft ufed in England. —John Calvin, ob. 1564, wt. 55.—Catharine Parr, queen of England. %544.—The battle of Cerifoles, April 11, in which the French defeated the Imperialifts—The crown of Sweden declared to be hereditary.—A treaty of A.D. peace between the emperorand Francis 1. at Crefly, Sept. 18.—The reformed religion authorifed in Sweden.—Iron firlt cal in England.—Adrian Turnebus, ob. 1565, xt. 53. 1545.—Civil commotions in Scetland—The Englih de- feated by the Scots at Ancram-Muir.—The coun- cil of Trent begins ard continucs 18 years. — Needles firlt made in England. —Conrad Gefner, ob. 1555, xt. 49. 1546.—A leayue between the emperor and the pope again the Proteflants.—Socimanilm fprung up in Haly, —Camerarius, ob. 1574, xt. 75. 1547.—'The elector of Saxony defeated by the emperor at Mulberg, Ap. 24.—A confpiracy againft the go- vernment of Genoa,—The Scots defeated by the Englith at Pinkey, Sept. ro.—The intereft of money {cttled at 10 per cent. in England.—Hiero- nymus Cardan, ob. 1575, et. 75. 1548.—War between the Turks and Perlans.— The refor- mation advances in Poland.—Jo. Genefius de Se- pulveda, the Peripatetic, and retlorer of learning ia Spain, ob. 1572, xt. Sr. 1550.—The eldelt fons of peers firft permitted to fit in the Honfe of Commons. —The bark of Venice efta- blifhed about this time.—Iron bullets firit ufed in England. 1551.—A league between Henry II. awd Maurice, duke of Saxony, againft the emperor,—Annibal Caro, ob. 1566. 1552.—The treaty of Paffau between Charles and the Pra- ~ teftants, July g1ft.—Books of aftronomy and ge- ometry deilroyed in England, under a charge of magic.—The book of Common Prayer con: firmed by a& of parliament.—The corfair Dra- gut defeated by Doria before Naples.— Paul Ma- nutius, ob. 1574, et. 62. 1553.—Popery reftored in England by queen Mary.-- Ser- vetus executed in Geneva. —Edward VI. dies July: 6, xt. 16.—Cardinal Pole, ob. 1558. 1554.—The Vrench invade the Low C-untries. — The Ref- fiavs fubdue the kingdom of Altracan.— Mary of England marries Philip of Spain.—Catlelvetro, ob. 1571, xt. 66. 1555.—The peace of religion eftablifhed in Germany, Sept. 25.—A league between the pope and the king of Trance againft the Spaniards, Dec. 15.—T'red. Commandin, ob. 1575, xt. 66. 1556.—A comet appeared—its perihelion, April 22, &* 3/ A.M.—alcending node ty 25° 42’—inclin. 32° 6’ 30"—dire&.—The ‘Turks ravage Corfica.— Charles refigns his crown to Philip, Jan. 6. 1557-—Charles retired to a monaftery, Feb. 24.—Glafe firt manufactured in England.—Philip defeats the French at St. Quintin, Aug, 10.—Onuphrius Panvinius, ob. 1563, xt. 39. 1558.—Calais taken by the Drench, Jan. 8.—Queen Mary dies, Nov. 17.—The reformed religion authorifed in England.—Ronfard, ob. 1585, et. 61. 1559.—The peae of Chateau-Cambrefis.—The. tranquil- lity of Europe reftored—The queen regent of Scotland oppofes the reformation, and perfecutes the reformers.— George Buchanan, ob. 1582, et. 76. 1560.—The confpiracy at Amboife begios the civil wars in France.—Philip removes his court from Toledo to Madrid.—A treaty between Elizabeth and the 5K2 Protett CHRONOLOGY. A.D. : Proteftants in Scotland, at Berwick, Feb. 27.— The Prefbyterian form of government eftablifhed in Scotland. 1561.—The difcord between Elizabeth and Mary com- mences.—Quneen Mary arrives in Scotland, after an abfence of 13 years.—Livonia ceded to Po- land. —Camoens, ob. 1579, et. .50. 1562.—The battle of Dreux, Dec. 19, in which the duke of Guife defeated the prince of Condé.—Peter Ra- mus, ob. 1572. 1563.—War between Sweden and Denmark.—The council of Trent terminates Dec. 4.—Orleans befieged by the duke of Guife, Fed. 6—The efcurial in Spain built. —Slave trade begun with England. — Oforius, ob. 1580. 1564.—The beginning of the year fixed to Jan. 1, in Trance.—Peace between France and England, April 9. 3565.—The revolt of the Low Countries. —The Turks at- tack Malta.—Tintoret, ob. 1594, et. 82. 3566.—The 39 articles of the church of England eftablifhed. The Tartars ravage Hungary.— Theodore Beza cb. 1605, zt. 86. 1567.-—Queen Mary efpoufed Bothwell, May 15:—The duke of Alva begins his operations in Flanders. — The battle of St. Denis, between the prince of Condé and Montmorency, Nov. 10.—Civil com- motions in Sweden.— Ja* Cujas, ob. 1590, zt. 63. 1568.—Queen Mary defeated in the battle of Glafgow, May 13—Tretires into England and is imprifoned.—The Moors in Spain revolt.—The exercife of the re- formed religion allowed in the Low Countries.— Ciaconius, ob. 1581, xt. 56. 3569.—The battle of Jarnac, May 13 —of Moncontour, be- tween the duke of Anjou and the Huguenots, O&. 3.—Pancirolus, ob. r5gr. 1570.—A league between Spain, Venice, and the Roman fee againit the Ottoman Porte.—The peace of Germain-en-Laye, in favour of the Huguenots, Augult 15.—Carolus Sigonius, ob. 1585, et. 60. 3571.—The ifle of Cyprus taken by the ‘Turks. —Tne bat- tle of Lepanto, O&. 7, in which the Turks are defeated. —Henry Stephens, ob. 1598, xt. 70. 1572.—The maffacre of the Proteftants at Paris, on Sun- day, Aug. 24.—Cornelius Gemma obferves a bright new flar in Cafllopeia.—Bodinus, ob. 1535. 3573-— War in France againtt the Proteftants.—The prince of Heffe obferved the vernal equinox March jo, 8" 26’ P.M. at Caffel.—Paul Veronefe, ob. 1583, et. 56. 1574.—The.tiege of Leyden by the Spaniards. —Sebaftian of Portugal makes an expedition into Africa againft the Moors. —Montegne, ob. 1592, xt. 59. 1575.—The univerfity of Leyden founded.—The Turks invade and ravage Ruffia.—Francis Hotomanus, ob. 1599, et. 65. 1576.—Tne league begins in France upon the edi& of pa- cification, andthe Proteftants allowed the exercife of their religion in France. —A civil war enfues.— Palladio. 177-—Drake undertakes a voyage round the world, and returns November 3, 1580.—A comet appeared —its perthelion, O&. 27,,6" o' A. M—alcending node ~,.25°52'—J1nclin. 74° 32' 45” —retro- grade. Janus Donfa, ob. 3604, xt. 50. A.D. 1575.—The firft treaty of alliance between England and the Sates General, Jan. 7.—A long and bloody war between Perfia and the Ottoman Porte.—The Moors defeat the Portuguefe at Alcafar, Augult 4.—Cardinal Baronius, ob. 1607, xt. 69. 1579.—Jan. 23d, the union of Utrecht, which begins the republic of Holland.—Riccoboni, ob. 1600, zt. 58. 1550,.—Philip of Spain feizes the kingdom of Portugal.— A comet appeared—its perihelion, Nov. zgth, 3” o! A. M.—afcending node sp 13° 57’ 20”—in~ clin. 64° 40'—dire&.—Peter Pithcu, ob. 1596, 1581.—An edict of the United Provinces againit Philip, July 26th.—Copper money introduced into France, —Jof. Scaliger, ob. 16c9, xt. 69. 1582.—The Julian calendar reformed by pope Gregory.— New ftyle introduced into Catholic countries, O&. sth, reckoned OG. 15th. —Chriftopher Cla- vius, ob. 1612, xt. 75. 1583.—The firft propofal of fettling a colony in America. — Torquado 'Vaffo, ob. 1595, et. 51. 1584.—Raleigh difcovered Virginia.—Cape Breton difco-~ vered.—The prince of Orange murdered at Delft, June 30.—Tycho obferved the vernal equinox, March to, 1" 56’ P. M. at Uraniburg.— Edmund Spencer, ob. 1598. 1585.—Drake takes Carthagena.—Greenland difcovered. —Coaches firft ufed in England.—The treaty of Nonfuch between England and the States-Gene- ral, Aug. 10.—A comet appeared—its perihelion, Sept. 25th, 7" 20’ A. M.—afcending node 8 7° 42’ 30” —inclin. 6° 4’—direc&t. — Sir Philip Sidney, obs n5SOpetersa. < 1586.—Babington’s conf{piracy againft queen Elizabeth.— Cavendifh’s firlt voyage to circumnavigate the globe.—Tycho Brahe, ob. 1601, zt. 55. 1587.—Queen Mary beheaded, Feb. 8.—The battle of Coutras, O&. zoth, in which the king of Navarre defeated the duke de Joyeufe.-—Drake burned 100 fail of fhips in the bay of Cadiz. 1585.—The Spanifh armada deftroyed, July 27th.—Firlt newfpaper in England, dated July 28.—Tycho obferved the fummer folftice, June 11th, 1° 36’ P. M. at Uraniburg.—'The fun’s apogee in & 5° 30° o’.—The duke of Guife, &c. affaflinated in France.—Duelling with {mall {words introduced into England.—Bomb-fliells invented at Venloo. —Henrico Catharino Davila, ob. 1631, zt. 55. 1589.—A confpiracy againit James, king of Scotland, by Huntly, Crawford, &c. popifh lords.—Peace be- tween the Turks and Perfians.—Drake’s expedi- tion to Spain and Portugal.—Henry III. mur- dered by Clement, July 22d.—Juftus Lipfius, ob. 1606, zt. 59. 1590.—A comet appeared —its perihelion, Jan. 29th, 3h. 45’ P. M.—alcending node my 15° 30! 40” ~in- clin. 29° 40’ 40'’—retrograde.—Telefcopes invent- ed by Janfen, a fpeftacle-maker in Germany.—Aa earthquake at Vienna, Sept. 5.—The art of weav- ing ftockings invented by Lee of Cambridge. — The battle of Ivry, which ruined the league, March 4.—Stephen Pafquier, ob. 1615, zt. 8r. 1591.—TLhe umiverfity of Dublin crefted.—Tea firlt presen into Europe.—Mariana, ob. 1624, zt. 7- 1592.~Prefbyterian church government eftablifhed by = CHRONOLOGY, A.D, of parliament in Scotland.—Falkland ifles difco- vered. 1593-—Bothwell’s confpiracy againft king James.~A comet appeared—its perihelion, July gth, 1" 38' A. M.—afcending node mg 14° 14’ 15!’—inclin. 87° 58’ —retrograde.—A great plague in London. —Cardinal Perron, ob. 1618, zt. 63. 1504.—The Jefuits expelled France.—The bank of Eng- land incorporated.—Byrgius obferved the obli- quity of the ecliptic 23° 29! 25’,—Ifaac Cafau- bon, ob, 1614, xt. 55. 1595-— Drake’s expedition againft the ifthmus of Darien. — Tycho Brahe obferved the obliquity of the eclip- tic, 23° 29’ 25”.— Mendana and Quiros make dif- coveries tn the Pacific ocean. -The Ruflians make the firft difcoveries in Siberia—Caribbee ifles difcovered.—Shakefpear, ob. 1616, xt. 53. 1596.—Calais taken by the Spaniards from the French.— A great earthquake at Japan.—The Englith de- feat the Spanifh fleet, and take Cadiz.—A treaty with England, France, and Holland, at the Hague, again{t Spain, O&. 31.—A comet appeared—its perihelion, July 23d, 7° 55’ A. M. —afcending node 2¥ 12° 12! 30”—inclin. 55° 12'—retrograde, —The Stella Mira in the neck of the Whale was obferved by David Fabricius, Aug. 13th.—An- nibal Caracci, ob. 1609, zt. 40. 1597-— Watches brought to England from Germany.—The Turks invade Hungary.—Cervantes, ob. 1620, zt. 69. 1598.—Tyrone’s infurreGtion in Ireland.k—The edict of Nantes in April. The peace of Vervins, April 22d.— Prefident de Thou, ob. 1617, et. 64. 1599-—Tycho obferved Saturn in oppolition to the fun, March 24th, 10” 20’ A. M.—Sir Henry Saville, ob. 1622, zt. 72. 1600.—Gowrie’s con{piracy in Scotland.—The Englifh Eatt India company eftablifhed.—The battle of Newport, July 2d, between Maurice and Albert. —A\ changeable itar in the neck of the Swan dif- covered by Janfenius.—St. Helena firft poflefled by England.—William Camden, ob. 1632, zt. 72. The Seventerrs Century of the Vulgar Chriftian Era, 1601.—The fiege of Oftend begins, June 25th.—Spain in- vades Ireland, Sept. 21ft.— Lord chancellor Bacon, ob. 1626, xt. 66. 1602.—-Byron’s confpiracy detected and punifhed.—Deci- mal arithmetic invented at Bruges.—Father Paul Sarpi, ob. 1623, wt. 71. 3603.—Manufactures of cryftal eftablifhed in France.—A league between France and England.— Queen Elizabeth dies, March 24th, xt. 70.—The crowns of England and Scotland united.—Gruterus, ob. 1627, et. 67. 3604.—Oftend taken after a fiege of three years, Sept 10.— A new tranflation of the Bible ordered, — Peace concluded between England and Spain. A dif- pute between the pope and the Venetians concern- ing the privileges of the clergy.—'The French eftablifhed a colony in Canada.x—A bright new ftar difcovered near the right foot of Serpentarius, in September,-by Kepler ; which difappeared in the {pace of a year.—Malherbe, ob. 1628, xt. 76. 1605.—The gun-powder plot, Nov. 5th.—Marini, ob. 1625, et. 50. § A.D. 1606.—A truce of ‘twenty years between the empire and the Ottoman Porte,—Papirius Maffo, ob, 1611. 1607.—A comet appeared—its perthelion, O&. 16th, 3° 50! P. M.—alcending node § 20° 21/—inclin, 17° 2/ —retrograde.—Hudfon’s bay difcovered.—Boc- calini, - : 1608.—Colonies fent from England to Virginia.—The cold and froft extreme in the winter,—Galileo, eb. 1642, xt. 75. 1609.—A truce between the Spaniards and Dutch.—-The independence of the United Provinces acknow- ledged, March 30, O. S.—Helvicus, ob. 16175 zt. 36. 1610.—The Perfians defeat the Turks near Pabylon.— War'between Ruffia and Poland.— Thermometers invented by Drebbel, a Dutchman, —- y¢d,0co Moors banifhed out of Spain.—Galileo firlt obferved three of Jupiter’s fatellites, Jan. 7. —Lorgomontanus obferved Saturn in eppofition to the fun, Aug. 12th, 12" o’P. M.—Andrew du Chefne, ob. 1640. 1611.—War between Denmark and Sweden.—The order of Baronets inftituted in England, May 22.—— An earthquake at Conftantinoplee—200,000 per- fons died there of the plague.— Peace concluded between the Turks and the Perfians.x—Lopez de Vega, ob. 1635, xt. 72. 1612,—A lucid fpot in Andromeda’s girdle firt obferved by Simon Marius.~-The Roffians defeat the Poles in Mufcovy.—The Englifh unfuccefsfully attempt to difcover a northern paflage to China. —The French make a fettlement in the ifland of Margna.— Ben Jonfon, ob. 1638. 16143.—Peace concluded between Denmark and Sweden. —John Kepler, ob. 1630. * 1614.—Logarithms invented by. Baron Napier of Scotland, ob. 1617, et.67.—A Britifh colony eftablifhed in Virginia. 1615.—Peace between the Turks and the Imperialifts.— The Jews ordered to leave France.—John Barclay, ob. 1621, xt. 38. ; 1616.—A civil war in France.—The fettlement of Virginia by Sir Walter Raleigh.—King James reflores Flufhing, the Brille, &c. to the Dutch.—Cape Horn firft failed round.—Sir Robert Cotton, ob. 1631, xt. 61. 1617.—Peace concluded between Sweden and Rufia.— Peace between the Venetians and the houfe of Auftria—Dominiquino, ob. 1641, zt. 60. 1618.—Peace concluded between Poland and Ruflia.— A comet appeared—its perihelion, OGober 3oth, 11" 37”, A.M.—afcending node m 16° 1’— inclin. 37°34'—direét.— An horrible confpiracyfat Venice dete&ted.—The battle of Ardeville be- tween the Turks and Perfiansx—The Synod of Dort begins November 1, and continues till April 26, 1619.