Digitized by the Internet Archive In 2011 with funding from University of Toronto http://www.archive.org/details/cyclopaediaoruni09rees THE CYCLOPADIA; OR; Universal Dictionary OF ARTS, SCIENCES, AND LITERATURE. VOL, IX. A= ola Ss are 0-2, mean ‘CAF aw OM 7 THE CYCLOPADIA; oR, UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY Or Arts, Sciences, and Literature, BY ABRAHAM REES, D.D. F.R.S. F.L.S, S. Amer. Soc. WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF EMINENT PROFESSIONAL GENTLEMEN. ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS, BY THE MOST DISTINGUISHED ARTISTS. i IN THIRTY-NINE VOLUMES. VOL. IX. EEE LONDON: PrinteD ror LONGMAN, HURST, REES, ORME, & BROWN, ParernosterR-Row, F.C. AND J. RIVINGTON, A. STRAHAN, PAYNE AND FOSS, SCATCHERD AND LETTERMAN, J- CUTHELL, CLARKE AND SONS, LACKINGTON HUGHES HARDING MAVOR AND CADELL AND DAVIES, S. BAGSTER, J. MAWMAN, JAMES BLACK AND SON, BLACK KINGSBURY PARBURY AND ALLEN, R- SCHOLEY, J. BOOTH, J. BOOKER, SUTTABY EVANCE AND FOX, BALDWIN CRADOCK AND JOY, SHERWOOD NEELY JONES, J« AND A. ARCH, AND JONES, R. SAUNDERS, HURST ROBINSON AND COs J» DICKINSON, J. PATERSON, E. WHITESIDE, WILSON AND SONS, AND BRODIE AND DOWDING. 1819. AAR RA RY AC. (oct 21 1965 J ri ne emma 9 10 i 6 v et ¥ “ ? : - “CKCLOPEDIA: OR, A NEW UNIVERSAL. DICTIONARY OF ARTS and SCIENCES. CO TL. VST ON. : OLLISION, from the Latin Collifo, a breaking, knock- ing, or dafhing together, in Philofophy and in Mechanies, means the meeting, mutual ftriking, or congrefs, of two or more bodies, one of which at leaft is in motion. The colli- fions of bodies. and the refults arifing from thofe collifions, form by far the greateft part of the operations of nature, as well as of artificial mechanics ; hence the induftry of man has {pared no pains in the invelligation of the laws which regulate thofe motions, and in the performance of experi- ments tending to confirm and to illultrate the fame. In the theory of collifion or percuflion, the fimpleft cafes are con- fidered firlt, and fuch, indeed, as cannot adtually take place in nature; for inftance, two bodies are fuppofed to move equally (that is, each of them, or one at leait, to run through equal lengths in equal portions of time) in non-refifting mediums, and thofe bedies are farther fuppofed to be either hard, or foft, or elaftic. A hard body 1s that whofe parts retain their refpetive fituation or figure in all cafes, not yielding to any ftroke or percuffion. A foft body is that whofe parts yield to any ftroke, and have no power to re- cover their original fituation ; and laftly, an elaftic body is that whofe parts yield to any ftroke, but prefently regain their original form and fituation.. Now, in nature, (as far as we know) there are no bodies perfe@ily elaftic or per- feétly unelaftic; including under the latter name both thofe that are perfeGly hard and thofe that are perfeétly foft. All the bodies we are acquainted with are partially elaltic, but in various degrees; nor can their motions take place without meeting with fome obftruétion. Yet the laws of collifion, under the above-mentioned (uppofitions, being de- monftratively deduced from the general laws of motion, ae are juftly aflumed as axioms, determine the pheno- ou. IX. 7 mena which would take place if thofe fuppofitions were real it being afterwards more eafy and practicable to eftimate, and to allow for thofe deviations of praétical refults from the abftra&t theory, which arife from the imperfect elaf- ticity of bodies, from refiftances of mediums, from friction, &e. ‘ law of motion, which fays, that ation and re-aétion are See Laws of A The theory of collifion is derived from fir Ifaac Newton’s “sl lways, equal and contrary to each other. motion. Definition 1. The re/pedive velocities or celerities of bodies are proporlional to the fpaces which they defcribe in a given time. ‘Thus, if a body, A, pafles through an extenfion of 10 feet in one fecond of time, whilft the body, B, runs through an extenfion of roo feet in the fame time, then the re{pective celerities of thofe bodies are faid to be as 10 to 100; orasone to ten. Def. 2: The bodies are faid to frrike diretly againft each other, when in firiking, there occurs no reafon why they foould turn to- wards one fide rather than towards another ; fo ihat both before and after the froke, the motion is in the fame flraight line, unle/s it be all defrayed. Def. 3. Jn every other cafe the flroke is faid to be oblique. The principal propofitiop belonging to this theory, confiders two bodies that ftrike dire&tly againft each other, and the re- fult is coneifely expreffed by fir Lfaac Newton in the following words: ‘* the quantity of motion, that is gathered by taking the fum of the motions made towards the fame part, and the difference of thofe made towards the contrary parts, is not altered Wythe action of bodies amongft themfelves.”” For the fake of perfpicuity we fhall endeavour to demontftrate this propolition, by confidering the two cafes feparately. 4) B “THEOREM C OFF Pst © N. Tueorem I. If a body, A, (Plate XV. Mechanics, fig.1.) ftrike diretily azain/} another body, B, which is either at reft, or moving in the Jame direélion, but flower ; the fum of the motions in both the bodies towards the fame parts, will remain the fame after the Sfroke, as it was before that ftroke. Let C D exprefs the motion of the body A, and EF the motion of the body B; oz. that whillt A moves from C to D, B moves from Eto F. Therefore, the fum of the motions is CD plus EF. Now, fince it moves with greater velocity than B moves with, it neceflarily follows, that A mult overtake, and {trike again B. And it will appear, that after the ftroke the fum of the motions is the fame as it was before, viz. CD plus EF. For fince a&tion and re-a¢tion are equal (31 law of motion), if A, by ftrik- ing on B, communicates to it the additional motion F G; it muft lofe as much itfelf; viz. DK (equal to F G) muft be fubtra&ted from CD. Se that after the flroke, C K is the motion of A, and EG that of B; and the fum of thofe motions is C K plus EG, equalto C D plus EF; for, fince F G is equal to D K, add E F and C K to both, and it willbe F@ + EF +CK equalto KD +CK+ EF; cz.BG+CK=CD¢+EF. The various cafes of this propofition are as follow: If F G is equal to CD, then K and C coincide, and C K va- nifhes or becomes equal to nothing (as in jig. 2.) ; hence, after the ftroke, A will be at reft. If F G exceed CD; then K will fall beyond ©; and the motion of A will become retrograde or negative (as in fg. 3.) Therefore, the fum of the motiors towards the fame part is the difference between EG andC K; wiz. EG minus C K. If B ftood at reft, then its motion becomes equal to o, and in that cafe the fum of the motions is reduced to CD. Tueorem II. Tf two bodies, moving towards contrary parts, firike diretily againft each other, the Jum of their motions towards the fame parts (which is the difference of their motions towards con- trary parts) before and after the flroke, will always remain the fame towards the fame parts. Let the body, A (jg. 4.), move from C towards D, and let C D reprefent its motion, whilft the body, B, moves in a contrary cireétion from E towards F, and let E F repre- fent its motion. Make 1D H equal to EF; then C H is the difference of the motions towards the contrary parts, and is, at the fame time, the fum of the motions towards the fame part; viz. towards G. Now, after the ftroke, the fame, C H, will be as the fum of the motions towards the fame part, viz. towards G. Let the motion of B, after the ftroke, be towards G, and let it be reprefented by EG. ‘Therefore, the force communicated to B is F E plus E G,thatis, FG. But (by the 3d law of motion) making DK equal to FG, DK will reprefent the motion loft by A ; fo that if D K be fub- tracted from C D, the remainder, C K, will be the motion of A towards G. Now, fince D K is equal to FG, and DHA is equal to FE; it will be D K minus D H, (iz. KH), equal to FG minus FE (wiz. EG). Therefore, fince K H is equal to EG; K H will reprefent the motion of B after the ftroke, and C K will reprefent the potion of A; fo that CK plus KH is equal to CH, and is the fum of the motions of both the bodies towards G. If F G is equal to CD (asin fig. 5.); then K and C cae incide, confequently the motion of A becomes equal to o, If f G exceeds C D (as in fig. 6.) JK will fall beyond C, and the motion of A will be retrograde ; but (fince F G is equal to DK, and FE to DH) KH will be equal to EG ; therefore, taking C K from both, C H will be equal to EG minus C &. But C H was as the fum of the mo- tions towards G before the ftroke, and EG minus C K is as the fum of the motions towards the fame part; namely, as the difference of the motions towards the contrary parts after the ftroke. Therefore, the fum of the motions to- wards the fame part will be the fame both before and after the ftroke. Having demonttraied the two fimpleft theorems belonging to the doctrine of collifion, wherein the equality of the mo- tions before and after the ftroke has been confidered, it is now neceflary to examine the direétion, the velocity, and the momentum of the bodies after the ftroke ; and for this pur- ies the properties of the centre of gravity mult be recol- ected. But, that property of the centre of gravity, which is more immediately concerned with the prefent fubje&t, is briefly expreffed in the following lines : Lf bodies, moving in the fame flraight line, flrike againf? each other, the flate of their common centre of gravity will not thereby be altered ; viz. it will either remain at reft, or it will continue to move in the fame flraight line, exadily as it moved before the Jrroke. See Center of Gravity. Tueorem III. Let there be two non-elaftic bodies (viz. either perfeGtly hard or perfe@ly foft); and if one of them move in a firaight line, whilft the other is at reft in that line, or is moving in the Same direétion, but at a flower rate, or is moving in the cene trary direGtion; then thofe bodies muft flrike diregily againft each other, and after the fircke they will either remain at reft, or they will move on together, conjointly with their common centre of gravity.—Their momentum, after the flroke, will be equal to the fum of their momentums before the flroke, if they both moved in the fame diredtion ; but it will be equal to the difference of their momentums if they moved in contrary direGtions.—T heir velocity, after the frroke, will be equal to the quotient that arifes from dividing the Jum of their momen- tums, if they both moved the fame way, or the difference of their momentums, if they moved contrary ways, by the fum of their quantities of matter. That, after the ftreke, the two bodies muft either remain at reft or move on together, is evident; for, fince they are not elaftic, there exifts no power that'can effe& their fepa- ration. With refpecé to the momentum, it mutt be obferv- ed, that where the bodies meet (by the 3d law of motion), whatever part of the momentum is loft by one of the bo- dies, muft be acquired by the other; therefore, if before the ftroke the bodies moved the fame way, their joint momen- tum, after the ftroke, will be equal to the fum of their mo- mentums before the ftroke. lf one of the bodies was at reft, then, as its momentum is equal o, the joint momentum will be equal to the momentum of the other body before the meeting. Ifthe bodies moved towards each other, then their momentum, after the meeting, will be equal to the difference of their former momentums ; and if in this cafe their momentums are equal, then their difference vanifhes ; that is, the bodies will remain at reft after their meeting. The laft part of the theorem is evident, for the momen tum of a body in motion is equal to the produa of the velo- city multiplied by the quantity of matter. See sedate "s c ee —— i sail COLLISION. The weights and velocities of the two bodies before their meeting being given, the velocity, after the meeting, may be determined by the following method, which is applicable to the four cafes of figs. 7,8, 9, and to. Let A and Bbe the two bodies, C their common centre of gravity, and D the place of their meeting. Make DE equal to DC, fo that the point, D, may be between C and E; then DE will reprefeat the velocity after their meeting ; for, fince the bodies, after their meeting, move together conjointly with their common centre of gravity; and the centre of gravity has the property mentioned immediately before the third theorem ; it follows that the velocity of their common cen- tre of gravity after their meeting, mult be equal to its velo- city before the meeting ; wiz. D E mutt be equal to CD, and is the fame as the velocity of the two bodies after the meeting, becaufe, then, they move together with the centre of gravity. Fig. 7. fhews when the bodies move the fame way. Fig. 8. fhews the body, B, at reft before the ftroke, in which cafe Band D coincide. In fig. g. the two bodies move to- wards each other ; and fig. 10. fhews the two bodies moving towards each other with equal momentums, in which cafe they will remain at reft after the meeting. In all thofe four figures, the refpective velocities of the bodies are reprefented by AD and BD, and A B is their difference. The re- fpe€tive momentums are reprefented by the product of the weight of A multiplied by AD, and of the weight of B multiplied by BD. ‘The momentum after the meeting is re- prefented by the weights of both the bodies multiplied by DE. Example of the computation of the firft cafe, fig.7.—Let A weigh 10 lb. and move at the rate of 4 feet per minute. Let B weigh 6lb., and move at the rate of 2 feet per mi- nute, and let the diftance A B be 32 feet. The centre of 32 X 10 10 = 20 feet; hence AC = 12 feet. Put BD =x, and AD will be equal to 32 +x. Then the time employed by A in moving from A to D, is equal to the quotient of the {pace, 32 +- x, divided by its velocity ; viz. = ge. 5 gravity is found by faying 16 : 32 :: 10: BC = 4 And the time employed by B in moving from B to D, is equal to the quotient of the f{pace, x, divided by the velo- he x é city of B, viz. = 7 But, fince the bodies meet at D, thofe times muft be equal; that is, eae = “; and by the refolution of this fimple equation, we have 64 + 2 « = 4x; and x = 32= BD. Then DE= DB + BC= 32 + 20= £2 feet; wiz. after the meeting, the two bodies will move from D to E, which are 52 feet apart, in as much time as each of them employed in going to D; viz. 16 minutes. Therefore, in order to find how many feet per minute the bodies will run over after the meeting, divide 52 by 16, and the quotient, 3%, is the anfwer. The magnitude or quantity of the ftroke is deduced from the third general law of motion, and from the nature of the momentum of a body in motion, which is equal to the pro- du& of the quantity of matter, or weight of the body, multiplied by the velocity, confequently in the fame body the momentum is proportionate to the velocity. The parti- culars relative to the magnitude of the ftroke, are exprefled in the following theorem, Tueorem IV. Lf a body in motion Prike dire@ly againft another body, the mag- nitude of the ftroke is proportional to the momentum lof}, at the concourse, by the more powerful body. Alfo, when the latier body is at rofl, the quaztity of the ftroke is proportional ta ihe velocity of the former body.—If the fecond body be moving in the fame direGion wiih the Sift, but at a flower rate. The magnitude of the flroke will be ihe fame as if the fecond body Stood fiill, and the firft impinged upon it with a velocity equal to the difference of their velocities —And, lafily, if the bodies move dtreédlly towards cach other, the magnitude of the firoke is the fame as if one of the bodies Stood at reff, and the other Struck it with the Jum of their velocities. Thus much may fuffice with refpe& to the congrefs or collifion of non-elaftic bodies. It is now neceflary to ftate the particulars belonging to the congrefs of elaltic bodies ; viz. of thofe whofe parts yield to any impreffion, but. fre- quently recover their fituation, by re-aéting the contrary way with a force, which, in bodies perfeéily claflic, is equal to the impreffion or ftroke received. There are innumerable degrees of elafticity. See Evasricity. TuEorem V. When two bodies, that are perfed elaftic, Srike dire@ly again/t each other, their relative velocity (by which is meant the ex- cefs whereby the velocity of the fwifter body exceeds that of the flower) will be the fame before and after the flroke ; viz. they will recede from each other with the fame velocity with which they approached before the froke. The magnitude of the ftroke (Theor. IV.) is proportional to the refpetive velocities. And in bodies that are perfectly elaftic, the reftoring force is equal to the comprefling one ; therefore, if the momentums of the bodies produced a cer- tain compreffion, the elaftic force muft re-aét on the bodies with equal power ; hence the bodies will be forced to recede from each other with the fame velocity with which they ap- proached each other. From what has been ftated above, the refults arifing from the congrefs of bodies that are perfeétly elaflic, may be cafily deduced in all the variety of cafes in which the two bodies may be conceived to meet. The particulars upon which thofe refults more immediately depend, are, firft, that the diftances of two bodies from their common centre of gravity are inverfely as their weights; (fee Center of Gravity and its properties) ; fecondly, that the ftate or the uniform mo- tion of the centre of gravity of bodies is not altered by the mutual action of thofe bodies on each other; thirdly, that in bodies that are perfectly elaftic, theareftoring is equal to the compreffing force; and fourthly, that the diltances of the bodies from each other, and from their common centre of gravity, are cqual in equal times taken before and after the ftroke; for in thofe two cafes they move with equal ve- locities. All the cafes of dire& congrefs of two perfeétly elaftic bodies are delineated in the figures 11, 12, 13, 14; 15, 165 17, 18, and 19, in which A and B reprefent the two bodies; C is their common centre of gravity, D the place where they meet. A D expreffes the velocity of A, BD the velocity of B, and C D that of the centre of gravity. Hence by in- {pecling the figures it will be eafily difcerned when both the bodies are in motion, or one of them is at reft; alfo their diretions, &c. Then the rule for determining the veloci- ties after the ftroke is as follows:—Take a point E in the line A B, produced if neceflary, fo that the diftance C E be equal to CD; then, after the ftroke, the right line E A will Bz exprefs CO LoL Sho’. exprefs the velocity of the body A from E towards A, and the right line E B will exprefs the velocity of B from E to- wards B. Tn fg. 11, B is larger than A, (which is plainly indicated by the fituation of the centre of gravity C), B is at reft, and A {trikes againft it. In this cafe, after the itroke, both the bodies will recede from the point D, with the velocities EA and E B. In fg. 12, A, the larger body, runs againft the body B, which isat reft. In fig. 13. the body A is larger than B, and they are both in motion the fame way. In fg. 14, A is lefs than B; the reftasin the preceding cafe. In fig.15, A and B meet at D, where A remains at reft. In fg. 16, A and B are equal, and after the ftroke they recede with inter- changed velocities. In fig. 17, the bodies are proportional to their velocities ; hence the points C, F, D, and E, coin- cide. In fig. 18, A remains ftationary at the place of con- grefs D. Laftly, m jig..19, though the bodies A and B meet at D between the points A and B, yet after the llroke they both move towards F. The numerical computation of thofe cafes may be eafily comprehended by the following example,’ which is adapted to the cafe of jig. 13. A and B are two elaftic bodies. A weighs 2 Ib., and moves at the rate of 8 feet per fecond. B weighs 1 lb., and moves the fame way at the rate of 5 feet per fecond. The diftance A B is 12 feet. 1. To find the place of the centre of gravity C, we have (ACEP Bas Bisse Ar. C es epizg store ta Aus slopithaL Ave — as nd OD — 2..To find the diitance BD, put BD = x; and fince the d ftances A D and BD are run over in the fame time, the former at the rate of 8, and the latter at the rate of 5 feet per fecond; therefore we have é a : hence 8x = 5x + 60; and 3x = 60; orx = 20= BD. g- If the diftance B D ; viz. 20, be divided by the velo- city of B (viz. by 5); the quotient 4, is the number of feconds, during which the bodies moved from their refpec- tive places A and B, to the place of their congrefs D. 4. EC = CD = CB + BDi= 8 + 20 = 28)suand EA = EC —AC= 28 — 4= 24; which being di- vided by 4 (the number of feconds found above) gives 6 for the velocity of A after the ftroke, in the direGtion from E towards A. AlfOoEB=EC + CB=28 +8 = 36; which being divided by 4 (the number of feconds, &c.) gives 9 for the velocity of B after the ftroke in the direGtion fram E towards B. So that after the ftroke, the bodies A and B will both continue to move the fame way, but the former at the rate of 6, and the latter at the rate of g feet per fe- cond. It is now neceflary to apply the above theory to thofe cafes which really occur in nature, and in the firft, fince all known bodies are partially elaftic, we muft thew how to eftimate the refults of the col/ifion of fuch bodies. Thus. let A and B, figs. 20 and 21, be two bodies imperfedly elattic, C their common centre of gravity. and D the place of their meeting. Divide AC in a, fo that AC may be to aC, as the force compreffing the body, A, is to the force whereby it reftores itfelf. Alfo divide BC in 4; fo that BC may be to 3C as the force compreffing the body B is to the force whereby it rftores itfelf. Take CE equal to CD; then the right line Ea will exurefs the velocity of A after the ftroke in the direction from E towards a, and the right line Ed will exprefs the velocity of B after the ftroke in the dire&tion from E towards D. In the foregoing paragraphs the diftanees have been ree- koned from the centres of the bodies ; but fince the bodies mutt ftrike with their furfaces, and not with the centres, therefore, when great accuracy Is required. the thickneffes of the bodies muft be deducted from the diftances. How- ever, when the diftances are confiderable, and the fizes of the bodies proportionately very fmall, it is immaterial whe~ ther the diftances be reckoned from the centres*or from the furfaces of the bodies; the difference becoming infignifi- Cant. When more than two bodies move in the fame ftraight line, the computation of the velocity of each body after the various ft-okes cannot be expreifed under any gene- ral rules; the varicty of cafes being too yreat, and often very intricate: yet when any particular cafe prefents itfelf, the preceding rules will be found fufficient to determine the particulars; obferving to apply the computation ‘to the two bodies which, from the cireumftances of the cafe, ap- pear to itrike firft, then to one of thofe and the next, and fo forth. But fometimes the equality of the bodies, their being contiguous to each other, and other favourable parti- culars, render the calculation pretty eafy and obvious. Thus, if any number of equal and perfectly elaftic bodies lie at reft, contiguous to each other in the fame ftraight line, and another body. equal to one of them, ftrike the firft of them in the fame ftraight line, with any velocity; then after the ftroke the ftriking body and all the reft will remain motion- lefs, and the laft body only will move on with the velocity of the ftriking body. 4 If the movements, inft-ad of being equable, as we have hitherto fuppofed, be either accelerated or retarded, the momentum for each fingle {mall portion of time, muft be reckoned fuch as belongs to the velocity acquired at that particular moment. In curvilinear movements, the direc- tion of the motion in each point is the fame as that of the tangent tothe curve at that point. Laftly, if the movements, either accelerated or retarded, be likewile curvilinear (as in the vibration of pendulums;) the momentum for each fin- gle point muft be deduced from the degree of acceleration and from the direction of the tangent, at that particular point. Hitherto we have confidered the collifion of bodies, which ftrike direGtly againft each other; that is, in a direion perpendicular to their furfaces, and in the dire@tion of their centres. It is now nec-ffary to treat of oblique collifion ; for which purpofe the doctrine of the compolition and refo- lution of forces, or of movements, mv ft be previoufly known. See Compojition and re/olution of Forces. Treorem VI, If a body, perfeétly elaftic, as A, fig. 22, firike obliquely at C onthe firm obftacle BY, then, after the ftroke, this body will be refleGed from that obflacle in the dire@ion CE, in fuch a manner as to form the angle of refledion EC F, equal tothe angle of inctdence A C B. The obiique force,, A.C, being refolved into two forces, viz. DC perpendicular to the obttacle, and A D parallel to it; the effet on the plane is the fame as if tce body had advanced towards it directly from D, and (according to the laws already ftated) the body A, after the ftroke, would be fent back in the dire&tion CD. But of the two forces into which the original force of A was refolved, this body retains the one reprefented by A D, fince this force was not concerned in [triking the obftacle; therefore, after the ftroke, the body, A, is actuated by two forces, viz. one reprefent= - ed by CD, equal to A B, equal to E F; and the other re- prefented by CF, equal to DA, equal to DE; hence it mut move in the diagonal C E; and fince the lines CF, I BE; Pe ee ee see C Ob: FE, are refpeétively equal to the lines CB, BA, and the angles at B and F are equal, being right angles; therefore the triangle, E FC, is inevery refpect equal to the triangle ACB; confequently the angle of refleGtion, ECF, is equal to the angle of incidence AC B. It evidently follows, from this propofition, that the force of an oblique ftroke is to that of the fame ftroke coming in a perpendicular direction, as the fine of the angle of inci- dence is to radius, If the body, inftead of ftriking upon a-plane ftrikes upon acurve furface, the effeét is the fame as if it ftruck ona plane, tangent to that furtace at the ftriking point. This being premifed, the application of the foregoing rules to the oblique collifion of bodies will be illuftrated by the following examples. Let two non-elaitic bodies A and B, fig. 23, move, the former in the direétion A C, the latter in the direétion BD, and ler them meet at CD. Draw the line, M G, through their centres, and through the point of conta@. From A and B, viz the origina: fituation of thofe bodies, drop AM and BN perpendicular on M G. Then the force of each body may be refolved into two forces, viz, that of A into A Mand MC; and that of B into BNandND. Of its two forces, A retains the force A M. whilit M C is exerted againit the other body. Of the two forces of the hody B, the force BN is retained by it, whiilt the force N D is ex- erted againit the other body. Thercfore, the actions of thofe bodies upon each other is exactly the fame as if they moved directly one from M and the other trom N; hence the above ftated rules of dire& collifion, will ferve to find out whether the bodics, after the ftroke, will proceed both the fame way, or different ways, and at what rate. But when their velocities have been thus determined; for in- ftance, if it be found, that had the bodies moved direétly from M and N after the ftroke, the body, A, would have moved as faras O, whilft the body, B, would have moved as far as G; then it muft be recollected, that, in the prefent cafe of obiique collifion, the body, A, has retained the force AM; therefore, after the ttroke, the body, A, is a@uated by two forces, viz. one equal and parallel to A M, and an- other which is equaland parallel to CO, in confequence of which this body muft run a compound courfe, which is found thus: Through the centre, C, draw C I equal and parallel to AM; through I, draw IE equal and parallel to C O, then the diagonal C E exhibits the velocity and the direétion of the body, A, after the oblique concourfe. With refpect to the body, B, it has been fad, that at the concourfe this body retaina the force BN, and that, if the bodies had moved direétly towards each other, B would, after the ftroke, have moved from D to G. Therefore, through D draw D Hequal and parallel to BN, and through H draw HF equal and paral el to D G; and, laftly, the diagonal, D F, will reprefent the velocity and the dire¢tion of the body, B, after the oblique concourfe. If the bodies be perteétly elaftic, then fuppofe it be fourd (by the rules for el:ftic bodies) that, after the fup- poted dire& concourte, the body, A, would have been fent back to Q, in the fame time that B would have been fent back to R; ir follows, that after the oblique ftroke, the body, A, will be actuated by two forces, viz. one equal and parallel to A M, and the other equal and parallel to CQ. The body, B, will likewife be a&tuated by two forces, viz. one equal and parallel to BN, and the other equal and paral- lel to DR; therefore, in, fig. 24, draw Q Z'through Q, equal and parallel to ets a through Z draw I Z equal and parallel to C Q; then the diagonal, C Z, reprefents the coL dire&tion and the velocity of the eclaftic body, A, efter the oblique ftroke—Again, through R draw the line, RX, equal and parallel to BN, and through X draw the line, X Y, equal and parailel to D R, then the diagonal, D X, will reprejent the velocity and the diretion of the elaftic body, B, after the oblique ftroke, Amongtt all the cafes of collifion, we have hitherto omit- ted to mention the ftriking of a body upon an immoveable obftacle. This has been done merely becaufe the particu- lars belonging toit may be eafily derived from the confidera- tion of the foregoing cafes; it being only neceflary to con- fider this cafe as if it were that of the collifion of two bodies, either elaftic or non-elaft:c, or partially fo, and to fuppofe that one of the bodies, which reprefents the immoveable ob- ftacle, is infinitely great. There isa difference between the ftroke of an elaftic body, and that ofa non-elaftic one, which, not being very obvious, dcferves to be mentioned, This is, that the effe& of the blow of an elaftic body upon another body, as up»n a plane, is double to that of a non-elaftic body, their mafles and ve- locities being equal. ‘This arifes from the elafticity of the former, which, after the ftroke, by endeavouring to recover its original figure, a¢ts upon the plare with a force equal to the fift mopreffion ; whereas a non-elaitic body aéts only with the firft impreffion, See the article Percussron. Alfo, if the reader wifh to fee the original inveft:gation of the laws belonging to the collifion of bodies, together with any analytical and experimental illuftration of the fame, he may perufe Dr. Wallis’s paperin the P.il. Tranf. No. 43; Mr. Huygens’s paper, Phil. Tranf. No. 46; fir Chrift. Wren’s paper, Phil. Tranf. No. 43; Gravefande’s Mat. Elem. of Nat. Phil. edited by Defaguliers; Gregory’s ‘Mechanics, vol. i. chap. v.; and all the beft works on me- chanics, COLLIUS, Peter, in Biography, of the college of Milan, flourith dina the beginning of the feventeenth century, and was the author of a curious treatife entitled ** De Ani- malibus Paganorum,’’ printed at Milan in two vols, 4to. in the years 1622-3. In this work he decides without hefitation on the future happine{s or mifery of many virtuous and truly iliultrious charaéters of the Pagan world. His conclufions were founded on conjectures, deduced from a comparative view of their means of divine knowledge, their lives and manners, their opinions and writings, united with the teltimony of facred and profane hillory. He publifhed aifo a treatife ‘“* De fanguine Chrilti,”? and a quarto vo-ume entitled “* Conciuliones Theologice.’? In them all isa great difplay of fingularity, accompanied with a good fhare of talents. Nouv. Did. Hitt. COLLIWILY, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Ceylon ; 50 miles W. of Trincomaly. COLLMEN, or CuttMen, a town of Germany, in the circle of Upper Saxony, and circle of Leipfick; 6 miles E.N.E. of Mutfehen. COLLOBRIE‘RES, a town of France, in the departe ment of the Var, and chief piace of a canton, in the diftn@ of Toulon; 18 miles N. E. of Toulon. The place con- tains 1509, and the caston 2933 inhabitants: the territory includes 3224 kihometres, and two communes. COLLOCOCCUS, in Botany, Sloan. Lollococca. COLLON, in Geography, a poft and fair town of the county of Louth, Ireland, which is neat and well built ; and which has improved contiderably under the aufpices of the Jate iord chief baron Folter, and his fon the right honourable John Fofter, the much refpected fpeaker of the lrish pan ° See Corps COL of commone, when the union took place. miles N. from Dublin. COLLONGE, a town of France, in the department of Léman, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of Geneve ; the place contains 1178, and the canton 8947 in- habitants: the territory comprehends 2124 kiliometres, and nine communes. COLLOPS, in Ancient Geography, an appellation dittin- guifhing two towns of Africa; the one called ‘¢ Collops Parva,’ appears to have been the fame with Cullucitane, fituate E.. of the Sinus Numidicus; the other, called ‘‘ Collops Mazna,” was, according to Ptolemy, the fame with Cullu, and fituated N.W. of the fame gulf. COLLOQUIA, in Ecclefaflical Hifery, a name given in Swifferland to affemblies of the proteitant Grifon clergy. Fach league is divided into a certain number of diftriéts, the minifters of which affemble twice every year ; and thefe aflemblies are called coMeguia. Each colloquium has its pre- fident, and each league a fuperintendent, calledadean. The fupreme authority in {piritual concerns is vefted in the fynod, which is compoled of the three deans, and the clergy of each league ; the fynod affembles every year alternately in each of the three leagues. Candidates for holy orders are examined before the fynod. The neceffary qualification for admiffion into the church, ought to be the knowledge of Hebrew, Greek, and Latin ; but many are ordained with- out the leaft acquaintance with either of thefe languages. Formerly Latin was folely ufed, as well in the debates of the fynod, as for the purpofe of examining the candidates ; but at prefent that tongue is more and more difufed, and German is employed in its ftead. See Gaisons. COLLOQUIUM, in Law, (a colloguendo), a talking together, or affirming of a thing, laid in declarations for words in aGtions of flander, &c. COLLUCIANIST&, in Church Hiflory, a defignation given to the Arians, from the martyr Lucian, a prefbyter of Antioch. COLLUM, in Anatomy. See Neck, and Cervix. COLLURIO, in Ornithology, the name given by Briffon to the Lanius Collurio of the Linnzaa Fauna Suecica ; red backed fhrike of Englifh writers. Coxrturio madagafcarienfis, of Briffon, the hook-billed fhrike, danius curviroftris. COLLUSION, a fecret underftanding between two parties, who plead, or proceed, fraudulently againft each other, to the prejudice of a third. This collufion is cither apparent, when it fhows itfelf on the face of the a& ; or more commonly, it is fecret and artfully concealed by a fhow of honefly. This is a practice which the law abhors ; and, therefore, when detected, it makes void all things dependent upon it, though otherwife in themfelves good. Co. Litt. 109, 360. Plowd. 54. Collufion may fometimes be tried in the fame a@ion, wherein the covin is, and fometimes in another aétion, as for lands aliened in mortmain by a quale jus; and where it is apparent, the proof of itis unneceflary ; but when it is fecret, it muft be proved by witneffes, and found by a jury like other matters of fact. 9 Rep. 33- The ftatute of Weltm. 2. 13 Ed. I. c. 33. gives the writ guale jus, and inquiry in thefe cafes ; and there are feveral other ftatutes relating to deeds, made by collufion and It is 29 Irifh fraud. The cafes particularly mentioned by the ftatute oF Weltm. 2. are of guare impedit, affife, &c. which one cor- poration brings again{t another, with intent to recover the land or advowfon, for which the writ is brought, held in mortmain, &c. See Fravup. In the canon law, collufion, in matters of benefices, va- COL cates the benefice, and incapacitates the perfon from holding any benefice at all. COLLUTHIANS, in Ecclefiaftical Hiflory, a religious fe&t, which rofe about the beginning of the fourth century ; on occafion of the indulgence fhewn to Arius by Alexander, patriarch of Alexandria. Several people being {candalized at fo much condefcen- fion; and, among the reft, Colluthus, a prieit of the fame city ; he hence tock a pretence for holding feparate aflem- blies, and by degrees proceeded to the ordination of priefts, as if he had been a bifhop; pretending a neceffity for this authority, in order to oppole Arius. To his fchifm he added herefy ; teaching, that God did not create the wick- ed ; that he was not author of the evils that befal men, &c.—He was condemned by a council held at Alexandria by Ofius, in the year 330. COLLUTHUS, in Biography, a prefbyter of Alexandria, was founder of the temporary Chriftian fet, at the be- ginning of the fourth century, above-mentioned. By the decrees of the council held by Ofius, Colluthus was def- poiled of the epifcopal honours with which he had invefted himfelf, and the prefbyters whom he had ordained were de- graded. Colluthus fubmitted to the decree, and returned quay to the dns of his office as a parochial prefbyter ; is followers likewife re-united themfelv church. Nouv. Di&. Hift. PS eee COLLUTION, Collutio,in Medical Writers, is fometimes ufed for the wafhing of the mouth, particularly, when done to clean or faften bad or loofe teeth ; or free the gums, &c from ulcers. : COLLUVIES, aterm which Calcott and other writers on the univerfal deluge have applied to the fluid mafs, into which, according to their opinion, the ftrata of the antedilu- vian earth were diffolved, and their conftituent corpufcles fe- arated. See DeLuGE. _ COLLYBUS, Koravéo;, in Antiquity, the fame with what is now called the rate of exchange. COLLYR&, or Cottyripes, a certain ornament of hair, worn by women on their necks. It was made up in the form of the fmall, roundifh, cakes, called xoray, collyra. dis COLLYRIDIANS, in Church Hiflory, a fe&, towards the clofe of the fourth century, denominated froma little cake, called by the Greeks xorauesdics, collyridia, which they offered to the Virgin Mary. This fect, it feems, confifted chiefly of Arabian women who brought it from Thrace to Arabia, and who, out of an extravagance of devotion to the Virgin, met on a certain day in the year, to celebrate a folemn feaft, and to render divine honours to Mary as to a goddefs ; eating the cake which they offered in her name.