—FTabri de Peirefc, ob. 1637, zt. 1619.—The circulation of the blood difccvered by Harvey, ob. 1657, xt. 80.—A war of thirty years com- mences in Germany, Aug. 26. 1620.—The Englifh make a fettlement at Madras. - Copper money firft ufed in England.—-The ifland of Barbadoes difcovered by Sir William Courteen. — The Bohemians defeated by the Imperialifts at Prague, Oétober 30, O.S. by which the Eleétor Palatine loft his eleCtorate——Navarre united to France. CHRONOLOGY. B.D; France.—Coining with a die firft ufed in England.— Guido Rheni, ob. 1642, et. 67. 1621.—War between Spain and Holland renewed after a truce of 12 years.—A civil war in France with the Huguenots, lafts 9 years—War between Poland and the Ottoman Porte.—The Dutch efablith the f{it- tl ment of Batavia.—The two parties of Whigs and Tories furmed in England.—Gafpar Barthius, ob. 1648, wt. 71. 1622. —The Imperialifts reduce the Palatinate. Heidelberg taken by the Emperor, and the famous library fent to Rome, Sept. 16.—Peter Paul Rubens, ob. 1640, zt. 63. 1623.—The Knights of Nova Scotia infituted. —'The Eng- lifh fa&tory maffacred by the Dutch at Amboyna.—Sir Hetiry Spelman, ob. 1641. 1624.—The Dutch defeat the Spanifh fleet near Lima.— The Turks befiege Bagdad, a: dare repulfed.—Cardinal Bentivoglio, ob. 1644, xt. 65. 1625.—A plague in Ergland.— King James dies at Theo- bald’s, Mareh 27, wt. 59.—Difcord between Charles J. and the Houle of Commons.—The firft Englith fet- tlement in the Weft Indies. The Spaniards took Breda in the Low Countries.—Peace between Ferdi- nand of Hungary and tke Sultan.—John Meurfius, ob. 1639, et. 60. 1626.—Peace between the Huguenots and the king of France, Feb. 5, N. S.—War renewed the following year.—A league cf the Proteftant princes againtt the emperor.—Gerard John Voffius, ob. 1650, xt. 73. 1627.—War between England and France..— Ericius Pute- anus, ob. 1646, xt. 72. : 1628.—The Turks invade Perfiaa—The duke of Bucking- ham murdered, Aug. 23.—Rochelle taken by Lewis XIII., O&. 18, O.S.—Quevedo, ob. 1647. 1629.—Charles I. diffolves the Englifh parliament, March 10; 9 members imprifoned, March 4, for their f{peeches.—Peace between Germany and Denmark.— The ediét of pacification at Nimes, July 4, O.S.—A truce between Sweden and Poland, for 6 years, Sept. 5, O.S.—Guttavus Adolphus enters Germany.—Peace between France and England.—Bahama ifles difco- vered.—Inigo Jones, ob. 1651. 1630.—Gazettes firit publithed in Venice.—The treaty of Stockholm, between England and Sweden, May 31. —War between Spain and Germany.—The Turks invade Poland.—Grotius, ob. 1645, xt. 62. 1631.—A treaty between France and Sweden, Jan. 12, O.S.—Gafiendi firft obferved the tranfit of Mercury over the fun’s difk, Nov. 17, 9* 57’ A.M.—The bat- tle of Leipfic, Aug. 28, O.S. in which the Swedes defeat the Imperialilts—Archbifhop Uther, ob. 1655, St. 75+ 1632.—War between the Danes and Swedes, and between the Swedes and the Imperialifts, who are defeated’by the former at Lutzen, Nov. 6, O.S. where Guiftavus Adolphus is killed.—A great eruption of Vefuvius.— Antigua fettled by the Englifh.—Gab. Naudé, ob. 1653. 1633.—Galileo condemned by the inquifition at Rome.— Louifiana difcovered by the French.—Anthony Van- dyck, ob. 1641, et. 42. 1634.—War between Pruffia and Poland. —The Swedes de- feated at the battle of Nortlingen, Nov. 26, O.S. by the king of Hungary.—John Selden, ob. 1654, zt. 70. 1635.—The French academy eftablifhed at Pari.—A long 2 A.D. and bloody war begins between France and Spain ~ A treaty between France and Holiand, Feb. $.—Re- gular pofts eftablifhed in Great Britain.—Gaflendi, ob. 1655, xt. 66. 1636.—A treaty between Lewis XIIT., andthe queen of Sweden, March“10. O.S.—A truce of 26 years be- tween Poland and Sweden.—The Swedes deiezt the Imperialifts at Wiftock, O&. 4, O.S.—Cuffini ob- ferved the tranfit of Mercury over the fun’s dif at Thury, Nov. 11, 10° 43’ A.M.—Dcleartes, ob. 1650, zt. 54. 1637.—The Scots withdraw their allegiance from Charles I, —The polemofcope invented by Hevelius.—A bloody war commences between the Poles and the Coffacs in the Ukraine. —A league between Spain and Denmark againft Sweden.—An infurrection of the Proteftanta in Hungary —The prince of Orange takes Breda, Sep. 26, O.S —Hampden condemned and fentenced to pay a tax, impofed by Charles 1.—Yamianus Strada, ob. 1649. 1638.—The Turks take Bagdad, Jan. 6.—T wo battles of Rheiufeld, Feb. 18 and 21, O.S.—The folemn league and covenant in Scotland, againit epifcopacy.—Peta- vius, ob. 1652, xt. 69. 1639.—The Imperialifts defeat the French at Thionville, May 27, O.S.— Horrox obferved a tranfit of Venus over the fun’s difk, at Liverpool, Nov. 24, O.S. 3" 157 P.M.—Voiture, ob. 1645. 1640.—The Scots invade England, Avg. 10, O.S.—A conference between the Englifh and Scots commif- fioners at Rippon, OG. 2.—The duke of Braganza re- covers the independence of Portugal.—The long par- liament in England met, Nov. 5—Balzac, ob. 1654. 1641.—The earl of Strafford beheaded, May 12.—Tha maflacre of the Proteftants in Ireland, O&. 23.—Chil- lingworth, ob. 1644, zt. 42. 1642%.——Peace between the Imperialifts and the Turks.— The Swedes defeat the Imperialilts at Leipfic, O&. 3, O.S.—King Charles demands the five members, and the civil war begins. His army defeated at Edge- hill, O&. 23.—-The Imperialifts defeat the French at Tutelingen, Nov. r5, O.S.—Tafman makes difcoveries in the Pacific ocean—Salmafius, ob. 1653- 1643.—Briftol furrenders to prince Rupert, July 26.—The fiege of Gloucefter raifed Sept. 5.—The firft battle of Newbury, Sept. 20, in which the army of Charles I. is defeated.—The TFartars invade China, and in the following year effe€t a revolution.—The royal acade- my of painting founded by Lewis XIV.—Barometers invented by Torricelli—The prince of Condé defeats the Spaniards at Rocroy, May 9, O.S.—Waller’s plot in England dete@ed, May 31.—Nicholas Pouffin, ob. 1656, zt. 62. 1644.—A revolution in China.—The Swedes defeat the Imperialits in Bohemia, Feb. 25, O.S.—Cromwell defeats the army of Charles I. at Marftonmoor, July 2.—Earl of Effex’s army furrenders in Cornwall, Sept. 2.—The fecond battle of Newbury, O@. 27. —Gravelines taken by the duke of Orleans, July 18, N.S.—Riccioli obferved Saturn in oppolition to the fun, at Bologna, O&. 10, 7°'12/ A:M.—Mothe le Vayer, ob. 1671. , 1645.— War between the Turks and the Venetians.— Charles I. totally defeated at Nafeby, June 14.—Peace between Denmark and Sweden, ‘Aug. 3, O.S.—The firlt code of Ruffian laws publifhed.—-Turenne takes Treves. a CHRONOLOGY, A.D, Treves——Duke de 68. Rochefoucault, ob. 1680, zt. 1646.—The Turks defeat the Venetians near Retimo, O&, 9. O.S.—Paul Scarron, ob. 1660. 1647.—Charles I. delivered up by the Scots to the Englith commiffioners, Jan. 30.—Two revolts in Naples.— Henry Hammond, ob. 1660, zt. 55. 1648.—The peace ot Munfter between Spain and Holland, Jan. 20, O.S.—The Seven United Provinces declared a free and independent ftate.-—The Imperialilts de- feated at Augfburg by Turenne, April 7, O.S.—The prince of Condé defeats the archduke at Lens, Aug. 10, O.S.—The peace of Muntter between France and the emperor, Oét. 14, O.S.—The peace of Ofnaburgh between Sweden and the empcror.—Fabricius obferved a vew ftar in the tail of the Whale.x—Thomas Hobbes, ob. 1679, xt. gI. 1649.—King Charles I. beheaded Jan. 30. xt. 49.—Regal government, and the houfe of Peers, abolifhed in Eng- land, March 17.—A civil war in Paris, which is blocked up by the prince of Condé.—A league between Den- mark and the United Provinces.—Galileo firft applied the pendulum to clocks.—Samuel Bochart, ob. 1667. 1650.—The battle of Dunbar, Sept. 3, in which Crom- well defeats the Scots.—Mezeray, ob. 1653, xt. 73. 1651.—The battle of Worcefter, Sept. 3, in which Crom- well defeats Charles I1.—The Qk appear in Eng- Jand.—The Venetians defeat the Turkifh fleet near Scio, June 13, O. S.—The Poles defeat 300,0co Tartars, June 20.—Dr. John Wallis, ob. 1703, xt. 87.—Ar- chibald, marquis of Argyle, ob. 1661, et. 63. 1652.—The war between the Englifh and Dutch begins May 19.—Sea-fight between the Englifh and Dutch fleets, near Plymouth, Aug. 16.—Van Tromp de- feats the Englifh fleet in the Downs, Nov. 29.—A comet appearcd—its perihelion Nov. 3, 3" 40’ A. M. —afcending node m 28° 20’—inclin, 78° 28’/—direct. —A colony eftablifhed by the Dutch at the Cape of Good Hope.—J. Fred. Gronovius, ob. 1671, xt. 58. Chancellor Seguier, ob. 1672, xt. 84. 1653.—An engagement between the Englifh and Dutch fleet, on the coaft of France, Feb. 18.—Cromwell d:f- folves the Englifh parliament, April 20.—The Englith defeat the Dutch fleet on the coalt of landers, June 3—and again near the Texel, July 29.—Cromwell pro- claimed proteétor of England, Dec. 16—ob. 1653, at. 60.—Blaife Pafcal, ob. 1662, xt. 39. 1654.—Peace between England and Holland figned, April 5.—The air-pump invented by Otto Guericke of Magdeburg.—John Milton, ob. 1674, xt. 66.—Ad- miral Blake, ob. 1657, xt. 59. 1655.—The Englifh, under admiral Penn, take poffeffion of Jamaica, May 7.—Biake attacks Tunis, and deftroys the Spanith galleons in the bay of Santa Cruz.—The Venetians defeat the Turkifh fleet at the Dardanelles, June t1, O. S.—Huygens firft difcovers a fatellite of Saturn, March 25.—Peace between England and France, O&. 25.—War between Sweden and Poland. —-Thomas Bartholin, ob. 1680, xt. 64. 1656.—A treaty between the king of Sweden and the elecs tor of Brandenburg, Jan. 11, O.S.—War declared by England againft Spain, Feb. 56.—The Swedes defeat the Poles in three battles, at Warfaw, July 18, 19, and 20, O. S,—Edmund Waller, ob. 1687, xt. 82.—Henry vifcount de Turenne, and marfhal, ob. 1675, et. 64.. 3657.—War between Sweden and Denmark,—a treaty A.D. between the king of Poland and the eleftor of Bran- denbure, Sept. 9, O. S.—Peter Corneille, ob. 1684, ten 75: 1658.—Hevelius obferved Saturn in oppofition to the fun, at Dantzick, April 4, 5" 13’ A. M.—Turenne, after having defeated the Spaniards, takes: Dunkirk, June 17, and the city is delivered to the Englith,—J. Bap- tilta Poqnelin Moliere, ob. 1672.— Admiral de Ruyter, ob. 1676, zt. 60. 1659.—Peace between France and Spain, called “ the peace of the Pyrenées,”? Oét. 28, O.S.—Du Cange, ob. 1688, rt. 58. 1660.—Peacé between Sweden and Denmark, at Copen- hagen, March 17, O. S.—The reftoration of Charles II., May 29.—he peace of Oliva, between Sweden, Poland, and the Empire, May 3.—The king of Den. mark declared abfolute, and the throne hereditary, O&. 13, O. S.—Algernon Sidney, ob. 1653, zt. C6.—Ge- neral Monk, duke of Albemarle, ob. 1670, xt. 62. 1661.—A treaty between the Dutch and Pertuguefe.—A treaty of commerce between Great Britain and Swe- den, at Whitehall, Oct. 21.—Bombay yiclded to the Englith by Portugal.—Hevelius obferved the obliqui- ty of the ecliptic to be 23° 29’ 7”. —A comet appeared —its perihelion Jan. 17, 11° 19 A. M.—afcending node I 22° 30’ 30”—inclin. 32° 35! 50”—direct.— Franking letters began; abridged in 1764 and 1775.— Sir John Marfham, ob. 1685, et. 83. 1662.—Dunkirk reftored to the French —The Royal So- ciety eftablifhed, July 15.—Samuel Butler, ob. 1680, et. 68. 1663.—The Royal Academy of Infcriptions and Belles-let- tres, eftablifhed at Paris. —'The Portuzuefe defeated the Spaniards near Evora.—Thne Turks took New- hafel, in Hungary, Sept. 17, O.S.—Proffia declared to be independent on Poland.— Charles le Brun, ob. IGgo, xt. 71. 1664.—War between the Englifh and Dutch.— A treaty between the French king and the pope at Pila, Feb. 2, O.S.—The French defeat the Turks in Hungary, July 22.—The obfervatory at Paris founded.—The treaty of Temefwar, Sept. 7.—The battle of St. Godart, July 22.—The academy for feulpture efla- blifhed in France, Aug. 31.—A comet appeared—its perihelion, Nov. 24, 11° 52/ P.M.—afcending node a, 21°14’ =inclin. 21° 13° 30”—retrograde.— Englifh clergy religned the power of taxing themfelves in their convocation.— Lewis Maimbourg, ob. 1686, xt. 77. 1065,.—War between Trance and England-—A comet ap- peared~its perihelion April 12, 5° 15’ P.M.—af- cending node ni 18° 2’—inclin. 76° 5’—retrograde.—- The Englith defeated the Dutch ficet near Harwich, June 3.—The plague raged in London, ~The magic lanthorn invented by Kircher.—The Portuguefe defeat- ed the Spaniards at Villa Viciofa, June 7, O.S.—Ralph Cudworth, ob. 1688. «xt. 71. 1666.—An engagemert between the Englifh and Dutch fleets near Dunkirk, June 1, 4.—The Englifh defeat the Dutch fleet near the Thames, July 25 and 26.— A fire broke ont in London, Scpt. 2, which extended to 6co ftreets, confumed 13,200 houkcs, &c. &.— A fettlement in Antigua by the Englifh.—War de- clared between England and Denmark.—The Aca- demy of Sciences eftablifhed in France.—Giies Me- nage, ob. 1692, xt. 79. 1667.~—A treaty of commerce between Great Britain and Spain, CHRONOLOGY. A.D. ‘ Spain, May 23.—The peace of Breda, July 31, be- tween Great Britain and France. and alfo with Hol- land.—War renewed between France and Spain.— Charles de St. Evremond, ob. 1703, zt. go. 1663.—A commercial treaty between Great Britain and Holland, at the Hague, Feb. 17.—The triple alliance of Great Britain, Sweden, and the States General, againft France, Jan. 23.—Peace between Spain and Portugal, after 26 years of war, Feb. 3, O.S.—The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, between France and Spain, April 22, O.S.—Benedi& de Spinofa, ob. 1678, wet. 44. 1669.—The ifle of Candia taken by the Turks, Sept. 6, O.S.—The commercial treaty of Florence, between Great Britain and Savoy, Sept. 19.—Huygens, ob. 1695, xt. 66. 1670.—The commercial treaty of Copenhagen, between Great Britain and Denmark, July 11.—The peace of Madrid, between Great Britain and Spain, July 18.— Peace between the duke of Savoy and the republic of Venice.—Mengoli obferved the obliquity of the ecliptic to be 23° 28’ 24”.—Hevelius difeovered a new ftar, July 15, which foon-difappeared, and was again vifible in 1672.—Hevelius obferved Saturn in oppofition to the fun, at Dantzick, Sept. 8, 8" 56’ P. M.—Sir Chrittopher Wren, ob. 1723, zt. gt. £671.—Caflini difcovered four of Saturn’s fatellites in the courle of a few years—Tfaac Barrow, ob. 1677, 2t. 47: 1672.—A comet appeared—its perihelion Feb. 20, 8" 37’ P. M.—alcending node V3 27° 30! 30”—inclin. 83° 22' 10”—dire&. — Richer obferved the obliquity of the ecliptic to be 23° 28’ 54”.—The vernal equinox was obferved at Paris, March 19, 7° 41’—-War declared by France againft Holland, April 6.—England de- clared war againft Holland, March 17.—War between the Turks and Poles.—A treaty between the Empire and Holland againit France, July 15, O. S.—A bloody engagement between the Englifh and Dutch fleets, in Solebay, May 28—Louis XIV. overruns great part of Holland, after having taken Utrecht, June 10.—The prince of Orange is made Stadtholder, and J. de Wit put to death, Aug. 12.—Sir W. Tem- ple, ob. 17c¢. zt. 72. 1673.—The Englifh and French defeat the Dutch fleet. May 28, June 14, and Aug. 11.—The king of France ceclares war againit Spain, O&. 9, O. S.—The Poles defeat the Turks, near Choczim, O&. 31.—René Rapin, ob. 1687, zt. 66. 1674.—A treaty between Great Britain, Holland, and Spain, at Weftminfter, Feb. 19.—Sicily revolted from Spam.—A battle between the prince of Condé and the prince of Orange, at Leneff in Flanders, Aug. 1, O. S.—The firit eftablifhment of the French in the Katt Indies.—The Academy of Soiflons eftablified.— Turenne defeats the Imperialills at Entheim, Sept. 24, O. S.—Turenne defeats the Imperialiits at Mulhaufen, Dec. 19, O. S—Turenne defeats the Imperialifts at Torkeim, Dec. 27, O. S.—A treaty between Great Britain and Holland, at London, Dec. 11.—Dr. Thomas Sydenham, ob. 1689, zt. 66. 1675.—A conference for a peace at Nimeguen.—War be- tween Sweden and Denmark.—Turenne pafied the Rhine, and oppofed by Monteculi.—The Pruffians defeat the Swedes at Fehrbellin, June 8, O. S—The battle of Altenheim, July 22, O. S.—A treaty between A.D. z Great Britain and Holland, at the Hague, Dec. 39. —Robert Boyle, ob. 1691, zt. 65. 1676.—Carolina planted by Englifh merchants.—The king of France declares war againft Denmark, Aug. 28. —The French defeat the ficet of the allies at Palermo, May 23, O. S.—The Royal Obfervatory at Greenwich built-—Samuel Puffendorf, ob. 1694, zt. 63. 1677.—The commercial treaty of St. Germain, between Great Britain and France, Feb. 24th.—The French defeat the prince of Orange near Caffel, April 1, O. S.—The Proteftants revolt in Hungary.—A comet appeared—its perihelion, April 26, 0° 37’ P. M.—af- cending node Nl] 26° 49! 10”—inclin. 79” 3/ 15"—retro- grade—M. de Navailles defeats the Spaniards feveral times.—The micrometer was invented by Kirch.—The Swedes defeat the Danes at Landfcroon, Dec. 4,. O.S.—Carlo Maratti, ob. 1713, et. 88. 1678.—A_ ftrange darknefs at noon-day, Jan. 12.—The defenfive alliance of Weftminfter, between Great Britain and Holland, March 3.—The peace of Nimeguen, between France and Holland, July 31, O. S.—Peace between France and Spain, Sept. 17.—The Tartars attack the Ruffians.— A comet appcared—its perihe- lion, Aug. 17, 2° 3’ A. M.—afceuding node ng 11° 40’—inclin. 3° 4/ 20”—dire&t.—The popifh plot dif- covered by Oaks, Sept. 6.—Daniel George Morhoff, ob. 1691, 2t. 53. 1679.—The long parliament of England diffolved, Jan 25. —The peace of Nimeguen, between France and Ger- many, figned Jan. 26, O.S.—The bill of exclufion firft read in parliament, May 15.— Peace between Sweden and Denmark, after a war of four years, Aug. 23, O.S. —The meal-tub plot in England, O&. 23.—An engagement between the Englifh and Moors, which latted eleven days, at Tangier, Nov. 7.—John de la Bruyere, ob. 1696, zt. 57. 1680.—The firft eftablifhment of the French in the Eaft Indies.— The anatomy of plants made known by Grew.—Charles XI. declared abfolute by the ftates of Sweden.—A comet appeared—its perihelion, Dec. 8, o° 6! P.M.—afcending node YF 2° 2'—inclin. 60° 56° —dire@.—Lord Strafford beheaded for high treafon.— John de la Fontaine, ob. 1695, xt. 74. 16S81.—Contefts between the king of England and parlia- ment. -Penny poft in London began —eftablifhed by go- vernment in 1711—poltage advanced to 2d. in 1801.— Sir George Mackenzie, ob. 1691, £t. 53.— James, duke of Monmouth, ob. 1683, zt. 36. 1682.—The Royal Academy of Nifmes eflablifhed.—A co- met appeared—its perihelion Sept. 4, 7" 39’ P.M.— afcending node ¥ 21° 16' 30”—1nclin. 17° 56’—retro- grade.—The autumnal equinox obferved at Paris, Sept. 22, 6" 34’—Bouhours, ob. 1702, xt. 74.— Marfhal Schomberg, ob. 1690. 1683.—The Rye houfe Plot difeovered, June 14—A comet appeared—its perihelion, July 3, 2° 50’ P)- M.—af- cending node Ny 23° 23’—inclin. 83° 11’—retrograde. —Vienna. befieged by the Turks.—Lord Rufel be- headed, July 21ft.—John Dryden, ob. 1701, 2t. 70. 1684.—A truce between France and Spain.—A league be- tween Venice and Poland againit the Turks.—The duke of Lorraine defeated 150,000 Turks at Weitzen, June 17, O. S.—Flamitead obferved Saturn in eppofi- tion to the fun, at Greenwich, Feb. 19, 5° 10° A. M. —A comet appeared-—its perihelion, May 29, 10° 16” P. M.—afcending node f 28°15 5'—inelin. 65° 48’ 40” -_ ect. CHRONOLOGY. J A.D. —dire&.—Racine, ob. 1699, et. 60.—George Savill, marquis of Hallifax, ob. 1695, et. 62. 1684.—The edit of Nantes revoked O@. 12, O.S.—In- furrections in England and Scotland.—Duke of Mon- mouth defeated in the battle of Sedgemore, July 6. —Charles II. dies, Feb. 6, zt. 55.—Marfhal de Vau- ban, ob. 1707, et. 74.—N. Boileau Defpreaux, ob. Wald, ste 45° 1686.—The Newtonian philofophy publifhed—An embafly from the king of Siam to Lewis XIV.—The grand alliance of Germany, Great Britain, and Holland, againit France, at Vienna, May 12.—A convention of Great Britain and Holland againft France, at London, Aug. 22.—The league of Augfburg againft France, July rt, O. S.—A_ comet appeared—its perihelion, Sept. 7, 2" 33’ A. M.—afcending node % 20° 34’ 40"”—inelin. 31° 21° 40"—dire&t.— Humphrey Pri- deanx, ob.1724, xt. 77. 1687.—The kingdom of Hungary declared to be hereditary in the houfe of Auttria.—John George Grevius, ob. 1703. 1688.—Smyrna deftroyed by an earthquake, July 10.—The revolution in England begins, Nov. 5.—France de- clares war againft Holland, Nov. 23,.0. S.—King James abdicates, and retires to France, Dec. 23.—A revolution in Siam.—P. Bayle, ob. 1706, et. 59. 1659.— King William and queen Mary proclaimed, Feb. 16. — James II. landed in Ireland with an army.—The emperor declares war againft France.—Trance declares war againft Spain and againft England.—The French fleet defeated at Bantry-bay, May 1.—The grand alli- ance between the emperor, king William, and the States-general, concluded at Vienna, May 12.—King William defeated at Killickrankie, July 27.—Epifco- pacy abolifhed in Scotland, July 22.—Falkland iflands difcovered.—A treaty between Roffia and China.— Louis XIV. declares war againft Holland.—A con- junction of Venus with the fun obferved at Paris, June 26, 8° 14° A. M.—The Imperialifts defeat the Turks, near Patochin, Aug. 30, and Sept. 24.—John Locke, ob. 1704, xt. 70. 1690. —Peace between the ezar of Mofcovy and the emperor of China.—The French defeat the Englifh and Dutch ficets off Beachy-head, June 30, O. S.—The French defeat the allies at Fleurus, June 21.—King William defeats James II. at the Boyne, July 1, O. S.—Ed- ward Stillingfleet, bifhop of Worcelter, ob. 1699, zt. 64. 1691.—The congrefs at the Hague, Jan.— Mons taken by the French, March 30, O. S.—The battle of Aghrim in Ireland, July 12. — Limerick furrenders O&. 3, which finifhes the war in lreland.—The Turks defeated by the Imperialifts, Aug. 9, O.S.—A treaty of union between Sweden and Denmark.—12,000 Irith catho- lics tranfported to France.—Flamftead obferved the obliquity of the ecliptic to be 23° 25’ 32”.—Archbifhop Tillotfon, ob. 1694, 2t. 65. 3692.—The fea-fight off la Hogue, May 19, in which the Englith defeat the French fleet.—The French befiege Namur, and take it, May 25.—The maflacre of Glen- coe, in Scotland, Jan. 31.—Luxembourg defeats the Englith at Steinkirk, July 24.—The duchy of Hanover made the gth eleétorate of the empire.—Earthquakes in England and in Jamaica, Sept. 8.—Guilbert Burnet, bifhop of Salifbury, ob. 1715, et. 72. 3693.—The French defeat the Englifhand the Dutch fleets Vou. VII. ASD; off cape Vincent, June 16.—The order of St. Lewis inftituted in TFrance.—Luxembourg defeats the allies at Landen, July 19.—The battle of Marfiglia, Sept. 24.—Bofluet, bifhop of Meaux, ob. 1704, et. 78. 1694.—The bank of England incorporated.—Meffina de- ftroyed by an earthquake. — Huy taken, Sept. 18 —The Poles defeat the Turks at Niefter, Sept. 26.—Queen Mary dies, Dec. 28, et. 33.—Sen. Vine. de Filicaia, ep: 1707, xt. 65.—Mad. de Maintenon, ob. 1719, xt. re 1695.—Vyar between the allies and the Ottoman Porte. The allies take Namur, July 25.—Cafal taken by the duke of Savoy, May.—The vote for a new coinage, Dec. 10.—Nicholas Malebranche, ob. 1715. 1696.—The Affaffination plot difcovered, July 14.—Peter I. czar of Mufcovy, takes Azoph, July 19.—Caffini, ob. 17.12, zt, 87. 1697.—Carthagena taken by the French, May 26.—The Imperialifts defeat the Turks in the battle of Zentha, Sept. 1.—The peace of Ryfwick, Sept. 11, between Great Britain and France—France and Holland— France and Spain.—O@. 20, between France and the empire.—Henry Dodwell, ob. 1711, ct. 70. 1698.—The firlt treaty of partition figned Aug. 19, between France, Great Britain, and Holland.—A comet ap- peared—its perihelion, O&. a, 4" 57’ A. M.—atcend- ing node # 27° 44! 15”—inclin. 11° 46'—retrograde- —James Gronovius, ob. 1716, xt. 71.—Penfionary Heinfius, ob. 1720, wt. 79. 1699-—The peace of Carlowitz, Jan. 16, between Poland, Venice, and the Ottoman Porte.—A comet appeared —its peribelion, Jan. 3, 8" 22’ P. M.—afcending node wy 21" 45’ 35/'—inclin. 69” 20'—retrograde.— The Scots attempt an eftablifhment on the coaft of Darien. —A league between Denmark, Poland, and Ruffia. againft Sweden. —The Dutch guards fent to Holland. —Dr. W. Lloyd, bifhop of Worcelter, ob. 1717, xt. oO. 1700.—The Dutch, and the Proteftants in Germany intro- duce the new ityle, omitting the laft eleven days of February.—The Spanifh monarchy transferred to the houfe of Bourbon.— The fecond treaty of partition, figned at Landen, March 3, and at the Hague, March 25.—A\ fevere bill againft the Papifts in England.—A conjunction of Venus with the fun, ebferved at Paris, Sept. 2, 11° 204P. M.—A treaty between Denmark, Sweden, and Holftein, Aug.—The Swedes defeat the Ruffians, at Narva, Nov. 20.—Mad. Dacier, ob. 1720; xt. 69. The Ercuteentu Century of the Vulgar Chriftian Eva. 1701.—The firft king of Pruffia crowned, Jan. 7.—An academy of fciences founded at Berlin.—An alliance between Germany, England, and Holland, againft France, at the Hague, Sept. 7.—A league between France, Spain, and Portugal, againft the allies —Sir Ifaac Newton, ob. 1727, zt. 85. 1702.—A comet appeared—its perihelion March 3, 2" 12! A. M.—afcending node + 9° 25’ 15”—inclin. 4° 30° —dire&.—War declared in England, Germany, and Holland, againft France, May 4.—The French defeat the Imperialifts at Luzara, Aug. 4.—Landau furren- dered to the Imperialifts, Aug. g0.—Venloo furren- dered to the allies, Sept. 25.—The Englifh and Dutch deftroy the French fleet, &c. in the port of Vigo, O&. 12,—The French fend colonies to the sm ty 5 — CHRON OLOGY, ALD: —An engagement between the Englifh and French fleets in the Welt Indies, Aug. 19.—King William dies March 8, wt. 52.—Prince Eugene of Savoy, ob. 1736, et. 73.—Fenelon, bishop of Cambray, ob. 1715, et.-64. 1403.—Portugal cedes to the Jeague againft France and Spain, May 5.—Bianchini obferved the obliquity of the ecliptic to be 23° 28’ 25”.—The foundation of Peterfburg laid.—A dreadful tempeft in England, Nov. 27.—Godfrey Willian Leibnitz, ob. 1716, xt. 70. 1704.-—Marlborough defeats the Bavarians at Schellenburg, July 2.—Gibreltar taken by admiral Rooke, July 24. —The battle of Hochitet or Blenheim, Aug. 2, in which the allies defeat the French.—Narva taken by the czar of Mufcovy, Aug. 1o.—The fea-fight off Malaga, Aug. 13, in which the Englifh defeat the French fleet.—Flamftead obferved Saturn in oppofition to the fun, at Greenwich, O&. 25, 12" 0’ P. M— Landau taken by the allies, Nov 23.—Huet, bifhop of Avranche, ob. 1721, et. Q1.—John, duke of Marl- borough, ob. 1722, xt. 73. 1705.—The Englith defeat the Spanifh fleet off Gibraltar, March 21.—Mar‘borough forced the French lines in Brabant, July 18.—Prince Eugene defeated at Caffano by the duke of Vendome, Aug. 5.—The Englifh re- duce Barcelona, Aug. 22.—Sir Godfrey Kneller, ob. 1723, ete77, 1706.—Marlborough defeats the French at Ramillies, May 12, and afterwards takes Bruffels, Lonvain, Bruges, Ghent, Oltend, Menin, &c.—The allies become matters of Carthagena. June 13.—The articles of Union be- tween England and Scotland figned, July 20.—Prince Eugene defeats the French at Turin, Aug. 27.— Peace between Sweden and Poland, Sept. 13.—A comet appeared—its perihelion Jan. 19, 4" 56’ P. M. —afcending node ny 16° 22’—inclin. 18° 20! 45”— direc&t.—John Flamitead, ob. 1723, xt. 77- 1707.—The articles of Union ratified by the Scottifh par- hiament, Jan. 16.—The allies defeated by the French at Almanza, April 14.—A treaty between the emperor and the king of Sweden in A pril.—The emperor feizes the kingdom of Naples.—The king of Pruffia declared fovereign of Neufchatel, Nov. 3.—A confpiracy in Geneva.—A comet appeared—its perihelion Dec. 1, 11° 43’ A. M.—afcending node § 22° 50’ 29”—inclin. 88° 37’ 40”—direct.— Andrew Dacier, ob. 1722, xt. I. io8 aktdeborugh and Eugene defeat the French at Oudenarde, June 30.—The Mufcovites defeated by the king of Sweden at Holowazen in July.—The allies become matters of Sardinia, Aug. 4.—Minorca taken by general Stanhope, Sept. 18.—Lifle furrendered to the allies, O&. 12.—Ghent taken by Marlborough, Dec. 30.—Jo. Vincent Gravina, ob. 1718, zt. 50. 1706.—The Ruffians defeat the Swedes at Pultowa, June 27.—The allies take Tournay, July 30.—The allies defeat the French at Malplaquet, Aug. 31.