—St. Epiphanius, who relates the hiltory of this fuperftitious ceremony, ridicules it. They {prung up in oppofition to the Antidico-Marian- ites. COLLYRIUM, xoadupioy. This term was formerly ap- plied, to any medicament, folid, or liquid, employed to reftrain defluxions ; butit is now entirely confined to wet applicae ~ tions, topically applied for this purpofe in complaints of the eyes. Cottyrivm is alfo a name given to unguents ufed for the fame purpofe ; as unguent of tutty, and feveral others. Cottyrivm isalfo a denomination given, though impro- perly, to fome liquid medicines ufed again{t venereal ul- cers. Cortyaium Samium. See Samia serra. COLLY-WESTON Siete, a whitith kind of micaceous grit cou grit ftone, which {plits into very thin lamina, and is much ufed for flating of buildings in the eaftern and fome of the midland counties of England; it is the produce of a ftratum fituated not far in the feries from the Oalite or Ketton ftone, fo well known to builders. Tn this ftratum, particularly near Stonesfeld, in Oxfordthire, bones of animals of fome unknown kind are frequently found lodged. See Srare. COLM, in Geography. a {mall ifland of Scotland, in the Frith of Forth, fix miles S.E. of Dumferline. COLMAN, Georce. in Biography, an Englifh writer, was the fon of Mr, Thomas Colman, Britifh refident at the court of the duke of Tufcany. He was born at Florence about the year 1733. He received his fchool education at Weftminiter; and was entered as ftudent at Chrift-church, Oxford, where he engaged with Bonnel Thornton, in write ing ‘“‘ the Connoiff-ur,”’ a periodical paper of confiderable merit, which was afterwards publifhed in four volumes, 12mo. This work is remarkable for the humorous delineations of the manners of the age, and difplays claffical reading and tafte. On leaving the univerfity he entered at Lincoln’s Tan, and wasin due courfe called to the bar, but never follow- ed his profeffion. In 1760, he produced two dramatic pieces which were received with great {uccefs, the firft was entitled, s¢ Polly Honeycombe,” and the other * the Jealous Wife ;” this laft ftill keeps its place on the ftage. In 1764, lord Bath died and left Mr. Coiman a handfome annuity, which was increafed on the death of general Pulteney, in the year 1767. In conjuyGion with Garrick, he brought out the « Clandeftine Marriage,’? a comedy of great merit, and which maintains an undiminifhed reputation. In 1768, he purchafed a fhare of the Covent Garden theatre ; this, how- ever, he foon difpofed of, and purchafed Mr. Foote’s theatre in the Haymarket, which he held till his death in 1794, though he had for the five preceding years been incapable of any pufinefs, owing to a paralytic {troke with which he was feized in 1789, and which affected his under!tanding in fuch a manner as to bring on derangement and idiocy. Mr. Colman tranflated Terence’s plays into a fort of blank verfe: alfo « Horace’s Art of Poetry,”? which added to his reputation as a claffical fcholar, In 1787, he collected, in three {mall vo- lumes, a variety of pieces which he had publithed at different times, under the title of ‘ Profe on feveral occafions, accom- anied with fome preces of verfe.”’ Gen. Biog. COLMAR, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the duchy of Holftein, five miles S.E. of Gluckitadt. Cormar, a large and well built town of France, and capital of the department of the Upper Rhine, feated on the river Fecht, and furrounded by a wall, flanked with towers. It hasa prcefe& and four courts of juftice. The town con- tains 13,396, and the canton 14,429 inhabitants ; the territory includes 55 kiliometres, and two communes; 102 leagues N. of Bale. The principal trade of the inhabitants of Colmar, who are faid to be very induttrious, isin corn, and wine; and their chief manufactures are thofe of woollen cloth, callico prints, tockings, hardware, and gun-powder. The diftri@ con- filts of 142 communes or townthips, diltributed into 13 cantons, and comprehending a population of 144,821 inhabitants. Its whole territory includes 1680 kiliometres. It has filver, cop- per, lead, antimony, arfenic, and beautiful cryftal mines ; and alfo a manufa@ture of gold and lace. N. lat. 48° 4’ 44”. E. long. 7° 22/ 11” COLMARS, a town of France, in the department of the Lower Alps, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of Caftillane; 22 miles N. of it. The place contains 898, and the canton 3585 inhabitants ; the territory includes 285 Riliometres and five communes. COLMBERG, or Korsennerc,a town of Germany, in COL the cirele of Franconia, and principality of Anfpach ; 9 miles N.W. of it. , COLME, La, a river of France, branching from the ri- Ha Aa, at Watte, in the department of the ftraits of Ca- ais. COLMENAR, a town of Spain, in Old Caftile, on the confines of New Caftile: 7 leagues N.W. of Talavera de la Reina.—Alfo, a town of Spain in New Cattile, five leagues N.E. of Efcurial. COLMITZ, a town of Germany, in the archduchy of Auttria, four miles S.S.W. of Droff-ndorf. COLMWORTH, a re&ory in the county of Bedford, and hundred ot Bartord: the lofty fpire of its tteeple forms a very con{picuous objeé to the furrounding country. In the Government T'r:gonometrical Survey in 1799, its fitua~ tion was determined by obfervations from Lill y-Hoe ftation, diftant 97.617 feet. and bearing 0° 12’ 52” S E. from the parallel to the meridian of Greenwich ; aud from Lidlington {tation 75,944 fect ; whence is deduced its latitude 5atweEa! 49".3 N. and its longitude 22’ 27”, or 1" 29.8 W. of Greenwich. COLN, a river of England, which paffes by Uxbridge and Co!nbrook, and runs into the Thames, near Staines, fe- parating the county of Middlefex from Buckinghambhire. The clearnefs and purity of the water of this river, iffuing almolt entirely in {prings out of the chalk hills of Hertfordfhire, have always been proverbial. This circum- {tance probably occafion-d the cutting, at fome diftant pe- riods, of two channels many miles in length, for diverting part of its waters acrofs Hownflow-heath to Twickenham, and into Buthey-park ; and a very principal part of the de- fign of the Paddington branch of the Grand Junétion Canal, in jatter times, was for diverting part of its limpid {treams, in order to fupply the metropolis with water, to which purpofe it is admirably adapted. Coin, a river of Effex, which is navigable from the mouth of the Thames at Merfey ifland up to the town of Col- chefter.’ See Canav. Coun, a river which runs into the Thames at Cricklade. COLNBROOK, a town of England, in the county of Bucks, on the river Coln, with a weckly market on Wed- nefday, three miles E. of Windfor, and 17 W. from Lordon. COLNE, a confiderable market-town of Lancafhire, England, is advantageoufly fituated on a dry and ele- vated ridge. his place, fays Dr. Whitaker, “ is unquef- tionably the co/unio of the anonymous Ravennes, and was probably never abandoned entirely, in the long and ob{cure period of Saxon hiltory.’”? At this place, there have been fe- veial Roman coins, and other antiquities found. The church is a fpacious ftruéture, and appears to have been ‘ reftored about the time of Henry VII or VIII.” Here area market on Wednefday, and two annual fairs. Colne is 218 miles N. of London, and contains 782 houfes, with 3626 inhabi- tants. This town is fituated in the hundred of, Blackburn, near to the grand ridge on its weftern fide, and alfo to the Leeds and Liverpool canal, and to the famous Foulridge tun- nel upon it. It was once an obje& of contemplation to con- du& a branch of the Rochdale canal to this town; but it was never accomplifhed. Whitaker’s Hiltory of Whalley, 4to. See Canat. COLNUD, de Cayenne, of Buffon, in Ornithology, the bare-necked crow, coruus nudus. COLOMBAUDE, the name given by Buffon to mo- tacilla atricapilla, or black cap. COLO, in Geography, a town of Poland, in the palatin- ate of Kalifch, 20 miles N. of Kalifch. Coo, in Ancient Geography, a Roman colony, near the city cOo.L eity of Conftantina, in the kingdom of Algiers, in Africa; the ruins of it now remain, having a caltle on a very high rock towards the fea-coaft, with a garrifon, under the com- mand of an aga; under the proteétion of which is a {mall French factory, that deals with the Moors for hides, wax, and wool. The mountains of Colo abound with a large and fierce kind of monkeys, which the Moors have the art of catching with great facility. COLOBIL, a people of Africa, placed by Ptolemy in the Troglodytie territory. COLOBIUM, 1 the Jnsi the tun COLOBOMA, in Afedical Writers, is ufed for the pre- ternatural growing together of the lips, or eyelids, or for the adhefion of the ears to the head. COLOBON Promonrogium, in Ancient Geography, a promontory of Ethiopia, near Egypt, placed by Strabo and Ptolemy in the Arabic gulf. COLOBONA, a town of Spain, in Betica, placed by Pliny inthe diltritt of Hiifpatis: now Trebuxena. COLOBRASUS, a town of Afia, fituate in the interior part of Cilicia Montana, which, according to Ptolemy, was a country of Pamphylia. COLOCASIA, in Botany, Cluf. See Arum Colocafia. COLOCASITES, in Ancient Geography, an ifland of the Red fea, on the coaft of Azania, a country of Ethiopia, according to Pliny. COLOCOLO, in Ornithology, a name given by the peo- ple of the Philippine iflands, to a bird called alfo there cafili, and by fome authors the wafer raven, corvus fluviatilis. This bird, a3 it is defcribed in the Philofophical Tranfac- tions (n. 285.) “ is of the fhape of a common raven, but is truly an amphibious bird, living more of its time under wa- t-r than in the air; itis black m colour; itsneckis remark- ably long, and it feeds on fifth, which it hunts under water, as they do oneanother; it feeds likewife on frogs, ferpents, and fhell-fifh. It is common to fee it under water in clear rivers, where it feems perfectly at eafe, and runs about with great {wiftnefs; at times it comes up to the furface, and dries its wings in the air and funfhine.”’ It is underftood by naturalilts pretty generally, that the colocolo of the Philip- pines isno other than the common corvorant, pelecanus car- bo, a bird known to inhabit molt parts of the world, and to delight efpecially in nsritime fituations, or in marfhes, and ether watery places. near the fea-coatt. COLOCYNTHIS, Coroguintipa, Bitter Apple, in the Materia Medica. The colocynth is a {peciesof gourd (cucumis colocynthis, Linn.) brought from Aleppo and Cyprus, of a globular fhape, about the fize of the fit, white, fmooth, of a fungous texture, divided internally into large cells, which contain a numberof oblong feeds. The pulp, which is the part ufed medicinally, is intenfely bitter, naufcous, and acrid. It contains a remarkably large portion of mucilage, fo as to render flimy a confiderable quantity of water when boiled with it; and, on this ac- count too, the fpirituous tinture is too thick to pafs through a paper filter. The colocynth, taken in fubftance, without any mixture or preparation, is one of the molt violent purgatives that we are acquainted with, producing, when ina large dofe (that is, when more than eight or ten grains), very fevere griping pains, and often a difcharge of blood, and leaving for fome days fymptoms refembling thofe of dyfentery. Itis faid, too, to act upon the bowels when applied externally to the ab- domen. The aétivity of the colocynth renders it a valuable medi- ov, from xoren, ZF mutilate, among ienis, an upper garment, without fleeves, longer than CO £ cine, when ufed with caution. Itis feldom or never em= ployed by itfelf, but is mixed with aloes, and other pur- gatives, and much adds to thcir efficacy. The only preparation of it retained in the London Phar- macopeeia, is the extract (extracdum colocynthidis compofitum olim ext. catharticum), which is prepared by. digelting in proof {pirit, colocynth, aloes, fcammony, and cardamom feeds, and afterwards evaporating the tincture to the proper con filtence. Thisis one of the moft certain and powerful pur- gatives we are acquainted with, and generally operates with- out much griping or inconvenience. It may be properly combined with calomel, if neceflary, or, in cafes of {palmo- dic pain of the bowels, with opium. Corocyntuis, in Botany. Tourn. Bauh. Pin. Ray. Moris. See Cucumis colocynthis—-Plum. See Tricuos- ANTHES amara. COLOCZA, in Geography, a town of Hungary, on the Danube, the fee of an archbifhop. This was formerly an important place, but it is now funk into decay, in confe- quence of repeated wars; 136 miles S.E. of Vienna. N. lat. 46° 33’. E. long. 18° 36’. COLODI, a town of Italy, in the republic of Lucca; 7 miles from Lucca. COLOE, in Ancient Geography, a marth of Ethiopia, ac- cording to Ptolemy, which, he fays, was the fource of the river A ftapus.—Alfo, a town, fituated, according to Ptolemy, in the interior of Ethiopia; but, according to Arrian, it was amaritime town, and carried on a confiderable commerce in ivory. COLOEPHRYGES, a people of Greece, in Bzotia, called alfo Anticondyles, according to Steph-Byz. COLOEPHRYX Mons, a mountain of Beotia. Hefy- chius. COLOES, Enli.Gheul, a lake of Afia Minor, in Lydia, according to Strabo; called Gigea by Homer. It was two leagues, or 40 ftadia, to the N.E. of Sardes. Diana, fur- named Coloéne, had a temple on the bank of this lake, fur- rounded by the tombs of the kings of Lydia, and, among others, that of Aliattes, defcribed by Herodotus, and com- pared by him with the grandelt works of the Babylonians and Egyptians. COLOGENBAR, a town of Afia, fituate near the Eu- phrates, and the town of Edeffa. COLOGNA, in Geography, atown of Italy, in the Pa- duan ; 15 miles from Vicenza. COLOGNE, Perer De, in Biography, a proteftant minifter at Metz, in the 16th century. He was born at Ghent, and educated at Paris, from whence, at the advice of Robert Stevens, he retired to Geneva, to avail himfelf of the inftruétions of John Calvin, who perfuaded him to devote his life to the work of the miniftry. He embarked in the proteftant caufe with great zeal and ardour, and the fuperi- ority of his talents above thofe of his contemporaries, res commended him to the peculiar friendfhip of Calvin and Beza. He commenced his minifterial funGtions at Metz, in the year 1558, where he continued in the exercife of them either openly, or from houfe to houfe, ina private way, during the reigns of Francis II. and Charles 1X. performance of his duty, he was occafionally fubjeéted to the miferies of imprifonment and exile, until the diiperfion of the proteltant church at Metz. in 1659. From this town he went to Heidelberg, where he undertook the charge of a congregation, and where he died while he was a young man, He was the author of fome original works, and tranflated others from the German into the French language, but, ag they were mottly on temporary {ubjeéts, it is not neceflary to enumerate them. Nouv. Di&. Hitt. ; COLOGNE, In the Cc On. CoroGnre, in Geography, an archi-cpifcopal electorate wf Germany, inthe circle of the Lower Rhine, divided into feveral diftri@ts by cther eftates, and deriving its name from ‘the city of Cologne. It was a bifhopric in the year 314, and, in 799, was erected into an archbifhopric by Charle- magne. Inthe ancient contftitution of Germany, the arch- bifhop affumed the title of born legate of the holy fee, and arch-chancellor of the facred empire for Italy. Fle gave his vote after the eleCtor of Treves, and fat at the right hand of the emperor, at aflembiies held in his own diocefe, in-Gaul, or ia Italy. The metrepolitan charch, and chapter, which is compofed cf 25 canons, and 36 digniteries, are at Cologne. Since the French revo'uuon, and the fubfequent atrangement of its territories, Cologne is a diftrict of Roer, or Roor, comprehending 10 cantons, viz. Cologne, Berg- heim, Bruhl, Dormagen, Elfen, Juliers, Kerpen, Lechmch, Wayden, Zulpich, which include 294 communes, 1375 kili- ometres, and 137,215 inhabitants. Although this electorate ¥s‘reckoned one of the moit fertile countries of Europe, the bigotry, ignorance, and idlenefs of its inhabitants, who are moftiy Roman Catholies, prevent its deriving thofe advan- tages from its productions, and particularly its commerce, which might reafonably be expected. Cotocye, the capital of the archbifhopric above mentioned, and formerly one of the free and imperial cities of Germany, in the circle of Weftphdia. It was taken poffeffion of by the French in 1794, and is now the capital of the diltriG& that bears its name in the French department of Roer, and is {aid to contain 38,844 inhabitants. Cologne is fituated, in the form of acrefcent, ou the banks of the Rhine, and fortified in the ancient manner; but its walls are in fo decayed and tottering a ftate, that they are inca- pable of affording it any defence. The whole of its length, along the river, 1s about 34 miles, two-thirds of which {pace is uninhabited ; feveral of the fquares and {treets more re- fembling a field, or an uncultivated garden, than parts of an inhabited city. In traverfing its environs one may obferve more than 150 miferable farm-houfes, with gardens, which furnifh the city with all forts of greens, butter, cheefe, milk, &c. The ttreets are narrow, winding, and gloomy, and molt of the houfes are very high, old, and ruinous ; and yet this city is faid to contain, within its compafs, more churches, chapels, and monafteries; than there are days in the year. The Roman Catholic univerfity {carcely merits the appellation, The number of beggars that difgrace its police is very great, and it is faid, that the propenfity to idlenefs, gluttony, and begging, which prevarls through the city and adjacent coun- try, is fanétioned and encouraged by the example of the dif- ferent orders of monks ; whofe chief obje& is to keep the people, who, with the exception of a few Proteltant families, are Roman Catholics, in a ftate of ignorance and fuperttition. Two thirds of the inhabitants are cither profeffed beggars, or ecelefiattics. The other third confilts of a few patricians, “mcrchants, and mechanics, on the produce of whofe exer- tions and indultry the rett live. Cologne, upon the whole, is at leaft two centuries behind ‘the other parts of Germany, with regard to im- provement in the arts and fciences, Although no city in Germany is more favourably fituated for commerce, the natural bigotry and idlenefs of the inhabitants lead them to forego the benefits which their fituation aords them ; and th-ir trade has dwindled away to the manufa@ure of a few ribbands, flockings, lace, and tobacco. The veffels that may be always fecn in the port of Cologne are very numerous ; the quay, more than 14 mile long, is continually crowded with thrps ; but the goods on board are almoft wholly the property of foreign merchants. Aboot a fortnight before Vou. IX, COL the fair at Frankfort begins, there is a great concourfe of thefe merchants at Cologne, who repair daily from thence to Frankfort, by means of two commodious veffels contain- ing from 150 to 200 paflengers, which perform this voyage every other day during the fair. The Jews were expelled from Cologne in the year 1485, and from that remote period not one of them has ever obtained leave to fettle there, or dared. even to enter the city without permiffion of the magiftrate, Under the old police, if a Jew came into the city, he was accompanied by a guard during his ftay, and cblized to pay a ducat for every hour of his continuance there. In the year 1618, the Proteftants were alfo expelled, but fome years after they ebtained permiffion to return. The magif- trates indeed gave them leave to ere&t a place of worthip, which was deftroyed by the infatuated mob as foon as it was finifhed. Since that event they have erected for themfelves feveral handfome churches at Miuilheim, three miles from Cologne, on the right bank of the Rhine, The trifling com- merce of Cologne has been confined to a few Proteftant families ever fince the period of their return, who, it is ob- ferved, are the only opulent inhabitants of the place. The wealth of the churches at Cologne, at lealt before it was taken poffeffion of by its new occupiers, was immenfe, par- ticularly that of the cathedral. ‘Thefe churches are re- pofitories of various relics that are held in high eftimation by the fuperttitious catholics. The theatre is a roomy building, but not elegant. The town-houle is an irregular ftone edifice, aukward and ina ruinous ftate. The arfenal occafions part of a very narrow ftreet; its contents are chiefly ancient arms, not proper for modern ufe; and the building itfelf is ina ftate of decay. The dealers of Nurem- berg and Aug{burg bring their toys in large quantities to Cologne for exportation to Holland, England, and America. The Spaniards and Portuguefe carry on a very profitable trade with them in both the Indies. The inhabitants of Cologne derive a very confiderable advantage from the im- portation of coals out of the adjacent countrics of Berg, the eleGtorate of Treves, the principalities of Saarbruck, and duchy of Dcuxponts, which come by the Saar down the Mofelle and the Rhine, and fupply the want of wood-fuel, that is very f{carce about Cologne. Some of thefe coals are round and large, and another fort confills of duft, which is mixed with clay and water,.and formed ivto {mall cakes, manufactured in fummer ; and which, being gradually harden~ ed by the heat of the fun, are ttored up in large magazines erected for that purpofe. Thefe coal-cakes are fold at 12 ftivers (about ts. Englifh money) per hundred ; and it is faid, that 100 of them will go as far as three bufhels. Near this city fome pfeudo-volcanic remains have been traced, which are thought to be fuch as are mentioned by Tacitus at the clofe.of the 13th book of hiswAnnals, the effects of fubterranean fire which ravaged the country of the Juhones. N. lat. 50° 55’ 21”. E. long. 6° 55’. Cotocns, a town of France, in the department of Gers, and chicf place ofa canton, in the diftrict of Lombés; fix leagues E. of Auch. The place contains 769, and the canton 6096 inhabitants ; the territory comprchends 117£ kiliometres, and 17 communes. Corocne Larth, a {ubftance ufed in painting, as a wa- ter colour, much approaching to amber in its flru€ture, and ofa deep brown. It has generally been elteemed a genuine earth, but has been difcovered to contain a great deal of vegetable matter, and, indeed, it is a very fingular fub- ftance. It never conftitutes an entire ftratum in the earth, but is lodged among other ftrata in large flat detached maffes, It is moderately dry, while in the earth, and of a foft Cc crumbly COL crumbly texture. When dried, it is of adeep, dufky brown, of a very clofe, compaé, and fine texture, and very re- markably hight; itis of a {mooth, even iurface, dry, but not harfh to the touch, crumbles eafily to pieces between the fingers, and flichtly ftains the hands; it adheres firmly to the tongue, but not at all refembling the altringency of the boles, or any thing elfe of the mineral kingdom, but plainly refembling the tafle ofoak bark. It makes no effervefcence with acids ; ifthrown into water, it fwims on the furface, till thoroughly wetted ; and if brought into contact with burning coals, it takes fire and burns of itfelf, till reduced to yellowith ates. lt is eafy to difcern from this account, that, though this is generally efteemed an earth, and known to the world by no other name, it is no pure native foflil, but contains more vegetable than mineral matter, and owes its origin to the yemains of wood which has been long buried in the earth. Tt is dug in Germany and France ; the quantities confumed in painting, in London, are brought from Cologne, where it is found very plentifully ; but our own kingdom is not with- cut it, it being found near Birmingham, andon Mendip hills ‘in Somerfetfhire ; but what has been yet found there is not fo pure or fine, as that imported from Cologne. Hill’s Hit. of Foffils. p. 64. and Da Cofta’s Hift. of Foffils, p. 121. COLOGNOLI, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the duchy of Tufcany ; 6 miles E. of Leghorn. COLOKITIA, or Koroxiria, a town of European Turkey, on the fouthern coa{t of the Morea, ina gulf to which it gives name; 25 miles S.E. of Mifitra. N. lat. 36° 47’. Evlong. 22° 34’. COLOMAY, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Red Rouffia; 5 miles N.E. of Halecz. . COLOMBA, inthe Materia Medica. See Corumso. COLOMBEL, Nicoras, in Biography, a French painter who was born in 1646, at Sotteville near Rouen, and became the fcholar of Le Sueur, under whom he ftudied feveral years ; he then went to Italy, where he affiduoufly co- pied the works of Raffaelle and Nicolo Pouffin; but though he enjoyed every advantage of education, and laboured to form his ftyle upon the model of thofe great matters, the poverty of his genius ever appeared; and his pictures, though correétly drawn and carefully finifhed, generally wanted that elevation of thought and ftriking expreffion, which can alone give value to hiltoric painting. However, in 1682, he fent four pictures which he had painted at Rome to Paris, and thereby gained fufficient reputation to caufe his being chofen a member of the Academy upon his return to Paris in 1694. One of his moft efteemed pictures is an * Orpheus playing on his Lyre,’’ in the apartment of the menagerie in the royal palace. He died in the year 1717. D’Argenville, COLOMBES, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of Paris, and chief place of a canton, in the diltri& of St. Denys; 14 league N.W. of Paris. COLOMBEY, a town of France, in the department of the Meurthe, and chief place of acanton, in the diltri& of Toul; 15 miles S.W. of Nancy. The place contains 858 and the canton 12,837 inhabitants; the territory im- cludes 315 kiliometres and 32 communes. COLOMBIEN, De, in Biography. See VaLenrine. COLOMBIER, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Upper Saone, and chief piace of a canton, in the diftri&t of Vefoul; four miles N. E. of Vefoul. Cotomaier, a town of Swifferland, in the principality of Neuchatel; two milesS.W. of Neuchatel. COLOMBIERE, Craupve De La, in Biography, a COL celebrated French jefuit, was born near Lyons, in which city he profecuted his ftudies, devoting moft of his time to rhetoric and theology. Oi the former branch of fcience he became a profeilor, and in the latter he was diftinguithed as a popular and impreffive preacher. In this charaéter he was noticed at the court of the duke of York, afterwards James II. of England, being made chaplain and confeffor to the duchefs, until he was banifhed under fufpicion of being engaged ina confpiracy. He returned to his native country in the year 1682,, where he died at the age of 41. Colombiere pubitthed fix volumes of fermons, which are elegaut, pious, and fimple; they have been often reprinted. He publithed alfo a ‘* Colle&tion of Orations’” in Latin, delivered by the author as orofeflor of rhetoric; a volume of ‘‘ Moral Reflections ;”” two volumes of “ Spiritual Let- ters;’? and “A Syftem and Office for the Solemnity of the Worfhip of the Heart of Jefus,”? which the jefuits em- ployed a confiderable time in every Catholic country, asa powerful inftrument in favour of the papal cauie. Patru, a well known writer, defcribes Colombiere as one who tho- roughly underftood the niccit refinements of the French language. Nouv. Did. Hitt. COLOMBINI, Cosimo, an engraver of Florence, who engraved a great part of the portraits of painters inferted 11 the magnificent work of the ‘*Mnfeum Florentinum.” He flourifhed about 1754. Strutt. Heinecken. COLOMBONI, Don Anciot Maria, a very cele- brated painter of miniature and natural hillory, was born at Gubbio in the year 1608, and ata very early period of life became a monk of the order of Mount Oliveto. He made confiderable progrefs in literature, and in the mathematics, and publifhed at Bologna, in the year 1669, a book on fun- dialling, entitled ‘* Pratica Gnomonica, ovyero Tavole, colle quali ciafcuno agevolmente puo far da fe gli Orologi da Sole.”? But he was not lefs admired for his miniatures, and for his excellent drawings of herbs, flowers, and birds, which he drew with fuch tafteand correctnefs, and finifhed with {uch extraordinary delicacy and foftnefs, that he was ftyled the Giovanni da Udine of his time, and the great Guercino ufed to call him the Raffaelle of his profeffion. He left two volumes of thefe drawings of birds, in which not only the beautiful colours and the delicacy of the plumage were admirably reprefented, but, what was more extraordi- nary, each appeared exaéily in the attitude moft ufual to it or molt characteriftic. He fpent great part of his life in Bologna, highly efteemed, and died in the place of his nativity in the year 1672. Baldinucci. COLOMBRARO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in the province of Bafilicata; 43 miles 5.S.W- of Turfi. COLOMIES, Paut, in Biography, was born at Ro- chelle ; he embraced the Proteltant religion, and followed his friend Ifaac Voffius into England, where he attached himfelf to the caufe of epifcopacy, and even attacked the party among whom he had been educated, ina work enti- ~ tled ** Theologorum Prefbyterianorum Icon,” which raifed him many enemies. He was, however, rewarded by being made librarian at Lambeth, and reader at the epifcopal French church in London. Here he died in January 1092, leaving the reputation of great fill in bibliography. He was author of ‘ Gallia Orientalis,’? in 4to. which was an account of Frenchmen eminent for oriental learning ; of a fimilar work refpecting Italy and Spain, with many others of confiderable note at tae time in which he flourifhed. Bayle. COLOMNA, Fasius. See Cotumna. COLON, in dnatomy, from xoiro:, hollow; is a name applied to the greater part of the large inteftine. See In- TESTINEs ‘or Coton, —S ————— COL Caron, in Grammar, a point, or charatter, formed thus (: ) ferving to mark a paufe, and to divide the members of a period. See Pointing. See alfo Periop, Comma, and SremMIcoLon. Grammanrians generally affign the ufe of a colon to be to mark the middle of a period ; or to concludea fenfe lefs per- fect than the dot, or period: but a fenfe lefs perfe& than the period, is an expreffion extremely vague and indeter- minate. Others fay, a colon is to be ufed when the fenfe is perfeat, but the fentence not concluded: but neitherits this fufficient.. ly clear and exprefs. Add to this, that in practice, our beft writers confound the colon with the femicolon. F. Buffter attempts to fix the ufe of the colon; but he does not much diltinguifh it from the femicolon: he pre- feribes the ufe of either, indifferently, and calls them bya common name, iniermediate pointings ; as being mediums be- tween the comma, and full point, or period. “Their ufe, according to this author, is to diftinguifh the fupernumerary members of a period. By fupernumerary members are meant fuch as the precedent ones do not raife any expe&a- tion of; 2. e. fuch parts as have indeed a dependence on what goes before, even though what goes before has a con:- plete fenfe, independent hereon: v. gr. “ the Auguftan age was fo eminent for good poets, that they have ferved as models to all others: yet did it not yield any good tragic poets ;” where the fupernumerary member, and the ufe of the colon, are obvious. The molt obvious and fenfible ufe of the colon, he adds, is, when the fupernumerary mem- ber is diltinguifhed by fome conjun@ion; as, ‘ notwith- flanding, however, but, except that, unlefs, inafmuch as, yet, fince, the rather as, provided that,”? &c. Some, indeed, ufe the colon in the middle of long periods, without any re- gard to fupernumerary members: which cuftom was pro- bably introduced to mark, that the breath is here to be taken almo(tas much as in a common period, in the place where the fupernumerary period commences. - But this, at beft, is arbitrary ; and the intermediate pointings may always be omitted ina period, if there be no fupernumerary member, i. e. if there be no fubfequent member, but what is expected from the precedent. As to the occafions where the colon is to be ufed, rather than the femicolon, there is nothing pre- cife to be faid of it; except thatthe colon fhews the fuper- numerary member more detached, and fets it at a greater dillance from the reft ; and therefore marksa longer paufe than the femicolon. ‘ Accordingly, it feems preferable to ufe the femicolon before conjunétions adverfative, reftrictive, conditional, &c. as, « neverthelefs, but, excepting that, however, otherwife, pro- vided that.” Again, where the fupernumerary phrafes not only fuppofe the precedent, but depend on» them for their regimen, and are, as it were, new parts thereof; there the femicolon feems preferable to the colon: v. gr. “ You are regardlefs of the goodnefs of God, who firft chofe you; a God whe is only jealous of your heart for your own happi- nefs ; a God who could be equally glorious in deftroying you by his jullice, as in faving you by his mercy.” Or thus: «© The difcourfe confifted of two parts; in the firft was fhewn the neceflity of fighting ; in the fecond, the advantages that would redound from it.”? But this difference, it mutt be owned, hasa dependence on fomething that influences all the points, and {ways the whole doctrine of punctuation; viz. the length, or fhortnefs, of the members and periods: for, when the phrafes are long, we point higher than when fhort. A later avthor, in an ingenious difcourfe, De Ratione Jnterpungendi,” marks the office of the colon, and its differ- ence from the femicolon, &c. more precifely ; a colon, on COL his principles, ferves to diftinguifh thofe conjuné membere of a fentence, which are capable of being divided into other members, whereof one at leat is conjun@. Thus, in the fentence, ** 2s we cannot difcern the fhadow moving along the dial-piate, fo the advances we make in knowledge are only perceived by the diftance gone over;”? the two meima bers being both fimple, are only feparatea by a comma: 31 this, ¢ as we perceive the fhadow to have moved, but did not perceive it moving ; fo our advances in underianding, in that they confift of fuch minute fteps, as are only per- ceivable by the diltance ;” the fentence being divided into two equal parts, and thofe conjunét ones, fince they include others, we feparate the former by a femicolon, and the lat- ter by commas: but in this, “ as we perceivethe thadow to have moved along the dial, but did not perceive it mov» ing ; and it appears the grafs has grown, though nobody ever faw it grow: fo the advances we make in knowledge, as they confift of fuch minute fteps, are only perceiveble by the diftance.”” The advancement in knowledge is com- pared to the motign of a fhadow, and the growth of grafs ; which compariton divides the fentence into two principal parts: but fince what is faid of the movement of the thadow, and likewife of the growth of grafs, contains two fimple members, they are to be feparated by a femicolon; confe quently a higher pointing is required to feparate them from the other part of the fentence, which they are oppofed to; and this is a colon. Bifhop Lowth obferves, that a colon diftinguifhes a mem- ber of a fentence, whether fimple or compounded, which of itfelf would make a complete fentence, and fo requires a greater paufe than a femicolon, yet is followed by an addr- tional part, making a more fuil and perfeét fenfe.” He adds, that a colon may be alfo ufed, when a femicolon has preced- ed, and a greater paufe is {till neceffary, though the fentence be incomplete ; and that it is commonly ufed, when an ex- ample, or a {pcech, is introduced. Introd. to Eng, Gram, ed, 1772. p. 207. COLONA, in Botany, Bofe. Nouv. Di&. Hift. Nat. Cavan. tab. 370. Clafs and order, polyandria monogynia. Gen. Ch. Cal. five-leaved 5 leaves linear, coloured on the infide, caducous. Cor. Petals five, with a neGtarcous {cale atthe bafe. Stam. Filaments numerous, inferted into the top of a pentagonal column. if. Germ placed at the top of the column, in the centre of ‘the ftamens, tetragon- ous-globular ; ftyle longer than the ftamens; ftigma fir ple. Peric. Drupe globular, with four Wings, opening into four parts. Sceds oval, two in each divifion of the drupe. Near- ly allied to Grewia, and differing chiefly in the ftru€@ture of the pericarp. Sp. C. dentata. A tree. oval, toothed, very large. folitary racemes, which fometimes form a panicle. tive of the Philippine iflands. COLONES, in’ Ancient Geography, a town of Afia Miner, in the Troade, placed by Strabo at the diftance of 140 ftadia from Ilium, in the territory of Lampfacus ; it was a colony of Milefians.—A Ifo, a town of the fame name, placed. . by Strabo near Chryfa; by d’Anville, S. of Troas.—Alfo, a town, mentioned by Anaximenes, cited by Strabo, and placed in Erythrea—Alfo, a town of Greece, in Meffenia, according to Ptolemy; now Gri/fo.—Alfo, a town of Greece, inthe Phocide.—Alfo, the ame of a rock, on the bank of. the Thracian Bofphorus, over-againit the Cyanwan iflands, at the entrance of the Euxine fea.—Alfo, a town of Greece, i in Theffaly.—A lfo, a promontory near the river Lycus. COLONEL, the officer who has the chief cammand of a regiment of horfe, foot, dragoons, or artillery, The lieu. C2 tenant. Leaves alternate, almoft {efile, Flowers reddifh, in axillary, A na- COL ¢enant-colonel commands it in chief in the abfence of the colonel, to whom he is fubordinate, as the other officers are in like manner to him, when he is prefent. % Covonen of a regiment of horfe, is the firlk officer in it, and commands it when prefent. His duty conlilts chicfly in keeping the regiment complete; in having it compofed of men and horfes that are fit for fervice; in taking care to have them well exercifed and inftruéted in the different evo- lutions, fo that they may be able, on all oceafions, to form themfelves fuitably to the ground they occupy or act on, or to the maaner in which they may with cither to make or receive an attack. In Trance, Spain, and fome other fouthern nations of Europe, colonels of horfe have been ufual- ly called maétres de camp. But in Germany, and molt north- ern nations, they are called ritmesfiers. : Coronet of dragoons. His principal fun@ions are the fame as thofe of a colonel of horfe. But he ought to be alfo in fome mealure acquainted with the duties of a colonel of in- fantry, as his men are liable to act either mounted or dif- mounted. ! ‘ Coronet of foot, or infantry. His funtions are more extenfive and diverfified than thofe of a colonel of horfe, as the infantry are employed for a greater variety of purpofes, and on a greater diverfity of fervices. Colonels of infantry fhould be well acquainted with fortification, and with field- engineering (which, however, they feldom or ever are) 5 fince {uch a thorough and comprehentive knowledge of their principles, as enables an officer to apply them expeditioufly and judicioufly, is the belt and fafelt guide to the proper formation and arrangement of troops in various fituations, and to the advantageous occupation of ground and pofitions. A colonel of infantry fhould be particularly careful to main- tain union and harmony among his officers, and contentment among his men; to acquire the eftecm and confidence of both, and to make himfelf be refpeéted by them; to which nothing contributes more than a fteady, uniform, and im- artial enforcement of fubordination and difcipline. He thould likewife be peculiarly attentive to the health and comfort of his men. Coronet of Ariillery ; the commander of abattalion of artillery. His duties, when properly underftood and attend- edto, are various and laborious, both in war and peace, and require, in order to be well performed, not only abilities, but alfo application, knowledge, and experience. He oughit to be an able mathematician and mechanic, and fhould be ac- quainted with all the duties of an engineer, that are connect- cd with the ufe and application of artillery in different fitu- ations, and to different purpofes; the conftruction of batteries, platforms, field-works, the occupying of pofitions with ar- tillery, to the beft advantage, both as to direct and flanking fires, &c. Whatever fituation he may be placed in, or on whatever fervice he is going, he fhould undertlaud thorough- ly what nature and fpecies of ordnance is belt adapted to it. He fhould be acquainted with all the belt and molt ufeful experiments, that have been made with artillery in the differ- ent nations of Europe; he fhould know the ereatelt diftance at which walls can be battered in breech effe€iua'ly ; the different charges of powder, beft adapted for different fer- vices, and diflerent diftances.. And he fhould not only be well acquainted with the wide differences between the ranges of cannon-fhot and fhells in the air, and thofe which the para- bolic theory gives for them ia vacua, but alfo be able to ap- roximate, nearly to the truth, the diftances to which pro- jeGiiles will go in the air, thrown with given charges of powder, and given degrees of elevation. In thort, he ought to know a variety of things, which few officers of artillery aétually do know. COL Coronet of Engineers. See the art‘cle Evcinese. Coroner, Lieutenaat, is, as has been already obferved the fecond officer belonging tow regiment, and commands it in the abfence of the colonel. Cotontny General of the French Infantry, or Covontn. General a Infasterie Francoife: an appointment of great truft and authority, which took its birth, or originated, un- der Francis I. in 1544. It became an immediate gift of the crown, under Henry III.in rg84. Et was at- lah fup- prefled, becaufe it gave too mary prerogatives, and too much power to the perfon who was invelted with it. Undes Louis XV. however, it was re-cltablifhedin 17156, in favour of Louis, the firft duke of Chartres. “Ehis officer hed oria ginally the right of nomination to evcry commiffion and place of truft inthe infantry. He could oder courts mar- tial, and enforce the fentences awarded by thm, without any fufpenfion of his power in that refpeét. by an appeal to a fuperior tribunal; and he had a company in every regie ment of infantry, which was called the colonel generai’s company. Corone Général d’ Infanterie de Suiffes et Grifoxs. This appointment was not held of the crown 3 but it was almott always given toa prince. It took its rife is right of office under Charles IX. in favour of the fon of the conltable of Montmorency, killed at the battle of St. Denis. All the Swifs and Grifon troops were fubordinate to the colonel general, the company des cent Suife de la garde excepted. He appointed colonels and captains. The fovereigns at laft affumed, or refumed, this right of nomination. But he fill retained the right of naming and prefenting to the king the officers of the nation, to be included in the promotion of general officers, and enjoyed feveral other prerovatives. Coronet Général de la Cavalerie legére et étrangére. This charge, or employment, was created in right of office under Charles IX. It was, however, known before his time, in 1449, under the title of “ capitaine general de la cavalerie Albanoife.”