—The allies take Mons, O&. 21.—Dr. R. Bentley, ob. 1742, zt. 80.— Marfhal Villars, ob. 1734, zt. 82. 4710.—Sacheverel fentenced by the parliament of England, March 23.—Douay taken by Marlborough and Eu- gene, June 15.—The Spaniards defeated by the allies at Almenara, fuly 27; again at Saragofla, Aug. 9.— The Academy of Lyons eftablifhed.—The Englih defeated by the duke de Vendome at Brihwega, Dec. 6, when general Stanhope was taken prifoner.—The A.D; battle at Villa Viciofa, Dec. 10,—The Spaniards were defeated by Staremberg.—Dr. Hare, bifhop of Chi- chefter, ob. 1740, xt. 70.—R. Harley, earl of Oxford, ob. 1724, zt. 63. 1711.—Gironne taken by the duke de Noailles, Jan. 23.— War declared by Peter, emperor of Ruffia, again{t the Turks, March 8; a battle of 3 days between the Turks and Ruffians.—Bouchain taken by Marlbo- rough, Sept. 13.—Jofeph Addifon, ob. 1719, xt. 48. —Henry St. John, lord Bolingbroke, ob. 1751, xt. 73. 1712.—The Englifh defeated by Vilars at Denain, July 13, wio takes Douay, Sept. 8.—Negotiations for a general peace began at Utrecht.—Sir R. Steele, ob. 1729, 1713.—A treaty of peace and commerce between Great Britain and Holland, at Utrecht, Jan. 29.—Peace between Ruffia and the Ottoman Porte.—A treaty between Great Britain and Spain, at Madrid, March 26.—Peace between Great Britain and France, ac Utrecht, April 11; between France and the duke of Savoy, April 11; between France and Portugal, April 11; between France and Pruffia, April 11; between France and the States-General, April 12; be- tween Great Britain and Spain, July 13; and treaty of commerce between them, Dec. 9.—Matthew Prior, Ob: U721 ety 67 - 1714.—The bull Unigenitus received in France.—The oppofition of Saturn to the fun obf-rved at Paris, Feb. 26, 8" 15’ P.M.—The treaty of Raftadt be- tween France and Germany, March 6.—The interett of money fixed in England at 5 per cent.—The king of Spain takes Barcelona, and Cordova.—The treaty of Baden between France, Germany, and Spain, Sept. 7.—War declared by the Turks againfk Venice, Dec. 7.—The acceffion of George, eleGtor of Hanover, to the kingdom of Great Britain, Aug. 1, when queen Anne dies, zt. 50.—Francis Atterbury, bifhop of Rochelter, banifhed 1723, ob. 1732, 2t. 7o. 1745-—A conjunction of Venus with the fun obferved at Paris, Jan. 26, 8° 19’ P.M.—Louville obferved the _ obliquity of the ecliptic to be 23° 28’ 24”.—The treaty of Utrecht between Spain and Portugal, Feb. 13.—A rebellion in Poland—The Turks conquer the Morea.—The barrier treaty of Antwerp between Germany and Holland, Nov. 15.—The battle of Prefton-pans, between the king’s forces and the rebels Nov. 13; the battle of Dumblain, or Sheriff-muir, between the fame, Nov. 13.—The Pretender lands near Aberdeen, Dec. 22.—Louis XIV. dies Aug. 21, xt. 477.—John Hardouin, ob. 1729, xt. 83.—John, duke of Argyle, ob. 1743, xt. Or. 1716.—The alliance of Weitminfter between Great Britain and Holland, Feb. 6.—The rebellion in Scotland fup- prefled, April 26.—The alliance of Weftminfter be- tween Great Britain and Germany, May 25.—War declared between the Germans and Turks.—The Turks invade the ifland of Corfu; they are defeated by prince Eugene at Peterwaradin, July 25.—John Le Clerc, ob. 1736, xt. 79.—Philip, duke of Orieans, re- gent of France, ob. 1723, @t. 51. 37147.—The triple alliance between Great Britain, Franee, and Holland, at the Hague, Dec. 24.—L’Epfanz, ob. 1728, zt. 68.—Cardinal Alberoni, the Spamfh minifter, difgraced 1719, ob. 1752, zt. 88. 1718.—Charles XII. attempts the conquelt of Norway.— The CHRONOLOGY. A.D. The Engiith defeat the Spanith flect near Syracufe, July 31.—The treaty of Paffarowitz, between the Ger- mans, Venetians, and Turks, July 21.—he quadruple alliance, between Germany, Great Britain, France, and. Holland, Aug. 2. To this treaty the king of Sardinia acceded, Nov. 8.—Great Britain declares war againit Spain, Dec. 22.—A comet appeared—its pe- rihelion Jan. 4, 1° 15’ P.M.—afcending node SY 7° 55’ 20”—inclin. 31° 12’ §3”—retrograde.—Abbe Vertot, ob. 1735, et. 8o.—Earl Macclesfield, lord chancel- lor, ob. 1732, xt. 66. 4719.—The Spanith troops evacuate Sicily — Peace between Spain and Great Britain, June 26.—Peace between Poland and Sweden; between Hanover and Sweden, at Steckholm, Nov. 20.—Vhe battle of Franca Villa, June 9.—Vigo taken by lord Cobham, Oét. 10.— The Miflifippi fcheme at its height in France, in No- : vember and December.—John Law, comptroller-ge- neral of finances, ob, 1729, xt. 58.—Dr. John Friend, ob. 1728, xt. 53. . 1720.—An offenfive and defenfive league between Sweden and England, Jan 21.—Peace between Sweden and Proffia, at Scockholm, Jan. 21.~The South Sea fcheme begins April 7, and ends Sept. 29.—Peace between Sweden and Denmark, June 3.—A great earthquake in China, June r1.— lhe Miffiiippi com- pany in France diffolved, June 27.—Peltilence in France —The kingdom of Sardinia ceded to the duke of Savoy, Aug. 7.—Bernard de Montfaucon, ob. to 927415, cet. 86. 1721.—A treaty of peace between Great Britain and Spain, at Madrid, June 13.—A defenfive alliance, between Great Britain, France, and Spain, June 13.—A treaty of peace between Sweden and Ruflia, at Nyfladt, Aug. 19.—Dr. Samuel Clarke, ob. 1729, et. 54.— Sir Robert Walpole, earl of Orford, ob. 1745, 2t. l. Be between the Englifh and Moors, Aug. 12. —A great revolution in Perfiaa O&. 12.—The czar ef Mutcovy affumed the title of emperor of Ruffia.— Roggewein makes difcoveries in the Pacific ocean.— The Chriftians and Jefuits bamifhed out of China.— The autumnal equinox obferved at Paris, Sept. 23, 10” 20’ A.M.—Dr. Jonathan Swift, ob. 1745, et. 78. 1713.—A comet appeared—its perihelion, Scpt. 17, 4° 10! A.M—alcending node yp 14° 16’ —inclin. 49° 50! —retrograde.—Dr. Edmund Halley, ob, 1742. et. 82. 1724 —An eaithquase in Denmark.—Protettants perfe- cuted in France. —An Academy of Sciences ettablifhed at Peterfburg.—Philip V. refigns his kingdom to his fon Lewis, Jan. 15, who reigns about one year and two months.—John Albertus Fabricius, ob. 1736, zt. 67.—Duke de Riperda, the Spanifh minifter, difgraced 1726, ob. 1737. 1725.—The treaty of Vienna, between the emperor and the king of Spain, April 31.—War between the Per- fians and Turks.—The treaty of Hanover between Great Britain, France, and Proffia, againft Germany and Spain, Sept. 3; acceded to by Holland and Sweden.—Dr. John cirbuthnot, ob. 1735.—Cardinal Fleury, French minifter, ob. 1743, 2t. go. 1726.—Tne value of current coins fixed in France, in June.—An earthquake at Palermo, Aug. 21.—Her- mann Boerhaave, ob. 1738, #t. 70. 3727—The treaty of Copenhagen between Great Britain, A.D. Denmark, &c., April 16.—The Spaniards befiexe Gib. raltar, May 20—Peace between Perfia and the Ot- toman Porte. —The aberration of the fixed ftars difco- vered and accounted for by Bradley.—The fiege of Gibraltar begun by the Spaniards, May 2oth, and continued till April 1728.—King George I. dies June Tr, et. 68.—Dr. Edward Chandler, bifhop of Durbam, ob. 1750, xt. 83. 1728.—The treaty of Weftminfter, between Great Britain and Holland, May 27.—The congrefs of Soiffons, June 14.—The univerfity of Holttein founded.—A colony of Danes pafled into Greenland.—A great burning in Copenhagen—An earthquake in China, Sept.—Car- dinal Polignac, ob. 1741, et. 80.—Sir R. Temple, lord Cobham, ob. 1749, et. 74. 1729.—A comet appeared—its perthelion, June 12, 6° 36 P. M.—afcending node x 10° 35’ 15’—inclin. 77° 1’ 58’—dire&t.—The treaty of Seville, between Great Britain, France, and Spain, Nov. 9.—Dr. Edmund Gibfon, bifhop of London, ob. 1743, at. 79. ~ 1730.—War between the Ottoman Porte and Perfia—An earthquake in China.—A revolution at Conftantinople, Sept.—The ufurpation of the Afghans in Perfia ended. —The Perfians under Kouli-Khan gain a fignal vitory over the Turks.— Dr, Benj. Hoadly, bifhop of Winchetter, ob. 1761, et. 85. 1731.—A treaty between the king of Great Britain and the emperor at Vienna, March 16.—A new treaty be- tween the emperor, and the kings of Britain and Spain, at Vienna, July 22.—A treaty of union and defenfive alliance between the eleCtorates of Saxony and Hanover, at Drefden, Aug.—A great earthquake at Naples. —Alexander Pope, ob. 1741, xt. 80. 1732.—The Spanihh fleet defeated the Moors on the coat of Barbary, June 20.—The fummer folitice obferved at Paris, June 21, 7" 28’ 30’ A. M—The Pragmatie fanétion confirmed by the diet of the empire, Jan. 11. —Charles Rollin, ob. 1741, zt. 80. 1733-—The Jefuits expelled from Paraguay, Jan.— A double election of a king in Poland.—A war between France and Germany.—A treaty between the kings of France, Spain, and Sardinia—Abhé du Bos, ob. 1742, wt. 72.-Charles lord Talbot, lord chancellor, ob. L7B7 ls 54) 1734.—A battle between the Perfians and ‘l'urks at Baby- Jon, Feb.——The French defeat the Imperialitts at Par- ma, June 18.—Philipfburg furrendcred to the French, July 7.—The city of Dantzic fubmitted to Anguitus, July to.—The battle of Guaftalla on Sunday, Sept. 1g, in which the king of Sardinia defeats the Imperial- ilts.—A commercial treaty between Great Britain and Raffia, Dec. 2.—Bernard de Fontenelle, ob. 1756, xt. 100.—W. Pulteney, earl of Bath, ob. 1764, xt. 81. 1735-—A treaty: of alliance between Denmark and Swedea. —The Perfians entirely defeat the Turks, May 20.— The Frenchandtheir allies fucceed againit the Imperialiils in Italy —The preliminaries of peace between France and Auttria figned at Vienna, O&. 3.—Dr. Thomas Sherlock, bifhop of London, ob. 1761, zt. S4. 1736-—Peace between Spain and the houfe of Auttria— War between the Ruffians and Turks.—Kouli Khap makes peace with the Turks, and is proclaimed king of Perfia, by the title of Schah Nadir, Sept. 29.— Caffini obferved the tranfit of Mercury over the fun’s difk, at Thury, Nov. 11, 10" 43’ A.M.—Dr, George Berkeley, bilhop of Clerks ob. 1753, et. 73. sh 2 173%. CHRONOLOGY, A.D. 1737 , —A. comet appeared—its perihelicn, Jan. rg, 8" 20 P. M.—afcending node, ny 16° 22’—inclin. 18° 207 45—direé&t.—The emperor, in alliance with Ruffia, de- clares war again{t the Turks, July 2,.—A dreadful hur- ricane at the mouth of the Ganges, O&. 10.—Colin Maclaurin, ob. 1746, et. 45.—Philip earl of Hard- wicke, lord chancellor, ob. (764, et. 74. ¥738.—The Roftans invade Crim Tartary.--The order of St. Januarius inftituted at Naples.—A treaty between the emperor and the French king, at Vienna, Nov.18.—The autumnal equinox obferved at Paris, Sept. 23, 7" 21’ A.M.—the fun’s apogee in @ 8° 19’ 8”.—James Thomfon, ob. 1748, at. 48.— Lord prefident Forbes, ob. 1747, xt. 62. 1739.—Schah Nadir becomes mafter of the empire of Mo- guls.—A treaty between Great Britain and Denmark, in May.—A comet appeared—its perihelion, June 6, 10" o’ P. M.—afcending node, 9 27° 25’ 14’—inclin. 55° 42° 44 —retrograde—The Ruffians defeat the Turks at Choezim, Aug. 8.—Peace between Germany and the Ottoman Porte, Aug. 21—between Ruffia and the fame, Nov.— War declared between England and Spain, O&. 23.—Admiral Vernon took Porto- Bello, Nov. 21.—A treaty between France and Holland, at Verfailles, Dee. 21.—An intenfe froft in Britain.— Dr. Jofeph Butler, bifhop of Durham, ob. 1752, =t. 60. 1740.—War between Poland and Hungary.—Peace be- 1742.—A comet appeared—its perihelion, Jan. 28, 4 1743.—War between Perfia and the Ottoman Porte. tween the Perfians and Turks, O&.—The emperor Charles VI. dies, O&. g, which begins the general war in Germany, that continues 8 years —Henry Fielding, ob. 1754, et. 48.—Arthur Onflow, ob. 1768, et. 78. 1¥41,—The battle of Molwitz, in which the Pruffians defeat the Imperialifts, March 30.—War between the Ruf- fians and Swedes.— Vernon takes Carthagena, June 19. —The Pruffians become matters of Silefia, O&. 20.—A revolution in Ruffia, Dec. 6.—Charles de Secondat ba- ron Montefquieu, ob. 1755, et. 67.—Frederick prince of Wales, ob. 1751, xt. 44. aay P. M.—afcending node, = 5° 34’ 45’—inclin. 67° 4’ 11’—retrograde.—The battle of Czaflaw, between the Pruffans and Auttrians, May 6.—Peace between Auttria and Pruffia—The Auftrians befiege Prague, Aug. 16—Dec. 16.—A_ defenfive alliance between Great Britain and Pruffia, at Weftminiter, Nov. 18.— A comet appeared—its perihelion, Dec. 31, 9" 15’ A. M.—afcending node, m 8° 10’ 48”—inclin. 2° 15’ 50° —dire&t.—Dr. Stephen Hales, ob. 1761, et. 82. The battle of Campo Santo, Jan. 17, between the Spaniards and Auftrians—The battle of Dettingen, June 16, in which the allied army defeats the l'rench.—A treaty of defenfive alliance between the king of Great Britain and the emprefs of Ruffia, Feb,— A dreadful plague in Sicily, May.—War in Germany between the Hun- garians, Britifh, French, and Anttrians.—Peace be- tween Ruffia and Sweden at Abo, Aug. 17.—A comet appeared—its perihelion, Sept. ro, 9" 16’ A.M.—af- eending node, ~ 5° 16! 25”—inclin. 45° 48’ 21”—re- trograde.—An alliance between Great Britain, Hun- gary, &c. at Worms, Sept. 13.—The alliance of Mofcow, between Great Britain and Roffiay Dec. 11. —G. Frederick Handel, ob. 1759, et. 56. 1744.—A. comet appeared—its perihelion, Feb. 19, 8" 17’ AD P. M.—afcending node, ¥ 15° 45’ 20’—inclin. 47° 8/ 36"—dire&.—The French attempt to invade Bri- tain defeated, Feb. 24.—A fea-fight off Toulon, be- tween the French and Englifh fleets, Feb. 22.— War of Great Britain againft France declared, 31.—War of Hungary and France declared, April 17.—Siege and furrender of Menin, June.—Prague taken by the king of Pruffia, Sept. 16.—Friburgh furrendered to the French, Nov. 1.—Commodore Anfon arrives at St. Helens, after having completed his voyage round the world.—Dr. James Bradley, ob. 1762, zt. 70 —Henry Pelham, Englifh minifter, ob. 1754, xt. 60. 745.—The quadruple alliance of Warfaw, between Great Britain, Auftria, Holland, and Poland, Jan. 8.—'The French defeated by the Auftrians at Pfaffenhofen, April 4.-—The battle of Fontenoy, between the French and allies, April 30.—Schah Nadir defeats the Orto- man army at Erzerum in May.—The Pruflians defeat the Auftrians at Striegau, June 4.—The French took Tournay, June S—Ghent, June 12—Bruges, July 18 —Ondenarde, July 21—Dendermonde, Aug. 12— Oftend, Aug. 23—Newport, Sept. 5—Aeth, Ot. 9. —The Englith become matters of Lonifbourg and Cape Breton, June 6.—The rebellion in Scotland begins in July.—The Pruffians defeat the Auftrians at Sobr, Sept. 19.—The rebels defeat the king’s army at Pref- ton-pans, Sept. 21.—The king of Sardinia almoft {tripped of his dominions by the Spaniards, O&.—The treaty of Drefden, between Pruffia, Poland, Auttria, and Saxony, Dec. 25.—Carlifle taken by the duke of Cumberland, Dec. 30.—Dr. Conyers Middleton, ob. 1750, wt. 67.—Count de Saxe, marfhal of France, ob. 1750; #t. 54. 1746.—The rebels defeat the royal forces at Falkirk, Jan. 17.—Peace between Perfia and the Ottoman Porte in Jan.—Count Saxe takes Bruffels, Feb. 20, and foon after Antwerp.—The royal army defeated and dif- perfed the rebels at Culloden, April 16.—The defen- five alliance of Peterfburg, between Aultria and Ruffia, May 22.—The prince of Conti takes Mons, July 1o— Charleroi, Aug. 2.—Count Clermont takes Namur, Sept. 19.—Count Saxe defeats the allies at Roucoux, O&. 11.—Lima deftroyed by an earthquake, O&. 17.—William Hogarth, ob. 1764, et. 67.—William Auguftus, duke of Cumberland, ob. 1765, et. 45. 1747-—The French fleet defeated by Anfon and Warren, May 3.—A comet appeared—its perihelion, Feb. 17, 11" 45’ P. M.—afcending node, §U 26° 58’ 27’—in- clin. 77° 56’ 55"—retrograde.—The prince of Orange elected ftadtholder of the United Provinces, May 2.— The defenfive alliance of Stockholm, between Pruffia, Poland, and Sweden, May 29 —The French defeat the allies at Laffeldt, July 2—The French fleet de- feated by admiral Hawke, O&. 14.—Bergen-op- Zoom taken by the French, Sept. 5.—Kouli- Khan murdered.— A revolution in Perfia.—Jacques Caffini, ob. 1756, et. 79.— George lord Anfon, ob. 1762, xt. 62. 1748.—A comet appeared—its perihelion, April 18, 7° 25’ A. M.—afcending node, ny 22° 55’ 16”—inclin. 85° 26° 57’—retrograde. —A comet appeared—its peri- helion, June 7, 1r™ 24’ P. M.—afcending node y¥ 4° 39! 43”—inclin. 56° 59’ 3’—dire&t.—Maeitricht taken by the French, May 7.—The peace of Aix-la-Cha- pelle, between Great Britain, France, Spain, Auttria, Sardinia, and Helland, O&. 7.—Benjamin Robins, ob. CHROWOLOGY, A.D; a 1751, et. 44.~ Sir John Barnard, ob. 1764, et. ro 3749.—Nova Scotia peopled. — A league between the pope, Venetians, &c. againft the Corfajrs of Algiers and Tunis.—Pierre Bouguer, ob. 1758, zt. 6t.—Philip, earl of Chefterficld, ob. 1773, wt. 79. 1750.—T wo. fhocks of an earthquake in England, Feb. 8, and March §.—Intereft on the public funds reduced to 3 per cent. Feb. 28.—An academy of {ciences founded at Stockholm.—The commercial treaty of Madrid, between Spain and Great Britain, O&. 5.— Bernard de Belidor, ob. 1761, xt. 64.—Allen, ‘earl Bathurlt, ob. 1775, xt. gt. 1751—Peace hetween Spain and Portugal.—Frederic, prince of Wales, dies, March 20, xt..44.—Thomas Simpfon, ob. 1761. 1752-—The new ftyle introduced into Great Britain, Sept. 3 counted the 14th.—N. Louis de la Caulle, ob. 1762, wt. 40. 753-— The Britifh Mufeum eftablifhed at Montague-houfe by act of parliament.— Dr. Edward Young, ob. 1765, et. 83. 1754-- A dreadful eruption of AZina—A great earth- quake at Conttantinople, Grand Cairo, &c. Sept. 2.— The French attack an Englifh fleet on Monongahela, &c. on the Ohio, April 17.—Mr. Wathington inter- cepts a fmall body of French, June 1.—Dr. John Le- land, ob. 1766, xt. 75.—John duke of Bedford, ob. 1771, zt. 61. 1755-—War declared between the Datch and Algerines, April ro.— Quito in Peru deftroyed by an earthquake, April 28.—Braddock defeated and killed near Fort du Quefne, July g.—The French defeated near lake George, Sept. 8.—A convention between Great Bri- tain and Ruffia, at Peterfburg, Sept. 30.—Lifbon des ftroyed by an earthquake, Nov. 1.—Dr. Thomas Birch, ob. 1766, xt. 6r.—Admiral Edward Bofcawen, ob. 1761, zt. 50. 1756.—A treaty between Great Britain and Proffia, Feb. 16.—War declared in England againft France, May 17.—An engagement between the Enghfh and French ficets off Minorca, May 20.—Blakeney furrendered Mi- norca to the French, June 25.—Calcutta taken by the viceroy of Bengal, June 20.—Ofwego taken, Aug. r4.—Dr. Robert Smith, ob. 1765, et. 79.— William Pitt, earl. of Chatham, ob. 1778, zt. 70.—The king of Pruffia defeats the Auttrians at Lowofchutz, O&. 1. 1557-—Calcutta re-taken, Jan. 2.—Damien’s confpiracy againit the king of France, Jan. 5. —The king of Pruffia invades Boliemia.—Chandenagore taken, March 23.— The battle of Prague, May 6, in which the king of Pruffia defeats the Auftrians.—The battle of Kollin, June 18, in which the king of Pruffia is repulfed by count Daun.—The battle of Plaifly, inthe Eatt Indies, June 23.—The battle of Haftenbeck, July 26, in which the French defeat the allies. —The French take Verdun, Aug. 26, and Bremen, Aug. 29.—The con- vention of Clofter-feven, Sept. 8.—A comet appeared —its perihelion, O&. 21, 7" 55’ P.M.—afcending node tm 4° 12’ 50’—inclin. 12° 50° 20” —direét.—The bat- tle of Rofbeck, Nov. 5, in which the Pruffians de- feat the French and Auttrians.—The Auttrians de- feat the Pruffians near Breflaw, Nov. 22.—The Pruf- fians defeat the Auftrians at Leffa, Dec. 5—The king ef Pruffia takes Breflaw, Dec. 21, and becomes A.D. matter of Silefia—Dr. Thomas Secker, archbifhop of Canterbury, ob. 1768, xt. 75. 1758.—Minden reduced by prince Ferdinand, March 14.— A treaty between Great Britain and Proffia, April rr. —The Englifh take Senegal, May 1.—The French take fort St. David’s, June 2—The French de- feated by prince Ferdinand at Crevelt, June 23.— Count Daun compe!led by the king of Pruffia to raife the fiege of Olmutz, July 1.—The Englifh repulfed at Ticonderago, July 8.—'Vhe Hanoverians defeated by the French at Sangarhaufen, July 23.—Louifbourg taken by the Englih, July 27.—Cherburg taken by Britifh troops, Aug. 8.—The Pruffians defeated by the Auf- trians at Frankfort on the Oder, Aug. 12.—The Ruf- fians defeated by the king of Proffia, at Zorndorf, Aug. 25.—The allies defeated by the French at Landwern- hagen, O&. 10.—The king of Pruffia defeated by count Daun at Hockkirchen, O@. 14.—Vhe king of Pruffia and his generals raife the fieges of Colberg, Neifs, Cofcl, Torgau, Leipfic, and Drefden, in O@o- ber.—The Englifh take fort du Quefne, Nov. 25.—A treaty between Great Britain and Pruffia, Dec. 7.— Goree taken by commodore Keppel, Dec. 29 —P. Francis Courayer, ob. 1776, et. 95.—General James Wolfe, ob. 1759, zt. 33. 1759-—A comet appeared—its perihelion, March 13, 1" 50" A. M.--afcending node § 23° 45’ 35°—inelin. 17° 40 15”—retrograde.—The French defeated by prince Ferdinand at Bergen, April 13.—CGuadaloupe furren- dered to the Englifh, May 1.—Fort Niagara reduced by Sir William Johnfoa, July 24.—The French de- feated by the allies at Minden, Aug. 1.—The Ruffians defeated by the king of Pruffia, at Cunerfdorf, Aug. 12.—The Jefuits expelled from Portugal, Sept. 3.— An engagement between the Englifh and French ficets near Pondicherry, Sept. 10.~ General Wolfe defeats the French and takes Quebec, Sept. 17.—Bofcawen defeats the French fleet off Gibraltar, Aug. 18.— Hawke defeats the French fleet off Belleifle, Nov. 20.—-A comet appeared—its perilielion, Nov. 27, 2" 19’ P.M.—afcending node {| 19° 39’ 24—inclin. 78° 59 22"—direé&t.—Balbec and Tripoli deftroyed by an earthquake, Dec. 5.— A comet appeared —its perihe- lion, pe 17, o° 41’ A. M.—afcending node, m1 18° 65" 19’—inclin. 4° 37’ 24"—retrograde.—Dr. Zachary Pearce, bifhop of Rochefter, ob. 1774, et 84.— Hen- ry Fox, lord Holland, ob. 1774, xt. 69. 1760.—The Englifh defeated by the French et Quebec, Ap. 28.—A tranfit of Venus over the fun, June 6.— The French defeated by the allies at Lydorff, July 16. —The Priuffians defeated by the Auttrians at Land- fhut, June 23.—The allies defeated by the French at Corbach, July 10.—The French defeated by the allies at Warbourg, July 31.—The Auttrians defeated by the king of Proffia at Pfaffendorf, Aug. 15.—The Prof- fians defeat the Auftrians in Saxony, Aug. 30.—The Englith become matters of Montreal, and of Canada, Sept. 8.—Berlin taken and plundered by the Auttrian and Ruffian troops, O&. 9.—-Earthquakes in Syria, O&. 13.—The prince of Brunfwick defeated near Rhineberg, O&. 16.—The king of Praffia defeats the Auftrians at Torgau, Nov. 3.—King George IL dies, OG. 25, et. 77.—Fr. Ar. de Voltaire, ob. 1778, zt. 84. 1761,—Pondicherry taken by Col. Coote, Jan. 15.—The French defeat the Hanoverians, &c. near Grunberg, March CHRONOLOGY. A.D. March 21.—Belleifle furrenders to the Englifh, June 7.—The allies defeat the French at Kirehdenckera, July 15.—A league between Vrance and Spain, Aug. 15.—Vhe Ruffians defeated at Colberg, Sept. i6.— King George III. married, Sept. 8; crowned Sept. 22.—A procefs againft the Jefuits in 'rance—George Lord Lyttelton, ob. 1773, et. 64.—Charles Townf- hend, ob. 1767, et. 42. 2762.—War againit Spain, Jan. 3.—Czarina dies, Jan. 5.—-Martinico furrenders, eb. 4; Grenada, &c. March 4.—Peace between Ruffia and Pruffias March 5.—War between Portugal and Spain, May 23.— A comet appeared—-iis perihelion, May 29, 3" 10’ A.M.—afcending node, 3€ 19° 23’—inchin. 84° 45'— direct.—War declared by France and Spain againtt Portugal, June 20.—The allies defeat the French at Grabenttein, June 24.—A revolution in Ruffia,, July 9.—Havannah furrenders to the Engl.fh, Aug. 12.— Prince of Wales born, Aug. 12.—The Jefuits ba- nifhed from France in Augult.—Prince Ferdinand de- feated by the French at Johannefberg, Aug. 50.—A battle between the allies and French at Brucher-muhl, Sept. 21.—Manilla taken by the Enghth, Oct. 6.— Schweidnitz furrenders to the king of DPruffia, Oct. o.—Prince Henry defeats the allies at Freyberg, Ot. 29.—The allies befiege and take Caffel, Nov. 1.— Peace between Great Britain and France, at Fontain- bleau, Nov. 3.—M. de Condamine, ob. 1774, et. 74. 1763.—The peace of Paris, between Great Britain, France, and Spain, acceded to by Portugal, Feb. to.—The peace of Huberfburg between Hungary and Prufiia, Feb. 15.—Peace between Pruffia aud Poland, Feb. 15. —The expulfion of the Jefuits from France completed. 1564.—A comet appeared, Jan. 3, 8" P.M.—its afcending node, SU 29° 20’ 6”—inchin. 53° 54! 19”—retrograde. —A treaty between Ruffia and Pruffia, April 15. —Count Staniflaus Poniatowfky unanimoufly elected king of Poland, Sep. 6.—Famine and_pettilence in Italy —An earthquake at Lifbon, Dec. 26.—Monro defeats Sujah Dowlah, at Buxar, O&. 23.—Byron makes difcoveries in the Pacific ocean.—C. V. Lin- nzus, ob. 1778, xt. 70. s765.—The regency bill pafled in England, May 15.— Sujah Dowlah defeated by general Carnac, May 3; and foon after, Bengal eftablifhed by lord Chve un- der the Britifh government.— Duke of Cumberland dies, O&. 31.—Dauphin dies, Dec. 20.—Chevalier de St. George dies, Dec. 31.—Dr. Thomas Rutherforth, ob. 1771.—James Stewart, Pretender, ob. 1766.—A comet appeared, March S—its afcending node SU 4° 10! 50"—inclin. 40° 50’ 26”—retrograde.—The American ftamp aé& repealed, March 18.—An infur- reGtion in Spain compelled the king to leave Madrid, March 25.—A comet appeared, April 8—its afcend- ing node § 17° 22’ 19’—inclin. 8% 18’ 45”—direet. —A treaty of commerce and navigation between Great Britain and Ruffia, at Peterfburg, June 20.—A great earthquake at Conftantinople-—The Jefuits expelled from Bohemia and Denmark.— David Hume, ob. 1776, zt. 66. 1767.—The Jefuits expelled from Spain, Genoa, and Ve- nice, April 2.—Martinico almoft deftroyed by an earth- quake.—The Proteftants tolerated in Poland, Nov. 2. —Wallis and Carteret make difcoveries in the Pacific ocean.—Jean Jacques Rouffeau, ob. 1778. 1768.—The Royal Academy of Arts eftablifhed in Lon- A.D. don.—The Turks declare war againt the Reffiens. —The Jefuits expe:led from Naples, Malta, and Par- ma,—A@, making the Inth parliament oennial, pafled Veb. 3.—Bougainville makes difcoveries is the Pacific ocean.— Violent commotions in Poland.—- David Garrick, ob. 1779, et. 63.—Robert lord Chive ob. Nov. 22, 1774+ 1769.—TV'irlt battle of Choezim, April 30; fecond battle of Choczim, July 13; third battle of Choczim, Sept. 17.—The Ruffian fleet enters the Mediterranean, in December.—Cook makes difcoveries in the Pacific ocean.—Paoli fled fom Corfica, June 13, which was reduced.—Thomas Gray, poet, ob. July 30, 1771.—Capt. James Cook, ob. Feb. 14, 1779. 1770.—The Ruffians defeat the Turks, rear the river Pruth, Aug. 1.—An earthquake at St. Domingo, —The right of Falkland ifland fettled.—Bender taken by ftorm, Sept. 28.—Oliver Gold{mith, poet, ob. April 14, 1774.—Edward “lord Hawke, ob. O&. 17, 170i. 17 .—An emigration of 500,000 Tourgouths from the coafts of the Cafoian fea to the frontiers of China.— Lord Mayer of London committed to the lower, March 27.—The Turkith fleet burned by the Ruffians at Cifme, Natolia, July 5.—-Dr. Warburton, bifhop of Gloucefter, ob. July 7, 1779.—Jotin (Dunning) lord Afhburton, ob. Aug. 18, 1783. 1772.—A revolution in Denmark, when the queen was imprifoned, Jan. 17.—Avugutta, princefs of Wales, dies Feb. 8, xt. 53.—Infurrection at Chriftianftadt, which ended in a revolution in Sweden, that made the king abfolute, Aug. 13, and completed at Stockholm, Aug. 19.—Poland difmembered by the emprefs of Rutfia, the king of Pruffia, and the houfe of Auftria. —Dr. William Hunter, anatomilt, ob. March 15, 1788.—Sir George Savilley ob. Jan. 1754. 1773.—Cook makes difcoveries in the Pacific Ocean, and failed to 71° 10’ S. lat-—The order of the Jefuits fup- preffed by the pope’s bull, Aug. 25.—Diflurbances in America begin by the deftruction of tea on board three floops at Bofton, Dec. 18.—Mons. d’Alembert, ob. OG 275.0753. 1774.—Dr. Franklin’s petition difmiffed, Jan. 29.—Lite- rary property determined, Feb. 22.—Crenville’s a& for eleétions made perpetual, March 31.—Bolfton port-bill paffed, March 31.—Louis XV. dies May ro, zt. 64.—Turkifh army ruined, June 20.—Peace be- tween the Ruffians and Turks, July 21.—The ancient parliament of Paris reftored, Nov. 12.—A comet ap- peared —its perihelion Aug. 15, 11" 11’ P. M.