? Under Louis XITL. there were two fuch co- lonels general, one of the French cavalry, and the other of the German cavalry. ‘Though thefe general officers enjoy- ed great honours and prerogatives, the generals of the Ro- man cavalry, under the emperors, were perfons of {till great- er importance. TF orthey had the fame auchority over the troops and militia, that the kings and diétators had. The emperors treated them in their regu’ations and conftitutions,, as feignors of the higheft rank, eminence, magnificence, and celebrity. They enjoyed aw authority almoit abfolute, over all military people. Cotone. General dss Dragons, eolonel general of dia- goons. ‘This appointment was created in 1688, by Louis XIV. It was, like the preceding ones, favoured with an attribution of great honours and particular prerogatives. Coronet de Troupes Légéres, colonel of light troops. This officer onght to be well inftru&ed, both by fludy and experience, in the art of petty warfare, and the management of detachments. For, as he is almott always refponfible for the corps confided to his charge, and forced to take ad- vanced pofitions i an enemy’s country, he is of confequerce the more expofed to be furprifed, taken, or at leaft beaten, COLONELLE, Compsente, the firlt company in a French regiment. COLONI, Avan, called the Old, in Biography, a paint- er who was born at Rotterdam, in 1634, but afterwards re- fided and died in London, in 1685. The fubjeéts of his” pictures were generally wakes, country fairs, rural fubjects, and cattle ; befides which, he made feveral copies from the pictures of the Baffans, with fuccefs. He had a fon called Avriax Corons the young, who received inftructions. from cOoOL from his brother-in-law, Van Diet, in addition to the leflons beftowed on him by his father. He frequently painted the figures in the landfcapes of Van Dicit, as well as in thofe of other matters ; and fometimes imitated the touch of Salvator Rofa. At other times he produced pictures of hiftory, but tore generally thofe of cattle, converfations, oy landfcapes. - Adrian died in the year 1701, aged 33. Pilkington. Cotont, Cape, in Geography, lies on the W. coat of Afiatic Turkey, N. of the guif of Smyrna. N,. lat. 29°. E: long. 26° 36’. ; COLONIA, in Ancient Geography, an epifcopal town of Afia, under the metrepolis of Sebafte; fituate in the firft Armenia, and called alfu Taxara.Alfo, an epifcopal town of Afia, in Cappadocia.—Ailo, a town of Italy, in Etruria. —Alfo, a town of the Ifle of Albion, in the route from Londinium to Lugwallium ad Vallum, between Cefaromagus znd Villa Fauftini, according to the Itinerary of Antonine. Although our antiquarians are divided about the fituation of Colonia, it feems, epon the whole, to be moft probable that ic was at Colcheft-r, on the river Colne, from whence it derived its name.—Allo, a town of the Damnii, according to Ptolemy, which fome, as Camden and Baxter fuppofe, to have been Coldingham in the Mers, but which was more probably fituated at or near Lanark, in Clydefdale. See CoLpINGHAM. q : Coronta, in Geography, a town of Iftria; five miles S.S.E. of Rovigno, ; ; Coxronia Agrippina Ubiorum, in Ancient Geography, a town feated on the banks of the Rhine; now Cotocne. Jt was built by the Ubii, when they left Germany to efta- blih themfclves in Gaul. Agrippina, the mother of Nero, fised a colony of veterans in this place, and gave it her name in honour of the place of her birth. Cotonia Lqucfiris, a town of Gallia Belgica, affigned by Pliny to the Helvetians ; but by Ptolemy to the Sequani. The Itinerary of Antonine marks it under the name of * Equettris,” between Bautas and Lacu Lavfanio. It was alfo called .“ Noiodunus,”? or ‘* Nividunum ;”’ but when it became colony, the Romans called it ‘* Colonia Equeltris.”? Iris now Nin. Cotonia F/avia, the town called Czsarra of Palefine. Cotonia Fulia, a town and Roman colony of Germany; now Bonn. , Cotonia Fulia Celfa, a town of Spain, which was a Ro- man colony ; now a village called Xed/z. Coronra Fulia Hifpella, 2 town and Roman colony of Ktaly, in Umbria; now Spello. ~Coronta Marcia, a town of Spain, which had the title of Roman coiony ; now Marchana. Coxonta Senenfis, atowa of Italy, in Etruria, which was a Roman colony ; now Sienne. f Coronia Septimanorum Funiorum, a town of Gaul, with the title of colony ; now Beziers. Coronia Trajana, now Koln, or Keln, was fituated at a {mall diftance from the Rhine, and about a mile from Cleves. f Coronia Ulpia, is now Cleves, which fee. COLONIDES, called Colone, by Ptolemy, a town of Meffenia, feated on an eminence on the coaft which bore northwards to the weft of the gulf of Meffenia. Its inha- bitants are faid to have been conduGed under the direGtion of an oracle, by a perfon named Colonus, from Attica to this country. In procefs of time they affumed the manners and language of the Dorians. The mountain Temathea, called by Paufanias Temathia, commenced towards Colonis, and extended itfelf towards the north-welt, as far as mount Egaleus. cOL COLONIS, an ifland of Greece in the Argolic gulf, ac- cording to Plmy. COLONNA, Giov. Paoto, Maeftro di Capella di San Petronio di Bologna, in Biography, was the fon of Antonio Colonna, alias “del Corno, a celebrated organ builder of Brefcia. He compofed but few operas; inde:d, we know of but one, Amilcar in Cipro, for the theatre of Bologna, 1692; but he publifhed about the latter end of the lat century many excellent works for the church, of which P. Martin has given a lft, to the amount of twelve, in the fecond volume of his Hiftory of Mufic. It was the opinion of the Jate Dr. Boyce, that Colonna was Handel’s model for chorufes accompanied with many inftrumental parts, different from the vocal. But it muft, however, be owned, that Handel has greatly furpeffed his model in energy, fire, and vigour of genius. The pfalms of Colonna in cightreal vocal parts, publifhedat Bolognain 1694, have been very juftly admired for their mafterly compofition. Paolucci has inferted the hymn, * Pange lingua,” fet in plain counterpoint of four pairs by him, in a manner fufR- ciently fimple and fyllaBic for the moft zealous reformers of church mufic. His “ Sacre Jamentationi della fettimana fanta, a voce fola,” publifhed 1689, contain many pleafing and elegant fragments of pathetic recitative, which we fhould have admired much more if we had not previoufly been ac- quainted with the works of Cariffimi, who had anticipated not only atl the thoughts of Colonna in this {pecies of mulic, but almoft all thofe of every compofer of the prefent century. The airs of thefe lamentationi are too fhort to make much impreffion on the hearer. Colonna had a controverfy with Corelli in 1685, concern- ing the confecution of fifths in the firft movements of the third fonata of his Operazda. Every lover of mufic will be forry that the charge againft Corelli fhould be well: founded; butit muft be owned that the bafe is indefenfible in the paf- fage which has been condemned by Celonna, and was not likely to have paffed uncenfured, even in an age much more licentious than that of Corelli. Antimo Liberati, with shom Colonna was in correfpon- dence at the time of this controverfy, feems tu defend Co- relli’s violation of the known rule againft the confecution of fifths, in a letter written 1685, * Sopra un feguito di quinte,’” in which he reafons thus: ‘ If a quaver reft, or even a fe- miquaver, were not fuflicient to fatisfy the rule agairdt fifths and eighths, a compofer writing in many parts would have very narrow limits for the expaniion of his genius and fancy, or for varying the harmony.”’ But with due refpeG for the authority of Antimo Liberati, and with peace to the afhes of the gentle Corelli, the paflage is unwarrantable, and feems the more inexcufable, as feveral better bafes were eafy to find, without altering his defign, or deitroying the effe& of his trebles. It appears that the excellent theoriiE Berardi had a reverence for the profeffional erudition of Co- lonna, by his dedicating to him the feventh chapter of his «© Mifcellenea Muficale.’? Coronna, Micware Ancero. See AncetLo. Coronna, Maxc-Anrowty, bore arms from an early age in the fervice of the Spaniards, and rofe to great military re~ putation, He was appointed by pope Pius V. general of his galleys, and ferved in the famous battle of Lepanto, gained againft the Turksia 1571. Ou his return. he pope honoured him with a triumphal entry after the manner of the ancient Roman conquerors. He pofleffed feveral high civil pofts, as conftable of Naples, and viccroy of Sicily, and died in Spaia in 1584. Moreri. é Cotonna, Ascanto, was fon a! Mare Antonio, and edu- cated under his father’s roof by the celebrated se & ‘C.0°L Rye “He accompanied his father into Spain, and ftudied at the univerfities ef Alcala and Salamanca. Philip II. gave him aw abbacy, and he was made carding! by Sextus V. At the death of the king his patron, he delivered a faneral oration, which he printed. He was himfelf a promoter of literature, and colleGed a magnificent library. ving to his great fiilkia canonical law, and the fupport which he gave to the claims of the Catholic king, he was made viceroy, of Catalo- nia. | He afterwards wrote a canonical defence of the pope’s condu@ in bis difpute with the republic of Venice. This and fome other letters and harangues he publifhed, and died at Rome in 1608. Moreri. Cotosna, Fazrus. See Corumna. Coronna, Francisco, was born about the middle of the fifteenth century, probzbly at Venice, and entered young into the order of Dominicans, The work by which he is chiefly known is ‘¢ Hypnerotomachia di Poliphilo,”” which ficnifies the combat of Love in a dream, and ihe Lower of Polia. It coniilts cf fable, hiftory, allegory, archite€ture, mathema- tics, &e. ard is written in a languag@scompounded of words taken from fix or feven different languages. It was printed by Aldus in 1499, anda French tranflation was publifhed in 1546, and has been feveral times re-printed. The original and tranflation have been in great requeft among collectors of beaks, as well on account of theie fcarcity, as for the fake of the beauty of the numerous weoden cuts with which the work is decorated. Colonna died at an advanced age, at Venice, in the year 1527. Coronna, Prospero, a diftinguifhed military command- er, was younger fon of Anthony prince of Salerno, and born about the year 1452. He engaged in the fervice of Ferdinand king of Naples, aud after his death, in that of Charles VIII. king of France.. When that prince undertook the conqucit of Naples, Colonna, with his couiia Fabritio, © reudercd him fome fignal fervices, but upon a change of po-- lities, they returned to’ their former allegiance. Profpero affitted in the recovery of the kingdom of Naples; he was at the battles of Barletta and Garigliano, at which the French were worfted ; and he fignalized his valour and con- du& at a variety of fieges and other military aGtiions. In the year 1515, while attempting to defend the paflage of the Aline againft the French, he was made prifoner, and carried to France, but being liberated, he refumed his profeffion in order to revenge the dilgrace that attached to him while a captive. He died ia 1523, aged feventy-one, leaving be- hind him a very high charaéter as a general; he was rather prudent and cautious than formed for remarkable enterprifes, Though flow and inaétive, he was, by conftart vigilance, generally fecured from furprife. He was the friend and pa- tron of learned men. Moreri. Robertfon’s Hitt. ch. v. vol. ii. CoroxnaA, Pompeo, was brought up by his uncle Prof- pero, and deltined by him for literary purfuits. The young man inclined to the profeffion of arms, and diftinguithed himfelf asa military man til he was compelled to affume the ecclefiaftical charaéter. He was made bifhop of Rietti, and obtained many lucrative berefices. He was, however, little attentive to the duties of his facred office, and fo regard- lefs of the decorum that ought to be attached to it, that he accepted a challenge, and tore his caflock to pieces that he might not be prevented from fighting. Qn a falfe report of the death of pepe Julius II. in 1512, Pompeo jomed in railing the cry of liberty, and took poffeffion of the ca- pitol. For this he was deprived of his benefices, but by the interelt of bis uncle, matters were again accommcdated, and in 1517, he was elevated to the rank of cardinal. Still, however, inclined to tu:bulent meafures, his coudud gave coL his enemies the opportunity of charging him with the inten. tion of putting the pope to death, in order that he might fuceeed to that high dignity; he was accordingly deprived of his offices, 11 which he was reinftated on account of fome important fervices which he rendered to the reigning pontiff. He was afterwards viceroy of Naples, where he died in 1532. He was efteemed a patron of litcrature, and wrote a poem <¢ De laudibus mulierum,” chiefly in praife of Vittoria Co- Jonna. Moreri. Robertfon’s Hilt. ch. v. vol. ii. Cotonna, Vittoria, a learned lady and poetefs, was born at Marino in r4go. At theage of feventeen, fhe mar- ried Ferdinand Francis D’ Avalos, marquis Pefcara, who, by her influence, was. diffuaded from accepting the kingdom of Naples, which was offered him after the victory of Pavia, ‘in order to detach him from the fervice of the emperor ” Charles V. After his death, which happened in 1525, fhe lived in retirement, devoting herfelf to poetry ; fhe kept up, with much credit to herfelf, a friendly and learned corre- {pondence with fome of the molt celebrated literary charac- ters of the age. In 1541, fhe retired to the monaftery at Orvieto, and from thence fhe went to St. Catharine in Vi- terbo, but in 1547, fhe returned to Rome, where fhe died. Her poems have pafied through many editions, and have been printed with the commentaries of learned men. Moreri. Coronna, in Geography, a town of European Turkey in Dalmatia; 24 miles N. of Spalatre.—Alfo, a town of Italy, in the Campagna di Roma; 12 miles from Rome.— Alfo, a cape of Naples, on the E. coalt of Calabria Ultra. N. lat. 39° 6’. E. long. 179267 COLONNADE, the name given to any range of in- fulated columns. See Portico. wilene COLONNE, in Geography, a town of France, ia the department of the Jura, and chicf place of a canton in the ditlné of Pohiony ; 2 leagues W.N.W. of Poligny. COLONNI, a cape on the coait of the Morea, in the. Mediterrancan. N. lat. 37°32’. E. long. 24°11’. : COLONOSSIS, in Ancient Geography, a place of Afia, in Lycaonia. COLONSAY, in Geography, one of the iflands of Scotland, called the Hebrides. It belongs to Argyllhire, and as it is feparated from Oranfay, merely by a narrow channel, which is dry at low water, Colonfay and Oran- fay may be confidered but one ifland. Although the emi- nences of the former cannot corretly be termed mountairs, they are high, rugged, and’covered with heath. The ara- ble land, which confifts of about 3000 acres, produces early and tolerable crops, as the foil is light and mixed with fand along the fhores; part of this land has lately been con- verted into pafture, and numbers of black cattle are fed on the two ifles. A monaftery of Ciltertian monks formerly flourifhed in Colonfay, and the remains of the walls of the abbey gave place fome years paft to a farm houfe; a priory attached, ftood in Oranfay, where the ruins ftill remain, and are confidered fuperior to any other religious building in the Hebrides, with the fingle exception of Icolmkill; there are befides fragments of {everal chapels in Colonfay. The inhabitants make large quantities of kelp from the fea- weed found on the coait; and the banks which furround the iflands produce plenty of fine coral. The population is efti- mated at about 720, and the duke of Argyll is the princi- _ pal proprietor. : Cotonsay, Littl, an ifland, and one of the Hebrides, fituated between Gometra and Staffa. There are feveral {pe-_ cimens of bafaltic pillars in the Leffer Colonfay, but it has ra other inhabitants than one family who attend a few n€ep. COLONUM, a place of Greece, in Attica. Here was a forett COLONY. a foreft confecrated to the Eumenides. Sophocles, accord- ing to Suidas, was born in this place. COLONUS, an hufbandman, or villager, who was bound to pay yearly a certain tribute, or at certain times of the year, to plow fome part of the lord’s land; and from hence comes the word clown, who is called by the Dutch door. COLONY, Cotonia, is properly a number of perfons of all fexes and conditions, tranfported into a remote pro- vince, with a view of remaining there, and forthe purpofe of cultivating and inhabiting it; but among commercial na- tions, the term is ufed in a larger but lefs proper fenfe, and applied to the temporary refidence of merchants and agents in another country. he word colony originally fignified no more thana farm, i.e. the habitation of a peafant, co- /onus, with the quantity of land fufficient for the fapport of his family; ‘* quantum colonus unus arare poterat.’ It is derived from the Latin word colo, I till or cuitivate ; hence colonus, a hufbandman, and colonia, abody of farmers, fent to cultivate the ground in a diftant country, and, by metonymy, the place itfelf. From the Latin the word has paffed, with fearcely any alteration, into the modern lan- guages of the weft of Europe. _ We may diftinguifh, generally, four kinds of colonies; viz. t. Thofe that ferve to eafe or difcharge the inhabitants of a country, where the people are become too numerous, fo that they cannot any longer conveniently fubfift together. 2. Thofe eltablifhed by victorious princes and people, in the middle of vanquilhed nations, to keep them in awe and obedience. 3. ‘Thofe that are formed by emigrants, driven from their native country by oppreffion and perfecution to feek a foreign fet- uement, and to fublilt firlt by agriculture, and afterwards by commerce. 4. Thofe that may be called ‘* colonies of commerce ;’’ becaufe trade is the fole occafion and object of them. _ To the frf clafs we may refer the colonization which took. place in the earlier ages of the world, and which ferved to diffeminate the human race, firit through the various regions of the eatt, and afterwards through other more remote parts of the globe. At this early period colonization was of courfy more frequent than it is at prefent. The increafe of « tribe beyond the limits of a comfortable fubfiltence upon the lands which were occupied, would be a fufficient motive for inducing the younger members of the fuciety to remove from the profpect or adtual preflure of want, to fome un- occupied territory. Some authors, however, are of opinion that foon after the deluge, when the defcendants of Noah became numerous, a divifion of the ancient continent and its adjacent iflands was made, probably by lot, among the heads of the feveral families. [his opinion feems to be in fome meafure fupported by the authority of Moles, who fays, (Gen. x.) on mentioning the children of Eber, that the name of one of them was ‘ Peleg’’ (divifion), for in his days was the earth divided.”? (See Dispersion.) How- ever this be, the gradual extenfion of the habitations of mankind muit have correfponded with their increafe; and it feems to have been unreltrained by claims made upon the uncultivated fpots. But this unlimited rizht of dilperfion has long fince ceafed in molt parts of the world; and hence it has become neceflary for colonilts, who feek new fcenes for their labours, either to unite with the natives as friends, or to fubdue them by conqnett, if the colony is founded upon hoftile principles. At a fubfequent period, the differ. ent ftates of ancient Greece, fuch were Athens, Sparta, Corinth, and Argos, poflefled territories of very limited ex- tent; and the increale of population gave rile to various emigrations from all thofe itates. The colonies of the Dorians reforted chiefly to Italy and Sicily, which, in the times preceding the foundation of Rome, were inha» bited by barbarous and uncivilized nations; thofe of the Tonians and Eolians, the two other great tribes of the Greeks, to Afia Minor and the iflands of the /Ezeaa fea, the inhabitants of which feem at that time to have been pretty much in the fame ftate as thofe of Sicily and Italy. The emigrations now mentioned, and fome others of a fimilar nature, were undertaken by private indi- viduals, with no authority from the government; and as they were generally directed towards ditant and tranfmarine fettlements, they retained but a flight conneGion with their original countries. he parent ilate, indeed, confidered the colony as a child, at ail times entitled to great favour and afliftance, and owing in return much gratitude and re- {peét; but, moreover, confidered it as an emancipated child over whom no dire authority or jurifdiGion was claimed. The colony fettled its own form of government, enacted its own laws, elected its own magifrates, and made peace or war with its neighbours as an independent ftate, which had no occafion to wait for the approbation or con- fent of the parent city. The colonifts, indeed, remembered the land of their fathers with filial affe¢tion and re{peét ; they honoured its gods, by offerings of firft-fruits to their temples; they retained a predilection for its cuftoms and laws, as well as its religion and language; they yielded to its citizens the place of diftinGion at public games, and to its priefls the holy honour of firtt infpe&ting the entrails of facrifices. Th war they generally followed the fortunes of the metropolis, as allies upon equal terms; but as they were perfectly, independent, received no protection from her, and often equalled her in refources, they always refufed to come:forward as auxiliaries, when unfair terms were pro- pofed’ Thus, the Sicilian colonies refufed to admit an Athe- nian army-into their territories, for the purpofe of reiting, on an expedition; and, in the Perfian war, the republic of Syracufe, when intreated by the Lacedzmonians to aid the common caufe, refufed to fend any affittance, unlefs their chief magiftrate, Gelon, were allowed to command :the united forces. Sometimes the parent country, confcious of her fuperiority and ftrength, attempted to exaGt from the colonies, as matter of right, the ufual marks of filial attach- ment. Thus, Corinth was defpifed by her colony.at Cor- cyra, for her inferiority of wealth and trade; and fhe en- deavoured to obtain by force, the ufual tokens of remem- brance. The colonifts appealed to Athens, who took their part, and retained them as ufeful allies, efpecially during the Peloponnefian war. Potidza, another Corinthian fettlement, took the part of Athens, until her impolitic tyranny urged it to throw off the yoke, and appeal to Sparta and Corinth. -Aftera long and fevere ftruggle, the Athenians were fuccefsful ; fent new colonies to occupy the confifcated and vacant lands; continued their oppreflive government ; and retained their dominion over Potidea, until the juvation of Philip. When the progrefs of Cyrus expofed the A liatic colonies of Grecce to extreme danger, they in vain applied to . | Sparta for affiftance ; and, being foon conquered by the Perfian monarch, they remained in fubje@tion, until the vidtories of Piatee and Mycale re{tored them to freedom ; but defpair- ing of long maintaining their independence, they formed a {trict alliance with Athens, who availed herfelf of the op- portunity of a general alarm, to propofe an univerfal con- tribution from all her colonies and allies, for the great pur- pofe of refitting the Perfian power. We might cite many other inftances to exemplify the independence of the Grecian colonies on the ftates from which they originated. Never- thelefs, the benefits in point of civilization refulting to bar- barous countries from colonies of private adventurers, mi- grating COLON Y. grating from eountries more advanced in the knowledge of thofe arts which meliorate the condition of human life, have entailed honour on thofe who imparted them, and claimed returns of refpe&t and gratitude from thofe on whom they were beftowed. From this mode of coloniza- tion, reciprocal advantages have been derived. ‘The natives already in poffeffion of the country, to which colonies have migrated, are benefited by the introdu&tion of new arts ; while, at the fanse time, the adventurers reccive the reward of their knowledge, valour, and condu&, by the fuperior degree of influence which they acquire beyond what they would have pofleffed if they had remained in their own country. [hus individual adventurers, who have fitted out expeditions at their own charge, and condacied colonies to a permanent fettlement by their own fkill and valour, have, in fome memorable inflances, attained even to fupreme au- thority. This feems to have been the cafe with regard to the colonies anciently eftablifhed by /Bgialeus in Sicyon, by Inachus in Argos, by Cecrops in Attica, by Janus in Italy, and by Cadmus at Thebes in Greece. From the veneration in which the memory of thefe adventurers, who were moftly of Egyptian origin, were held, it is evident that they had imported into the countries where they fet- tled great and important improvements. The great lite- rary renown which Athens acquired in progrefs of time has rendered us better acquainted with its early hiftory ; fo that we can form fome idea of its primitive laws. The regulation of the connexion between the fexes is recorded as being due to Cecrops ; from whence fome etymologilts, as Euftathius, deduce the origin of the appellation digu-, by which he was diftinguifhed. The collection of the inhabi- tants into towns and villages, is faid to have been an im- provement of his immediate fucceffors, whe, it is probable, alfo introduced the regulation of local jurifdiétions, and the divifion of the land in property among the then exilting heads of families, to be inherited by their defcendants. This feems to be, in fact, the main foundation of perfect civilization, by introducing this inequality of condition, as fome of the families increafed or pro{pered more than others, which, notwith{ftanding the reveries of fome fpeculative po- jiticians, is abfolutely neceffary to civilized life. This mode of colenization is feldom attempted in more modern times, becavfe the maritime nations of Europe have laid claim to all heathen lands which their fubjeéts difcovered, and have prevented even their own fubje&s from endeavouring to ameliorate the condition of thefe countries, by attempting the formation of independent Chriftian flates. The Jefuits had, indeed, formed a confiderable eltablifhment for the im- provement of the natives in South America; but it gave umbrage to the Portuguefe government, and the ne- gle& of military affairs rendered the overthrow an eafy undertaking. The Moravian brethren have fimilar fet- tlements in the moft northern parts of America and Eu- rope, where the inhofprtality of the climate is fuch, that the country is not worth contending for. ‘The eftablilh- ment of the Macedonian dynafties in Afia and Egypt; and, in later times, that of the northern tribes in the fouthern parts of Europe and of Afia, are final examples of this mode of colonization. It:s notorious, that it was for the eftablifhment of colonics, referred to the firft clafs above- mentioned, that, during the declenfion of the Roman re- public, thofe torrents of barbarous uations, iffuing, for the generality, cut of the north, over-ran the Gauls, Italy, and the other fouthern par of Europe ; and, after feveral,bloody battles, divided it with the ancient inhabitants, and blended their own habits and manners~with thole of the nations which they fubdued, or in which they obtained either temporary or, permanent {cttlements. To the ficond clafs of colenies belong thofe of a military nature, which ferved as guards or garrifons, fcr the main- tenance of a conquered country. The Romans recurred to this mode cf colon‘zation more frequently than any other nation ; and added, to the original motive, that of providing retreats for the aged and worn-out foidiers; as alfo for the fettlement of the poorer claifes of Roman citizens. Nor were the intereils of the rich forgotten, in the eltablifhment of Ro- man colonies. The {pirit of the Roman laws having reftrained the mercantile clafles to their proper rank in fociety, the capital accumulatea by their commanders, during the long con tinued and widely extended fucceiies of the Roman republic, was of courfe invelted in land. ‘he extent of Italy was too {mall for the capital, thrown, by this means, into agri- culture ; and the capitalifls were therefore obliged to feek new lands, on which it might be employed, It appears that the eattern fhores of the Mediterranean fea were, at the time of their falling under the Roman dominion, in the highelt poffible {tate of cultivation. The provinces feated on thefe fhores, were, therefore, the fcenes of oppreflion rather than of improvement, and the plunder, accumulated there, was transferred to Gaul, and other weltern provinces, to be em- ployed in the purchafe and improvement of land, or in loans to thofe who refided there. The high rate of intereft al- lowed by the Roman laws, made it alfo far better to employ money in loans thania commercial fpeculations, which can- not be fuppofed, in the reftri@ed and degraded ftate of Ro- man commerce, to have yiclded the fame profit as the for~ mer. Seneca, the philofopher, is faid to have had, at the time of his death, no lefs than 600,000 7. fterling due to him from the coloniits in Brita ; the {udden calling in of which produced a rebellion. Befides, Rome, tke mot of the other ancient republics, was originally founded upon an Agrarian law, which divided the public territory in a certain propors tion, among the different citizens who compofed the ftate. The courfe of human affairs, by marriage, by fucceffion, and by alienation, neceffarily deranged this original divihon, and frequently threw thelands, which had been allotted forthe maintenance of many different familics, iuto the poffcflion of a fingle perfon. To remedy this diforder, a law was made rettriGing the quantity of land which any citizen could poffefs to 500 jugera, or about 350 Englifh acres. ‘This law, however, was neglected or evaded, and the inequality of fortunes went on continually increafing. The greater part of the citizens had no land, and without it the manners and cuftoms of thofe times rendered it difficult for a free- man to maintain his independency. The people, therefore, became clamorous to get land, and the rich and great, we may readily imagine, were determined not to give them any part of theirs. To fatisfy the unquiet and clamorous peo- ple, it was frequently propofed to fend out a mew colony. Accordingly, Rome affigned them lands, generally in the conquered provinees of Italy, where, being within the do- minions of the republic, they could never form any inde-~ pendent ftate; but were, at belt, merely a fort of corpora- tion, which, though it had the power of enacting by-laws for its own government, was at ail times fubje& to the cor re€tion, jurif{diGtion, and legiflative authority of the mother city. ‘Ihe fending out of a colony of this kind, not onl gave fome fatisfaction to the people, but often eftablithed a fort of garrifon, too, ina newly conquered province, of which the obedience might otherwife have been doubtful and pre- carious. Some of thefe colonies were of a civil, and othere ofa military nature. In their manncrs and internal policy, the colonies formed a perfect reprefentation of their great parent; and they were foon endeared to the natives by the ties of friendfhip and alliance ; they effeétwally diffuled a -reverence for the Roman name, anda defire, which was fel. dom ~ for her defence. ~ clofeft connexion. COL OW FY. dom difappointed, of fharing, in due time, its honours and advantages. A Roman colony, whether we confider the nature of the eftablifhment itfelf, or the motives for making it, was altogether different from a Greek one. The words, accordingly, which, in the original languages, denote thole different eltablifhments, have very different meanings. The Latin word, colonia, fignifies fimply a plantation. The Greek word azoixie, on the contrary, fignifies a feparation of dwell- ing, a departure from home, or a going out of the hovfe. In conformity to this diftin@ion of names, we may obferve, that the colonial fettlements of the Greeks were plasted in diftant countries, and amongft barbarous tribes. They were eltablifhed, not in Greece, or in the ftates immediately in the neighbourhood, which had already been well peopied, but in Gaul, Sicily, and the fouth of Italy ; in Cvrene and Egypt; in Illyria and Afia Minor. The Roman colonics, on the other hand, were at firft planted in the immediate vicinity of Rome. During the fecond Punic war, the city was furrounded by no fewer than 30 eftablifhments of thts kind ; which ferved as fo many garrifons or advanced potts Ancient authors mention no lefs than 164 colonies fettled in Italy, from the foundation of Rome to the death of Augultus; whereas thofe planted in all the provinces were only 199. From this confideration it ap» _ pears, that the Italian colonies were materially different in their conftitution and ufes from the colonies of the provinces. The emigrations from Rome to the conquered towns and Tands of Italy, and afterwards of the foreign provinces, were the operations of war and plunder. Whenever an Agrarian divifion of conquered territory was proclaimed, the difcontented citizens prefented themfelves in a body ; and if a fufficient number did not offer to form a legion for retaining the conquelt, which they called a colony, the de- ficiency was fupplied from all the tribes by lot. As this fyftem of conquering pclicy was effcGted flowly, until the whole of Italy had been fubdued no emizration ever took place to any tranfmarine, or tranfalpine countries. Among the Romans there were two kinds of colonies; thofe fent by the fenate, and thofe that were military, confilting of old foldiers, broken and difabled by the fatizues of war, who were thus provided with lands, as the reward of their fer- vices. The colonies fent by the fenate were either Reman or Latina, i. ¢. they were compofed of Roman or Latin citi- zens. The colonies of Roman citizens had the right of fuffrages, and could reclaim the rights of citizens whenever they chofe to remove to the capital. The Latin coloniits Joft their rights for ever, nor had they any right of fuf- frages without an exprefs permiffion. According to Ul- pian (lib. 1. D. de Cens.), there were other colonies, which had little more than the name; only enjoying what they called jus Italicum, i. e. they were free from the tribute and taxes paid by the provinces; fuch were the colonies of Tyre, Berytus, Heliopolis, Palmyra, &c. Between all the Roman colonics and the metropolis, there fubfitted the The form of colonial government was modelied upon that of Rome. The laws, if not changed at once, were gradually moulded by the fpirit of the Roman jurifprudence; the officers were almoft all fent from the capital; the mandates of the republic were more promptly obeyed in the provinces than inthe city itfelf;—in a word, the eftablifhments which have been called colonies, and, compared to thofe of modern times, or of the Greeks, were military {tations ; garzifons, placed in conquered countries ; ’ advanced polts of a great army, of which the commander in chief held his head quarters in Rome, and occafionally made a progrefs through the different cantonments. From thefe fettlements taxes were levied, according to a cenfus; Vox. IX, and, after paying the expences of their own government, they tranfmitted a revenue to the Roman trealury. Men were raifed for the Roman army according to a moufter-roll. When the grandeur of the Roman name extended acrofs the ocean and the Alps, the rights of citizenfhip became valu- able, as the title to power, honours, and plunder. The allies, or colonial and provincial fettlements of Italy, then demanded the communication of this privilege; and the refufal produced that ® Social war,’? which may be juftly deemed the end of the regular republican conttitution, In confequence of the Julian law, which terminated this war, and ot other laws afterwards paffed, ail the {tates of Italy, whether allies, colonies, or pretectures, obtained the full rights of Roman citizens. Until the year U.C. 640, no colony but one, which never flourifhed, had been planted beyond the confines of Italy. The military colonies, introduc- ed by Sylia, and much favoured by Augutus, were remark- able only for a form of government more entircly mibtary than that-of the other fettlements. Ali were equally {ub- Ordinate to the central government, and equaily obedient to its decrees. The firfl foreign colony which the Romans planted was in Carthage, A.U.C. 710, when Julius Czfar formed the plan of reftoring that deferted city by means :f a colonial eftablifiment. ‘The firit colony planted in Italy was that of Cesnia, A.U.C. 4. The praGtice of fending Roman co- lonies to the provinces, where they did not enjoy ail the privileges of the Italian colounifts, was very common after the experiment of Julius Cafar. He himflf tranf- planted 80,000 citizens in this manner. (Sueton. in Jul. Czf.c. 42.) After the time of Auguftus, who planted 28 colonies in Italy (Sut. in OGav. c. 46.), the cultom of planting Italian colonies feems to have been abandoned. His fucceffors did not plant fo many as 20; and preferred forming thofe fettlements beyond feas. Livy does not even mention a tranfmarine or tranfalpine colony ; although he conitantly rejates the foundation of thole in Italy. Dacia and Britain, the moft difficult and infecure of the Roman conquelts, had only, the former four, and the latter five, Roman colonies, Twenty-five colonies were fettled in Spain; and Africa, the moft peaceable of all the Roman pofleflions long before the downfal of the commonwealth, received, after the ufurpation of Julius Czfar, no lefs than §7 colonies, exclufive of Egypt. From theft circum{tances we may be led to conclude, that the Italian eftablifhments were founded with different views, ‘and in a different age of the Romana hiftory, from the fettlemerts in the provinces. M. Vaillant has filled a volume in folio with medals fruck by the feveral colonies, in honour of the emperors who founded them. he ordinary fymbol they engraved on their medals was either an eagle, as when the veterzn le- gions were diftributed in the colonies; or a labourer holding a plough drawn by a pair of oxen, as when the colony con- fitted of ordinary inhabitants. On all the medals are feen the names of the Decemviri, who held the fame rank, and had the fame authority there as the confuls had at Rome. In the political relations of the Roman fettlements with their parent city, there is fome refemblance to the political relations of modern colonies with their mother countries. But in the policy of a {tate fo negle&ful of every thing, except war, we cannot expedt to find any parallel to thofe commercial views, by which the plantation of modern colo- nies has been undertaken, and their connexion with the European governments maintained. The objeG&s of the Romans, in planting their colonics, were conqueft and plunder; fo that detachments. of emigrants incorporated with, and governed, the old poffeffors of the foil. In mos D dera co. dern times the chief objects have been trade and agriculture; the moft important fettlements have been made in defert countries, or diltriéts, whofe ancient inhabitants were ex- tirpated by the firft fettlers. In this re{peét then, the Ro- man colonies rather bear a refemblance to the Afiatic efta- blihments cf modern Europe; but they differ from thefe too, 1m the ftruéture of their government. The contlitution of the Italian colonies was formed upon the Roman model, and varied with its changes. The provincial governments of Hindocftan, and the iflands of the Indian ocean, very Nttle refemble thofe of their European matters, and are ra- ther allied to the fpirit of the oriental legiflation. The provircial governments of the Roman tran{marine territo- ries bore, in every refpet, the fame kind of relation to the metropolis, which the Eaft Indian eftablifhments do to the ftatesof Europe. The inhabitants retained, in a great de- gree, their own laws; they were ruled and oppreffed by a Roman magiltrate, and an army, compoied partly of Roe yan, partly of native troops; their country was the fcene of every criminal excefs in politics and manners, and the fource of large fupplies to the plunderers of the world. The {pecies of colonies now defcribed is not reftrified to the Romans, but it has been adopted by almoft every nation, both ancient and modern, with very little variation. Toit we may refer the eftablifiment of the Normans in England, and of the Englifh in Irciand. Ina fill later period, the Por- tuguefe and Dutch have eftablifhed themfelves in India; but the Engiifh Eaft India company have, on the contrary, reprefled, as far as poftible, the colonization of the couxtrics they poffefs there, as thefe direftors obferve that ‘the eneryy of the European character becomes obliterated in the courfe of a few generations.”’ The commerce of Carthage, together with her extenfive continental poffeffions, enabled her to provide for her increaf- ing population at home. The want of an outlet for inhabi- tants formed no part of the motives that induced the Cartha- ginians to fettle foreign colonies, ‘Their colonial eftablifh- ni‘nts, indeed, were mott probably founded in the fame man- ner with the tranfmarine and tran{falpine provinces of the Ro- mens ;—conquered countries, retained in fubjeéiion, from ambition and pride, by means of a Carthaginian governor, and a few followcrs, prompted by idlenefs, or the love of change, or the defire of diftin@ion to follow in his retinue. However, the relations of the new eftablifhments with the mother country were different, in feveral refpeéts, from the relations which conne&ed the diftant parts of the Roman do- minions with the metropolis. The Carthaginian colonies were, in reality, trading correfpondents to the mother coun- try ; and fhould have found a place under the 4th clafs of co- lonies rather than here, if they had not been immediately con- nected with the Roman. It is probable that the Carthagi- nians received the furplus of the rude produce of Sicily, Sar- Ginta, and Spain, which Africa did not yield, and exported thither thofe manufactures, which would naturally be raifed in a country fully peopled, and Jong habituated to traffic. From the fuperiority of their navigation too, the fkill of the Car- thaginian merchants, their connexions long eftablifhed with the Levant, more particularly with the great emporiums of the Eaft, Tyre and Smyrna, and from the greater trading capitals of thofe rich merchants ; they would moft likely fur- nifh the colonies or provinces with Afiatic commodities, of which Carthage would be the natural entrepdt for the coun- trics to the welt of the Mediterranean. Hiftory has preferv- ed two treaties of commerce and. navigation ‘between the Carthaginians and Romans, conceived in the true {pirit of the modern colonial policy ; for which fee Polyb. I. iii. c, 22. or Brougham’s Colonial Policy, &c. vol. i. pe 21, &e. San Y. In this coaneétion we might mention another fpecies of external colonies, produced by the difpoflefficn of weeker {tates by thofe who are ftronger, in orderto extend the:r bore ders, or to poffefs fome advantageous tituations for trade, or for war. ‘The bigotry of the Europeans, at the time of the dif- covery of the Weit Indies, led them to look upon the natives of thofe countries in a very unfavourable and contemptuous light, on account of their being heathens and idolaters, and made them heedlefs as to the meafures they adopted for their own fecuity, fo that they could but obtain the objc& of their wifhes. The great d:{proportion aifo in the numbers of the invaders and of the natives, in fome meafure, impelled the Europeans to adopt the molt fevere methods, to perpetuate the terror which the natives had originally manifefted at the cffeéts of their fire-arms. The confequence of thofe feveri- tics was, that the natives of moft of the iflands were foon ex- terminated, except in fome very {mail cnes which the Euvo- peans left unnoticed. On the continent, however, the na- tives {till exift, as they have there fufficient {pace to retire from the neighbourhood of their vifitors. To the third clafs belong thofe colonics that have heen form- ed by refugees from countrics, in which they were oppreffed or perfecuted. Thus the emigrants, who ficd from the religious broils in which France, the Low Countries, and Germany have heen involved, found fafery in England, and introduced many of thofe manufectures and arts, which have contributed to the commercial fuperiority of Great Britain. Norwich, Canrerbury, and even fome of the moft populous diitri€éts of the metropolis, have owed the irdullry and pro- dutions of their inhabitants to thefe colonics ; and, in like manner, part of Pembrokefhire, in South Wales, has been peopled by a colony from Flanders. The colonies of North America were originally planted by men who had quitted their native country, either from a love of civil and religious liberty ; or from a defire to better their fortunes, by laying ovt a {mall capital in the improvement of land; or from the neceflity of finding employment ina conntry where labour bore a high price. Anxious only to live in peace and frees dom, with a competency for themfelves and their familice ; thefe men centered all their views in the fpot to which they removed their fortunes and perfons; they gave up for ever the thoughts of returning to the countries which they left be- hind them; and transferred to their new homes all thofe ties which had formerly bound them to Europe. The wocds of the northern continent were clearcd by men of {mall capital content with a living profit, attached to the foil, which owed its cultivation to their labours, and entertaining no idea of removing from it. By degrees the influence of local at- tachmert binds them toa fpot, which, neceffity had made the object of their choice; and in procefs of time the defire of depeliting their bones in a country which had received and cherifhed them, fucceeded to the obliterated partiality for the place of their birth. he firlt fettlers of all the colonies of N. America were men of irreproachable charaéters, though not very enlightened in their views, or polifhed in their man- ners. Many of them fled from perfecution; others on account of azn honourable poverty ; and all of them with their expectations limited to the profpe& of a bare fubfiltence in freedom and peace. ‘The greater part of them viewed their emigration beyond the Atlantic, as a taking up of the crofs ; and bounded their hopes of riches to the gifts of the fpirit, and their ambition, to the defire of a kingdom beyond the grave. A fet of men more confcicntious in their doings, or fimple in their manners, never founded any commonwealth. It is, indeed, the peculiar glory of N. America, that, witha very few exceptions, its empire was originally founded in charity and peace. In procets of time, however, new emi- grants a | COLO WN ®. grants flocked to this extenfive country, as it became more open and improved, whofe views, principles, and character were very different from thofe of the firft fettlers. Many of them were perfons in very indigent circumftances; they were of different fe&ts, or of no perceptible religion at all; and of different nations, though the Enghifh greatly predommated. Some of them were convicts, who after confinement in goals were banifhed for their crimes 5 many of them perfons of def- perate fortunes, to whom every place was equally uninviting ; or men of notorioufly abandoned lives, to whom any region yas acceptable, that offered them a fhelter from the ven- ‘geance of the law, or the voice of public indigoation. But a change of fcene would naturally produce fome falutary cf- fe& upon charaéters the moft diffolute. This mixture of va- rious population was foon blended, by the influcnce of thofe fimple manners that are formed by an agricultural life, into one nation of hufbandmen, whofe chara¢ter has communicat- editfelf, ina great degree, to the mott proflizate of thofe whom compullion or defpair from time to time introduced. While purity of manners was in this way preferved, that firmnefs of principles in religion and politics was maintained, which had fo eminently contributed to the eftablifhment of the colonies. Sentiments of freedom might find an ‘afylum in America, when, even in Swifferland, it fhould no longer be lawful to think beyond the rules. Neverthelefs, the circum- flances of the N. American colonies produced fome other effeéts not quite fo favourable, upon the tafte, and in what, in common converfation, we call the manners of the people. The folitary nature of agricultural labour, aad the feclufion of the hufbandman’s refidence, furrounded only by his own family and fervants, are very inimical to all forts of refine. ment, atid to every ornamental accomplifhment ; whillt the fettlers of the new colonies were occupied with the ufe- ful, they negle€ted the agreeable arts of life; and vo- luntarily threw themfelves back fome centuries, in mott branches of civilization, inftead of profecuting the improve- ments of thofe branches, from the point to which the mother country had brought them at the era of their em1- gration. In confequence of their peculiar circumftances and occupations, the Americans have always pofleffed a nu- merous, virtuous, and athletic peafantry; but they have numbered few fine artifts, or accomplifhed orators ; and, in- deed, an ingenious writer, to whom we are much indebted in the compilation of this article, proceeds fo far as to ob- ferve, with a latitude of expreflion {carcely allowable, that “ the word American has never yet (fo far as I know) been coupled with either poetry, or painting, or mufic.” The hiftory of manners in N. America, fays this writer, is the general hiftory of manners in every new community, of which agricultural induftry forms the bafis. ‘The peculiari- ties (perhaps accidental), which marked the fituation and habits of the firft fettlers, have likewife produced fome effect upon thofe of their defcendants, without in the leaft modi- fying their chara&ter as an agricultural nation. ‘The love of civil and religious freedom was connected with an anxious attention to all matters of coutroverfy, whether in politics or in faith; and as the fettlers were equally incapable of underftanding either, fo they were chiefly captivated with the more abltrufe of the two fciences; and aileéted great depth in the things appertaining to grace, {pirit, incarnation, and all the fublime mytteries of the Chriftian difpenfation. Thefe fruitlefs fpeculations were the only literary inheri- tance which they tranfmitted to their children. But al- though they had left the old world for the fake of liberty of confcience, they too foon manifetted what they under- ftood by liberty of confcience. By that term they meant (like many other advocates of liberty) the propagation of their own peculiar tenets; and they fhewed that they only wanted the power to propagate their creed (hke their European oppreffors) by that method of mental perfua- fion which confilts in burning the body. ‘hey allowed every man entire liberty of con{cience, provided that he ufed that liberty in adopting their own ftandard of faith. Ac- cordingly, while in Old England the {pirit of fanaticifm was operating the downfal of government, and mingling itfclf with every purfuit of the age, to the univerfal debafement of manners and fentiment; in New England, the beteroJox were perfecuted by the impulfes of the inward light ; or parties were formed, and armies marflialied, and millions led by the fubue principles of a metaphyfical theology. Bur the Faiklands and Sydneys had no parallels to temper the unclafical rage of the American bigots; and e:en the Cromwells and Bradthaws found but poor reprefentatives in the ttupid fanatics of Bofton and Salem. Long after the mo- ther country had relinquifhed, for ever, the aéts of perfecr- tion, they found votaries in the conftituted zuthoritics of the colonies ; and the northern ftates at the end of the 17th cen- tury, ailorded the difgraceful example of that {piritual tyran- ny, from which their territories had originally f{erved as an alylum. he century, which has jutt clapfed, moderated this odious f{pirit ; but to this day, the northern fiates are chiefly diftinguifhed from the others, by a taint of religious bigotry ;—as the character of the middle ftates is moditied by the greater mixture of different nations, which have contributed to people them ;—and that of the fouthern provinces, by the admixture of negro flaves. In the mid- dle ftates, the mercantile {pirit has gained more ground than in any of the reft: the diverfities of race ave rendered the fentiments of patriotifm, and the love of liberty, lefs ardent 5 while the variety of religions has prevented the introduction of that fanaticifm, of which we have traced the efledis in the north. In the fouthern ftates the contra{t of fervitude has mingled an ariltocratical fpirit with the manners of fimple huf- bandmen ; and the climate, by promoting the growth of an article, belonging to the clafs of luxuries, has given rife to a {pecies of agriculture bordering upon the great yains and uncertain profpeéts of commercial {peculation. In all the colonies, however, of the northern continent, a refpectable national character may be faid to prevail. If their inter- courfe with the mother country would have had no ten- dency to civilize or adorn her, it could certainly have in no degree contributed to the corruption, either of her moral or political habits; and the molt rapid interchange of popula. tion could only have tended to embellifh the American {o- ciety and to vary its accomp.ifhments, while it ret dered a fervice to the Britifh manners, by the intercourfe of a more fimple and virtuous people. Unfortunately, the very cir- cumflances which neceflarily laid the foundation of thofe habits and that national character infulated the population of the country from that of the old world. The colonies were ftationary for the fame reafon that they were refpect- able; and the circulation of its inhabitants, with all its ef- feds upon both parts of the empire, has been maintained and accelerated in other colonies, placed in circumftances which rendered thofe effeCis unfavourable, at leaft to the mother country. For the change that has taken place with regard to the principles and manners, the religion and liberty of the feveral colonies of N. America, fince they have ac- quired a new government, and been formed into the United States ; fee this article, and alfo an account of the feveral {tates themfelves under their appropriate titles. ; The fourth clafs of colonies comprehends thofe that are denominated commercial, and which have been eftablifhed at different periods, by the Englith, Dutch, French, Spaniards, D2 Portu- Cc O'1L Portuguefe, and ether nations; and which are ftill_ main- tained, in a greater or lefs degree, with a view of keeping up a regular intercourfe with the natives, or of cultivating the ground, by planting fugar-canes, rice, indigo, tobacco, cotton and other commodities. See CuHarrer Govern- ments. The principal of this kind of colonies are thofe that have been eftablifhed in North and South America ; particularly Pern, Mexico, Canada, Virginia, New England, Carolina, Lovifiana, Hudfon’s bay, the Antilles iflands, Jamaica, Do- mingo, and the other iflands of the Welt Indies: alfo, in Africa, Madagafear, the cape of Good Hope, cape Verd, and its iflands, and all the coafts extended thence as far as to the Red fea ; and likewife in Afia, the famous Batavia of the Dutch, and Ceylon ; Goa, Diu, of the Portuguefe ; and fome other lefs confiderable places of the Englifh, French, Danes, and other nations, inthe Eaft and Welt Indies. The eltablifhment of the European colonies in America and the Welt Indies, if we except thofe of North America to which we have already alluded, did not originate in necef- fity ; but it was the refult of ambitious and interefted views. The Dutch, indeed, may plead in favour of the extenfion of their own fettlements and commerce, that the colonial fy item is neceflary to their fubfiftence and profperity. Their tern- tory is fmall, and generally undiftinguifhed by its fertility ; and therefore they have recurred for the neceflaries of life to the ports of more fruitful and lefs populous countries. Ha- bituated to induftry, and excelling other nations in nautical fill, intead of confining themfelves to the exchange of their own manufa@tures for the rude produce, or the manufactures of other nations, they employed themfelves in circulating the produce and manufa@ures of other countries ; and, more at- tentive to this occupation than to the arts of working up the produce which they imported or raifed, they became a na- tion, not of farmers or manufacturers, but of fifhermen, mer- chants, and failors. Conftrained by other circumitances be- longing to their country, when compared with other na- tions, they were obliged, by the difsdvantages of their fitua- tion and the oppreffion of their Spanifh maiters, to put forth every poflible effort of fortitude and perfeverance. By in- duftry, frugality, and labour, thefe people not only foon out{tripped all their contemporaries in riches and naval fll, but amafled a much greater fhare of wealth, and gained a more formidable influence over the deltinics of the world, than fo {mall a tribe ever acquired in any age. Their fteady attachment to the principles of freedom and toleration ferved asa concurring mean of their advancement and profpe- rity. The neceffary confequence of extenfive opulence, ac- quired by a people who have not a rroportionably great ter- ritory, is, that the means of advantageoufly employing their capital will become gradually more and more difficult ; the profits of its employment more confined, and its accumula- tion more flow. Such a people will naturally feck fome new opening for fettlement or commerce, by acquiring ter- ritory im diftant quarters of the globe. Saould they fail in this way, the overflowing wealth of the nation mutt infailibly emigrate, as it were, into the fervice of foreign countries, where the profits are greater than they are at home. Hence we find thatthe Dutch became, ina fenfe, the brokers of Eu- rope; and that they advanced furs to foreign ftates and their fubje&s, which were enormous. It is probabie, fays an in- genious and accurate writer, (Mr. Brougham), that the Detch have frequently been creditors, at one time, to the amount of much more than 300 millions fterling ‘to their own government, and to foreign ftates, of which we may reckon two-thirds in foreign loan: an immenfe fum of fur- plus capital to-have been accumulated by a nation poffefled of np greater territory than the principality of Wales, without OWN Y. any good harbours, or any natural produce fit for exporta- tion ; aterritory, 120 times lefs extenfive than the European dominions of Ruffia, which is conftantly running in debt with all the world! A people poffeffed of fuch an overflowing ca~ pital, was, of all people, that which ftood the moft in need of foreign colonies ; and this for two reafons :—in order to-ob- tain a new opening, of whatever kind, for the ftock which could not be employed at-home, or which, for want of this employment, was drawn into the fervice of foreigners ; and in order to fecure the poffeffion of this opening at all times un- der its own command. The acquifition of colonial poffeffiong is the only means by which the United Provinces can poffibly avoid the decline of its mercantile profperity and political im= portance, and fupply their natural deficiency of territory, the caufe of their initability, as it was the caufe of their rife and progre(s. An opening for capital may then be obtained al- ways under the command of the ftate. The poffeffion of colo~ nies muft be as advantageous to the community of the United Provinces, as agreeable to individual capitalilts and adven- turers. It has certainly preferved the commercial exiltence of the republic fora long feries of years,and enabled this an- cient ftate to retain its place among the great powers of Eu- rope inftead of being {wallowed up by its neighbours, or res duced to a few fifhing villages. No nation of Europe de- pends fo much upon colomal policy as Holland ; nor is any fo liable to be affeGted, in every member, by the flizhteit va- riation of colonial affairs. See Dutch Eafi India Comeaxy and Dutch Weft India Company. The whole return of the Dutch colonies, above 20 years ago, was calculated (fays Mr. Brougham) at 24 millions of florins—exported in 150 veflels, navigated by 4000 men, and paying, in freight, 4 millions 5 hundred thoufand florins—in commiffion and infurance, 24 millions. ‘The Dutch merchants exported to them merchandize (including negro flaves) to the value of 6 millions. The molt unfortunate circumftance in the colo- nial policy of the Dutch has always been their bad treatment of flaves. (See NeGcroes and Staves.) The colonies of Holland have alfo fuffered, in general, from the importation of negroes being too {canty to an{wer the demands of the pro- prietors. Upon the whole, it is obferved by the writer fo often cited in this article, that in no country is there fo great a demand for new colonies as in the United Provinces. To no part of Europe are colonial p-ffeflions fo valuable; none would be fo irretrievably ruined by their lofs; none would be fo much benefited by their extenfion. The views of Spain im its colonial eftablifhments were di+ rected from the beginning of their connetion with America to the pecuniary advantages likely to refult from them. In confequence of the reprefentation of Columbus, the council of Cattle determined to take pofieffion of countries of which the inhabitants were incapable of defending themfelves. The pious purpofe of converting them to Chriftianity fanétified the injuftice of the projeét. _ But the hope of find- ing treafures of gold there was the fole motive which prompted them to undertake it; and to give this motive the greater weight, it was propofed by Columbus, that the half of all the gold and filver which might be found there fhould belong to the crown. ‘This propofal was approved of by the council, ‘The tax was eafily paid whillt the defence- lefs natives were plundered; but as they were {tripped of all that they had, which, in St. Domingo. and the other countries difcovered by Columbus, was completely done in fix or eight years; and when it became neceffary to dig for it in the mines, it was impoffible to pay the tax. The ri- gorous exaction of it occafioned firft the total abandonment of the mines of St. Domingo, which have never been wrought fince ; and it was afterwards reduced, by fucceffive defalcations, to a 20th part of the produceaf the gold mines. ES COLONY, mines, The tax upon filver, which wasa fifth of the grofs produce, was reduced to a tenth in the courfe of the laft century. Allthe other enterprifes of the Spaniards in the New World, fubfequent to thofe of Columbus, feem to have been prompted by the fame motive. It was the facred thirft of gold that carried Oieda, Nicuefla, and Vafco Nugnes de Balboa, to the ifthmus of Darien, that carried Cortez to Mexico, and Almagro and Pizarro to Chili and Peru. Im- pelled by the profpeét of immenfe gain to eftablifh colonies in America, the firft objeét of the Spanifh monarchs was to fecure the produdtions of thefe colonies to the parent ttate, by an abfolute prohibition of any intercourfe with foreign nations. hey took poffeflion of America by right of con- queft ; and, having reafon to apprehend the lofs of their infant’ fettlements, on account of their feeblenefs, their extent, and the reluétance with which the vanquifhed na- tions fubmitted to their dominion, they guarded, by every poffible method, againft the intrufion of ftrangers. As their poffeflions were extended, the fpirit of jealoufy and exclufion increafed 5 and, in order to their greater fecurity, a fyftem of colonizing was introduced, to which the hiftory of mankind afforded no parallel. In the ancient world, as we have already feen, colonies were of two kinds; either migrations from a country overftocked with inhabitants, or military detachments, {tationed as garrifons in a conqnered province. The colonies of fome Greek republics, and the {warms of northern barbarians which fettled in different parts of Europe, were of the firft kind; and the Roman colonies were of the fecond kind. In the former, the conneGion with the mother country quickly ceafed, and they became inde- pendent ftates; in the latter, the dependence co-tinued, becaufe the feparation was not complete. ‘The Spanifh monarchs, in their American fettlements. took what was peculiar to each, and ftudied to unite them. By fending colonies to regions fo remote, by eftablifhing in each a form of interior policy and adminiltration, under diftinét goverp- ors, and with peculiar laws, they disjoined them from the mother country. By retaining in their own hands the rights of legiflation, as well as that of impofing taxes, to- gether with the power of nominating the perfons who filled every department, civil or military, they fecured their de- pendence. At firft, as we have already obferved, the pre- cious metals were the only objeéts that attraGed their at- tention. Afterwards they fought for {uch produétions of the climate as, from their rarity or value, were of chief de- mand in the mother country ; and they forbade the eftablith- ment of feveral foecies of manufacture, that were likely to interfere with thofe of the mother country. Their clothes, furniture, inftruments of labour, luxuries, and even a confiderable part of the provifions which they confumed, were imported from Spain, Jn return, the colonifts fup- plied the produce of their mines and plantations, which was conveyed only in Spanifh bottoms. ‘The commercial inter- courfe of one colony with another was cither abfolutely prohibited, or limited by many jealous reftritions. All that Amcrica yields flows into the ports of Spain; all that it confumes mult iffue from them. No foreigner can enter its colonies without exprefs permiffion; no veffel of any foreign nation is received into their harbours ; and the pains of death, with confifcation of moveables, are denounced again{t every inhabitant who prefumes to trade with them. Thus the colonies are kept in a ftate of perpetual pupillage ; and by the introduction of this commerciz] dependence, a refinement in policy, of which Spain fet the firfl example to the European nations, the fupremacy of the parent ftate hath been maintained over remote colonies, during 24 centuries. Several maxims were alfo adopted and enforced with regard to the reftriftions of fettlers, the ftate of pro- perty, and the ecclefiallical policy of the colonies, which ferved very much to difcourage emigration from Europe, and the increafe of populationin America. Jf we advert to the ftate of Spain, and compare it with that of Holland, we fhall foon perceive, that the Spaniards, poffeffing a country fifteen times more extenfive than Holland, of incalculably greater fertility, enjoying all the benefits of the finett clim- ate in the world, furrounded with natural barriers of defence, and bleffed with every advantage of fituation which can fa- cilitate commercial intercourfe, and yet maintaining not much more than one-fourth of the Dutch population, are evident- ly independent of colonial poffeffions. All the induftry, fill, and capital of the natives, may find ample employment in railing, manufacturing, and circulating the produce of the foil, or in exchanging the fuperfluous part of that produce for the commodities which abound in other countries. Bur, though it would have been founder policy in the Spanifh government to have promoted a fpirit of induftry at home, than to have eftablifhed diftant colonies, yet it cannot be denied, that fhe has received very great benefits from them, and fuch, in their nature and value, as more than counter- balance the injury they have occafioned. At the period of their frit eftablifhment, the interior induftry and manuiac- tures of Spain were fo profperous, that, with the produ& of thefe, fhe was able both to purchafe the commodities of the New World, and to anfwer its growing demands. Under the reigns of Ferdinand and Ifabe!la, and Charles V., Spain was one of the moft indufrious countries in Europe. Her mannufaciures in wool, and flex, and filk, were fo extenfive, as not only to furnifh what was fufficient for her own confumption, but to afford a f{urplus for exportation. Whena market for them, formerly unknown, and to which fhe alone had accefs, opened in America, fhe had recourfe to her domettic ftore, and found there an abundant fupply. By this new demand, furnifhing anfwerable employment, the fpirit of induftry muft have been enlivened and encou- raged ; and the manufacture, population, and wealth of Spain might have gone on increafing in the fame proportion with the growth of her colonies. However, by the great and fudden augmentation of power and revenue, which the poffeffion of America brought into Spain, fober plans of induftry were overturned, and opulence, rapidly acquired, produced a tafte for what is wild and extravagant, apd daring in bufinefs or in ation. The genius of Charles V in, fome meafure counteraéted the pernicious influence of this inundation of wealth and of the fubfequent interruption of it; but under Philip II. its effet, both on the monarch and the people, became confpicuous. Philip, poffeffing an extravagant opinion of his inexhaultible refources, and, at the fame time, an ambition connected with moderate ta- lents, thought himfelf equal to any undertaking. Accord- ingly he waged open war with the Dutch and Englifh, en- couraged and aided a rebellion in France, conquered Por- tugal, and maintained armies and garrifons in Italy, Africa, and both the Indies. Thus Spain was drained both of men and of money. Under the weak adminiftration of his fuc- ceffor, Philip III., the vigour of the nation declined, and the bigotry of the monarch expelled near a million. of his moft induftrious fubjects ; fo that early in the 17th century, Spain felt {uch a diminution in the number of her people, that from inability to recrnit her armies, fhe was obliged to contract her operations. Her flourifhing manufaQures were fallen into decay. ‘Her fleets, which had been the terror of ail Europe, were ruined. Her extenfive foreign commerce was loft. Agriculture was neglected, and one of the moft fertile countries in Europe hardly raifed what was fuflicient . for. COLONY. for the fupport of its own inhabitants. In proportion as the population and manufa&tures of the parent ftate de- clined, the demands of her colonies continued to increafe. The rage of emigration prevailed, ard the ftrength of the colonics was augmented by exhautting that of the mother- country. ‘The emigrants depended upon Spain for almoft every articleof neceflary confumption. But Spain, thinned of people and deftitute of induftry, was unable to fupply their increafing demands. She had recourfe to her neigh- hours; and the manufactures of the Low Countries. of E ngiand, of Tranee, and of Italy, which her wants called into exiltence, or animated with vivacity, furnifhed in abund- ance whatever fhe required. In a fhort time not above one-twentiecth part of the commodities exported to Ame- rica was of Spanifh growth or fabric. All the reft was the property of furcign merchants, though entered in the name of Soaniards; fo that the treafure of the New World may be faid henceforward uot to have belonged to Peas Be- fore it reached Europe, it was anticipated as the price of goods purchafed from foreigners. ‘hus the poffeflions of Spain in America have not {crved asa fource of population and of wealth to her, in the fame manner as thole of other nations. lromthe clofeof the 16th century fhe was unable to fupply the growing wants of her colonies ; and the perni- cious effects of this difpreportion between their demands and her capacity of an{wering them, were farther aggravated by the mode ia which fhe endeavoured to regulate the intercourfe between the mother-country and the colomes. Such was the monopoly at which fhe aimed, and which fhe wifhed to main- tain, that fhe did not velt her trade with her colonies in an exclufive company; a plan which had been adopted by na- tions more commercial, and at a period when mercantile po- licy was an objet of greater ‘attention, and ought to have been better underftood. The Dutch gave up the whole trade with their colonies both in the Eaft{ and Weft Indies, to exclufive companies. The Englifh, French, and Danes, have imitaced their example with refpect to their Eaft-Indian commerce; and the two former have laid a fimilar reftraint upon fome branches of their trade with the New World. The wit of man cannot, perhaps, devife a method for checking the progrefs of indultry and population in a new colony, more effeGiual than this. From this error in policy Spain was preferved, probably by the high ideas which the early formed concerning the riches of the New World. Gold and filver were commodities of too high value to velta monopoly of them in private hands. The crown retained this alluring branch of commerce; and in order to fecure it, enjoined the cargo of every fhip fitted out for America to be infpected by officers at Seville, and then to receive a li- cence for the voyare; and on its return, that a report of the commodities which it brought fhould be made to the fame board, before it fhould be permitted to iand them. By this regulation all the trade of Spain with the New World centered in the port of Seville, and was brought into a form, in which it has been continued with little variation, almoft to our awn times. See GaLeons and Frora. The trade of Spain with her colonies being thus rettricted, was conducted on the fame principles which directed that of anexclufive company ; and the whole of it was exported by a few we anhy houfes, formerly in Seville, and fince the year 1720 in Cadiz; thefe, by combinations ealily formed, prevent that competition which preferves commodities at their natural price; and, by aéting in concert, to which mu- tual ‘nterelt prompts them, they may rate or lower the value of them at pleafure. This reftraint of the American com- Merce to one port, not only affects its domeitic ttate, but limits its foreign operations. In thefe circumftances, and - whilft the evils refulting from them found no effeétual re. medy, Spain, with dominions more exteniive and more opu- lent than any European fate, poffefled neither vigour, nor money, nor indaftry. At length the violence ofa great national convulfion rouzed the flueibering genius of Spain. As foon as the Bourbons acquired poffeffion of the thrane, it was the firit obje&t of Philip V. to prohibit the admiflion of foreign veflels into any port of Peru and Chili; anda Spanith f{quadron was employed to clear the South Sea of intruders, whofe aid was no longer neceffary. After the treaty of Utrecht, which terminated the war, new embar- raflments occurred “in confequence of the afficnto, or con- tract for fupplying the Spanith colonies with negroes, cun- veyed to Great Britain, as the price of peace ; (See Assi- ENTO ) and the additional privilege of fending annually to the fair of Porto-Belio, a thip of five hundred tons, laden with European commodities. Ly the operations that fucceeded thefe grants, and by the a¢tivity of private inter- lopers, almoft the whole trade of Spanifh America was en- grofled by foreigners. Guarda coltas, and regilter fhips were introduced. (See each of thefe articles). Since the reign of Philip V., fentiments with regard to commerce, more liberal and enlarged, began to fpread in Spain. At length Charles III. in 1764, appointed packet-boats to be dif- patched on the firft day of each month, from Corugna to the Havannah or Porto-Rico. From thence letters are con- veyed in f{maller veffels to Wera-Cruz and Porto-Bello, and tranfmitted by poft through the kingdoms of ‘Terra Fermé, Granada, Pere, and New Spain. Other packet boats fail regularly once in two months, to Rio de la Piata, for the accommodation of the provinces to the eaft of the Andes. With this new arrangement for conveying fpeedy and regular intelligence, a fcheme of extending commerce has been more immediately conneéted. Each packet boat is atrading veffcl, and is ufed for facilitating the exchange of Spanith produét, for ai: equal quantity of that of Amen- ca. This was foon followed by a greater degree of enlarge- ment. In the year 1765, Charles JIT. laid open the trade to the windward anes Cuba, Hifpaniola, Porto-Rico, Maryarita, and Trinidad, to his fubjects in every province of Spain. He reduced the duties on goods exported to America, to the moderate tax of fix in the hundred, on the commodities fent from Spain. He allowed them to retura to any port at pleafure. This ample privilege was after- wards extended to Lonifiana, and to the provinces of Yuca- tan and Campeachy. Such have been the benefits experi- enced from the relaxation of the ancient fyftem of com- Merce between the mother-country and her colonies, that Spain has been induced to permit a more liberal intercourfe of one colony with another. In 1774 Charles IIT. publifh- ed an edi, granting to Peru, New Spain, Guatimala, and Granada, the privilege of a free trade with each other. The towns to which Spain has granted the liberty of trade with any of her colonies, are Cadiz and Seville, for the pro- vince of Andalufia; Alicant and Carthagena, for Valencia and Murcia; Barcelona, for Catalonia and Arragon; San- tander, for Caitile ; Corugna, fer Galicia; and Gijon, for Atturias. 