—aicend- ing node * 0° 49’—inclin. 83° o’—dire&t.—L. Euler, mathematician, ob. Sept. 1783.—Charles Stewart, Pre- tender, ob. March 3, 1788. 1775.-—Holtilities in America begin at Lexington, April 19 —Aétion at Bunker’s hill, June 17.—'The Spanith troops land near Algiers, July 8.—St. John’s taken by Montgomery, Nov. 2.—The affault of Quebec, Dec. 31.—Dr. Samuel Johnion ob. Dec. 13, 1784. 3776.—General Howe quits Botton, March 17.—Congrefs afflumes independence, May 15, and declares it July 4.—Attack on Charlettown, June 28—Geueral Howe lands on Staten ifland, July 3.—Battle on Long ifland, Aug. 27.—New York taken, Sept. 15, and Fort Washington, Nov. 16—Rhode ifland occupied, Dee. 8.—The affair at Trenton, Dec. 26.—Auittna granted religious toleration, and abolifhed torture—alfo in 6 Poland, __ ied CHRONOLOGY. A.D. P Poland.—Dr. Robert Lowth, bifhop of London, ob. Nov. 1787. 1777 —Ticonderaga taken by general Burgoyne, July 6.— General Howe embarks his army off Staten ifland, July 24—and lands in Chefapeak bay, Aug. 30.—Battle on the Brandywine, Sept. 11.—Philadelphia taken by the Britith, Sept. 26.—Battle of German town, O&. 4.— General Burgoyne’s army. furrenders at Saratoga, O&. 16.—Monf. Buffon, ob. April 16, 1785. 1778.—Treaty between France and the Americans, Feb. 6. —Philadelphia evacuated, June 18,—A@tion in the Jerfeys, June 2%.—Auftrians and Pruffians begin _ hoftilities, July 7.—A@tion at fea between the’ Enghith and T’rench fleets, July 27 —Siege of Rhode ifland, Aug. g and 30.—Pondicherry taken, OG. 17.— French routed at St. Lucia, Dec. 18.—Americans defeated in Georgia, Dec. 29.—Monf. Diderot, ob. April 1785. 1779.—Pcace between the Imperialifts and Pruffians, May 13.—St. Vincent’s taken by the French, June 17. —Grenada taken, July 3—An engagement between Byron and d’Ettaing off Grenada, July 6.—A tre- mendous eruption of Vefuvius, Aug. 8.—The fiege of Gibraltar begun by the Spaniards in July.—Sir George Collier takes many American veflels in Penobfcot bay, Aug. 14. 1780,.—Sir George Rodney took 22 fail of Spanifn thips, Jan. 8.—Engagement with Langara, Jan. 16, near Cape Vincent.—An engagement between the Enclifh and French fleets off Martinico, April 17.—Charlef- town in America furrendered to the Britifh arms, May 12.—An infurreétion and riot in London in June. —F'ive Britith Eaft India fhips and a large fleet of Wett India ditto, captured by the combined fleets of France and Spain, in lat. 36° 40, and long. 15° W. from London, Aug. 9.—Lord Cornwallis gains a fignal viétory over the American forces at Cambden, South Carolina, Aug. 16.—Torture abolifhed in France by edi&, Aug. 25.—A moft dreadful hurricane in the Leeward iflands, in O@ober.—War declared again{t Holland, Dec. 20. 3781.—Sir George Rodney and general Vaughan took the ifland of St. Euftatia, Feb. 3—re-taken, Nov. 17.— Lord Cornwallis defeated the American forces, at Guildford, March 15.—An engagement between the Englithand Dutch fleets, near the Dogger bank, Aug. 5.—The Englifh army, commanded by Lord Corn- wallis, furrendered to the united forces of America and France, at York town, Oétober 19. 3782,—Minorca furrendered to the Spaniards, Feb. 4.—An engagement between the Englifh and French fleets near Trincomale in the Eaft Indies, Feb. 17.—Sir George Rodney defeated the French fleet commanded by count de Graffe, off Dominica, April 12.—An en- gagement between the Englith and French fleets near ‘Trincomale in the Eaft Indies, April 12.—Another engagement near Trincomale in September.—Gibral- tar befieged by the Spaniards from 1780 to Sept. 13, of this year, when their floating batteries were burnt by red-hot ballsfrom the garrifon, commanded by general Elliot.—Independence of America admitted Nev. 30. o 3723.—Preliminaries of peace between Great Britain, France, and Spain, Jan. 20, and America declared in- dependent.—-Armiltice between England and Hol, A.D. land, Feb.—Definitive treaty, Sept. 8..—A dread- ful earthquake in Sicily.—Meffina, and many other cities, deftroyed, Feb. 5. 1784.—Peace ratified with America, March z4—with Hol- land, May 24.—Firlt commemoration of Handel, per. formed in Weftmintter Abbey by 600 performers, May 26.—Archindfchan, in Turkey, deftroyed by an earthquake, and 12,000 inhabitants buried in the ruins, July 18.—Printing re-eltablifhed in Conttantinople.— Proteftants allowed churches in Hungary.—Crimea fettled by Ruffia.- Firlt bifhop in America confecrated Nov. 14. 1785.—The emperor of Germany fuppreffes 2000 religious houfes.—An earthquake in Calabria, April ro.—A fevere fro{t in Germany, which lalted 115 days.— Tnundations in different parts of England, in Sept. and O&.—A violent ftormin France, Aug. 5, which laid walfte 131 villages and farms.x—New method of making bar-iron from pig-iron invented by Mr, Cort of Gofport, reckoned fuperior to Swedith iron.—A. ferry-boat was lott in pafling the Menai, between: Carnarvon and Anglefea, and 50 perfons drowned,. Dec. 4. 1736.—Torture abolifhed in Sweden, by order of the king. —Cardinal Tourlone, high-inquifitor at Rome, hung on a gibbet 50 feet high.—Droit d’Aubaine abolifhed in France.—Commercial treaty with France, figned O&. 29.—An earthquake in Scotland, and different parts of the north of England, Aug. 11.—A plague in the Levant.—Exports from Great Britain amounted to 5:600,000l. 1787.—Botany-bay fettlement firft failed from England, March 21.—A bifhop appomted in Nova Scotia by the king of England, Aug. 11.—Banks firft begun in the Eaft Indies.—Cotton-wool ufed in Englith manufactures at this time, valued at 7,500,000. and weighed 22,000,0oolbs. In this manufacture there were in England and Scotland 163 water-mills, 550 mule-jennies of 50 fpindles each, and 20,070 haud- jennies of 80 f{pindles each. See Corron manufacture. —Exports from Great Britain amounted in this year to 5,700,000l.— Earthquake in Mexico, and other parts of New Spain, April 18.—Amiterdam taken poffeffion ot by Pruffia, O&. g.—Agreement between France and England to difarm, O&. g.—Contelt between the king of France and parliament begins.—Fire dettroyed one-fourth of Chriftiana in Denmark, April 9, to the value of 100,000 rix dollars. —Export of woollen cloth from Great Britain in this year amounted to the value of 3,687,795]. 123. 2d.— An inundation from the Liffey in Ireland, Nov. 12, which did very confiderable damage in Dublin and its environs. : 1788.—War between the Turks, Germans, and. Ruflians. —Treaty between Great Britain and Ruffia, Jan. 13. —Life-guards and horfe-guards difbanded by the Eng- lifh government, May 26.—Stadtholderfhip guaranteed to the prince of Orange by the United States of Holland, June 27.—Rufhia declares war again{t Sweden, June 30.—Choczim taken, Sept. 29.—Inundation at Kirkwald in Scotland, by the irruption of the dam- dykes, O&. 4, which nearly deltroyed the town.— French notables affembled, Nov. 6.—Oczakow taken, Dec. 17.—Animal magnetifm introduced in France, and foon exploded—and in the following year introduced into England.—Formofa, in the Chinefe jea, fhakes off. the Chinefe yoke, when 19,009 Chinefe were maffacred CHRONOLOGY. AD ASD: maflacred; and the reft driven into the woods* and rocks of the ifland. 1789.—Infurreétions in Frante, March.—States-general of France convened, May 5.—French attempt to invade Ireland in January, when their forces were difperfed by a ftorm in Bantry bay.—Nobility “in France renounced their pecuniary privileges, May 23.—The French king makes conceffions, June 25.—Revolution in France, July 3—and declared a republic.—Batti. at Paris deftroyed, July 14.—Infurre@tion in Brabant, Aug. 10 —Bender taken, O¢t. 5.—Ghent furrender- ed, Nov, 23—and Bruifels, Dec. 12.—Nootka, in the N.W. of America, fettled by the Englith.—Earth- quake at Bergo-di-fan-Sapoloro, in Tufcany, Sept. 30, which deftroyed the cathedral, bifhop’s palace, with the adjacent town of Caftello, &c.; and Borgo had 150 houfes deftroyed, and 30 honfes, &c. f{wal- jowed up by an opening of the earth.—Ann inundation in Scotland, and the north of England, in July. — Sunday-f{chools firft eftablifhed in Yorkfhire in 1784, became about this time general in England and Scot- land.—At Corfu, a magazine of gunpowder and bomb-fhells blew up, and killed 180 men, March il. 2790.—Affignats firft iffued in France, April 17.—New confederation at Paris commemorated, July 14, in the field of Mars.—Religious houfes fupprefled by the national affembly in France, amounting to 4,5co.— Titles of honour abolifhed in France by the national afflembly.—Canal of Bourbon, between the Oife and Paris, is begun. See Canav.—Earthquake in Weit- moreland, at Arnfide, March 6.—Inundation of the river Don, near Doncatter, and the Derwent and ‘Trent, Nov. 20. 1791.—Riot in Birmingham, July 54, in which feveral houfes and meetings were deltroyed, on occafion of the commemoration of the French revolution, by a few perfons affembled at a tavern for that purpofe.— The king, queen, and royal family, of France at- tempted to efcape out of the kingdom, but were de- tained by force, June 21, and brought back prifoners to Paris; fanétioned the national conilitution, Sept. 15.—Infurretion of the negroes at St. Domingo, amounting to 35,000, againft the whites, of whom above 300 were maflacred, in September; again in 1794.—Protettants permitted to have churches in France.—Bangalore in the Eaft Indies taken by earl Cornwallis —Battle of Seringapatam —The Auttrians defeat the French near Mous, April 30,—At Con- ftantinople 32,000 houfes were deltroyed between March and July.—Earthquakein Scotland, in O@ober —in Sicily and Calabria, Odtober—at Lifbon, Nov. 27—at Zant, in the Adriatic, Dec. 2.—Avignon declared by. the national aflembly to belong to France. —Wafhington city in America founded.— Roman Catholics relieved in England by an aét pafled in 1776 and this year. 1792.—The title of citizen only allowed in France.—France declared itfelf a republic.—The king of France at- tended on the national affembly, and renounced the fovereignty, Aug. 10, when he was compelled to claim their protection, and they fent him to the Temple, where he was confined as a prifoner, fe- parate from the queen, &c.—Battle of Seringapatam, in whieh Tippoo was reduced by earl Cornwallis. ‘he Auftrians defeated at Longwy, Aug. 14.—The 8 French defeated at Grand-pre, Sept. 10.—Battle of Valory between the French and Auftrians, Sept. 2z20—of Menehould between the Pruffians and French, O&. 2—of Condé, Ot. 2—of Hanau, O&. 27—of Boffu, Nov. 4.—of Jemappe, Nov. 6, when Dumou- rier entered Brabant—of Arderlechit, Nov. 13—of Thirlemont, Nov. 17—of Varoux, Nov. 27—Flan- ders over-run by the French this year, and in (794, acerwards declared part of that republic.— Liege taken by the French.—Fire at Conftantinople, Sept. which deftroyed 7002 houfes. — Earthquake in the counties of Bedford, Leicetter, Lincoln, Not- tingham, &c. March 2.—The cuftom-houfe at Seville dettroyed by fire, May 7, with 40,o0o0l. damage. —Shcfficld cotton manufactory, valued at 45,000l., deftroyed by fire, Feb. 9.—Leopoid, emperor of Germany, poifoned, March 1.—King of .Sweden aflaffinated, March 16.--Tbe lake of Harentoren, in the courty of Kerry, Ireland, a mile in circuit, funk into the ground with all its fith, March 25. 1793-—Dumourier, French gencral, feized the commif- fioners from the national convention, and quitted the army, April 2.—Hbolland invaded by the French, —French king brought to trial, Jan. 19, condemned, Jan. 20, and put to death, Jan. 12.— Queen beheaded, O€. 16.—War with France by the Englifh, Pruffians, Auttrians, Sardinians, and Italian ftates —Toulon taken by admirai Hood.—Battle of Hockheim, between the Auttrians and French, Jan. 7—of Aldenhoven, Feb. 28—of Aix-la-Chapelle, Jan. 15—of Tongres, March 4—of Jurvienden, near Thirlemont, March 18—of Thirlemont, March 19—of Lovaine, or the Iron mountain, March 22—of Coblentz, April 1—of Caflel, April 7—of Tournay, between the Auftri- ans and Englifh, and the French, May 8—of St. Amand and Maulde, May 10--of Valennes, be- tween the allies and French, May 23—of Manheim, May 30—of Furnes, between the Dutch and French, June 21, and between the Auftrians and French, June 26—of Villiers, July 18—of Cambray, or Cefar’s camp, Aug. g—of Lincelles, Aug. 18—of Furnes, Aug. 21—of Rexmond, Ang. 29—of Dun- kirk, between the Englith and Trench, Sept 7— of Quefnoy, Sept. 11—of Limbach, between the Auftrians and French, Sept. 12—of Menin, Sept. 15—of Toulon, between the Englith and French, O&. 1--of Weiffenburgh, between the Auftrians and French, O&. 14—of Maubcuge, between the allies and the French, O&. 16—of Birlemont, O@. 16-—of Orchies, O&. 20—of Wanzenaw, O&. 25 —of Landau, Nov. 2g—of Toulon, when it furren- dered to the French, Nov. 1g—of Lebach, Nov. 27— of Roufllon, between the Spaniards and French, Dec. 11—ot Perpignan, Dec. 20.— Ypres furrendered to the French, under Moreau, June 17.—Earthquake at Domingo, April—at Shaftefbury and Salifbury, Sept. 29.—A piece of landin Finland, 40co fquare ells in extent, funk 15 fathoms in Feb. 1794.—Infurreétion of the negroes at St. Domingo.— Slave trade abolifhed by the French convention, Feb. 4.—Aix-la-Chapelle taken by the French, Sept. 21. —\ntwerp taken in 1792, and alfo this year, July 24.—Battle of Oppenheim, allies and French, Jan. 8 —of Waterloo, Jan. 22—of Werwick, March 1—of Bayonne, Spaniards and French, March 19—of Perle, allies and French, March 22—of Cateau, March 2S—of Cracow, CHRONOLOGY. A.D. A.D. Cracow, Ruffians aad Poles, April 4~of Durkheim, dilies and French, April 5—of Piedmont, Sardinians and French, April 6—of Crombeck, allies and French, April 64—of Arlon, April 17—of Warfaw, Ruffians and Poles, April 21—of Landrecy, allies and French, April 24—of Cambray, Englifh and French, April 24 —of Cateau, April 26—of Courtray, allies and French, April 29—of O-tend, May 5—of Montefquan, Spa- niards and Trench, May 1—of Aolt, Gu s French, May 2—of Saorgia, May S—of Tournay, Englifh and French, May 1S—of Bouillon, allies and French—of Tournay, May 22—of Lautern, May 23 we) liczke—of Barcelona, Spaniards and French, June 14 —of Charleroi, Dutch and French, Jure 17—of Cra- cow, Pruflians and Poles—of Aoft, Sardinians and French, June 26—of Puycerda, Spaniards and French, June 26—of Blonie, Ruffians and Potes, July 7—of Manheim, allies and French, July 12—of Dorbilos, Pruflians and Poles, July 19g—of Tontarabia, Spaniards and French, Aug. 2—of Zogre, Pruffians and Poles, Aug. 22—of Bellegarde, Spaniards and French, Aug, 26—of valley of Leira, Sept. 8—of Maeftricht, allies and French, Sept. 18—of Clermont, Sept. 20o—of Piedmont, Sept. 23 —of Pofnania, Pruffians and Poles, Sept. 24—of Kophir Bazfee, Ruffians and Pols, Sept. 25—of Milan, Sardinians and French, Sept. 31 —of Emmerick, allies and French, OS. 2—of War- Jaw, in which the Poles are totally defeated by the Pruffians, &c. OG. 12—of Druten, Englith and French, O&. 20—of Pampeluna, Spaniards and French, O&. 28—of Nimeguen, allies and French, Nov. 4—of Sendomir, Poles and Pruffians, &c. Nov. 16—of Na- varre, Spaniards and French, Nov. 25—of Mentz, allies and French, Dec. 1.—Bergen-op-Zoom, taken by the French.—Dois le duc taken.—Breda_ taken.—Bruflels yaken.—Charleroi furrenders to the French, June 26. —Cleves taken by the French.—Landrecy furrenders to the Trench, July 15.—St. Lucia taken by the Englifh.—Macltricht taken by the French, Nov. 4.— Namur taken by the French, July 13.—Treves taken by the French.—Telegraphs, invented in 1687, put into practice by the [Trench this year, and by the Englith Jan. 23, 1796.—Sea-fight June 1, in which lord Howe ‘totally defeated the French fleet, took fix hips of war, and funk feveral. —Craton furrendered to the Pruffians, June 15.—Dieppe laid im afhes by the Englith, July 14.—Martinico taken from the-French, March 23.—Earthquake in Turkey, July 3, which de- ttroyed’ three towns containing 10,030 inhabitants —alfo near Naples, June 13, which almolt deftroyed the city of Torre-del-Greco.—Copenhagen had_ its royal palace, &c. deftroyed by fire, Feb. 26, to the amount of 4,500,000/. fterling ; above 100 perfons loft their lives. - At Grenelle, near Paris, an explofion of powder-mills proved fatal to 3090 perfons, and deitroyed feveral buildings, Sept. 3. —-of Lithuania, Ruffians and Poles, June 3—of. Pi-' %795.—Louis XVII. of France died in prifon, June S, and the princefs Maria Therefa Charlotte was delivered up in exchange for deputies, Dec. 26.—Amftterdam taken poffeffton of by the French, Jan. 18.—Stadtholder and family obliged to quit Holland, when the Freuch took poffeffion of the United States, Jan. 21, and retired to England. —Warren Hattings, after 7 years trial, feted April 23.—Battle on the Waal, allies and French, Jan. 11—of Nantes, Chouans and re- Vor. VII. publicans, Jan. 13—of Catalonia, March 5—-f Neve Muntter, March 5 and 18—of I gura, when the Span ‘ards were defeated, April 5—of Piedmont, whea the Piedmontefe were defeated, April 12—of Pontas in Catalonia, when the French were defeated, June 14—of Piedmont, when the French were defeated, June 24, 27, and July r—of Pampeluna, when the French were defeated, July g—of Bilboa, when the Spaniards were defeated, July 17—of Quiberon, the emigrants defeated, Juiy 21—of Urutia, the French de- feated, July 3o—of Vittoria, the Spaniards deteated, Aug. 14—of Piedmont, the Aultrians defeated, Aug. zo—of La Pietra, the Trench defeated, Aug. 31— on the Lahn, ditto, Sept. 19 —of Manheim, the Auf- trians defeated, Sept. 23—of Piedmont, the French de- feated, Ot. r—on the Mayne, the French defeated, O&. 11—of Mentz, the French defeated, O24. 29— of Worms, ditto, Nov. 8—of Mofeile, ditto, Nov. 22 —of DeuxPonts, ditto, Nov. 28—of Alfentz, ditto, Dec. 8.—Breda taken by the Frenct.—Briel feized by them in January.—Cape of Good Hope taken by the Englih in June, and again in 1806.—Dort taken by the French, Jan. 10.—Dufleldorp furrendered to the French, Sept. 6.—Frankendal re-taken from the French, Noy, 12.—-Luxembourg furrendered to the French, after a fevere fiege, June 7-—Malacca furren- dered to the Englih, Aug. 17.—Manheim re-taken by the Aultrians, Nov. 23, with 10,338 prifoners and 4 generals, &c,—St. Marcon ifles taken by Sir Sidney Smith, in July. —Sir Edward Pellew took 15 fail, and burned 7, out of a fleet of 35 fail of tranfports, March 8.—The French fleet defeated, and two thips of war taken by admiral Hotham, March 14.—Admiral Corn- wallis took 8 tranfports under convoy of 3 French men of war, Juoe 7.—11 Dutch Eat Indiamen were taken by the Sceptre man of war and fome armed Indiamen, June 19.—The French fleet defeated by lord Bridport, June 25, and 3 fhips of war taken near L’Orient.— Sierra Leone nearly deftroyed by a French frigate. — Trincomale in Ceylon taken by the Englifh.—Utrecht furrendered to the French, Jan. 18.—The fovereignty of Poland diffolved, and the kingdom divided between Ruffia, Aultria, and Pruffia, Nov. 25, and the king retired on a penfion of 200,000 ducats.- Peace be- tween Pruffia and France—alfo between France and Spain.—7oo9 houfes deltroyed by fire at Conftantinople, Auguit.—The arfenal, admiralty, &c. with near 50 ftreets, containing 1303 houfes, in Copenhagen, were deftroyed by fire, June 5.—A dreadful eruption of Mount Vefuvius. 1796.—Subfcription loan to government for 18 millions for carrying on the war againit France was filled in lefs than 16 hours, Dec. 5.—Bamberg taken by the French, Aug. 4.—Battle of Piedmont, the Sardinians totally defeated by the French, April 14—of Lodi, between the French and c.ultrians, May 11—of Mantua, May 2y—of Wetzlaer, French defeated, June 4—near Kir- pen, French under Jourdan, defeated by general Kray, June 20 —Auttrians defeated by Jourdan, July 6 — Archduke repulfed by the French, July S.—Siege of Mantua raifed, July 23. —Auftrians defeated by Jour- dan, Aug. 11.—Jourdan defeated by the archduke near Nuremberg, Aug. 18.—French defeated by the Auftrians, near Neuwied and Amberg, Aug 24.— Jourdan defeated near Munich, Sept. 11—near Lim- berg, Sept. 18; and at Ithy on the Leck, Sept. 19. 5M —Bengau CHRONOLOGY, A.D. —Bengau on the Danube tuken by the French, Aus guft 17.—Bonaparte feized Egypt, July 1.—Calvi, in Corfica, furrendered to the French.—Cclumbo, in Ceylon, furrendered to the Englith, June 12.—Con- ftance feized by the French, Aug. 2.—Corfica quitted by the Englifh.—Demerara, &c. furrendered to the Englifh, April 23; and again Sept. 23, 1803.—Ifle of Elba, near Leghorn, taken poffeffion of by the Englith, July 65 and relinquifhed in 1797.—Florence taken pofleffion of by the French in July, ‘and in March 20, 1799, and evacuated in July 18 follow- ing. — Frankfort feized by the French in July.—Goza, near Malta, farrendered to the French, June 11, but taken by the Englifh for the Neapolitans, in Nov. fol- Jowing.—Milan feized by the French, May 18.— Minorca furrendered to the Englifh, Nov. 14.—Mu- nich taken by the French, Aug, 25.—Nuremberg feized by the French, July 9, and by the Auftrians in the following Auguit.—Trent taken by the French. —The Dutch fleet under admiral Lucas, in Saidanna bay, Africa, confifting of 5 men of war and feveral frigates, furrendered to fir George Keith Elphin- ftone, Aug. 19.—Infurre&tion at St. Vincent’s fup- refled.— Peace between France and Naples—the French and Sardinians—England and Spain.—Am- boyna feized by the Englith, Nov. 28.—Telegraphs ufed in England. 1797.—Bank of England declined paying their notes in Specie, except the fraGtional parts, Feb. 25—iffued 20-fhilling notes and dollars, in payment, March 6 —and called in the dollars in the following OGober. —Jreland invaded by the Trench.—Mutiny on board the fleet at Portfmouth for advance of wages, &c. April 18, which fubfided May 10, when an act pafied to raife their wages, and the king pardoned the mu- tineers.—-Another mutiny at the Nore, which, after blocking up the trade of the Thames, fubfided June 10, when feveral of the mutineers were executed.— Penny and two-penny pieces of copper firft iffued in England, June 26—a die of a reduced fize was cut for them in 1806.—Revolution in Venice, May 17.— Battle between the Auftrians and Bonaparte, in Italy, Jan. 19 and 27, when the Aultrians were defeated.— Bonaparte defeated the archduke, April 1.—'The Auf- trians again defeated on the Upper Rhine, May 7, when the French took Frankfort, Kehl, &c.—The Englifh relinquifh the ifle of Elba.—The French in- yade South Wales without fuccefs, Feb. 22.—Ireland put under martial law, May 19.—The Spanifh fleet defeated by fir J. Jervis, and 4 line of battle thips taken, Feb. 14.—The Dutch fleet defeated by admiral Dun- can, on the coaft of Holland, when their 2 admirals and 15 fhips of war were captured or deftroyed, O4. rr.— Trinidad taken by the Englifh with 4 fhips of the line.—Trieft feized by the French, but retaken by the Auftrians, April 14.—Verona taken by the French, and great part deftroyed by fire, April 28.—Venice feized, and their republic abolifhed by the French, and foon after part of their territories feized by the Auf- trians, and furrendered to them by the French.— Se- ditious focieties and reading-rooms fupprefled by an a@ of parliament, June 21.—Seven-fhilling pieces were iffued in England in December of this year.— The total exports of Britifh manufacture in this year amounted to 29,217,0411., and in the next year, 1798, to 34 millions. —New{papers firlt publifhed at Conftan- A.D. tinople this year.—An earthquake at Sumatra did great damage, and above 3co perfons perifhed, Feb, 20.—The whole country between Santa Fé¢ and Pa- nama deftroyed by an earthquake, including the cities of Cuzco and Quito, with 40,0c0 inhabitants, in Fe- bruary.—In the fame month feveral violent fhocks were felt in the Weft Indies. —St. Domingo declared itfelf independent, in January. —Tyrol feized by the French, — Loretto pillaged by a French army, and the Mado- ua fent to Paris, Feb. 6. 1798.—Louis XVIII. retired to Peterfourgh, and was al. lowed a proceffion by the emperor of Ruffia, April 3.— The pope quitted Rome, when the French took poffef- fion of the city, Feb. 26, and Rome declared itfelf in- dependent as a republic ; the pope’s authority annulled, and he died their prifoner in Sept. 1799.—Alexandria in Egypt taken by the French.—Aleffandria in Italy feized by the French, and furrendered to the Auftrians and Roffians, July 24, 1799.—Malta taken by the French, July 11.—The Swifs troops totaliy defeated by the French, and their independency abolifhed, Sept. 19.—Battle between the Irifh rebels and the king’s forces, at Kilcullen, May 22—and at feveral other places, in all which the infurgents were defeated —in Connaught where the French aided. the Irifh re- bels, they were all taken prifoners, Sept. 7.—The bafons,, gates, and fluices of the canal at Bruges, deftroyed by the Englifh, May 19.- Genoa feized by the French, who were repulfed, Aug. 17, 1799— taken by the Englifh and Auftrians in May 18cq, and furrendered to the French in the following July. —The French invaded Ireland, and landed at Killala bay, Aug. 22, 1500 men, who furrendered themfelves prifoners on Sept. 7 following.—Marcou ifles de- fended againft the French troops, May 7.—Fiedmont f{urrendered to the French, Dec. 6—recovered in 1799. —The French fieet of 17 fhips of war, totally de- feated, and g of them taken, by tir Horatio Nelfon, Aug. 1, near the Nile in Egypt.—The French off the coaft of Ireland, confiting of g Ships, by fir J. B. Warren, O&. 12, when he took 5 of them.—War between France, Naples, and Sardinia, Nov.—Earth- quake at Sienna in Italy, when 50 perfons loft their lives, May 25.—Voluntary contributions for the fup- port cf government againft the French invafion amount- ed to upwards of 24 millions—belides 139,332). 15s. 2d. remitted from Bengal. 1799-—Coin in circulation in England, 44,000,000!.—Cor- fica, which put itfelf under the protection of England. in June 1794, and in Nov. 1798, relinquifhed this year. —A\ncona taken poffeffion of by the French in fuly 1796, and furrendered to the Imperialifts, Nov. 13, this year.—Battle near Naples between the French and Neapolitans, Jan. 18.—The archduke Charles totally defeated the French, and took z000 pmrifoners, March 14 and 26, near Stockach.—The French defeated near Verona, March 5, 25, and 26; and again 30, and April 5.—The French defeated by the Auttrians, April 19 and 20, near Cremona—by the Ruffians near Milan, April 27, 11,000 killed and taken prifoners—near Caffano, April 27.—Bonaparte repulfed at Acre by the Turks and fir Sidney Smith, April 16—defeated near the Adda, March 26, 31, and May 5—defeated by Suwarrow near Aleflandria, May 17—defeated at Zurich, with the lofs of 4000 men, June 4—by Suwar- row, June 19, when the French loft 18,265 men, 7 can- 6 non, AD CHRONOLOGY. non, and § ftandards.—-Tippo Saib defeated and fain near Periapatam in the Eat Indies by the Englifh farces, May 4.—The Auttrians defeated near Coire by general Maffena, May 7.—The archduke. defeated Jourdan, April 2.—General Kray defeated general Scherer, commanding the French in Italy, April 18. — Suwarrow defeated the French in forcing the paflage of the Adda, May 23.—Bonaparte defeated before Acre by fir Sidney Smith, May 27.—The French defeated at Naples by cardinal Ruffo, June 5.—Su- warrow defeated Macdonald near Parma, with the lofs of 10,000 men, and four generals, July 12.—Suawarrow defeated general Moreau, July 18.—Suwarrow defeat- ed general Joubert, who was killed, Aug. 15, at Novi, with 10,000 killed, 400 prifoners, and the whole ar- tillery.—The French defeated near ‘Tranto, June 19, near Manheim, Aug. 12,—The Imperialifts defeated near Zurich, Sept. 21.—The French defeated near Mendovi, Nov. 6—near Philipfburg, with the lofs, on the fide of the French, of 4,000 men, Dec. 3— near Coni, which place furrendered to the Aultrians, Dec. 4.—The Auttrians defeated near Genoa, and loft 3000 men, Dec. 12.—Corfu, which had been feized by the French in 1797, was taken by the Ruffians, March 3.—St. Elmo furrendered to the royal troops of Naples, July 12.—Capua furrendered to the allies, July 26.—Ceva and Cazale abandoned by the French, June 15.