'Thefe are either the ports of chief trade in their re{peGtive diltrits, or thofe molt conveniently fituated for the exportation of their re{pective productions, Prior to the allowance of free trade, the duties collected at the Cuitom-houfe at the-Havannah, were computed to be 104,208 pefos annually. During the five years preceding 17745 they rofe at a medium to 308,coo pefosa year. In Yucatan, the duties have rifen from 8,000 to 15,000. In Hilpaniola, from 2.500 to 5,600. In Porto-Rico, from 1,200 to 7,000. The total value of goods imported from Cuba COLONY. Cuba into Spain, was reckoned, in 1774, to be 1,500,000 pefos. From another ftatement, it appears, that the ex- ports to Spanifh America in 1778, were made in 170 ships ; ‘were worth about 74 millions of reals vellon, and paid above 3% millions of duty. The imports from thence, in the fame year, were made in 130 fhips, valued at 74% millions, and paid nearly 3 millions duties. In 1788, the value of the exports had rifen to above 300 millions, and that of the imports to above 8045 millions. The duties upon both ex- ports and imports exceeded 55 millions. This rapid in- creafe can be afcribed to nothing but the cffeéts of the free trade ; and notwithftanding all the clamours raifed by the Cadiz merchants, we find that this city was the firft to en- joy the advantage of the change; for the imports of Cadiz from America in 1788, were three-fourths of the whole colonial imports; and the exports of Cadiz thither were confiderably above two-thirds of the whole colonial exports. Spain has likewife dire&ted particular attention to the in- terior government of her colonies. For an account of the Philippine colony, fee Acaputco and Maniva. The revenues which Spain derives from America, arifes from taxes of various kinds, which may be divided into three capital branches. The firft contains what is paid to the kirg, as fovereign of the New World; to this belongs the duty on the goldand filver raifed from the mines, and the tribute ex- aéted from the Indians; the former called * the right of figniory,”’ and the latter ‘¢ the duty of vaflaiaze.”” The fe- cond branch comprehends the numerous duties upon com- merce, which are very minute and oppreflive. ‘he third includes what accrues to the king, as head of the church, and adminiftrator of ecclefiaitical funds in the New World. In confequence of this he receives the firft-fruits, annats, {poils, and other fpiritual revenues, levied by the apofolic chamber in Europe; andis entitled likewife to the profit ac- cruing fromthe bull of Cruzado, which fee. Thewholeamount of the net public revenue of Spain, raifed in America, is ftated by Dr. Robertfon as not exceeding a million and a half fterl- ing. Spain and Portugal are the only European powers which derive a dire&t revenue from their colonies, as their quota towards defraying the general expence of government. All the advantage, that accrues to other nations from their American dominions, arifes from the exclvfive enjoyment of their trade ; but, befides this, Spain has brought her colonies to contribute towards increafing the power of the ftate, and, in return for prote&tion, to bear a proportional fhare of the common burden. The amount of the Spanifh revenue, above ftated, coimprehends only the taxes colleéted there, and is far from being the whole of what accrues to the king from his dominions in the New World. The heavy duties im- pofed on the commodities exported from Spain to America, as well as what is paid by thofe which fhe fends home in re- turn; the tax upon negro flaves, with which Africa fupplies the New World, together with feveral fmaller branches of finance, bring larger fums into the treafury, the precife ex- tent of which Dr. Robertfon cannot pretend to afcertain. But if the revenue which Spain draws from America be great, the expence of admimiltration in her colonies bears roportion to it. The total amount of the public revenue of Spain from America and the Philippines, from the moft recent informa- tion ftated by Dr. Robertfon, is as follows : Alcavalas (excife) and aduanas (cultoms), &c. in pefos fuertes, = = 5 2,500,000 Duties on gold and filver, - - 3,000,000 Bell of Cruzado, _- sea =. 1,000,000 Tribute of the Indians, - - 2,000,000 By fale of quickfilver, - : 300,000 Paper exported on the king’s aeeount, and fold in the reyal warehoufes, - - 300,000 Stamped paper, tobacco, and other {mall duties, 1,c¢0,c00 Duty on coinage of, at the rate of one real de la Plata, for each mark, : - From the trade of Acapulco, and the coafting trade from province to province, - 300,009 Affiento of negroes, = = 3 From the trade of Marhé. or herb of Paraguay, formerly monopolized by the Jefuits, - 500,000 From other revenues formerly belonging to that order, - - « - 400,000 Total 12,000,0co: Total in fterling money f, 21790,000 Dedu& half, as the expence of adminiftration, and there remains net free revenue, - £ 1,350,000 From the above detail, and upon a general view of the fubje&t, it appears to be abfurd to deny, that Spain has de- rived very great benefits from her colonial poffeffions. Never- thelefs, many very enlightened men have maintained, that the downfal of the Spanifh power has been owing, in & preat meafure, .to the exterfion of dominion which followed the difcovery of America. To this purpofe an appeal has been made to the authority of Dr. Smith, the well known and much approved author of the ‘¢ Wealth of Nations.” « That the monopoly,”’ he obferves, “ of the trade of poptlous and thriving colonies is not alone fufficient to eltablifh, or even to maintain, manufaétures in any country, the examples of Spain and Portugal fufficiently demonitrate. Spain and Portugal were manufacturing countries before they had any confiderable colonies. Since they had the richelt and moft fertile in the world, they have both ceafed to be fo.”? However, Mr. Brougham has remarked, that the te- nor of this obfervation is confined to the ftatement of a fact which cannot be denied, that the period of the decline which the Spanifh and Portuguefe manvufaGtures have ex- perienced, coincided with the period of the Spanifh and Portuguefe colonial greatnefs. But the whole argu- ment proceeds upon a view of the fubjeét, formerly difcuffed, that colonial monopolies in general have been hurtful, from their effests on the wealth of the mother- country. Mr. Brougham has accurately examined this fub- ject ; and in the profecution of his inquiry, he has fhewn, in what manner the profperity of Spain has been influenced by the difcovery of America ; and he has. inveitigated the quettion, whether the acquifition of rich and.extenfive colo- nies can be charged with having caufed the decline of the mother-country, and whether, in fhort, any bad confequence whatever is imputable to this augmentation of empire. By thofe who have maintained, that Spain has been materi- ally injured by her colonies, it has been alleged, that by an im- moderate exteriton of territory, the Spaniards have been-led to the neglect of the territory, which they formerly poffeffed.. But although Spain, and alfo Portugal, may have feverely fuffered in this refpeét, it is f{eldom, if-ever, that, from the nature of colonial power, any fuch cenfequences can arife to the mother- country from the poffeffion of the moft widely fpread colo- nial dominions. In the cafe of Spain efpecially, whatever negleé there may have been in the management both of the mother-country and the colonies, the mal-adminiftration of both thofe parts of the empire muit evidently have avifen from other cautes befides their being united under one crown, Farther, the vait outlet to population which the Spanifh co 8 lonies: COL fonies afford has been thought by many to be detrimental to the mother-country. They allege that the population of Spain has been drained by the demands and temptations for men which the colonies afford. Our author fuggefts a variety of confiderations that tend to invalidate this obje@tion. The indolent and adventurous, the nobles and foldiers of fortune, and men of confiderable property, were the principal emi- grants at the firft fettlement of the Spanifh colonies in Ame- rica; as conqueft or plunder, and mining in fearch of the prec.ous metals were the only modes in which wealth was then fought. Befides, the drain of emigration has been chiefly confined to the population of the maritime provinces of Spain ; and the whole amount of the emigration, at dif- ferent periods, cannot be eftimated very high. It has been faid that the rage for emigration to America was fo much abated in a fhort time after the difcovery, chiefly by the ruin of many who flocked thither, that in the year 1550. there were not above 15 thoufand Spaniards in all the New World. From other documents it has been inferred, that the whole amount of thofe who have emigrated to the Spanifh colomes, during a period of three centuries, does not exceed 5090,0C0. The drain of the Spanifh population mu therefore be wholly inadequate to account for the decline of the Spanifh refources, and the flow progrefs of the Spanifh population. It is no lefs chimerical to imagine that the capital which has been drawn to the colonial agriculture and mining, can have impeverifhed the mother-country in any confiderable degree, than to fuppofs that the colonial emigration can have drained her population; and it is, therefore, to caufes different from the emigration of inhabitants, and of capitals, that-we mutt afcribe the depopulation, the indolence, and the poverty of Spain. In order to account for the depopulation of Spain We may recur to the ravages of the plague, which, during three years in the middle of the 14th century, carried off two- thirds of the whole population of the peninfula, and which about three centuries afterwards, deftroyed 200,000 perfons in the fouthern provinces ;—to the deftru€tion occafioned by dearth and famine ;—to the cruel and infane policy of Ferdi- nand, who, as an expreflion of gratitude to God for the fuccefles of his arms, expelled from his dominions the whole tribe of Ifrael ;—to the ftill more bloody and impolitic mea- fures of his fucceffor. who, about a century afterwards, drove out all the Moorifh race ;—and to the conftant perfecu- tions and rebellions of thefe two claffes during the interval -between the great and general expullions, which produced the effet of fuddenly eradicating from the kingdom all the induflry and fkill which had raifed it to fuch a pitch of opulence and glory. The number of the Jews, who, in the year 1492, were butchered or driven out, is reckoned by fome authors at $00,000 perfons, by others at 800,000 families ; and the number of the Moors driven away by the edict of 1609, cannot be computed at lefs than a million. The bett informed writers ftate the lofs to the country at thefe two periods, and intervening intervals, to have amount- ed to between two and three millions; confilting of the moft ufeful and valuable part of the community. We might enu- merate other caufes of the decline of Spain, arifing from re- ftri¢iions and impofts, and a miferable fyftem of law and po- lice, both at home and in the colonies, which operated much more fatally than the ecquifition of colonial dominions, and which, indeed, counteratted any benefit they might others wife have afforded. It is furely a proof, fays Mr. B., that the downfal of a country was not caufed by its colonial pofieflions, but by fome evil in the national policy common to all its branches, when we find that the ra of adverfity was common to both the contiguous and remote provinces, and that the fame circumftances which raifed up the colo- I ON Y. nies, and increafed their beneficial effets upon the wealth of the parent ftate, have elevated the parent ftate alfo, refcucd her from inaétive obfcurity, and placed her in the career of general improvement, in which her neighbours are engaged in both quarters of the globe. The Portuguefe, incited by a {pirit of difcovery, and by a view tu the great profits accruing to the Venetians from their commerce, during the 14th and r5th centuries, made feveral attempts, in the courfe of the 15th century, to find out a way by fea to the countries from which the Moors brought them ivory and gold duft acrofs the defart. In procefs of time they difcovered the Madciras, the Canaries, the Azores, the Cape de Verd iflands, the coaft of Guinea, that of Loango, Congo, Angoia, and the Cape of Good Hope. They alfo extended their views to the Eatt In- dies, and afterwards to America. During the 16th cen- tury, the empire of Portugal was more extenfive than any over which the dominion of other flates has ever prevailed ; and the territories thet compofed it, though almoft all held by the right of recent difcovery and conqueft, were not, like thofe of Spain and Ruffia, fubdued and retained with eafe ; nor were they tra@s of ufclefs country, thinly peopled, poffeffed only of unimproved natural refources, and inhabited by a few tribes of wandering favages mingled here and there with nations fornewhat more civilized. ‘The Portuguefe conquefts were gained with difficulty from nations far advanced in refinement and capable of refiftance ; the extenfion of their territory obtained from right of dif. covery, that is, feized from lefs civilized nations, was equal to the moft opulent of the dominions poffefled by Spain, and poffeffed by tribes much more warlike than the Mexi- cans or Peruvians; and the length of fea-coaft, with various convenient ports, which bounded the eaftern dominions of Portugal during this brilliant period, was fufficient to infure the moft important commercial advantages from their inter- courfe with the metropolis. The whole weftern coaft ef Africa, with the greater part of the eaft coait and the Cape of Good Hope, was fubjeét to the dominion of the Portu- guefe, and occupied at favourable intervals by their gar- rifons and feftories. They alfo poffeffed the whole fouthern coaft of Afia, together with as many of the Indian iflands as they chofe to fettle in, from the gulf of Perfia to China and Japan, where they had a few important commercial ftations. This unparalleled extent of naval territory gave them the undifputed command of all thofe feas, and enabled them to carry into execution the ordinary fchemes of the mercantile fy{ftem with uncommon vigour and fuccefs, by confining all intercourfe with Afia and Africa to their own European territories. The power, adds the writer whom we are now citing, which they poffeffed over the interior of thofe vaft and opulent regions, fupported their commer- cial eftablifhments, and enabied them to gratify with un- exampled licence that tyrannical {pirit which has always, though in different degrees, fignalized the intercourfe of European ftates with the refined and amiable inhabitants of their Oriental provinces. Such, during the whole of the 16th, and the greateft part of the 17th century, was the mage nificent outline of the Portuguefe empire in Africa and A fia. The romantic defcriptions of their own authors, corroborated by the teftimony of other nations, their rivals and enemies, are fufficient to prove that the achievements and wealth of their nation in the provinces of the Eaftern empire were fuperior to any which it could boaft of elfewhere ; and the remains of the Portuguefe dominions in Africa, where at this day 15 kings are tributary to the court of Lifbon, together with the glittering fragments of the Afiatic em- pire, corrupted by bad policy, as well as difmembered by foreign | | COLONY. foreign conqueft, may convince us of the important rela- tions which the provincial wealth and power of this nation muft have formerly borne to its whole refources. The Ealt Indian poffeffions of Portugal, during the 16th cen- . tury, threw into their hands the whole commerce of Afia, which, long before the difcovery of the paffage by the Cape of Good Hope, had formed one of the greateft trades carried on between any two parts of the world; had en- riched and refined the whole European empire of Rome, and raifed the inconfiderable republic of Venice to a degree of power formidable to all the great nations of the con- tinent. The fame commerce, divided among feveral ftates, has, fince the downfal of the Portuguefe dominions, fen- fibly enriched all thofe nations, and continues to form a very great part of their extended trade. We may judge, in fome degree, of the extent of the trade carried on by the Portuguefe in their Afiatic fettlements, fome time after their eaftern empire had begun to decline from the com- pletion of the Englith and Dutch, by a fingle fac. In the year 1611, the Englif company’s fervants, in one of their voyages to Surat, {aw a fingle Portuguefe merchant fleet, confilting of 240 fail, bound for one plece, and def- tined only for the commerce of the northern and mott trifling fettlements. -(Anderfon’s Hift. of Commerce, ii. 245, 203.) ‘he African and Atiatic provinces, however, mult be confidered as conquered territories, held in fubja- gation by a few troops and fquadrons of fhips; not as colonies peopled by emigrants trom the mother country, or by a race in which thole emigrants and their defcendants bore a confiderable proportion. Of thefe vaft dominions the Portuguefe were nominal pofteffors; the treafure and blood of the metropolis were wafted in wars with the native powers, and the relations of commerce were on every oc- calion poftponed for thofe of conqueft and dominion. Thefe circumitances have eventually proved fatal to the Portuguefe dominion in the Eait, which has at length been transferred to other powers of fuperior policy and ttrength. : The Portuguefe trade with India, though rigoroufl confined to the fubje€ts of the mother country, was never put into the hands of an exclufive company, incorporated by charter, except for a fhort time, about the year 1731, when the experiment was unfuccefsfully tried. ‘The jovereign granted, from time to time, privileges of fitting out velfels, un- der limitations, to private co-partnersand individuals, who thus enjoyed a monopoly of the fupplies required both by the Atiatic and European provinces. he monopoly had been generally velted in the crown, until the year 1752, when it was faid to be abolifhed; but feveral important articles {till continued fubjeét to the royal privileges, and could only be bought in India and fold in Europe on the king’s account. From the fplendid pre-eminence which the Portuguele trade with India once poffeffed, it has funk to a few annual voyages, in confequence of the reduction of the Portuguefe empire in the Katt, and the bad management of the trade and fettlements that {till remain. With a view to its revival, new exclufive grants have been made to mercantile adven- turers in Europe, and an exclufive company has been elta- blifhed at Goa (the chief Eaft Indian fettlement) for the management of the whole trade with Chine. hele abfurd Managements have taken place fince the year 1752, when the evils perceived to arife from monopolizing policy, induced the fovereign to abandon feveral of his exclufive rights, and to pretend that the Eaft Indian commerce was thrown open. While the Portuguefe conquetts were rapidly furviving cach other in the Eaft, the dilcovery of Bengal, opened a new icld of exertion in the Welt. Brazil, however, compared Vor. IX. with Afiatic conquefts, was regarded with indifference, and flowly peopled by malefa@ors, and by thofe whom the perfecuting fpirit of the times drove, from the mother- country. Among the emigrants of this period, facrificed to the cruel bigotry of the inquifition, was a great body of Jews, who carried over with them to the colony the {kill and induttry with which they had enriched and {trengthened the European dominions of Portugal. Under their cultivation the natural wealth of this fruitful territory began to appear, and by degrees to attraét the attention of government. All the Portuguefe fubjeéts, who chofe to fettle in Brazil, were permitted to fubdue large tracks of country, and to hold them as fiefs of the crown, with abfolute power over the natives whom they had conquered, and with all the prero- gatives of royalty, except capital jurifdiction, coinage, and tithes, which were invariably referved to the fovereign. Thefe great territorial lords thus acquired an aimoft abfolute authority, over domains often extending 40 or So leagues along the fea-coalt ; and generally leafed out parts of their pofleffions to fub-vaflals for terms of 2 or 3 lives. This arrangement immediately attra€icd to the colony a number of adventurers and opulent perfons from the mother country, The importance of this colony, in confequence of the whole territory of Brazil, and the cultivation of various ufeful articles, graduzily increafed ; and its traffic with the parent ftate, would have proved a great mutual benefit; if an erro- neous policy had not confined it to a few ports in each part of the empire. Avnnuai fleets from Lifbon and Oporto aione were permitted to carry on this rich commerce, under regu- lations fimilar to thofe of the Spanifh flotas and galleons. Four emporiams, viz. Olinda, St. Salvador, Paraiba, and Rio Janeire, were appointed for the deltination of thofe {quadrons, and the fupply of the whole colony. The 18th century opened with adifcovery of gold and diamond mines; and fince that period many regulations have been adopted, which have praved pernicious both to the colonies and to the parent ftate. Companies were eftablifhed at Peru, Fernambuco, andjMaragnan, which did not long furvive the downfal of Pombal, the Portuguefe minifter: thefe have ceafed to exift above 20 years, atter proving highly injurious to both the mother-country and the colony during an equal period of time. A new and more liberal fyftem has beew introduced ; but the royal monopolies {till exift in their full force, and obitrnét the growth, as well as the circulation, of the mot valuable ftaple produce which Brazil fupplies. Since Portugal has experienced the irretrievable lofs of her rich Ealt Indian commerce, and a diminution of the traffic formerly carried on with Africa, Brazil is of great im- portance to her. This colony is better governed and peopled than any of the Spanifh dominions; its proximity to Africa and connection with the Portuguefe fettlements there, afford great facility in the increafe of its cultivation, by means of negroes ; the pofleffions of Brazil gives Portu- gal confiderable weight in the continental politics; and the poffeffion of this noble colony, befides yielding a clear reve~ nue to the mother-country (above one-fourth of the whole national income) is the fource of a great proportion of her whole commerce ;—the imports from them being nearly equal to the whole imports from the other countries of Hufopes | The colonies of Sweden and Denmark, are too infignifi- cant to influence, in any confiderable degree, the profperity of the parent ftates, and bear a lefs proportion to the whole imperial refources than thofe of any other nation. The exclufive companies, which for a long feries of years monopo- lized all the colonial trade of both thefe countries, have been peculiarly injurious, See Comrany, Dani/h and Scvedi/>. E For ¥ C,0.L,. 00 ¥, For an account of the colonies of France and England, the limits of our article oblige us to refer to the articles France and Engianp, West Innes, East Inptes, and Company, and the feveral individual iflands of the Welt Indies. Tere are fome other kinds of colonies, befides thofe above enumerated, of which we fhall give a brief account. Conquered fubjeéts or prifoners of war have been fometimes removed to particular and fele& places, either for fafe cuftody, or for the cultivation of walte lands. The ancients more frequently pradtiled this fpecies of colonization than the moderns, who prefer exchanging the prifoners on each fide. The Romans, in particular, were conftantly ac- cuftomed to remove the more active and daring nations to a ditance from their native abodes, and to oblige them to refide in fome fele& place which was pro- bably lefs defenfible than their own country, — and where, of courfe, they would be more under command. We are not, however, without fome examples of this kind, even in our own times. The Maroons, or remnant of the Spanith flaves, who had been relinquifhed by their mafters, and left on the ifland of famaica, when the Spaniards were ex- pelled by the Englifh, after having long gallantly refilted the forces brought againft them, at lalt fubmitted to one of his majelty’s officers, upon condition of not being fent off the ifland. ‘To this fubmiffion they were induced by the fear of a new fpecies of warfare with which they were threatened, wiz. the ufe of blood-hounds to difcover their retreats. But the legiflative aflembly of the ifland not only refufed to pay the Spanilh police-runners their Lipu- Jated bounty, bnt alfo took advantage of fome unavoidable delays in the performance of the treaty to annul it alto- gether, and to tranfport the Maroons to Nova Scotia, whence they were afterwards removed to Sierra Leone. On ac- count of this flagrant act of injullice the: commanding officer of his majelty’s troops indignantly refufed a hand- fome fword, which the aflembly offered him for his fer- vices in putting an end to a war which had been fo long protracted. See Maroons. Another kind of colonization is the removal of convicted criminals, or of debtors, to fome defart fpot, in order to work the mines, or break up the land, and thus prepare it for more refpectable colonilts. The Ruffians ufe this mode of colonizing their vaft lands in Siberia. But the moft in- tereiting colony of this defcription, particularly to Englith- men, is that of New Houvanp, which fee.—Alfo, Bo- rany-bay,and New South Wares. ; Great {ums of money have been, and full are, annually expended on this colony, but it has hitherto laoguifhed ; partly from the difproportionate nomber of the fexes, and the idle habits of the conviGts, but itill :more from fome radical defeéts in its adminiftration, many parts of which render it more lke a mere job for contra€tors and agents, than a well regulated fyftem for the gradual reformation of the criminals, and for rendering them ufeful fubje&s in future. The diffentions alfo which have taken place among the-officers there, cannot but have tended to injure thé colony. hele diffentions feem to have originated in fome ncalure from the governor being always a naval officer. Vhe abfurdity, for fuch we mutt efteem it, of a naval officer commanding in chief on fhore, merely becanfe he went to the place by fea, is fully equalled by feveral others, which demounitrate how inadequate to the undertaking were the framers of the fyit:m by which the colony, is re- gulated, During the firft ten years, viz. from 1787 to 1797 in- elulive, the number of convicts fent to New South Wales was 5765 men and women, and 93 children, being in alf 5855 perfons. ‘The expence of tranfporting, feeding, and governing them, during that pericd, amounted to 1,087,230/. being above 17774. for each, exclufive of the expences previous to their embarkation. The number of conviéts remaining was as follows ; Men convicts in the fettlement - 2376) Women s x - = 939 Convigts fent ovt in 1796 and 1797, Not arrived - - 695 Total - 3802 So that a lofs of 2049 conviéts had been {nftained in this fhort period; an evident proof of the moft glaring mif- management. On the firft of September, 1746, the agri- cultural flate of the colony was as follows : On aceount of goverment, In pofieffion of j We) private perfons, Acres of land in cultivation ~ Wiehe) 3719 Horfes - - - 1g 43 Black cattle - ~ 150 a Sheep - - - IOI 1340 Goats - - - IIk 1316 Swine - - - 59. 1810 The later accounts which have been received are equally unpromiling. The fpirit of diflention has increafed, and fpread itfelf to every rank ; fo alfo has the depravity of the convicts, in confequence of their not being fcparated, and placed under tne controul of ffeady perfons who have ar intereit in watching over their moral improvement. Indeed, the vicioufnefs of the convicts increafed by fellowfhip, and even many of the free fettlers have, from the force of evil example, acquired the fame bad habits. The quantity of land cultivated on the public account is too great, and the numerous public works abforb the labour of the convidis, — and leave but’few of them io be hired out to fettlers. Thefe circumflances, together with the ill fele&ion of the conyicts, and of the fettlers, as to their former employments, contribute to. the want of fuccefs in the colony. It certainly is not improper to fend, as matter of favour, criminals to remote and deiart places to procure their own livelihood, furnifhing them at fir with a few neceffaries, and then leaving them to their own induftry, or to fupply the free fettlers in thofe places with convicts for fervants, in order to free them from the heavy expence incident to their procuring fervants from a diftance. But the idea of tranf- porting large bodies of criminals to an immenfe diftance, and employing them, under a ftrong guard, in public works, where tew fuch works can poffibly be wanted, and in culti- vating land in the produce of which they have no intereft, does not feem to have been happily chofen, or very pro- mifing, even in theory; and we may add, that praétice, upon a very extenfive fcale, has completely fhewn its - futility. The Romans, it is true, tranfplanted their prifoners of * war to diitant countries, and employed them on public works; but thefe works. were carried on in well inhabited countries, and were defigned for the facilitation of the in- tercourfe between the feveral parts of the empire, or for adornisg the cities with marks of the Roman grandeur. We believe, however, that the colony of New South’ Wales might be made to anfwer much betrer, if a” few {imple regulations were adopted, and particularly if the em- ployment of fo many conviéts on account of government was abolifhed, and the convicts left more to their own induftry, it : COLONY. Tr was formerly obferved in Virginia, that the colony lan- guithed fo long as the cultivation of the ground, &c. was car- ‘ied on as a public concern, but that it immediately begun to flourifh when the Jands were divided, and every one left to fhift for himfelf. The want of capital and experience among the majority -of the convicts, forms no objeCtion; as, by furnifhing thofe accultomed to hnfbandry, gardening, or ufeful trades, with ‘the neceflary {ceeds and tools, and “a very {paring allowance f provifions, to be gradually diminifhed,”’ there can be no doubt but that, in a very fhort time, they would not only be able to repay the advances made them, with intereft, but alfo to pay agradually increafing rent. As to thofe’bred to’ no profeffion ufefal in the colony, they might be lett out by auction, for.a year at a time, until they had acquired {nfficient experience: and a fourth part of their wages might be deducted and laid by, to form a ftock when they. were capable of ufing it, another part being paid into fome benefit fociety. Hitherto we have fpoken of external colonies, or thofe in which the colonilts recede from their mother-country, and eftablifh themfelves in foreiyn land, without, however, fub- mitting to their form of government. It now remains to treat of thofe colonies in which large communities of foreigners are, for fome particular reafons, permitted to enter and fettle in a country 3 which colonies differ from thofe founded by private adventurers, only becaufe they do not fo flrongly affe€t the political fyftem “of the country. Vhe Roflian government, having immenfe tracks of waite lands, fome of which are advantageoufly fitnated for mines or for commerce, has, as we have already faid, beltowed great attention 1) endeavouring to people thefe tracks, as well by foreigners as™by natives. The Pruoffian government has alfo belftowed the fame laudable attention to the improve- ment of the wafte lands in its poff-ffion; and it even went fy fav as to require from the Poles a tribute of marriageable virgins, with a {tipulated portion for each. Yo this [pecies of colony belongs what is ufually called the Babylonifh captivity of the Jewihh nation, and which is erroneoufly ‘uppofed to have been a removal of the whole nation in a ftate of flavery: whereas it evidently appears, from their own records, that it fimply meant the refidence of the Jewifh chiefs, and of their priefts,. at the court of the king of Babylon, The number of perfons carried off by the king himfelf, was (2 Kings, xxiv.) only 10,000; a number furely applicable only to the higher claffes, The offices which many of them held in the Babylonian court, and fubfequently in the Perfian, are a proof, that although they were, for obvious political reafons, required to refide at court, their fituation there was perfectly honour- able. It is probable, however, that their removal might oceafion the gradual emigration of a number of other families, who followed them for the fake of employment, and {pread over the Babylonian dominions ; as their num- ber was found to be greatly encreafed, when they were allowed by the Perfians to return. They then amounted (Nehemiah, vii. Ezra, iii.) to 49.697 perfons. ' Many other initances may be found, both in ancient and modern hiftory, of this importation of people. The conquered Greeks filled the capital of the Roman empire, and, by the verfatility of their talents, acquired the fame influence over the malters of the world, as the modern French (who frequently boait of their Greek origin) have over the fafhionable part of our own country. By means of this influence, they introduced among the Romans all the vices for which they were notorious; and to the baneful effe&t of their influence, we may juftly attribute, in great meafure, the downfal of the empire, fince they introduced a love of diffipation, and of fhowy, but trifling acquifitions, inftead of the more folid attainments which were required, before they contaminated the public mind. The importation of flaves into a country, may be re- garded as a kind of internal colony of the moft important, becaufe dangerous nature. When the flaves are numerous, they are not only retained in fubjection with difficuity, (be- ing in general far fuperior in bodily ftrength) ‘but they are alfo of very doubtful fidelity, and ever ready to join any in- vader, or to flock tothe ftandard of any military adven- turer, There is yet ftill greater danger if an independent fate exifls in the neighbourhood, and particularly if it fhould confilt of revolted flaves (as has lately happened in St. Domingo), becaufe the greater energy of an independ- ent government enables it to profecute any ambitious de- figns of conqueft with decided advantage over a delegated authority. It is, therefore, highly impolitic that flavery fhould be conftantly permitted in any country; and, although, for the fake of bringing labourers to any particular {vot, it it may be tolerated at firft, it is the bounden duty of every {tate to take decifive meafures to convert the flaves, by degrees, into free {ubjeéts, and to put a ftop to the importation, as foon as the colony has obtained a certain population, and further to take fome fteps in order to libe- ° rate the flaves already imported, or at leaft to make their offspring free at a certain age. Thus it will be requifite for the colonift to attend to the welfare of his prefent ttock, and to introduce tafk-work, whereby he wiil be changed, in time, from a commercial capitalift, or a needy planter, into a landed gentleman. He will then be folicitous only for his rents, and deprecate the idea of keeping more land in hand than is neceflary for the fupport of his eftablifhment, or to ferve as an example of perfeét cultivation and grazing to his tenants, to the moft induftrious of whom he might furnith capital and favourable leafes, in Drder to enable them to im- prove his own land. Toa negle& of this falutary precaution, we may attri- bute the prefent dangerous ftate of the Dutch and Englifh colonies in the Welt Indies, fince, notwithftanding the length of time that they have been eftablifhed, the fate of fociety in them is as crude and femi-barbarous as it was at the time of their being firft fettled. It was probably owing toa fimilar negle& that the weft. ern provinces of the Roman empire’were fo fpeedily fub- dued by the northern adventurers. The Roman provincials, like the planters in the Welt Indies, feem to have had little repugnance to a change of matters; partly becaufe the refi. dent, planters were thus relieved, at leaft for fome time, from the claims of their creditors; partly becaufe the agents were enabled, in many cafes, to convert the planta- tions to their own benefit; and, laltly, becaufe both were equally afraid that, in cafe the war was protracted, they fhould lofe their flaves. See Sraves. As to their intrinfic nature, colonies are either agricultu- ral, which grow within themfelves the principal articles of their food and fubfiltence; or they are commercial, which depend upon other countries for the neceffaries of life, and devote themfelves to the traffic of a few ftaple commodities. The northern ftates of America and the Bermuda iflance are fo many inftances of agricultural colonies; while the Weft .Indian iflands, together with Virginia and Maryland on the continent, are examples of commercial colonies. In refpe@ to the advantayes or difadvantages of external dependent colonies, no perfon has more thoroughly conii- E2 _dered COL OW vy. dered the fubje& than Mr. Brougham, in his elaborate treatife “On the Colonial Policy of the European Powers.”’ The adoption of all the pofitions advanced by that inge- nious writer, may indeed be fomewhat hazardous ; efpecialiy if we confider the great degree of doubt and uncertainty which hangs over all political {peculations, on account of the difficulty, and ill more the danger of making experi- ments on thofe fubjecis; to fay nothing of the want of means for afcertaining whether the effects are afcribed to the right caules, when (as is ufual in human affairs) fo many canfes concur in producing thole effeéts. The firit advantage arifing from colonics dependent upon any country, is the extenfion of the home trade; for fuch in fact the trade between the mother-country and the co- lony may fairly be confidered, becaufe the whole of the pro- fits is retained within the ftate; whereas in foreign trades, one of the profits, either that of the buying, or of the fell- ing merchant, goes to enrich a foreign ftate. The trade of a colony allo produces a confiderable augmentation of the mer- cantile navy of the mother-country, and, at the fame time; as the fhips and their crews are conttantly retained: within the power of the itate, there is far lefs danger of the failors being enticed into foreign fervice, than if part of theirtime was {pent in foreign ports. The European nations have anxioufly endeavoured to confine the trade of their colonies to the merchants of the mother-country by pofitive regula- tions; but Mr. Brougham thinks this folicitude is abfurd and even nugatory. Merchants will, in all countries, pre- fer dealing with their own countrymen, with whofe lan- guage, laws, and habits of thinking they are acquainted, And this is more efpecially the cafe in commercial colonies, as they require in general {uch large advances of capital, that few perfons would be inclined to invelt {ums upon pri- vate foreign fecurity. But the greateft utility of colonies, is the affording an opening for the employment of the fuperfluous population of the mother-country, which mnft otherwife either emi- grate to the neighbouring foreign nations, or die of want at home. The inhabitants, indeed, of agricultural colonies, are in general ftationary, and, as it were, loft to the mother- country ; but thefe colonies only attract thofe who cannot get employment at home, or in the commercial colonies, or thofe who are in fuch defperate circumftances that they are oblized to fly from home to avoid the importunities of their creditors. Commercial colonies, on the other hand, have for the moft part only a temporary population, as the colo- nifls, after fpending a part of their time in the colony, ge- nerally return home with their fortunes improved, and carry with them, to che mother-country, the fame f{pirit of im- provement to which chey owed their fuccefs in the colony. Commercial colonies have a further advantage, in furnifh- ing employment for thofe large capitals which would other- wife be employed upon the more diftant foreign trades, or lent to foreign ilates. We thall now fey a few words refpeGting the difadvan- tages ariling from the poffeffion of colonies; thefe are fo great that the economilts have loudly declaimed againit the utility of forming fuch eftablifhments ; but they have cont- mitted a fundamental error, in confidering colonies as fo- reign flates. ‘hey ought rather to be confidered as mere extenfions of the parent ftate, into regions adapted to the production of articles which cannot be raifed at home. A circulation of inhabitants is kept up by the commercial in- terconrfe between the colony and the mother-country, and alfo by the weaknefs incident to parts remote from the feat ef government. So that, as the colonies require, at all times, the folterimg care of the mother-country, they are generally filled with the troops of the parent flate and their followers, and the ports are conftantly reforted to by its fhipping, both mercantile and warlike. It were needlefs to infilt upon the powerful attraétions refulting from their common origin, their identity of language, and their fimila- rity of habits in thinking; as. the effeét of thefe, in pro- ducing a good underitanding among nations, muft ftrke the moft inattentive obferver. One of the principal difadvantages of colonies, is the wars. into which they feem to draw the nations which poffefs them. But although it is certainly true that external commercial’ colonies do, in the prefenttimes, generally become the feat of warfare between fuch of the belligerent powers as poflefs. them, it cannot be allowed that they are the caufes of the war; for as they increafe the frontier to be defended, thofe nations which poflefs them will be lefs ready to engage in. hoftilities; and it is the weaknefs of the colonies, (on ac- count of their deficient population preventing the railing of regular troops in them), that is the principal caufe of the enemy chufing rather to invade them, than to force his entry into the parent ftate. The want of a powerful landed intereft, in colomes of this nature, tends alfo to attraét the hoftilities of the enemy, as the pofleffion of them is feldom difputed with the ob{tinacy which marks the refiftance to invafion in old fettled countries; the defence being limited to the {mall number of troops which the.parent flate can fpare without endangering her own fafety, and whofe exertions are im- peded by the mixture of an ill-difciplined militia, and of vo- lunteers, unaccultomed to fervice, and deploring their fate in being forced from their own homes. é This unfitnefs of external colonies, which are always un- derftocked with inhabitants, to contribute fupplics of men for the general defence of the ftate, is ufually confidered as a difadvantage; but it cannot in reality be efteemed to be one of much confequence. Even in the parent ftate itfelf, it is only in thofe manufa€turing diftriéts that produce arti- cles, the demand for which is variable- that the recruiting fervice meets with fuccefs; in thofe where agriculture pre- vails, or in which a ftaple commodity is manufaétured, that fervice is in general unfuccefsful. It cannot, however, be of any confequence, in regard to the general population of the empire, whether the mother-country fupplies foldiers, or whether they are raifcd in the colony, and their place fupplied by frefh fettlers. 7 It is only the total want of fyftem, both in the planting and {ubfequent management of the Englih colonies, that rendered tuem at firtt, and ftill keeps feveral of them expen- five burtiens to the mother-country; as thofe of other countries not only pay, in general, their own expences, but alfo furnifh a furplus revenue for the fervice of the empire, : Tt will appear, from what we have already faid, that a great ciilcrence of political ftrength fubfifts between agri. cultural and commercial colonies. The former are much itronger internally, and capable of affording, with their owa refources, a more obftinate defence to the attacks of the enemy. But this ftrength renders them refractory, and difficult to be controlled ; hence they require either early reflraint, and the obfervance of a itri& difcipline, or they mutt be relinquifhed as dependencies, and incorporated into the mother-country, as has recently been found neceflary in refpet to Ireland. Qn the other hand, although the weak- nels of commercial colonies renders them much more de- pendent on the {tate to which they belong, yet, from.the debts with which they aie in general loaded, they are ever ready to fubmit to any invader; efpecially if the change can be made to a ftate, where the merchants poflefs larger cou larger capitals than thofe of the ftate to which they have already been {nbjeéted ; as this affords them a hope, not only of being releafed for fome time from the clairns of their ancient creditors, but alfo gives them reafon to fuppofe they may oe able to procure itill greater credit from their new matters. Every perfon acquainted with Weft Indian affairs mult acknowledge the truth of this remark; and with refpe&t to other parts, we have, ourfelves, twice ex- perienced the facility and even eagernefs with which the Cape of Good Hope was furrendered to us. The want of mercantile capital which our enemies in the Wett Indies do not as yet poflefs, is the principal fecurity we have that thofe colonifts will rather chufe to remain un- der our dominion than fall into the hands of other powers, as they would, in that cafe, be obliged to diminifh their cultivation in confequence of the diminution in the ad- vances made by the merchants upon their future crop. And as to any attempts at independence, the mother-country has a confiderable fecurity in the precarious fituation of the inha- bitants, in confequence of the number of their flaves and the difcontent that generally prevails among them. This latter circumitance, might, by thofe who think the poffef- fion of colonies, and the monopoly of their trade, are of great benefit to a nation, be thought to afford a good ar- gument againft the abolition of the flave trade, as tending indire€tly to leflen the dependency of the colonies. But we may remark, that the greater ftrength of the colonies, arifing from their internal improvement in confequence of the abolition of the flave trade, would more than counter- balance the danger of their revolt, as they would, in con- fequence of fuech ftrength, run lefs hazard of falling into the hands of an enemy. And the event of the American war has fully proved, that even in the cafe of the colonies revolting, when they had acquired fufficient ftrength, the commercial intercourfe between the two countries would continue, and probably rapidly increafe; fo that the go- vernment would, at the worft, lofe only an expenfive in- cumbrance. It can only be by the influx of foreigners, be- longing to a mercantile nation, in fuch numbers as to ace quire a preponderance in the ftate, fo as to alter the funda- mental laws and language of the colony, that any great change in its commercial relations would be effecied, The moft ferious difadvantage of colonies, is that they divert the capital of the nation from the improvement of the mother.country ; although this improvement is certainly the moft advantageous employment in which the capital of any nation can be engaged. It has indeed been aflerted, that the labour of one man on the continent of America, pro- duced more to the fate than four at home; but this muft be regarded as the mere rant of vifionary politicians, being totally unfounded and abfurd in the higheft degree; for the fubje&ts at,home being dire€tly taxed, muft yield far more revenue than thofe in the colonies, who are in general only indire&tly taxed to the common fervice of the empire, by the cuftoms levied upon the commercial intercourle of the two countries. The fame perfons afferted that each White perfon in Virginia and Maryland, took off from ten to twelve pounds a year of the growth or manufaCtures of the mother-country. But the cuftom-houfe books are fuffi- cient evidence that this calculation was much over-rated; for the exports to thofe colonies were never more than 300,000/. a year, and therefore, allowing them to contain, as was ftated, 120,c00 white perfons, the confumption of each perfon was only 1/. 13s. 4d. ahead. ‘he whole of the exports to America, when at the higheft, was only about 834,000/. a year; and this tends to fhow that it is _ better to retain the induftry of the inhabitants of any coun i CoOL try within its own f{phere, and encourage the cultivation of the wafte lands, than to divert it to diflant colonization. Tt may, however, be fometimes neceffary, as a meafure of pre- caution, to fecure the poffeffion of diftant places, when it is known, or {ufpefled, that the ufual enemies of the flate intend to colonize them; but it is extremely improvident to fofter thefe diftant colonies at the expence of the mother- country, as is done in refpe€t tothe Britifh colonies. When an old fettied country is improved to the higheft, then, and then only, canit be neceffary to provide outlets for the em- ployment of the furplus capital of its fubje&s, by conquer- ing, or purchafing fome poor country, with a view to its improvement. As to internal colonies, the encouragement of foreigners, and efpecially the importation of foreign flaves, muft, in ge- neral, be regarded as errors in politics. The procuring of a ftock of labourers in the firk ftage of breaking up a new and uninhabited colony, the introduction of new manufac- tures, or of new commercial relations, can alone jultify fuch meafures. And furely it is far better to endeavour to attain thefe ends by other means. The removal of idle and diforderly perfons from great cities, the fending out intelli- gent travellers into other countries, the encouragement of experimental philofophers and chemilts, together with the apprenticing of clever youths to merchants in~ foreign countries, would probably be equally efficacious. See Smith’s Wealth of Nations, B. iv. chap. 7. Robertfon’s Hitt. of America, vol. ii. Brougham’s Inquiry into the Colonial Policy of the European Powers, 1803, vol. i. and ii, paflim. Paley’s Principles of Moral and Political Philo- fophy, vol. i.p. 381. Edwards’s Weft Indies, vol. ii. Corony of Bees. See Hive. COLOONY, in Geography, a {mall poft-town of the county of Sligo, Ireland, remarkable for the check given to the progrefs of the French troops under general Humbert, in September, 1798, by the gallantry of lieutenant-colonel Vereker with about 300 men chiefly of the city of Limerick militia. Though col. Vereker was obliged to retreat in confequence of the number of the enemy, yet he faved the town of Sligo, and by the delay he occafioned, enabled marguis Cornwallis to come up with and entirely fnbdue the French force. Coloony is 98 Irifh miles N.W. from Dub- lin, and five S. from Shgo. COLOOR, or Cotore, a town of Hindeoftan, in the circar of Guntvor, which poileffes a diamond mine on the fouthern bank of the Kiltnah, and not far from Condavir. COLOPENA Recio, in Ancient Geography, a country of Afia in Cappadocia; Sebaftopolis and Sebalte are towna of this country. ia COLOPHON, a town of Afia Minor now 4ttolofco, or according to others, Belvidere. It was one of the chief cities of the Ionian league, feated near the fea, and not, as Piiny calls it, an inland city, in the {mall river Halefus, N.W. of Ephefus and S.S.E of Smyrna. It was founded by Mopfus, grandfon of Tirefias, and, in procefs of time, Damafichthon and Promether, fons of Codrus, condu&ted acolony hither. It was deftroyed by Lyfimachus, and its inhabitants were fent to people Bahehin’ but after his death it was rebuilt in a more convenient fituation. ‘The Colo- phonians were fuch excellent horfemen, that thofe, for whom they declared themfelves, were fure of victory ; whence the trite proverb ‘* Toy Korv$we exe$nxe, colophonem addere,”*. i.e, to put the laft hand to a work, or fuccefsfully to termi- nate it. Colophon was the birth-place of Nicander, and one of the feven cities that claimed Homer, who lived there fome time, as Herodotus informs us. ‘The ancients mention a famous grove and temple of Apollo Darius in the neigh- bourbood coL bourhood of this city; whence fome have faid that he de- rived this appellation, though others fay that he was fo called from a mountain bearing that name. The {mall town of Notium,”? on the fame coaft, often mentioned by Livy, belonged to the Colophonians, and the Romans allow- ed it the fame privileges, which they granted to Colophon itfelf. Pliny informs us, that they colle&ed in the vicinity ‘of Colophon, a refin of a ycllowifh red colour, which be- ing bruifed, emitted a ftrong odour; and hence fome have derived the name of Colyshony, now frequently called s¢ Spanifh wax,” or * Grecian refin,” as it is brought from one -or the other of thofe countries. Its epifcopal fee was fub- je& to the metropolis of Ephefus. Cotopuon, a town of Greece in Epirus. .COLOPHONIA, in Botany, Commers. See Bursrra paniculata. COLOPS, in Geography, the name given by Dion to a river of Pannonia, called Colapis, by Strabo. COLOQUINTIDA, in the Materia Medica. CoLocynTHis. : COLOR, inthe Ancient Mufic. See Corours. Coxror ZIndicus. See Inpicus Color. Cotor nero e roff, Ital. black and red, in Mufic. We Shave feen im Bene’t college, Cambridge, old_mufic books of Henry VIi.’s time, in which fome of the notes were black, and fome red. COLORADO, in Geography, a river of New Mexico, in the fouth-weitern part, which flows into the northern part of the Vermilion fea, or gulf of California, called by D’An- ville colorado de los maityres. The courfe of this river, which is generally from N E. to S.W. fometimes W. may be com- puted at 600 Britifh miles. It is -called Rio Colorado, or Red river, becaufe the waters acquire that colour from the red clay on which the rains fall. Its itream is deep and copious, and capable of confiderable navigation. ‘The neighbouring favages, who {wim acrofs it by a peculiar artifice, are denomi- nated cocomaricopas, which fee. ‘This river is joined from the ealt by a large river, called Gila, which, however, is every- where fordatle. ‘The country between thele rivers is faid to be an upland defart, without water or pafture. On the other fide of the Colorado, the country is faid, on the contrary, to be very fertile, and the natives rather fond of cultivation. It is thought that confiderable rivers alfo join the Colo- rado from the weft, flowing fromthe fame chainof moun- tains that fupply the fources of the Rio Brave, in Jat. 40°. Among thefe the Zazuananas is the moft lengthened ftream, and may therefore be regarded as the Colorado itfelf.. On the welt of the Colorado, the river of Ma@yrs, and that of Pyramids, have umbraceous terminations, perhaps in the fame lakes, or, perhaps in the Colorado. In lat. 39° W. long. from Madrid, 110° 30’, there is a large lake without a name, _ which receives two confiderable rivers from the eaft, one of which 1s called Buenara. From lat. yo° to 43°, and under the fame meridian, extends another lake, which, though not fully explored, feems to be that of Imparices, where the fa- thers Velez and Efcalante terminated their difcoveries, and the utmoft inland knowledge of the Spaniards. If, indeed, the Spaniards have explored that part of the country, they conceal their information. On-the eaft of the fame chain, from which fprings the Rio Bravo, anife two rivers, which prebably join the Miflvari ; and dt appears that the caftern river of Colorado has been con- *fouaded with another river of the fame name, with the cpi- thet of Nachitos, which probably joins the Arkanza ‘or Akaalas.. See Cororapo or Riviere Rouge, infra. Coxorapo, a river of New Mexico, which runs into the ay of St. Bernard, in the gulf of Mexico. hc lie 8 See COL Cororano, Riviere Rouge, or Red River, a river of North America, in Louifiana, which runs into the gulf of Mexico, or rather joins the Miffiflippi river, before it falls into this gulf, fome miles above New Orleans. COLORADGOS, Los, a numereus cluiter of fmall iflands or rocks, near the N.W. coait of the ifland of Cuba. COLORATURA, in the Jialian Mufic, is ufed to de- note ail forts of variations, trillos, diminutions, &c. that can render a fong agreeable. COLORBASIANS. See Corarsasians. COLOREDO, in Geography, a town belonging to the ftate of Venice, in the country of Friuli; feven miles N.W. of Udina. COLORETTI, Marrezo, in Biography, was born at Reggio, in the year 1611, and is fpoken of by Tirabofchi and the abbé Lanzi, asa mot excellent painter of por- traits. COLORIFIC earths.in Mineralocy.aclafsor tribe of earths, in the arrangement of Kirwan, defcribed by him as firong ly. flaining the fingers. Of thefe he enumerates four families, viz. red, yellow, black, and green ; the red is the reddle, or rubrica fabrilis. Rothel. Lafni, 0. 973. Of dark cochineal red colour, or intermediate between brick and blood réd, hav- ing neither luftre nor tranfparency ; fra€ture, earthy, fome- times conchoidal; fragments, 1; hardnefs, 4; fp. gr. in- coniiderable ; adhering pretty Mrongly to the torgue ; feeling rough; afluming a polifh from the nail; ftrongly ftaining the fingers ; falling immediately into. powder in water, and not becoming duétile ; not effervefcing, nor eafily diffolving in acids. When heated to rednefs, crackling and growing black ; at 159° the fpecimen (Lefke, 0. 973) melted intoa dark greenifh yellow frothy enamel. It differs from red ochres only by containmg moreargill. The red colour pro- eecds from oxygenation, and the abfence of acid. The mere air of water is expelled by heat, the browner it grows. The yellow, Gellebarde, Lefke, 0, 1098, is of an ochre yellow co- lour ; as to iuftre, externally it often hath fome glofs, but ms ternally none; tranfparency, 0; fracture earthy, often in clining to the conchoidal ; fragments, 0; hardnefs, 3; {p. gr. inconfiderable; adheres flrongly to the tongue; feels imooth, or fomewhat greafy ; takes a high polifh from the nail; ftrongly ftains the fingers; in water it immediately falls to pieces with fome hiffing ; and afterwards to powder, without diffufing itfelf through it ; does not eifervefce with acids, nor is eaftly foluble in them; heated to rednefs. it crackles, hardens, and acquires a red colour, and givesa red- difh freak. At 156°, Mr. Kirwan melted the fpecimen, Lefke, (0.1098) into a liver-brown porous porcelain mals. This yellow earth differs from ochres only in containing a greater proportion of argill; the yellow colour proceeds from the calx of iron, highly oxygenated, and probably containing both water and acid. Thofe earths which contain a large proportion ofiron, have rather an orange colour. According to the analyfis of M. Sage of Paris, who has the merit of preferving to his countrymen the immenfe gains acquired by the Dutch from converting this yellow earth into what is there called ‘¢ Englifh red,” it contains 50 per cent argill, 40 oxyd of iron, to of water, acidulated by vitriolic acid. Mem. Par. 1779,313- The 3d family, or black, black chalk. Schwartze, Kreide, Zeichen, Schirfer, Lefke, 3.972 5 Pierre noire of Briffon, p. 163, is of a greyifh black colour ; luftre, o; tranfparenéy, o; fraG@ure imperfe@ly curved flaty ; fragments 1, partly flat, partly long fplintery ; hard- nefs, 5; {p. gr. 2,114, by Kirwan’s trial by Briffon, 2,186 before abforption of, 2,277 after ablorption of water; ad heres flightly to the tonzue, feels fmooth, affumes a polifh froma knife; gives a black flreak, and marks black ;: in wa- ter we coL 7 ter does not réadily moulder, but if taken out eracksin a fhort time; does not effervefce with acids, nor eafily diffolve in them ; heated to rednefs, it crackles and. becomes reddifh grey ; and contains fomewhat vitriolic. The 4th family, green earth. Lefke, 0.1013, is of a greyifh green colour ; found generally in lumps .in the cavities of other ftones, or externally invefting them; luftre, o; tranfparency, o ; frac- ture, earthy, fometimes uneven, fometimes verging to the conchoidal; fragments, 2; hardnefs, from 6 to 7; fp. gr. 2,037; fometimes feels fmooth, does not aflume a polifh from the knife, nor adhere to the tongue, nor fiain the fingers, nor mark while dry, and when wet but Kghtly, in water it often crumbles after ftanding about half an hour; does not effervefce with acids, nor is eafily foluble in them ; heated to rednefs, it crackles and becomes of a dark reddifh cream colour ; at 147°, the {pecimen (Lefke, 0. 013) melted intoa black compact glafs, refembling that of ba- falv; which fhews it to confift of filex, argill, iron not much oxygenated, and oxyd of nickel, from which the green co- lour ts derived, befides water. Kirwan’s Elem. of Mineralogy, vol.\i. COLORINA, or Covarina, in Ancient Geography, a town of Arabia Felix. Ptolemy. 2 COLORISATION, or Cotorarion, in Pharmacy, a term applicd to the feveral changes of colour which bodies underyo in the various operations of nature, or art; as by fermentations, lotions, cocbons, oxydations, Ke.’ COLORITES, in Lecefaftical Hiffory, a congregation of Auguitin monks, inftituted about 1530, and fo called from Colorito, a mountain near Morano, in Calabria, where a church was ereCted to the Virgin Mary. COLORNO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the Pare mefan; 7 miles N. of Parma. COLOS, a town of Tranfylvania; 4 miles N. of Co- lofvar. - COLOSER Satr Mine, in Hungary; the flratum of rock falt in this famous mine, is of the enormous thickne{s of Go fathoms; the diameter of the excavation made therein by the miners, is 50 fathoms. ‘* Born’s Hungary,” p. 140, 143+ COLOSVAR. See Corosvar. COLOSSAL Cotumn. Sce Cozumn. COLOSSE, in Ancient Geography, now Chonos, or Konos, a city of Phrygia Major, in that part called Pacatian, feated on an eminence, on the fouth fide of the Meander. It was built by the river Lycus, near the place where, according to Herodotus (1. vii. c. 30.) it begins to run under ground, as it does for five furlongs before it rifes again, and flows into the Meander. ‘This city was fituated at an equal dif- tance between Laodicea and , Hierapolis, and to this place Xerxes came in his expedition againft Greece. All thefe three cities perifhed by an earthquake, fays Eufebius, in the roth year of Nero, or about two years after St. Paul’s epiltle was fent to the Chriltians at Colofle. The govern- ment of this city was democratic, and its firft magiltrate bore the title of archon and prator. This city, having been forcibly transferred to the Perfians by the Macedonians, afled afterwards to the Saleucide. After the defeat of Antiochus III. at the battle of Magnefia, it became fub- jet to Eumenes, king of Pergamus. And when Attalus, the laft of his fucceffors, bequeathed his dominions to the Romans, this city, with the whole of Phrygia, formed a art of the proconfular province of A fia, Which divifion fub- fitted till the time of Conftantine.. After the reign of this prince, Phrygia was divided into Phrygia Pacatiana, and Salutaris, and Coloffe-was the fixth city of the firf divifion, lt afterwards took the name of Chonos, or Konos. con COLOSSIANS, Zpifile to the, in Biblical Hifors, & canonical epiltle, addrefled to the Chriftians at Colofle by the apoftle Paul, and conveyed to them by Tychicus and Onefimus, towards the clofe of St. Paul’s firit imprifonment at Rome, which was about the year of our Lord 63, or the gth of the emperor Nero. As Timothy joins wich the apottle in the falutation at the beginning of this epiltie, he was {till at Rome, and net yet fent away to Philippi; and hence Dr, Lardner concludes, that this epiitle was written about the fame time with that to the Philippians, in the year 62, and fome time before the end of it. Althongh it appears from this epiltle, that a Chriftian church was efte~ blifhed at Colofle ; we have no account by whom, or at what time, it was founded. Some have concluded from chap. 1. 1. that St. Paul had never been there himfeif. It is not, however, improbable, though no mentfon occurs of this fa& in the hiltory: of the Aéts, that the Colof- fians might -have been converted while.“Paul refided at Ephefus, confidering more efpecially that he fpent no leis than three years m that city, and preached with fo much fuccefs, that St. Luke tells us, (Ags, xix. 20.) that ‘all they who dwelt in Afia heard the word of the Lord, both Jews and Greeks.’? (See Aéts, ch. xvi. 6. xvill, 23.) Dr. Lardner, arguing from the teftimony of Theodoret (tom. iil. p. 342, 343.), who lived in the 5th century, alieges a variety of confiderations, inducing him to think, that the churches of Coloffe and Laodicea, had been planted by St. Paul, and that the Chriflians there were his converts. Ofthefe we fhall only felr& the three following, viz. that the apoitle was twice in Phrygia. in which were Colofie, Laodicea, and Hierapolis (AGts, xvi. 6.); that he does in effect, or even. exprefsly fay, that he had difpenfed the gofpel to the Coloflians (Epift..ch. i. 21—25.): and that from feveral paflages whick occur in ‘this epiltle, it appears, that the apoltle is not writing to ftrangers, but to acquauit-. ance, difciples, and converts. The Chriftians of the church at Coloffe feem, from the honourable teftimony thatis born to.them in this epiltle, to. have maintained an honourable chara&er for their party, andthe zeal they difcovered for the gofpe!; neverthelefs, we find, from the cautions addreffed to them in the fecond chapter, that they were in fome danger of being drawn alide by the fubtleties of the Heathen philofophers, and the in- finuations of certain Jewifh zealots, who infifted upon the neceffity of conforming to the ceremonies of the Molaic law. Accordingly, the grand defign of this epiltle is to excite the Colofians, by the moft pertuafive arguments, to a temper and behaviour worthy of their facred charaéter, and to [e- cure them from the influence of thofe Pagan fophifts, Gv” Jewith bigots, who would feduce them fromthe purity of the Chriftian faith. COLOSSUS, a ftatue of enormous or gigantic fize. The molt eminent of this kind was the coloflus of Rhodes, one of the wonders of the world, a brazen ftatue of Apollo, fo high, that fhips paffed with full fails betwixt its legs. It was the workmanfhip of Chares, a difciple of Lyfippus; who {pent twelve years in making it: it was at length overthrown by an earthquake, B.C. 224. after hay- ing ftood about fixty-fix years. Its height was.a hundred and five feet: there were few people who could encompafs its thumb, which is faid to have beena fathom in circumference. and its fingers were larger than mott ftatues. It was hol- low, and in its cavities were large tones employed by the artiicer to counterbalance its weight, and render it tteady: on its pedeftal. On occafion of the damage which the city of Rhodes fuftained by the above-mentioned earthquake, the inhabit. ants coL ants fent ambaffadors to all the princes and flates of Greek origin, in order to folicit affiftance for repairing it; and they obtained large fums, particularly from the kings of Egypt, Macedon, Syria, Pontus, and Bithynia, which amounted to a fum five times exceeding the damages which they had fuffered. But inftead of fetting up the coloffus again, for which purpofe the greateft part of it was given, they pretended that the oracle of Delphos had forbidden it, and converted the money to other ufes. Accordingly the coloffus lay negle@ed on the ground for the fpace of 894 years, at the expiration of which pericd, or about the ‘year of our Lord 653, or 672, Moawyas, the 6th caliph or emperor of the Saracens, made himfelf matter of Rhodes, and afterwards fold their ftatue, reduced to fragments, to a Jewith merchant, who loaded goo camels with the metal; fo that, allowing Soo pounds weight for each load, the brafs of the coloffus, after the diminution which it had fuftained by ruft, and probably by theft, amounted to 720 thoufand pounds weight. Some critics obferve, that the coloflus of Rhodes gave its own name to the people among whom it flood ; and that many, at leaft among the ancient poets, call the Rhodians Coloffians : hence they advance an opinion, that the Colof- fians in {cripture, to whom St. Paul direéts his epiftle, are, in reality, the inhabitants of Rhodes. OF this fentiment are Suidas, Calepine, Muntter, &c. The bafis that fupported it was of a triangular figure: its extremities were fultained by fixty pillars of marble. There was a winding ftair-cafe to go up to the top of it; from whence ene might difcover Syria, and the fhips that went to Egypt, in a great looking-glafs that was hung about the neck of the ftatue. This enormous ftatue was not the only one that attracted attention in the city of Rhodes. Pliny (1. xxxiv. c. 37.) reckoas 100 other coloffufes not fo ‘large, which rofe- majeftically in its different quarters. Belides thefe, here were ta be feen five others, the work of Briaxis, and reprefenting divinities. Among the antiqui- ties of Rome, there were feven famous coloffufes: two of Jupiter, as many of Apollo, one of Nero, one of Domi- tian, and one of the Sun. COLOSTRUM, or Cotosrra, in Medicine, the firlt milk of any animal after bringing forth young, called in common bea/llings. It is remarkable that this milk is generally cathartic, and purges off the meconium; thus ferving both as an aliment and medicine. The fame name is likewife given to a difeafe which this thick coagulated milk fometimes occafions. An emullion prepared with turpentine, diffolved with the olk of an egg, is fometimes alfo called by that name. COLOSVAR or Crausensurc, in Geography, the Zeugma of the ancients, by the Hungarians called Kolo/var, and in Latin Claudiopolis, a town of Tranfylvania, feated on the firlt branch of the river Samos, and furrounded by an ancient thick wall, where the {tates of the province ufually aflemble. The univertity was fuppreffed in the year 1782. ‘The Unitarians, who formed one of the fects re- ceived in Tranfylvania, eftablifhed their principal feat in this place: 255 miles E.S.E. from Vienna, and 45 N.N.E. from Belgrade. N. lat. 46° 57’. E. long. 22° 21’. COLOT, Germarn, in Biography, a famous lithotomitt, of the 15th century, practiled furgery at Paris, during the reign of Lewis IX., from the year 1461 to 1480, and was in great favour with that prince. He was the firft regu- lar bred furgeon who prattifed lithotomy. The opera- tion before his time had been engrofied by perfons prac- tifing uo other part of furgery. Regular practitioners had COL probably been deterred from interfering in the bufinefs, from reverence to the authority of Hippocrates, who oblig- ed his difciples to {wear they would not perform the opera- tion, ** Nec vero calculo laborantes fecabo.”” He ingra- tiated himfelf with fome of the itinerant practitioners, faw them perform the operation, and began with cutting dead bodies. Having communicated his ideas to the phyficians of the court, they obtained leave from Lewis, that he might operate on a condemned criminal, who was attacked with the ftone in the bladder. The criminal confented, on the condition promifed, that he fhould be pardoned the crime he had committed. The operation was fuccefsfully performed, the patient recovering, it is faid, in fifteen days. Colot obtained great reputation by the cure, which was rewarded by a pention from his fovereign. The time of his death is not known. Eloy. Dit. Hitt. Cotor, Laurence, a defcendant of Germain, from whom he acquired the art of cutting for the ftone, was in great reputation, tn the early part, and to the middle of the ~ r6th century, for -his fkill in performing the operation, by what is called the greater apparatus. By this method the urethra and neck of the bladder are neceflarily cut through, which fubjeéted the patients, not unfrequently, to fltula, and other inconveniences, yet by his dexterity in operating thefe accidents were often avoided, which gave him fo much credit, that he was fent for to vilit patients in Flan- ders, and other diftant countries. Toretain himin France, Henry II. made him his furgeon in ordinary in the year 1550, rewarding him with a penfion, adequate to the lofs he fuftained, by being prevented vifiting patients in foreign countries. He alfo created for him the polt of lithotomift to the royal family, which was continued to three of his defcendants. Philip, the laft of them, died in 1656, aged fixty-three years. Cotor, Francrs, fon of Philip, appears to have inherited, with the name, the fkill and dexterity of his anceftors, in performing the operation of lithotomy. He left a treatife on the operation, which was publifhed in 1727, under the title of “* Traite de l’Operation de la taille, avec des obfervas tions fur la Formation de la Pierre, et les Suppreffions d’Urine,” r2mo. Paris. In this work he gives a fhort hif- tory of the method of operating by the greater apparatus, It was invented, he fays, by John de Romanis, a phyfi- cian of Cremona, in Italy, in 1525, and by him communi- cated to Marianus Sanétus, who inftruéted OGavian de Villa, a furgeon at Rome. Marianus publifhed, in 1535, ‘« Libellus Aureus, de lapide e Vefica per incifionem extras hendo,’”’ 8vo. Venet. Of Otavian de Ville, who was feve- ral times called to France, to perform the operation, Lau- rence Colot is fuppofed to have obtained fome valuable in- formation on the fubjeét, which contributed much to the celebrity he afterwards enjoyed. ‘The method of operating by the greater apparatus has been long fince abandoned for a more fimple and eafy operation, therefore called, by the leffer apparatus, firft difcovered, Mr. Sharp fays, by Mr. Foubert, an ingenious French furgeon, but much im- proved by Mr. Chefelden, in which the urethra and neck of the bladder are avoided by the operator : with Francis Colot, the celebrity of the family, feems to have been extinguifhed. Eloy. Di&. Hilt. COLOUR, or Cotor, from the Latin, color, in Philo- Jephy, means that property of bodies which affedts the fight only; thus the grafs in the fields has a green colour, blood has a red colour, the fy, generally appears of a blue colour, and fo forth; nor can thofe colours be diftinguifhed by any of our other fenfes, belides the fight. The variety of colours, as they are prefented to us by the fubfances that furround COLOUR. furround us, is immenfe, and from them arifes the admirable beauty of the works of nature in the animal, in the ve- getable, and in the mineral kingdom, or, more properly {peaking, in the univerfe. The fcience, which examines and explains the various properties of the colours of light and of natural bodies, and which forms a principal branch of op- tics, has been properly denominated chromatics, from the Greek word, xpwue, which fignifies colour. We fhall, how- ever, ftate this theory in the prefent article, as being much more obvioufly recurred to by thofe perfons who with to be informed on the fubje&t. A diftinét idea of what is meant by the word /ight, may be eafily formed by its contraft with darknefs, which is a privation of light. With our eyes fhut we have darknefs; if we open our eyes, whatever we erceive through them is occafioned by the agency of ike. and the various colours of bodies are parts of that light. —It has fometimes been pretended by certain ignorant perfons, that they could diltinguifh colours by the touch ; but the teftimony of divers intelligeut perfons, who have had the misfortune of being blind, in confequence of which their touch has, from neceffity , become very exquifite, has con- ftantly contradiéted thofe vain affertions, Befides, it will appear from the following theory of colours, that to difcriminate co- lours by the touch is utterly impracticable. There are indeed certain pigments of common ufe in painting, which, either from their roughnefs, fmoothnefs, unctuofity, or other qua- lity, may affeét the touch, and with a little praGice a perfon may learn to diftingnifh the feel of vermillion which looks red from that of fap-green, which looks green, and fo forth ; but this is not the art of diftinguifhing colours by the touch. It is only the art of diftinguifhing certain peculiari- ties of furface. In fac if two pigments exaétly of the fame “texture (and feveral fuch there are) but of different colour, be prefented to the fingers of a man with his eyes fhut, he will pronounce them to be exactly of the fame colour. The queftions which naturally occur to the human mind in the contemplation of colours, are, whence do they derive their origin?—Are they produced by the cploured bodizs themfelves, or by fomething external ?—Do they move from the coloured bodies to our eyes, and ftrike upon them, or enter them; or are they owing to fome medium interpofed between the various bodies of the univerfe ?