—Mantua, which furrendered to the French, Feb. 1, 1797, retaken July 28, by the Ruffians and Aultrians, after a long fiege.—Na- ples taken pofleffion of by the French, June 21; re- taken by cardinal Ruffo, July 10, and again pofleffed by the French, April 8, 1801.—The Dutch fleet in the Texel furrendered to admiral Mitchell, on his tak- ing the Helder, Aug. 29.—Tortona taken by the French, July 5, abandoned, July 20, and furren- dered to the Imperialifts, Aug. 11.-—Turin taken by the French, Dec. 6, 1798, furrendered to the Auf- trians and. Ruffians in June following, and the citadel, May 17.—Urbino, in Italy, furrendered to the Auf- trians, July 1o.—Holland invaded by the Englifh, Aug. 27 —abandoned by a convention, Oct. 19.—Printing- prefles in England licenfed, July 12. 3800,— Bonaparte’s life attempted by an explefion of com- buftibles, Dec. 24.—Union of Great Britain with Ire- Jand debated.— Battle of Novi, Auttrians ‘and French, Jan. 8—of Savona, in Italy, April 8—-of Veragio, —April to, the French defeated—of Stockach, May 1, the Auftrians defeated—of Mofkirch, May 3, ditto— of Rifs, May 9, Aultrians loft 500 men—of Broni, June 10, which gave the Freneh poffeflion of Italy from Milan to Placentia—of Marengo, 6000 Auttrians killed, 8000 prifoners, and 45 pieces of cannon taken, June 21—of Hohenlinden, Auftrians defeated, Nov. 3—on the Mincio, Dec. 25, Auttrians defeated.— Genoa taken by the Englifh and Auftrians in May, and furrendered to the French in July following.— Tufcany feized by the French.—Union act for Ireland pafled, July 2, and took place Jan. 1, 1801.—Ba- tavia taken by the Englith, Sept. 12.—Earthquake at Conttantinople, O&. 24, which deltroyed the royal alace, and many buildings.—Curacoa taken by the Englith, Sept. 14.—Inundation at St. Domingo, in Oétober, which deltroyed 1400 perfons—Gold mine difcovered at Waterford in Ireland. 1801.—Union with Ireland carried into effect, Jan, 1. AGD. —Abouki- in Egypt furrendered to the Englifh forces March 18.—Battle of Rhamonia in Egypt, French defeated by the Englifh, March 21.—Catro taken by the Englith and Turks from the French, June 21.—The ifland of Madeira taken by the Englifh, July 25.— Naples poffefled by the French, April 8.—The Danith fleet of 28 fail taken and deltroyed by Lord Nelfon off Copenhagen, Sept. 2, and Copenhagen bombarded. —A\n engagement between the French and Englith in the bay of Gibraltar, when the Hannibal of 74 guns was loft, July 5.—The French fleet defeated near Cadiz, July 16, two French 74’s burnt and one taken. -— Ternate in the Eaft Indies captured by the Englith, June 21.—Peace between Auftria and France, Feb. 9.—War between Spain and Portugal, I'eb. 28.— Peace between Naples and France, March—between Portugal and Spain, June ro—between France and Portugal, Sept. 29.—Alexandriain Egypt taken by the Englith, Aug. 22.—War between France and the Porte, Oct. 17.—St. Bartholomew, in the Welt Indies, taken from the Danes by the Englifh, March 20.— The firft imperial parliament in England in January. —A\n inundation on the coaft of Holland and Germany in November. ~Armed neutrality of the northern pow- ers againft England, by the emprefs of Ruffia, com- menced in 1780, and was renewed in 1800, diffolved by a Britifh fleet in this year.—St. Martin’s, a Danifh ifland in the Weft Indies, taken by the Englifh, March 24.—Porter raifed 2d. per gallon, Jan. 10, 1762, and again this year. 1802.—Sir Ralph Abercromby, commanding the Britifh army in Egypt, completely repulfed the French forces before Alexandria in Egypt, March 21—the brave general was wounded in this conteft, which terminated fo honourably to himfelf and the army, and died a few days after, univerfally lamented.— Peace between England, France, Spain, and Hol- land, March 27.—Firft ftone of the London Docks in Wapping laid, June 26—Weft India Docks, in the Ifle of Dogs, opened Aug. 21.—An earthquake nearly deftroyed Crema, in Upper Hungary, June 12. —An inundation in Dublin and parts adjacent, Dec. 2 and 3.—Stockholm nearly deftroyed by fire in June 1795, andagain Nov. 15 this year.—Statdholderate of Holland, &c. renounced by the prince of Orange, in a formal treaty with France, July.—Life-boats in- vented by Mr. Greathead, who received a premium from parliament in May. 1803.—Prifoners of war, all the perfons who happened tg be in France at the commencement of the war, detained, contrary to the ufage of nations, in May.—Bonaparte offers fums to Louis XVIII. on condition of his relinquifhing the crown in his favour, Feb. 26.—Go- ree reftored to the French.— War between England and France.—Battle in the Eaft Indies, between Scindiah and the Englifh, the former defeated, Aug. 11.— Domerara furrendered to the Englifh, Sep. 23.— Lubec taken by the French, June.—Tobago taken by the Englifh, June 30.—Hanover taken by the French, June 14.—A very bright meteor, which illu- minated the atmofphere almoft a minute, and rendered legible the writing on the figns in London, ¢ patt 8 in the evening, Nov. 18. 1804.—France formed into an empire May 5, and Bonaparte, a Corfican of mean extraétion, crowned emperor Decem- ber 2 following.—A fleet of India fhips under the com- 5M2 mand CHRONOLOGY, A.D mand of Capt. Dance beat off a {quadron of French men of war, Feb. 15.— he celebrated bering machine in the iron foundery at Hanover, valued at 2,000,000 crowns, earricd away Ey the French, Jan.—Go- ree taken by the Englifh, March 9.—Poor-rate in England eltimated, including donations, at near 4 millions. — Earthquake in Holland, fo violent as to caule the chandeliers in Maaflin church to vibrate two or three feet, Jan.—The prefent emperor of Germany affumed the title of emperor of Auftria, Aug. 11.— War between England and Spain, Dee. 14. 1805.—War between England and Spain,—-Letters of marque aid reprifal idued againft Spain, Jan. 11. —The London Wet Docks at Wapping opened Jan, 31-—A French fquadron from Rochfort levied contri- butions on fome of the Welt Indiaiflands, Feb. 21.—A French fquadron, confilting of the Marengo of 80 guns, admiral Linots, and two {trong frigates, beaten off by the Centurion of 50 guns, in Vizagapatam road in the Ealt Indics.— Bonaparte aflumes the title of king of Italy, March 15.—Battle of Bhurtpore in the Ealt Indies, Jefwunt Rao Holkar defeated by the Enghih, April 2.—-A change in the Dutch conttitution, and Schimmelpenuinck placed at the head of the govern- ment, under the title of Penfionary, May 1.—-The Genoefe fenate decree the union of the Ligurian re- public with France, May 25.—Lord Melville im- peached, June 26.—Sir Sidney Smith attempted to burn the Boulogne flotilla with the fire machines called carcafles, Aug. 31.—Treaty of offence and defence made between France and Nap!es at Paris, and ratified at Portici, O&. 8.—Marquis Cornwailis dies at Ghauze- pore in the province of Benares, O&. 5, et. 67.—Bat- tle of Guntzburg, French and Auftrians, the former viGtorious, O&. 2—of Uim, French and Auttrians, the latter taken prifoners, O&. 19, and Ulm furren- dered by general Mack with 30,000 men-—of Moelk, the Auftrians beaten, Nov. ro—of Loeben, Auttrians repulfed, Nov. 13—of Diernftein, Auftrians and French, former defeated, Nov. 14.—Vienna taken by the French, Nov. 13.—The imperial palace of Shoen- brunn tak-n by the French, Nov. 14.—Prefburg taken hy the French, Nov. 15.—-Battle of Tinterdorff, Auf- trians and Ruffians againft the French, former beaten, Nov. 16—of Autterlitz, French againft the Auttrians and Ruffians, Prench viGorious, Dec. 2.—Sir Robert Calder, with 15 fail of the hne, fell in, off Ferrol, with the combined fleets of the enemy, confifling of 20 fail of the line, and after an action of more than 4 hours, captured two fail, both Spanifh fhips.—Trench and Spanifh combined fleets engaged by Lord Nelfon off Cape Trafalgar, O&. 21, and after a dreadful canfli& of g hours, the gallant admiral took, funk or deftroyed, 1g fail, made the French commander in chief, admiral Villenevve, and two Spanifh admirals prifoners; one Sparith admiral was killed, and another badly wounded. The Britith force confifted of 27 fail of the lime (in cluding three 64’s). The enemy had 33 fail of the line, © 15 French and 15 Spanifh, The much-lamented Nelfon, whofe flag was hoifted on board the Victory, fell at the clofe of the engagement, and was {ucceeded by rear- admiral (now lord) Collingwood.—-French fleet en- gaged off Cape Ortegal by Sir R. Strachan, Nov. 4, who captured 4 French fail of the line.—Treaty of peace between France and Autftria figned at Prefburg, Dec. a7.—Treaty of peace with Scindiah in the Eaft ALD: Indies. conclud-d by general Lake, Nov. 22.—Peace concluded with Holkar, Dec, 24.— An earthquake at Lifenhartz in Styria, July 24.—An earthquake at Naples and in the adjacent towns and country, to a confider- able extent, fo lowed by the lofs of 20,000 lives, and a damage eftimated at 240 millions of francs, July 26.—A flock felt in many parts of Rome, July 30. 1806.—The remains of lord Nelfon, after a grand funeral proceffion, folemuly interred in St. Paul’s cathedral, Jan. 9 —Admiral Duckworth captured and deflroved 5 French fail of the line in the bay of St. Domingo, an 80 gun fhip and two 74’s taken, a three-decker and a 74driven afhore and burnt.—Public funeral of the Right Hon. Wm. Pitt, (who died Jan. 23,) Feb. 22.— French fqnadron,confifting of the Marengo, rear-admiral Linois, and the Belle Poule of 40 guns, captured, on their return from India, by Sir J. B. Warren, March 12. —Prince of Orange died, Apnl 22.—The proceedings on the impeachment of lord Melville commenced in Wettminfter-hall. April 29. —The ifland of Capritaken by Sir Sidney Smith, April 22.—Hodand erected into a kingdom, and Lonis Bonaparte, the French emperer’s brother, proclaimed king of it, by Bonaparte, with great ceremony at St. Cloud, Paris, June 5.—A refo'ution. to take effectual meafures for abolifhirg the flave trade adopted, on the motion of Mr. Tox, by the houfe of commons, June 10.—A fimilar refolution adopted, on the motion of Jord Grenville, in the houfe of lords, June 24.—Lord Melville’s trial termimated, June 12— his lordfhip being acquitted by the peers. —The bril- hiant victory of Maida, in Calabria, obtained by fir John Stuart, at the head of about 5000 Bnitifh troops, over general Regnier, who commanded an army of more than 8000 French.— A treaty figned at Paris, between France on the one hand, and Bavaria, Wirtemberg, Baden, and feveral fmaijler German ftates on the other, by which the latter renounced their conneétion with the empire, and under the name of the “ Confederation of the Rhine,” placed themfelves under the protcétion of France, July 12.—Gata furrenders to the French army, July 13.—A treaty of peace between France and Roffia, figned at Paris on the part of the lattey power by M. d’Oubril, July 20—refufed to be ratified by the emperor of Ruffia, with the advice of his council, Aug. 13.—Surrender of Buenos Ayres and its dependencies to major general Beresford and fir Home Popham, July 28.—In confequence of the con- federation of the Rhine, Francis IT. publifhed his refig- nation of the office of emperor cf Germany, which diffolved that ancient conttitution, Ang. 7.—Brilliant naval achievement by his majefty’s fhips Arethufa and Anfon, in an attack on the enemy near Moro caftle in the ifland of Cuba; the Spanifh frigate Po- mona, of 38 guns and 347 men, being eaptured . twelve 24-pounder gun-boats being deitreyed, each having a erew of roo men, and the fort, mounting fixteen 36-pounders, blown up.—A manifefto againit the French government, publifhed by the emperor of Ruffia, at Peterfburg, Aug. 30.—A tremendous hur- ricane at Dominica and Martinico, which did great damage to the iflands, and deftroyed many of the inhabitants, Sept. 9.—The Right Hon. Charles James Fox died, Sept. 13—and after a grand and impreffive proceffion, his remains were depolited in Weltminfter ‘Abbey, Ot. 10.—Sir Samuel Hood, having under his command CHRON OLOGY. A.D. command the Centaur and Monarch, fell in with a Fresch fquadron, confifting of five frigates and two brigs from Rochefort, and captured four of the frigates, but loft his right arm in the action.—Hoftilities com- menced between the French and Pruffians, by a fkir- mifh near the bridge of Saalfeld, in which prince Fer- dinand Louis of Pruffia, who defended that bridge, was killed, OG. 40.—A general aétion took place near eu between the French and Pruffians, in which the atter were defeated with immenfe lofs, and the confe- quences of which were the almoft complete annihilation of the army of the king of Pruffia, and the occupation of almolt the whole of his dominions by the enemy, O€. 14..—Defeat, and furrender of the corps of the Pruf- fian army, under prince Hohenloe, to the French divi- fion, commanded by Murat, O&. 21; foon after which the French gained poffeffion of Stettin and Cufirin.—A proclamation addrefled to the Poles from the T’rench head-quarters, announcing the advance of the French army to Poland, and promifing, in the name of Bonaparte, to render that country inde- A.D. pendent, if the people would thew themfelves worthy of becoming a nation, Nov. 3.—The electors of Sax- ony and Fleffe acceded to the confederation of the Rhine, Nov. 6.—‘Che Proffian corps commanded by general Blucher, after a brave and fkilful retreat, main- tained againft the three divifions of Bernadotte, Soult, and Murat, was attacked near Lubeck by a much rm poe force, and obliged to capitulate, Nov. 7.—~ agdeburg furrendered to the French, Nov. 7.—The duke of Brunfwick died at Ottenfon, near Altone, in confequence of a wound received in the battle of Jena, Nov. 9.—General Davoult, with a French corps, enters Pofen, Dec. 2.—Louis, king of Hel- land, iffues a decree for enforcing Bonaparte’s pre- tended blockade of the Britifh ifles through all the countres occupied by the Dutch troops, Decem- ber 2.— Phe French crofs the Vittula, and oc- cupy Praga, December 5. — Surrender of Thorn, Grandentz. 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