—,Are they ma- terial or not? The ideas entertained by the ancients concerning the na- ture of colours, were moftly wild and abfurd; nor has the prefent theory, imperfect as it is, been formed without an innumerable variety of experiments, obfervations, and the concurring inveftigations of a great many ingenious perfons. The followers of Pythagoras called colour the fuperficies of bodies ; Plato confidered it as a flame iffuing from them; Zeno called it the firft configuration of matter; and Ariftotle faid it was that which rendered bodies actually tran{parent. We need not add a formal refutation of thofe extravagant ideas, which were the mere offspring of the imagination, un- f{upported by experience and by reafon. The philofophers of thofe times paid little or no regard to experiments ; hence » they made no difcoveries or improvements worthy of being recorded. A long and unprofitable period of nearly 2000 years elapfed, from the commencement of philofophical ftu- dies in’ Greece, until about the time of Defcartes, when the revival of learning in Europe renewed with additional vigour the enquiries concerning the nature of light and colours. And it is cvrious to afore by what {mall fteps, and what circuitous ways, any ufeful difcoveries were made. See Priettley’s hiltory of vifion, light, and colours, Defcartes confidered colour as a modification of light, and he attri- buted the difference of eolour to the prevalence of the Vor. IX, dire&t or rotatory direftion of light, Grimaldi, Dechales, and others, fuppofed that a certain elaftic medium of a pecu- liar kind filled the univerfe, and that the differences of colour depended upon the quick or flow vibrations of that medium. Rohault imagined that the different colours were produced by the rays of light entering the eye at different angles with refpeét to the optic axis. And Dr. Hook imagined that colour is caufed by the fenfation of the oblique or un- even pulfe of light; which being capable of no more than two varieties, he concluded there could be no more than two primary colours. Such were the ideas of philofophers refpeGting the nature of colours, when Sir Ifaac Newton be~ gan to examine the fubje&t in his cautious experimental manner, by which means, about the year 1666, he difcovered the foundacion of a theory of colours, which has been jufily adopted and admired by his contemporaries, 2s well as by the prefent fucceeding generation —Rays of light ifluing from a luminous object, proceed in flraight lines as long as they pafs throvgh a uniform medium. It they meet with a tran{parent medium of different denfity, they will alfo pro- ceed through it in flraight lines, provided- they enter that medium ina direction perpendicular to its furface, otherwife they are caufed to bend their courfe, fo that beyond the abovementioned furface they proceed in ftraight lines alfo ; but thefe ftratcht lines forma certain angle with the flraight lines of their direétion before they entered the laft medium. The bending of the rays is called the refradfion of light, and the angle that has been juft mentioned 1s called the angle of refra€tion, Sce Rurracrion. Newton, having pred fented a glafs prifm, or kind of wedge, to the light of the fun, which entered a dark room through a {mall hole, found not only that the rays were bent from their courle, viz. re- fraéted, but he hikewife obferved that the image of the fun was thereby confiderably elongated; and this elongated image in- tead of appearing of auniform bright white light, was refolved into a feries of colours, which exaétly refembled the colours of the rainbow. This elongation of the folar image thus formed, is called the difperfion of light... Thefe colours pafs from one to the other by very imall, and altogether imperceptible gradations; fo that it is impoffible to fay where one begins and the next ends. Various methods have been tried for the purpofe of rendering the colours of this prifmatic fpetrum more limited and diftin@; none, however, has been attended with complete effect. The fol- lowing feems to be the beft method. Let the light of the fun pafs through a hole of about one-tenth ‘of an inch in diameter, into a dark room. Place a fereen at a little diftance from the hole (for inftance fix or feven inches) within the room, and let the middlemoft part of the light pafs through a fimi- lar hole in the fereen; the object of which is to prevent, in great meafare, the feattered lignt or penumbra, on the fides of the {peGrum. Let the light then fall perpendicularly upon a convex lens; at the diltance of about 10 feet, by which means a defined image of the fun will be formed upon a fereen placed at the focal diftance of the lens. Now, if a prifm be placed clofe to the lens, fo that the light, after having pafled through the lens, may pais through, and be refra¢ted by, the prifm; then a coloured {pectrum will be formed upon the fereen. The long fides of this {peGtrum are very well defined ; but its narrow termina- ‘tions are femicircular, and its whole length confilts of circu- lar coloured images of the fun intermixed with each other, efpecially about the middle or axis of the {pe€trum ; yet the mott predominant colours are more diltinguifhable from each other, efpeciaily towards the fides of the {peét:um, fo that their boundaries may be marked with tolerable accuracy. The glals prifm fit for this experiment muk be well formed, F and COLOUR. and free from veins, feratches, bubbles, &c. Thofe principal colours are feven in number, viz. red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. They do not occupy equal {paces in the fpectrum ; but for the propertion of their breadths, and likewife fora more accurate defcription of the prifmatic experiments on light, fee the article Rerraction. The above defcribed experiment with the glafs prifm gave fir Ifaac Newton reafon to conclude that the white light of the fun confifted of feven colours, which had different powers of being refrated, fo that the red rays were refracted lefs, the orange a little more, the yellow {till more, and fo on; hence the image of the fun was converted into,an oblong variegated fpeétrum. In confirmation of this theory Newton inftituted a variety of other experiments, which were. attended with remarkable refults, and the prin- cipal of them are as follows : If the light which has been refra@ed and difperfed by a prifm, be received again upon another prifm which muft be fituated in a direétion perpendicular to that of the former ; the {pectrum will by that means be removed from its origi- nal fituation intoa lateral one ; but its breadth and its colours will remain unaltered. Now if the elongation of the beam of white folar light, and its refolution into different colours, were a modification of light produced by the prifm only; then the fecond prifm ought to expand the fpe€trum in breadth, fo as to form a quadrilateral figure of equal fides ; but inflead of that we find that the colours and their breadths ~yemain unaltered. If the refraéted and difperfed beam of folar light, be re- ceived upon a concave refleétor, the different coloured rays will be reflected to a focus, where they will form a white or colourlefs image of the fun. But if any of the colours be flopped by the interpofition of a wire, or other flender and opaque body between the prifm and the refleGor, then the ~ image will become coloured with fome mixture of colours. This proves that white light confilts of coloured rays, inter- snixed in a certain proportion, and that by a mixture of the rays of the feven primary colours in that due preportion, white light is produced. Therefore, white arifes from a certain mixture of colours, and blacknefs arifes from a {top- page or abforption of all colours. This property of light and colours, may be familiarly illuftrated by the following experiment: Divide the flat furface of a wheel, or the upper flat furface of a top, fuch as boys ufe, by means of lines going from the centre to the circumference, into feven parts, having the fame proportion that the breadths of the colours have in the prifmatic {pe&trum, and let thofe portions be pointed refpeétively with the feven colours. This done, if you fpin the wheel or the top, fo as to caufe it to turn very falt, in the light of the fun; you will find that the painted furface will look white ; for by the quick motion of the wheel, the impreflions of the colours in the eye be- come mixed, and of courle thev form a white light. Stop the wheel and the {even colours will appear very diftina. If, when a fpeGtrum is formed by the light which has pailed through a prifm upon a fereen, a fmall hole be made through the fereen, and the rays of one colour only be per- mitted.to pais through it on the other fide of the [creen; then whatever is viewed in that homogeneous light, will ap- pear of that particular colour, ‘Thus, if the red hght only has paffed through the hole, then blood, or grals, or milk, &c. viewed in that light behind the fereen, will all appear sed; excepting that the blood will appear of a ttronger red colour than the grafs or the milk. If the biue light only has been tranimitted through the hole; then the above- mentioned fubftances will all appear blue; and the like mutt be underftood of the other homogeneous colours. This proves that the colours, which feem to proceed from co- loured bodies in genera!, do not belong to thofe bodies ; but they are the component parts of the white light, in which thofe bodies are viewed, and that certain bodies have the property of abforbing fome of thofe coloured rays of the white light which falls upon them, and of reflecting others. Thus, grafs reficéts the green rays and abforbs the reft, hence, the green rays coming to our eyes, render the appearance of grafs green ; thus blood abforbs every other coloured ray excepting the red, and fo forth. Black bodies abforb all the feven coloured rays, and white bodies reflect them all. If two holes, at about a foot diflance from each other, be made in the fhutter of a dark room, and two prifms be ufed, viz. a prifm be piaced to receive the light at each hole, two {peétrums will thereby be formed upon the {creen; and by turning the prifms gently round their axes, the fpe@rums may be caufed to fall one upon the other. Let the yellow of one fpeétrum fall upon the blue of the other, and at that place the mixture of thofe two colours will appear green. Let a {mall hole be made exaétly at that place, and that green light will pafs through the hole be- hind the fcreen, and will form a green circular image upor another fcreen placed to receiveit. Now, if exa@ly behind the perforation of the firft {creen, you fix the refraGing angle of a prifm, then the image upon the fecond fcreen will not only be moved from its place, but will appear oblong, with a yellow border at one extremity, and a blue border at the other extremity; for that fpot or image of the fun confifts of two primitive colours of different refrangibilities. ‘The fame thing muft be underftood of any other colour formed from a mixture of any two primitive prifmatic colours ; for any two of thofe colours will form, or rather will look like an intermediate colour; thus, red and yellow form an orange, blue and viclet form an indigo, and fo forth. If the experiment be performed with one folar fpe&trum : viz. a fingle prifmatic colour; for inftance the green be permitted to pals through a hole in the fereen, and be then received upon another fcreen, the image will be of the fame colour as in the preceding experiment, viz. green, and cir- cular. Now, by placing a prifm behind the perforation of the firft {creen, the green image will be moved irom its place, but it will not be elongated nor altered in colour, becaufe this image conkils of one uniform primitive colour. (New- ton’s Opt. b. i. p.ii. prop. iv.) This remarkable expe- riment ihews, that though a green may be formed froma combination, or any other prifmatic colour may be formed. from a combination of the two adjacent colours; yet each of thofe colours in the prifmatic fpeétrum, is a primitive uni- form or homogeneous colour, ‘ Notwithftanding the convi&tion which naturally attends the refult of the above-mentioned experiments, feveral per= fons have fuppofed that the primitive colours of light are not feven, but three only ; namely, red, yellow, and blue 5 and they have been led to this fuppofitioa, by obferving. that the painters can produce all the other colours, by mixing either all thofe three colours together, or two of them, in due proportion. A recent writer of eminence in the philofophical world,. (M. C. A. Prieur) has ftarted another theory. He thinks that the primitive colours. (viz. the components of white light) are three in number; but he fuppofes them to. be the red, the green, and the violet; and that the other © colours of the {pectrum are formed from a mixture of thoie ; that.is the yellow. from the red and the green, the pe * trom. COL from the green and the violet, &c. . See l’Annales de Chimic, Sept. 1806. Hitherto we have treated of the formation of colours by refraction ; from which it appears that the white folar light confilts of coloured rays ; that whenever that light enters a tranfparent medium in an oblique direction, it is caufed to deviate from its reGtilinear courfe ; and at the fame time its component coloured rays, are feparated in confequence of their different refrangibility. Thenext feries of fats, upon which the theory of colours depends, relates to the inflection of light, it having been fouad, that the rays of light are bent in thetr courfe, and refolved into their component colours, not only by refraction, but likewife by merely pafling by the furfaces ef bodies. It feems that the rays of light are attraGted by bodies, when they come within a cer- tain diftance of their furfaces, and that the coloured rays of white light being attracted more or Jefs, are feparated from each other. A great variety of experiments relating to this inflection of light, were originally made by Newton, and have, fince his time, bech inftituted by other able philofo- phers. But, though feveral remarkable facts have been difcovered ; yet the prefent ftate of knowledge does not admit of their being reducible to a fingle principle, or to any general and compreheniive laws. "In order to give our readers fome idea of this property of light, we fhall now fubjoin an experiment related by a recent anonymous writer; referring, then, the reader to the article /nfedion ef Licur, for a full account of whatever elongs to it. “« Acrofs a beam,”’ fays the above-mentioned author, ‘of folar light, admicted into a dark chamber, through a {mall hole in a thin piece of lead, nearly <4 of an inch wide, I interpofed a hair of a man’s ead, and receiving the beam na fcreen, or fheet of white paper at a diftance, and with an obliquity convenient for the purpofe, I noted the follow- ing appearances.—At the termination of what may be con- fidered as, and therefore may be called, a thadow, whofe intenfity or darknefs was not confiderable; the following orders and diftinGtions of colours appeared. Firft, and nearelt to the dark or black parts of the fhadow, might be Teen a diluted blue. changing into a breadth of white light, followed by breadths of yellow and red. To thefe fucceed- ved an interval of diluted fhade, then breadths of diluted violet, blue, diluted green, yellow, red; then green diluted yellow, red; diluted green, red; white, diluted red ; and finally white light. Thefe are the more general orders of the colours. Of thefe orders, the three firlt were fufficient- ly obvious and diftint; the laft evanefcent and requiring accommodation of circum{tances to produce, and attention to perceive them.” Obfervations: concerning the Infleétion of Light, &c. London 1799. The lait fet of fa&ts that remains to be mentioned, as re- Jating to colours, confilts of the phenomena exhibited by thin tranfparent bodies, efpecially by thofe of variable thicknefs. Every perfon mult recolle& to have feen the * bubbles of a folution of foap, or of other thickning fub- ftance, exhibit a variety of colours fimilar to thofe of the folar {peétrum, or of the rainbow. Thefe bubbles are no- thing more than thin veficles of the folution, whofe thick- nefs varies continually. But a variety of thin folid fub- fkances exhibit the hke phenomenon, fuch as plates of muf- _covy glafs, or of talc; thin plates of glals; metallic and lafs plates moiftened with a variety of fluids, &c.. Newton took two object-glaffes of telefcopes, one of which was a plane convex, and the other a double convex one. He laid the latter on the flat fide of the other, and prefled them gently. Initantly circles of colours appeared about the OUR. point of conta&, which inereafed and decreafed both in number and in fize, according as the lenfes were more or lefs forcibly prefled againft each other. ‘The central {pot was black, and circles of colours appeared round this {pot, which were brighter near it than farther off. Their order, com- mencing from the black {pot, was blue, white, yellow, red ; violet, blue, green, yellow, red ; purple, blue, green, yellow, red; green, red; greentth, blue, red; greenith, blue, pale red ; greenifh, blue, reddish, white. (Newton’s Optics, b. ii. p- 1. Obfery. iv.) Experiments fimilar to the above have alfo been performed with flat glaffes, lenfes of various cur- vatures, and other fubttances, by other philofophers, fuch as Moraldi, Grimaldi, Delifle, Mairan, Mazeos, Du Tour, Mufchenbroeck, &c. See an account of their experiments in *¢ Prieftley’s Hitt. of Vition, Light, and Colours.” p. 6. fe. 6. After the above fucciné account of the principal experiments that have been inftituted, and the various im- portant difcoveries that have been made, concerning the nature of light and ¢olours; it is proper to obferve, that the fubje& is not only very far from being exhaufted ; but that the theory arifing from thofe experiments and difcoveries is doubtful in almoft all its parts. The number of priinitive colours diftin& from one another, if fuch do -really exift, is not quite determinate ; the attraction between the rays of light and other bodies is an hypothefis not clearly un- deritood ; for it is a prevailing opinion with feveral philo- fophers, that the rays of light are attra&ted within a certain diftance, and repelled beyond that diftance. The refleGtion of coloured rays from the furfaces of bodies is likewife in- volved ia much uncertainty ; it being unknown whether the refleGtion takes place at the very,furface, or at a little diftance beyond it by fome power inherent in bodies, or, laily, from fome other furface a little within the bodies, which fuppofition is founded upon the hypothelis that all bodies are tranfparent, as far as a very {mall part of their bulk, which hypothefis is founded upon the obfervation that feveral denfe and opaque bodies, when much atte- nuated, become, in fome meafure, tranfparent ; and fuch is the cafe with gold leaf, which, when placed againft the light, appears of a greenifh caft. Notwithftanding this uncertainty refpeGing the theory in general, the following particulars feem to be fufficiently eftablifhed ; namely, that by refGion and infleGion the white light of the fun is refolved into coloured light. Here it may be naturally afked whether the light of other luminous objeéts is not refolved, by-the like means, into the fame colours? The obfervatians made in relation to this particular are not fo numerous, nor fo exa&t as might be wifhed; it appears, however, that fome luminous ob- jedts yield rays of particular colours more abundantly than of other colours. ‘The abbé Rochon having placed a prifm before an achromatic telefcope, obferved through it the light of the ftars; and found that the white light of Sirius was refolved into an oblong fpeétrum, which con- fitted almoit entirely of three colours, vis. red, green, and violet. An indication of yellow was “barely difcernible between the twe firit, and a flight degradation between the two lait. Through Dr. Herichell’s powerful telefeopes moft of the fixed ftars feem tinged wth peculiar colours, viz. fome evidently incline to a green, others to a red, and fo forth, The light yielded by particular combuttibles is alfo tinged with peculiar colours, and the flame of fpirit of wine 1s a flrong inftance of this nature; for if common falt be mixed with the fpirit, the light of its flame feems to be entirely defticute of red, yellow, and violet, and it is owing to this peculiarity that children frequently play with it in order to give a st eneae to the furrounding a coms. | COLOUR. eompany. When baryt (ponderous earth) is mixed with fpirit of wine, its flame is ycllow ; boracic acid renders it green, and ftrontian earth gives it a purple colour. The phenomena of coloured bodies, as they occur to us, in general, may be diftinguifhed into five claffles, viz. ft. The colours that arife from evident refraGtion, fuch as the colours of the rainbow, of the bubbles of a folution of foap, &c. 2dly. Thole of opaque bodies that are fixed. gdly. The colours of tranfparent bodies formed by the light palling through them. athly. The colours that are change- able, according to the fituation of the eye, like the colours of certain filks, feathers, flowers, thin laminz. &c.; aad sthly. Thofe which are changeable in confequence of a chemical alteration of the nature of the body. We fhail now add a few obfervations refpe€ting each of thofs five elaffes. 1. That in pafling through a tranfparent medium, like the drops of rains, the thin pellicle of a bubble of foap, a thin lamina of talc, &c. the light thould be decompofed or rather refolved into colours, is eafily underftood, after the above-mentioned properties of the prifmatic fpectrum ; but the only circumftance which may require explanation is, that we perceive the colours, &c. not when the refracting body is between us and the luminous object, but when both our eyes and the luminous object are on the fame fide. With refpe& to this, it mutt be obferved, that a tranfparent body, like a plate of glafs, a drop of water, &c. refleGts with both its furfaces at the fame time that it lets part of the light pafs quite through its fubftance. Dire& your eyes to the furface of a common giafs plate fo as to fee the reflection of an object, as in a looking glafs, and if you obferve attentively you will perceive two reflected images clofe to each other, viz. one from the anterior, and the other from the potterior, furface. In moft looking glafles, if you place a lighted candle on one fide, and view the refleted image of it from the other fide, you will generally fee a fucceflion of images of the candle fainter and fainter, in proportion as they recede from the principal image. Vhe reafon of this appearance is, that fince both furfaces rele, the image formed by the re- fletion of the polterior furface is partly tran{mitted to the eye of the {peétator, and partly reflected from the anterior furface to the pofterior one, the latter of which is again refleQed, and fo on. Now, in the cafe of the drops of rain, when they form the rainbow, the light of the fun falling obliquely on the furface of the drop is refraéted and re- folved into colours, in which ftate it proceeds through the drop to its farther furface, from which it is partiy reflected to the eyes of the {pectator. The fame explanation is evidently applicable to the colours of the bubbles of foap, thin tranfparent laminz, and the like. See Rainsow. 2. The fixed colours of opaque bodies are in all probability owing to their abforbing fome of the colour- ed parts of white light and reflecting others; their immenfe variety arifing from a mixture of the refieied primitive colours in various number and proportion ; but it is impoffible to fay at prefent whether that refleQion is effe&ted at the very furface, or at fome diftance from it, either within or without the body; alfo to what caufe the difpohtion of reflecting certain colours in preference to others may depend upon. Mr. Delaval’s experiments feem to indicate that the colour of opaque bodies arifes from the light that has paffced through a thin layer of tran{parent coloured particles, and is then reflected by the fmooth fur- face immediately under them. g. The greateft number of accurate experiments, con- eerning the colours of tranfparent bodies, was made by Edward H. Delaval, efq. ¥.R.S. (Sce his Paper in the Memoirs of the Lit. and Philof, Society of Manchelter, vol. ii.) His experiments were performed with an immenfe variety of liquors differently tinged by metallic folutions, decoGtions, and infnfions of flowers, refins, gums, woods, mineral and animal matters. Thofe liquors he placed in phials of flint glafs, of a paraliclepiped form, with an ob- Jong cylindrical neck. ‘ J covered,” he fays, ‘ the bote tom, and three of the fides of each of thefe phials, with a black varnifh; the cylindrical neck and the anterior fide, except at its edges, were left uncovered.”” In order to examine what colour thofe liquors would exe hibit, either by tranfmitted or by refileGted hight, he viewed them through the neck of the phials, or looked into the phial through the fide which had been left uncovered by the varnifh. But with refpe& to this latter cafe, he fays, “‘the uncovered fide of the phial fhould not be placed oppofite to the window, through which the light is admitted ; becaufe in that fitvation the light would be reflected from the farther fide of the phial, and would be tranimitted through the coloured liquor ; and it is obfervable that fmooth black furfaces refleét light very powerfully.. Now, as it is a principal obje& in the experiment that no light be tranfmitted through the liquors, this will be ace complifhed by placing the uncovered fide of the phial in fuch a dire€tion that it may form a right angle with the window.” All the coloured liquors, which Mr. Delaval tried in the above-mentioned manner, appeared tinged with their peculiar colours, when viewed through the necks of the phials ; but when he looked on that part of the liquor which filled the body of the phials, he perceived no colour whatever, the whole appearing black ; which proves an important faét, namely, that tranfparent coloured liquors do not yield any colour by refle€tion, but by tranftniffion only. “ If thefe liquors,” he obferves, ** are {pread thin on any white ground, they appear of the fame colours which they had exhibited when viewed in the necks of the phials; as the licht reflected from the white ground is, in this cafe, tranf- mitted through the coloured medium. But when they are fpread upon a black ground they afford no colour. The black ground, however, fhould not be a polifhed body ; as the light refle&ed thereby would be tranfmitted through the thin medium on its furface, and be tinged by pafling through it.”’ Next to the above, Mr. Delaval relates various other ~ experiments which he made with tranfparent folids, viz. with coloured glaffes, which he made on purpofe, by tinging the fubftance of the glafs with metallic and other matters, in imitation of real gems. Thefe coloured glaffes exhibited phenomena fimilar to the coloured fluids. « Hay. ing,” this author fays, ‘* formed pieces of fuch glaffes, about two inches thick, I inclofed all their fides with black cloth, except at their farther and anterior furface. Each of thefe pieces of glafs vividly exhibited its colour, when viewed by tranfmitted light: but when the tranfmitted light was intercepted, by covering the farther furface, the anterior furface afiorded no colour, but appeared black, - When plates of tranfparent coloured glafs, fomewhat thicker than window glafs, are viewed by tranfmitted light, it is well known that they exhibit their feveral colours. I in. tercepted the light, which was tranfmitted through fuch coloured plates, by fixing a piece of black cloth contiguous to their farther furface. The plates, thus prepared, when placed im fuch a dire&tion that they form a right angle with the window, appear perfeétly black; which fhews that the coloured particles do not refleét any light.” It coOoLOoUR, Tt is hardly neecfary to obferve that wherever light is tranfmitted through any coloured tranfparent body, a greater part of it is loft, than when that body is quite coleurlefs ; for by tranfmitting one fort of coloured rays more copioufly, it ftops.a great part of the oppofitely coloured rays. Befides thefe tranfparent coloured bodies which have been juft noticed, there is a vaft gradation of others between them and thofe that are perfectly opaque. Thefe, which are called femipellucid, or femitran{parent, exhibit a vatt variety of phenomena arjfing from the various proportion of the opaque and the tranfparent particles which enter in their compofition, Thus fome appear of the fame colour, whether viewed by tranfmitted, or by reflected light, others exhibit one colour by tranfmitted aud another by refleéted light ; others again appear of various colours, according to their thicknefs, &c. See Newton’s Opt. 1. i. p. ile prop. x. : 4. The laft paragraph may, in fome meafure, tend to il- luftrate the nature of thofe coloured filks, feathers, &c. which change their colour according to the angle in which they are viewed, and in which the light falls upon them ; other circumftances, however, are concerned in the pheno- mena of thofe bodies. Thus the furfaces of fome of them are very irregular, in confequence of which they refle& with fome of their particles, whilft they abforb moft of the light with other particles; hence, when by a lateral view, the former or the latter are placed out of the direétion of the eye, the colour of the while appears different from what it does in another point of view. Certain bodies of this fort may likewife be tranfparent to a certain {mall depth, in which cafe they become vifible partly by reflected and partly by refracted (confequently decompofed white) light ; hence the eye of the {pectator muft, according to its fitua- tion, fee fome coloured rays in preference to others. The phenomena of thofe changeable bodies, meaning with re- {pe& to colour according to fituation, are far from being clearly underftood ; it is molt probable, however, that in them all, the three principal properties of light are concerned, namely, its reflection, refraction, and inflection. 5. In the practice of various arts, wherein colours are concerned, fuch as in dyeing, enamelling, painting in oil or water colours, &c. a change in colour of molt of the materials is commonly o!:ferved, which is evidently pro- duced by the aétion of the air, the fire, the oil, or other agent to which the colouring materials are expofed, and by which they undergo different degrees of chemical alteration in their nature. This obfervation, and a defire of invefti- gating the nature of thofe changes, with a view of im- proving the practical arts dependant upon them, induced feveral perfons to try a variety of experiments, and Mr. Delaval, the fame above-mentioned gentleman, who inve(ti- gated other branches of the prefent fubjeét, became one of the greateft labourers in this field of inquiry. Were we acquainted with the nature of thofe particles in bodies which refle&t or refraét the coloured rays, and had we a fufficient knowledge of the alterations produced on thofe particles by the action of different agents or menitrua, be they oils, acids, air, alkalis, &c. a jult idea might per- chaps be formed of the changes in colour, which muft arife from certain combinations; but as the prefent ftate of knowledge does not admit the formation ot fuch a theory, the whole muft reft upon conje4ture, and the practical part muft depend upon the refult of particular expe- riments. Sir [faac Newton thought, that bodies refle&t and re- frat light, by the fame power in diflerent circumitances, Alfo, that the forces of bodies to refleét and refra& licht, are very nearly proportional to the denfities of the fame bodies, excepting that unétuous and fulphureous bodies re- fra¢t more than others of the fame denfity. In fupport of this affertion he relates feveral experiments, the reful: of which he expreffes in a table, wherein the proportion of tha fines which meafure the refraétions of the feveral bodies, the denfities of the bodies eftimated by their fpecific gra- vity ; and their refraétive powers in re{pe& of their denf- ties are ftated in feparate columns. Mr. Delaval conceived that the denfer fubftances ought, by their greater refractive powers, in like circumitances, to reflect the lefs refrangibie rays; and that fubftances of lefs denfity, fhould refle& rays proportionably more refrangible, and thereby appear of feveral colours in the order of their denfity. Agreeably to this fuppofition he gives inftances of natural bodics, which differ from each other in denlity, though circum- ftanced alike in other refpeéts, excepting in their colour, which colour follows the order of their denfity ; the denfeit being red, the next in denfity orange, the next to that yellow, then green, &c. In fupport of this hypothefis. Mr. Delaval made feveral experiments with glafs tinged by metallic particles, in which the colour of the glafs, in: a great meafure, correfponded to the denfity, or to the {pe- cific gravity, of the metal concerned. But this feries of experiments is not extended to that degree, nor is it con« ducted with that caution, which a confirmation of the hypothefis demanded. Myr. Delaval aifo inftituted fimilar experiments with coloured liquors, in which he endeavoured to thew, that by an incraffation or an attenuation of their particles, their colours may be changed in one order or in the reverfe. fis mode of attenuating thofe liquors. was accomplifhed, as he fuppofed, by the addition of acids, and that of incraflating, by the addition of alkalies. Buz however foecious this hypothelis may at firft fight appear, a ftrict examination of faéts will ealily thew the fallacy of it in almolt all its parts, and feveral writers have pointed out fome of its defeéts, but none better than Dr. Ban- croft, F.R.S. in his ** Experimental Refearches, concerning the Philofophy of permanent Colours,’ vol.i. chap.i. In this excellent work, Dr. B. thews that Mr. Delaval has not noticed the change of nature, as well as of {pecitic gravity, which the metals undergo by their being, expofed to differ= ent degrees of heat, together with the glafs. He alfo ob- ferves, that if, according to Mr. Delaval’s hypothelis, the denfelt bodies are of a red colour, or approximating to. ity, platina, the heavieft of all known metals, ought to be red; whereas it is white, like tin, and the lightef{ metals. Alfo gold, the heavieit metal next to platina, is much farther re~ moved from the red colour than copper, which is much lighter. With refpe& to Mr. Delaval’s experiments on coloured liquors, Dr. Bancroit fays, ‘ inftead of choofing and employing mechanical means, which alone are {uited to produce thofe effets, and only thofe effects, he has. re- courfe to mere chemical agents, whofe actions in the ways: which he fuppofes mult have been almoft doubtful, though their powers of producing other, and very different effects: from what he fuppofes, is molt certain. Mr. Delaval, however, adopting fir Ifaac Newton’s fuppofition, that acids always attenuate, and alkalis always incraflate, pres pared what he confidered as a diflolving or attenuating liquor ; which confifted of water with about ~,. part of aquaforlis: and when he wanted to I[cflen the diflolving force of this liquor, inftead of weakening it by the addi- tion of water (which would certainly have been the molt obvious and unexceptionable expedient), he chofe to do it, ashe fays, by adding a {mall quantity of a folution of pot- afhy, Cc OL ath, or fome other alkaline liquor, and theruby produced a new compolition, the effeéts of which muft, in many cafes, rove different from thofe of a mere diminution of the fup- poled diffolving power of the former liquor. Andon the other hand, when he wanted to increale the force of his acid liquor, inftead of doing it by a farther addition of aquafortis (obvioufly the moft proper expedient), he re- curs to an addition of oi/ of vitriol, an acid polleffing very different properties, and producing very different effects, on a great variety of fubftances, and particularly on colouring matters; of which we could eafily allege hundreds of in- ftances, but fhall content ourfelves with only mentioning what is well known, that even the ftrongeft and moft concen- trated oil of vitriol (ufed to diffolve indizo for dyeing: the Saxon blue, &c.) does not deftroy, or even weaken, its blue colour, though a very weak nitrous acid, or aqna- fortis, will wholly deftroy it, and-convert the indigo to a dirty brown mafs, of no ufe whatever.’? For farther ob- fervations of Dr. Bancroft on Mr. Delaval’s Theory of Co- Jours, we refer our readers to his abovementioned work, But with refpeét to the praétical part of the fubje@, viz. the art of colouring glafs, porcelain, &c. or the methods of forming pigments, they are requelted to confult the articles, PainrinG, ENamMELLING, DyrInG, STAINING, Crayons, and Picments. Co our of the clouds, is thus accounted for by fir Ifaac Newton. Concluding from a feries of experiments, that the tranfparent parts of bodies, according to their feveral fizes, refle&t rays of one colour, and tranimit thofe of an- other, he hence obferves, that when vapours are firkt raifed, they are divided into parts, too {mall to caufe any refleCtion at their furfaces, and therefore do not hinder the tran{parency of the air; but when they begin to coalefce, in order to form drops of rain, and conftitute globules of all inter- mediate fizes, thefe globules are capable of refleGting fome colours, and tranfmitting others, and thus form clouds of various colours, according to their fizes. Mr. Melville con- troverts this doétrine, in its application to the red colour of the morning and evening clouds. “* Why,”’ he fays, ‘ fhould the particles of the clouds become at that particular time, and never at apy other, of fuch a magnitude as to feparate thefe colours? Aud why are they rarely, if ever, feen tinc- tured with blue acd green, as well as red, orange, or yellow ? fs it not more credible, that the feparation of rays is made in peffing through the horizontal atmofphere, and that the ° clouds only refle& and tranf{mit the fun’s light, as any half- tranfparent colourlefs body would do? For fince the at- mofphere refle&ts a greater quantity of blue and violet rays than of the reft, the fun’s light tranf{mitted through it ought to incline towards yellow, orange, or red; efpecially when it paffes through a Jong traét of air: and thus it is found, that the fun’s horizontal ight 1s tinctured with a deep orange, and even red; azd the colour becomes till deeper after fun-fet.2? Hence he concludes, that the clouds, according to their different altitudes, may affume ail the variety of colours at fun-rifing and fetting, by barely re- fleGiing the fun’s incident light as they receive it, Edinb. Eff, vol. ii. p. 75. Prieftley’s Hitt. of Vifion, p. 446, &c. For the distin& properties, &c. of the feveral colours, fee Brack, Wuire, Brive, &c. Seealfo Rainsow, &c. Coxour, and Cotour-Making, in Calico-Printing. The preparation of colours for calico-printing, conttitutes one great branch of that beautiful art, and involves in it a feries of interefting and important proceffes. As an art, its opera- tions are more dependent than almott ‘any other, on thofe minute differences and changes in the conftitution of bodies, which it is the bufinefs of chemiftry to inveitigate. Hence OUR. that liability to error and uncertainty which, in the hands of the ignorant, pervades many of its procefles, though con- duted according to long eftablithed and approved formule. Our prefent volume would fearce fuffice for the various re ceipts in which the art abounds; yet, in the following ar= ticle, we fha!l endeavour to lay down general principles, ra- ther than more practical directions ; convinced, that by pre- fenting ourreaders with a clear and concife theory, deduced from {uch praétical illuftrations, as may be necedlary for this purpofe, we fhall render them a more acceptable fervice. The term cola, in calico printing, 1s applied not only to thofe vegetable, animal, and mineral folutions, which im- part their own colour to the cloth on which they are ap- plied, but alfo improperly to thofe earthy or metallic folu- tions, which, poffeffing little or no tingent properties them- felves, yet retain or fix the colours of other fubftances, when afterwards applied to the cloth. Thus the acetite of alu- miine, or printers’ red liquor, when pure, is almoft colourlefs, and only becomes red by the procefs of dyeing, as will be explained hereafter. ‘The acetite of iron, or iron liquor, in like manner, when ufed of a determinate flrength, 1s called black colour, and when weaker purple colour, though the cloth impregnated with thefe folutions becomes black or purple, only as being raifed, like the other, in the dye-copper. 1. The colours produced by means of thefe earthy or me- tallic folutions (which, in the-language of {cience, are called mordants), form the mott valuable and important feries, whe. * ther confidered with regard to the almoft infinite variety of fhades, or to their folidity and durabiliry. ‘Thefe colours, from the mode in which they are produced, (the mordant be= ing firft applied to the cloth, and the colour afterwards raifed by dyeing), are cailed dyed colours. 2. Sometimes the mordant is previoufly mixed with a folution of colouring matter, and in that ftate applied to the cloth, fo as to paint or {tain it, at one operation, and without the procefsofdyeing. Thus, another cla{s of colours is pro= duced, many of them poffeffing great brilliancy indeed, but much inferior to the former in durability. The colours called chemical, by calico printers, belong chiefly to this clafs. : 3. In the third and laft clafs, we may place all thofe where the colouring matter is fimply held in folution by an acid or alkali, and in this ftate applied to the cloth, without the intervention of any mordant. To one or other of the foregoing clafles, may be referred all the colours ufed in calico printing; with the exception, however, of thofe fyftems of colours which have been produced by calico printers in this country, within a fhort period, by proceffes, and upon principles which have hitherto not been made known. Clafs I. The colours of this, as has been already obferved, are pro= duced, by firft impregnating the cloth with an earthy or metallic folution, or mordant, and raifing the colour atter- wards by dyeing. In this article we fhall confine ourfelves to the preparation of the different mordants, and the enu- meration of colours they afford, with different colouring fubftances. "The operations of the dye-houfe, and the mode of railing the colours in the dye-copper, will be detailed hereafter. The two great and moft important mordants ufed in calico printing, are thofe that we have already noticed, viz. the folution of iyon in acetous acid or vinegar, called iron liquor, and the acetous {olution of alumine, or the earth of alum, calied red liquor, or red colour, and fometimes yellow liquor. } With thefe two folutions, either feparately applied, and of —y =. © = SF PII OS ‘COLOUR. of various ftrengths, or mixed together, and in various pro- ortions, an infinite variety of fhades of colour are produced. Almoft all the hues in nature may be obtained by raifing them, and their various combinations with different colouring fubftances. From madder, with the acetite of alumine, or red liquor, we obtain various fhades of red, from the darkeft blood colour to a pink. From weld and quercitron bark, yellows, varying in intenfity from a deep orange to a pale ftraw colour, according to the ftrength of the mordant em- ployed. From logwood, various thades of violet; from eochineal, Brazil, and Hicaragua wood, pink and crimfons of different hues; and, in fhort, from almoft every different ‘colouring fubftance, a different fhade of colour. With the acetate of iron, or iron liquor, of different ftrengths, we obtain from madder all the intermediate hues between black and pale purple, or lilac. From weld and bark, olives, browns, and drabs, of various hues; from fumac, logwood, alls, and other aftringent fubftances, all the varieties of grey, fon the paleft fhades to the deepeft, in which all the minute differences of hue are loft till they approach to black. Thefe various fhades are further modified by applying two or more colouring fubftances to the fame mordant, as madder and weld, for example, to the acetite of alumine, which produces orange, light cinnamon, nankeen, &c.; and again full fur- ther, by mixing the mordants themfelves in various propor- tions, and raifing them with either one or more of the differ- ent colouring matters. By thefe means fhades, and varieties ‘of colour, may be produced from a few fubitances only, which baffle defcription, and for which language has no pre- cife or definite terms. The acetite of iron, or iron liquor, is varioufly prepared. In this country it is chiefly made with the pyroligneous aeid, which Fourcroy has proved to be identical with the acetous. Malt acid is preferred by many on account of its being free from volatile oil and refinous matter, with which the other abounds; but the great difference in price, and the facility with which it is obtained, has brought the acid of wood almoft into general ufe. A feries of cafks filled with feraps and turnings of iron upon which the acid is poured, is almoft the only apparatus neceflary for making iron-liquor ; yet when the confumption is great, or when it is prepared for fale, vats capable of holding feveral hundred gallons are fubftituted for cafks, and the acid is kept ina ftate of circulation through the iron by means of pumps. The faturation is much accelerated by this motion, which prevents any depofition on the furface of the iron which might defend it from the aétion of the acid, and alfo brings freh portions of unfaturated acid more frequently in con- taG& with the metal. In a few weeks, fooner or later in proportion to the ftrength of the acid, the faturation is com- pleted, and the liquor is then removed from the vat into eafks for ufe, and trefh acid poured upon the iron as before. This is an eafy and fimple mode of making iron liquor, and as it requires but little trouble and attention, is the one molt generally inufe. The precautions neceflary to be obferved are, that the acid, if it be the pyroligneous, fhould not be ufed too foon after its preparation. It holds much effential oil and refin in folution, part of which feparates on being kept a few weeks, and the clear acid may then be drawn off. It may be ftill further freed from refin by boiling ; a portion of effential oil is thus thrown off, and the refin, if held fuf- pended, is precipitated after ftanding fome time. We hall have occafion to recur to this fubject again, when we come to treat of the pyroligneous acid, and its formation, under the article Difiillation of Woop. It is neceffary alfo, that the iron fhould be perfeétly clean and all of it mallea- ‘ble. Catt iron is not foluble in aeetous acid. Hoop iron cut into lengths of from eight to ten inches is preferable: to any other. It is readily cleaned and more eafily taken out of the vat, and returned into it again than misfhapen mafles fold under the name of old iron. When malt acid is em- ployed, fimple heating and wafhing is fufficient to free it from any foulnefs it may have contraéted in the vat; but when the pyroligneous acid has been ufed, it becomes {fo coated with refin on its upper furface after a fecond or third folution, as to prolong the period of faturation to twice or thrice its ufual length. In this ftate it muft be removed from the vat .and heated to rednefs in oven, through which there is a current of air. The refin is confumed, and the iron by heatingis freed from any remains of carbonaceous matter that may adhere to it, and is again ready for the vat. The only obje€tion to this mode of making iron liquor is the time required to faturate the acid, which to thofe, whofe confumption is very great, or who manufature it for fale, is oftentimes of importance. Different proceffes have there- fore been deviled to remedy this inconvenience, in many of which the faturation is accelerated by means of heat which is applied in various ways, as beft fuits the convenience of the manufacturer ; but the moft expeditious mode is that of prefenting the iron to the acid in a ftate of oxydation, by which means the folution is effe€ted immediately. ,Calico printers have long been in the habit of vfing an extempora- neous acetite of iron, formed by mixing together folutions of acetite of lead and fu'phate of iron. A very pure acetite of iron may be obtained by this means, but the price of acetite of lead renders this mode too expenfive for general ufe. By forming a folution of lead, however, in pyroligneous acid and decompofing it with fulphate of iron or copperas, an iron li- quor may be obtained fufficiently cheap to render this procefs advantageous in many cafes, though {till more expenfive than the ordinary mode. A patent was lately taken out for mak- ing iron liquor by a procefs fomewhat fimilar to this, which, however, we underftand has not anfwered the expeétation formed of it. A folution of lead in pyroligneous acid is digefted on clear metallic iron. The iron becomes oxydated at the expence of the lead and is diflolved, whillt the lead is precipitated in the metallic ftate, and may again be ufed for a frefh folution. All thefe modes are evidently more ex- penfive than the ordinary one of fimple foiution of metallic iron in pyroligneous acid, and the only confideration with the manufa@turer is, whether this extra expence is counter- balanced by the economy of time or-not. The procefs adopted fome years ago by Mr. Thomfon, is perhaps the moft expeditious, and next to the common mode, the moft economical of any yet in ufe. It confifts in faturating the pyroligneous acid with quicklime, and pouring the clear boiling folution on as much fulphate of iron or copperas as will precipitate the whole of the lime. A cafk of iron liquor may be made by this mode in a few hours, and when eare has been taken rightly to proportion the ingredients fo as to produce complete decompofition, it is inferior to no folution whatever in any of its properties. The properties of the acetous folution of iron ft it emi- nently above all others for the purpofe of the calico printer, and having detailed its preparation we fhall endeavour to point out in what this fuperiority confifts. The acetite of iron exifts in two ftates, dependent on the quantity of oxygen combined with the iron. When pure, _ and recently prepared, it is of a pale greenifh hue, but by expofure to air foon becomes tinged with brown. In this ftate the iron is at its loweft point of oxydation, ftrongly at- tra€tive of oxygen, and if precipitated by an alkali, of a deep green colour. By expofure to the atmoiphere, and confe- L quent COLOUR. quent abforption of air, the folution paffes to a deep red brown, and, if concentrated, depofits orange oxyd of iron, and becomes ftrongly acidulous. With this excefs of acid, the folution now becomes permanent ; the iron is almoft wholly at the maximum of oxydation ; and, when precipitated, of a dark red colour. The fame takes place only in a lefs degree, and more flowly with the fulphuric and muriatic folutions of iron. Of a pale greenifh hue in their recent ftate, they gradually attract oxyges from the atmofphere, and become flightly red, depofit red oxyd ofiron and pals toa {late of acidity, at which the folution becomes permanent, and the oxydation of the iron proceeds no further, If the folutions, properly thickened with gum or flour, are applied to cloth, the fame change takes place, but with more rapidity, from their diffufion over a thin furface, and more complete expofure to the air. The aqueous and volatile part of the folution fpecdily evaporates, and as the exydation goes on, the oxyd of iron is depofited on the cloth, and a portion of acid fet free. When this acid is vo- latile, as is the cafe with the acetous, and alfo in a great de- gree with the muriatic, it is diffipated. ‘he oxydation of the iron then goes on, frefh portions of acid are again liber- ated and drawn off till the whole of the folution is decom- poled, and the oxyd of iron depofited in the cloth. When the acid is not volatile, however, as is the cafe with the ful- phuric, the fift portions of acid that are liberated not being drawn off, the oxydation proceeds more flowly till the ex- cefs of acid becomes fo great as wholly to interrupt it, and great part of the iron in the operation of rinfing is again car- ried off the cloth. Another and more ferious inconvenience attending “the ufe of the fulphuric folution is its ation on the cloth itfelf. The difengaged acid being in a tate of great concentration a¢ts upon its fibres, weakens, and at laft deftroys them. The fame takes place with the muriatic fo- lution alfo, for though the excefs of acid is flowly diflipated, yet it has fufficient time and concentration to act very pow- erfully, and is, if poffible, ftill more deftru&tive than the fulphuric, fince its action is not confined to the part on which it is applied, but from its volatility extends over the whole furface of the cloth. It is neceflary, therefore, that the acid fhould be not only volatile, but harmlefsin its a¢tion on the vegetable fibre, which conditions are more completely fulfilled by the acetous than by any other folution whatever. From the preceding obfer- vations on the properties of the acetite of iron, and the changes it undergoes on the furface of the cloth, may rea- dily be deduced the reafons for that expofure to heat and air which calico printers have, from long experience, found neceflaty to goods printed with this folution. By expofure to air the iron becomes oxygenated and depofited on the cloth, whillt the heat favours the liberation of the acid, and accelerates the procefs. From what has gone before it may alfo be.inferred, that the acetite of iron fhould be ufed in its recent or green ftate, fince in that ftate the acetous acid is capable of holding a greater quantity of oxyd of iron in folution, and that confequently after its faturation ‘and re- moval from the iron, it fhould not be too much expofed or agitated in contact with the air. On this account, alfo, it is wrong to pump the liquor in the vats too much when it approaches the point of faturation, fince the oxygenated iron js almott all precipitated, and frefh portions immediately dif- folved, fo that the liquor might in time be rendered quite thick with precipitated oxyd of iron. The preceding ideas are at variance with the general opinion refpeéting the ftate in which the acetite of iron fhould be employed. All the fpeculative writers, and even many well acquainted with the proceffes of calico printing, recommend the oxygenation of the folution by expofure to airiand removal from the iron, as effential to the goodnefs of the iron liquor. “Even Berthollet, in the lat edition of. his «Elements of the Art of Dyeing,” has fallen into the fame miftake, the fource of which, and the facts which feem to countenance it, we {hal! point out in a future article. It is an objeét of importance to the calico printer to know the precife ftrength of his iron liquor, and to be able to afcertain this at all times, with little trouble or chance of error. Great mifchief and inconvenience often anfes from uncertainty in this refpeét, efpecially in the pale fhades of purple, which are obtained from madder, with diluted acetite ofiren. The hydrometer has been objected to, as indicating not merely the quantity of iron in a folution, but alfo the effential oil, refin, and mucilage which thefe impure felutions often contain. This obje¢tion, however, only applies where the fame inftrument and graduation is employed to afcertaina the relative ttrengths ofiron liquors, prepared with different acids, as the pyroligneous which contains much eflential oil and refin, and malt acid which abounds in mucilage. In this cafe the hydrometer may indicate great differences in {olutions containing equal quantities of acid and iron, but varying in the quantities of mucilage, oil, or refin, Trop liquor, however, prepared conftantly by the fame procefs, and from the fame acid, varies fo little in the relative proportion of its ingredients, that the hydrometer may be ufed to afcertain its {trength in preference to any other mode whatever; provided the neceflary precautions are ufed to correct any error arifing from variation of temperature, Ina work of this kind, not illuftrated by aétual fpeci- mens, and without reference to fome particular kind of iron liquor, it is impoffible to point out the fpecific gravities of the different folutions required for producing the various fhades, we have enumerated. An acetite of iron, of {pecifie gravity 3.047, with madder or logwood, will produce a black, and with weld or fumac an olive, and diluted with fix, eight, or ten times its bulk of water, various fhades of purple, drabs, or olives, according to the colouring matter employed. A ftandard folution of iron once obtamed, the neceflary ftrength for producing the different varieties of _colour is eafily afcertained by actual experiment, and to this we mutt refer our readers. When thickened with flour or gum, and tinged with a deco@tion of logwood or Brazil, the better to enable the workman to obferve the progrefs and ftate of his work, it forms, a3 we have before obferved, the printers black co~- lour, a purple colour, &c. according to the ftrength of the folution and the purpofe it is intended for. Various ingre~ dients were formerly added to iron liquor, to improve its quality, or vary the hue of colour it produced. Verdigrife and copperas were added to the iolution intended for black; and fal ammoniac or nitre to the diluted folutions for purple. Thefe are, however, now almolt univerfally laid afide, as being for the moft part ulelefs, and often hurtful: the fim. ple acetite of iron being found to anfwer every purpofe of the more complicated and heterogeneous folutions. ¢ The acetite of alumine, or red liquor, is always prepared by the decompofition of alum, by an earthy or metallic falt, fince the aluminous earth is not foluble in acetous acid, ex- cept in its newly precipitated and minutely divided ftate. The purett folution, and that which is generally ufed for the fineft and moft delicate colours, is produced by decompofing alum with Dutch fugar of lead, generally in the proportion of two parts by weight of the former, to one of the latter, The proportion of the two falts, and alfo the quantities of each gailon, as ufed by different calico printers, vary yet 2 with + eS COLOUR, - with little difference in effet. The alumin general predo- minates fo far as completely to faturate the liquor.. The printers’ aluminous mordant therefore is a compound folution, Tt is an accto-fulphate of alumine, confilting of a fatureted folution of common alum, and more or lefs acetite of alu- mine, accerding to the quantity of fugar of lead employed. In the neighbourhood ot London, the proportions are 61b. of alum, and 3lb. of {ugar of lead toa gallon of water: when thefe are completely diffolved, one ounce of Spanilh white is added, and the whole brifkly ttirred till the cffervefcence has in great meafure fubfided. Ina few hours the folution becomes clear, and forms a ftaudard liquor from which, by greater or lefs dilution, may be obtained all the varions fhades of red, yellow, &c. a'ready enumerated, In the above formula the proportion of alum is fomewhat too great, apart of it remains undiflolved, or immediately recryftal- lizes, and falls to the bottom along with the precipitated lead. This excefs of alum is however ftrongly infilted on by many calico printers, as effential to the purity of the mor- dant, from an. idea that the pure? part of the alum only is taken up in the folution. ‘This fa¢t however may be readi- ly difproved by employing this undiffolved or recryttallized alum 4n the formation of treth foletions, whofe purity will be found in no refpe&t inferior to the former. ‘Uhe purity of the aium and fugar of lead, and efpecially their being free from iron, is of great importance in the prepar:tion of this mordant, and on this account the Dutch {ugar of lead is pre- ferred; butits high price renders it too expenfive except for the pale reds of light chintz, aad other kinds of work, whofe great delicacy in the red tints is required. A fubfRitute for it has been found in the folution of litharge in vinegar, or pvroligneous acid, which is afterwards decompofed by the addition of alum, and the excefs of acid neutralized by Spanifh white as in the former cafe. Great part of the acetite of alumine manufaétured and fold under the name of red liquor ‘is prepared in this manner. It is in general ufed for yellows, dark thades of red, and for thofe compound mordants into which the acetite of iron esters, and when its purity is of courfe of little confequence. The acetite of lime has long been fubftituted with great advantage by the writer of this article for the folution of lead, and its ufe is becoming daily more known and extended. When carefully prepared, it is {carce inferior to the beft fugar of lead, and the impure folutions anfwer equally with the belt, for the compound mordants before mentioned. The theory of thefe procefles is the fame in all. The object being to obtain a folution of alumine or earth of alum in acetous acid. On mixing acetite of lead, and fulphate of alumine together, a change of baf-stakes place; the fulphuric acid unites with the lead, and falls down in the form of a white heavy pre- cipitate, whillt the earth of alum combines with the acetous acid, and remains in folution. The fame takes place with the folution of litharge in pyroligneous acid, which is in- deed an impure acetite of lead, and when the acetite of lime is employed initead of lead, the fulphurie acid and lime unite and form an infoluble powder, which {ubfides, though lefs uickly than the other, whillt the acctite of alumine remains ia Bilation above; the addition of the Spanihh white is neceflary to faturate a {mall excefs of acid which exits in the folution. This excefs is taken up by the lime, and immediately con- verted into acetite of aiumine, by the decompolition of a freth portion of alum. The acetite of alumine when pure, is almoft colourlefs. It has a flight acetous fmeil, and when boiling throws off acetous acid tn great abundance, and depolits a portion of alumne, When evaporated it acquires a thick gummy con- Moterlx. filtence, but does not eryftallize a property which gives it a decided advantage over-common alum as a mordant. Jt unites readily with gum, but when concentrated and holding much alum in folution, forms with floura watery pulpy kind of palte, which has little adhefion, and from which the fluid foon feparates. The fulphuric falts have indeed ali a diipo- fition_to injure the thickening quality of flour. The affinity of cotton for the earth of alum, is fo trong as to feparate it from its combinations even with the mineral acids. When a [olution of common alum properly thick-n- ed is applied to cloth, a portion of alumine unites with it, and the acid, which held it in folution, is fet free. When this is accumulated toa certain degree, it prevents any further decompofition, and in rinling carmes off the greater part of the earth again. When the acid howeveris volatile, like the acetous, and is diflipated as foon as difengaged, there bein no lonzer any obftacle, the decompofition goes on til! the whole of the acid is driven off, and the alumine combined with the cloth. In the infancy of calico printing, and be- fore the theory and conftitution of the different mordants was properly underftood, a variety of fubftances were added to the folution, fome of which are retained to this day. Verdigrife i the proportion of two ounces to a gallon, is recommended by many as tending to exalt the hue of yel- lows, and may in fome cafes be ufeful. Corrofive fublimate has been but lately laid afide, and the nitro-muriate of tin was long thought to give fixity and brillancy to’ reds, when ufed ina {mall proportion with the aluminous mordant. In general, however, the aceto-fulphate of aiumine is found 2d-~ equate to every purpole of the calico printer; we fhall not, therefore, perpetuate error by detailing any of thofe unmean- ing mixtures which are {till retained by the ignorant and prejudiced. Thefe two mordants, the acetites of iron and alumine, and their various combinations, are thofe only in general ufe in calico-printing, for producing colour of the firlt clafs. This. application is fo extenfive, and at the fame time fo fimple, as to {uperfede the neceflity of any other, The folutions of copper are fometimes ufed as mordants, but they afford colours of little folidity. ‘he folutions of tin have alfo been employed, but we fhall {peak of thefe and other earthy and metallic folutions which have been ufed with partial fuccefs, when we come to treat of mordants in general. Clafs II. In this clafs the colours are produced by combining a fo. lution of colouring matter with fome earthy or metallic falt, capable of giving it fixity when applied to the cloth. The mordant and colouring matter are here applied at once, and the cloth is painted, as it were, or ftained, with the colour it is intended to retain, and requires, in general, no farther ope- ration than that wf rinfing, to free it from the palte or gum with which it was thickened. The colour of this clafs poffeffcs, as we have before ob- ferved, inlgeneral great brilliancy, but wants that folidity and fixity which charaGerife the colours of the former clafs. The union of the mordant with the cloth is weakened by its previous combination with the colouring matter, and not be- ing favoured by heat, as in the former cafe; the triple com- bination of vegetable fibre, mordant, and colourina matter, wants that folidity. which is fo neceffary to conttitute what is called a falt colour, Many of thefe, however, are fufficiently durable to be pare tially introduced, and intermixed with other colours of greater durability, and fome are indifpenfably neceflary, as no better mode has yet been devifed of producing them. When the G chemift’s COs0U Rk. chemift’s art fhall have difcovered means of giving fixity to colours thus topicaily applied, the art of calico printing will have arrived at perfeétion. Syftems of colours may then be combined, which are at prefent incompatible, and the tedious operation of dyeing and bleaching, with their attendant dif- ficulties, be banifhed from the art. Nor is the hope fo chi- merical as might at firft be imagined; feveral of the moft ufeful and permanent colours are of this defcription, as will be thewn hereafter. We hhall content ourfelves with defcribing the leading and moft ufeful colours, of this clafs, giving, at the fame time, the theory of their conttitution. The mere enumeration of all the varieties that have or may be formed, would be end- lefs, and foreign to our purpofe. Chemical Black. This is the moft ufeful colour of the clafs, and one of in- difpenfible neceffity in certain combinations of colours, where, for inftance, it is mixed with drab, olive, and yellow, raifed in the dye-copper with weld qucrcitron bark, or any fimilar colouring’ matter, and where the prefence of any fubftance, fuch as logwood or madder, capable of producing a full black, would be ruinous to the other colours. A deep olive, approaching to black, might, indeed, be pro- duced, by employing a ftrong iron liquor, as mordant, and ufing fumac in the dye-copper; yet as this would bear no comparifon in point of intenfity with the madder or log- wood black, and as the force of the colouring in fuch courfe of work greatly depends on contraft, the topical or chemical black, which has al] the intenfity required, is almoft con- ftantly employed. The conftitution of this black is pretty nearly the fame in all the different formule in ufe. It con- filts always of a folution of iron combined with a folution of colouring matter generally of an altringent nature. On the right proportion of thefe two folutions, and on their due fpect- fic gravity or ftrength depends, in a great meafure, the gocd- nefs of the black. 1. If toa decoction of Aleppo galls, in five times their weight of water, made into a pafte with flour, a folution of iron in nitrous acid of fpecific gravity 1.25 be added, in the proportion of one mealfure of nitrate of iron to. eighteen or twenty of the former, a black will be formed fit for almoft all the purpofes of calico printing, and poffefling the chicf requifites of this colour, namely, tolerable fixity, and a dif- pofition to work weil with the black, 2. In lieu of nitrate of iron, fome calico printers employ ‘copperas, in the proportion of one pound to a gallon of the decoGion of galls. _ Half the copperas is directed to be dif- folved in the gall-liquor before it is thickened with flour ; the remaining half, diffolved by heat inas much aquafortis as will cover it, is added afterwards. This black has tolerable fixity, but does not work fo well as the preceding. 3. Copperas diffolved in various proportions of from four to twelve ounces per gallon, will form, with decoétion of galls or loswood, blacks of lefs folidity indeed than the former, yet applicable, neverthelefs, in many cafes where the others are not. The conflitution of the two laft-mentioned blacks differs fomewhat from the firft. We thall point out this difference, and explain, as concifely as poflible, the rationale of the fore- going procefles. : When a {olution of iron in nitrous acid is added to a de- -co“tion of galls, as in the Srft example, the folution is decom- pofed, the iron unites with the gallic acid and tanning prin- ciple, whilft the nitrous acid is difengaged. This is proved - by the blacknefy which the folutions affume immediately on being mixed. The difengzaged acid, however, fhortly re-atts on the new compound, the blacknefs gradually dilappears, and in a few days, if the nitrate of tron has been added in proper quantity, the palte, inflcad of black, is of a dirty olive green. If the proportion of nitrate of iron be greater than +',, this change will be «flected fooner; and if fo high as -J5, the pafte, when applied to the cloth, will be a bright orange, like the acetite of iron. By expofure to heat and air, this colour generally decpens, becemes grey, and at lalt 2 full black. In this flate it is permanent, and adheres powerfully to the cloth. Thefe changes of colour depend on the folution of the tannate ard gailate of iron in the dif- engaged nitrous acid, and the evaporation of the acid when expofed to heat and air on the cloth. This folution of the tannate and gallate of iron is indeed an effential requifite in the goodnefs of the chemical black. If the difengaged acid is not fufficient to eff-G this, or ifit is in too greata ftate of dilution, the colour has but a feeble adherence to the cloth 3 it is not prefenced in a flate favourable to its union with it, fince the combination into which the iron has entered is in= foluble in water. It lies merely on the furface, but does not penetrate its fibres, and yields readily in the various operations to which it is fubjeéted. ‘The chemical black, therefore, of the firft exan:ple 1s a folution of the tannate and gallate of iron in nitrous acid. The black of the fecond, but more particularly of the third example, differs from the preceding in the circumftance of the iron in the folution being in a lefs oxyzenated ftate. We may confider this black in its recent {tate as a mixed folution of green fulphate of iron, and gallic acid, and tanning prin- ciple; for the decompofition of the fulphate is not complete till by expoiure to air on the cloth the iron becomes fully oxygenated. When this black is recently applied to the cloth, it is of a pale greyith colour, has little bxity, fimple ’ rinfing in cold water being fufficient to fetch nearly the whole away. By gradually abforbing oxygen, it becomes deeper, and at lait black. ‘The fulphuric acid has no longer any action on it, and is removed in the firft operation in which it is immerfed in water. The decoétion of galls ufed for chemical black is varioufly prepared. Many calico printers infufe the galls cold in cafks of vinegar, or pyroligneous acid, fuffering them to remain feveral months, occafionally drawing off the lower part, and returning it on the galls. Others fteep them in urine. Both thefe modes are vicious, particularly the laft. Simple boiling in water, till all the foluble matter is ex- tracted is fufficient, taking care to inclofe the gallsin a fack, that when foft they may not render the decottion thick. Grey. By diluting the chemical black of the firfl example with once, twice, thrice, &c. its bulk cf water, ard thickening the folution with gum, various fhades of grey are obtained, which require rinling off in water only, and the deeper fhades of which have tolerable permanence. ‘ The theory of thefe mixtures is tne fame as of the black, from whence they are derived. On the addition of water to the olive-green folution, mentioned in the preceding article, the colour inftantly becomes deep purple, approaching to black. This is occafioned by the dilution of the free acid, which being no !onger able to hold the tannate and gallate of iron in folution, fers part of it at liberty, which inftantly re= gains its colour. Vor the reafon already affizeed, this has lefs adherence to cloth than chat in which the {olution 1s more per- fet. The addiction of a {mall quantity of nitrous acid effects this, The olive-green colour of the folution is rettored, 3 which, x 4 = which, by expofure to the air, and confequent evaporation of the acid, difappears, and leaves the tannate and gallate of iron more firmly fixed on the cloth. The complete precipi- tation of the combination is afterwards effected in the opera- tion of rizfing off in water. Yellow, The falfe or chemical yellows are generally prepared with decoétions of French or Turkey berries, and fometimes with quercitron bark. The latter fubftance produces pale yellows qr ftraw colour, but does not afford the deep bright orange yellow of the berries. Dr. Bancroft, to whom the public is indebted for the introduction aad knowledge of this moft ufcful dyeing drug ; indeed, afferts the contrary in his work on * Permanent Colours ;’’ and has given a receipt for the bark-yellow, which has, however, never fuc- ceeded in our hands. Berry-yellow. Boil two pounds of good berries, flightly bruifed, in a gallon of water during three hours, taking care to replace, from time to time, the evaporated water with liquor obtained from the fecond boiling of a former quantity of berries, When the liquor 1s cool, add to it eight ounces of alum, and if it is intended for the block thicken it with flour. If it is meaut for thofe {mall ob- jects in printed goods, which are generally touched with the pencil, two ounces of fugar of lead fhould be added with the alum, and the colour thickened with gum dragon. This yellow is generally paffed through lime water as the firft part of the operation of rinfing; by this means the greater part of the earth of alum, which would otherwife have been carricd off in the operation, is precipitated on the cloth, and the colour confiderably heizhtened. When this operation of liming cannot be performed with- out injury to fome other colour, a greater proportion of fugar of lead fhonld be added. ‘This decompofes the alum, and forms an acetite of alamine, which being more readily decompofed by the colouring matter and the cotton than fulphate of alumine, does not require the affillance of an aikaline folution to precipitate it on the cloth. The proportion of berries above dire&ed is for a full yellow; one-fourth or one-third lefs will form, with the fame quantities of falts, yellows of great brightnefs. Some calico printers add a {mall quantity of nitrate of copper to the yellows intended to be fimply rinfed off without hming. This heightens the colour, but what is gained in intenfity is loft in brightmefs; for if the folution of copper be added in fuflicient quantity to produce any very perceptible effort, it imparts a dulnels to the hue which is very detri- mental, This is the invariable efi: of copper in any fhape, whether the acetite, fulphate, or nitrate of copper be employed. Bark yeilow. For a lemon or ftraw colour, it will be {ufficient to make a decoétion of bark by boiling from four to fix pounds in as much water as is neceffary during two hours, and after evaporating: down the decodtion to one gallon, add to it two ounces of fugar of lead, and eight ounces of alum. If not limed, the proportion of fugar of lead fhould be doubled. For flrong yellows, Dr. Bancroft direéts the addition of both nitrate of copper and nitrate of hime‘in quantities fo great, as near feven ounces of the for- mer to a gallon of colour, Experience, however, though it has done juftice to the merits of Dr. Bancroft’s difcovery of the ufe of quereitron bark, has not verified the expe&- ations he had formed of it as a fubftitute for the Turkey berries in the topical or chemical yellow. The conltitution of thefe colcurs, whether formed with COLOUR. the fulphate and acctite of alumine, or with the folutions of copper is‘the fame. Alumine, or the earth of alum, and the oxyd of capper, have an affinity both for colouring matter and vegetable fibre. They form the conneéting link between thefe fubftances, which would otherwife conn- teraét a feeble union. When a folution of alum is added to a decoétion of berries or of bark, a flight precipitation takes place by the union of a portion of colouring matter with the earth ; the greater part however remains fufpended or held in folution by the acid of thealum. When applied to the cloth the farther decompofition of the falt is aided by the affinity of this fubftance for alumine, and, when the acid is volatile, as the acetous for example, by its confe~ quent evaporation. The fame takes place with the folu- tions of copper. ‘The operation of rinfing’ farther aids the precipitation of the colouring matter and alumine, by thus largely diluting with water; and laftly, when the goods are previoufly pafled through the lime tube, the decompo- {ition is complete, the laft portions of earth or oxyd are precipitated, and the colour thereby confiderably exalted. The folutions of tin are capable of forming very bright and beautiful yellows, with decoCtions of different yellow colouring fubftances ; but the excefs of acid which thefe folutions neceffarily contain, and their powerful aétion on the cluth, renders their application lefs general than the preceding. The folution of tin moft proper for yellows is the muriatic, and is formed by digefting, in a low heat for feveral days, the common muriatic acid, or fpirits of falt, on fine grain tin. This folution forms, with bark, a pale and lively yellow, and with berries a yellow bordering more on orange. Thefe {pirit yellows, however, as they are im- properly called, are feldom ufed except upon dyed grounds, and of this prepsration for fuch purpofes we {hall treat at large under the head of Di/charged Worx. Blue. The only blue belonging to this clafs is that produced by combining the colouring matter of logwood with the oxyd of copper. Itis but feldom ufed fince the mode of dipping China blue has become generally known; and indeed its want of durability renders it of little value. It may be produced by combining almoft any of the folutions of cop- per with a deco&ion of logwood. 1. Boil two pounds of logwoad in a gallon of water, and to the decoétion, aaesied with gum, add eight ounces of fulphate of copper. : 2. To a decoction of logwood as above, add two ounces of fulphate of copper, and two ounces of verdigrife, Their colours may either be rinfed off or limed, as beft fuits the ftyle of work. ‘The theory of thefe combinations is the fame as the preceding. Green. The chemical or falfe green is a compound colour, and confifts of a mixed decoétion of logwood and berries, or bark, and a folution of copper. ‘Though fugitive, its ufe is in fome degree authorized by the impoffibility of obtain- ing a green of greater durability that can be applied in figures with the block. The faft green of the calico printers is the produ&t of two operations, and is of courfe limited in its application, and tedious in its ufe. The pro- duGtion of a falt green at one operation, or rather by one application to the cloth, either with the pencil, block, or prefs, is one of the great defiderata of calico printing. 1. One pound of jogwood avd two pound of berries boiled together during two hours, and ftrained whilft hot Gs upon COLOUR: upon two ounces of fulphate of copper, and two ounces of verdigrife, and thickened with gum, form’a good and lively green, the hue of which may be varied at pleafure by the increafe or diminution of the proportion of log- wood. ‘To this fome calico printers add two ounces of common falt, and two ounces of fal enixon or acidulous fulphate of potath. z. To one meafure of blue of the firft example in the preceding article, add two, three, four, &c. mealures of a decociion of bark, made by boiling {x pounds as before direéted for the yellow, and to which, when reduced to one gallon, two ounces of fulphate of copper, and two ounces of verdigrife have becn added. The tone of the green depending on the relative proportions of blue and yellow, it is, In general, beft to keep the two decoétions feparate, to be mixed, when wanted, in fuch proportions as may beft {uit the purpofe required. The theory of thefe mixtures is the fame as of the blue and yellow already de- fcribed. To the eye of the mere fpeculative chemiit, the _addition of common falt and acidulous fulphate of potafh in the firf! example, may appear unnecc{lary and unmean- ing. They indeed affect little, either the hue or fixity of the colour, but experience has proved that this addition facilirates its working with the block, more efpecially when thickened with gum dragon. ‘Lhe caufe of this, in the articular inftlance before us, is perhaps not very clear. The fulpburic falts in general, fuch as the fulphates of alumine, iron, and copper, are all unfavourable to working, as their folutions, efpecially when concentrated, neither thicken well with flour nor gum. A faturated folution of eopperas cannot be thickened with flour, nor can a flrong folution of the aceto-{ulphate of alumine, in which the alum isin great excefs; even with gum it unices with difficulty. But if toa folution of copperas, which refufes to form a palte with flour, a {mall portion of nitrate of iron be added, the whole forms a good and fubltantial patte that works admirably with the block ; and half a pound of com- mon falt added to the aceto-fulphate of alumine has a fimi- Jar effet. In the inftance more particularly before us, the addition of common falt forms a muriate of copper by the decompofition of the fulphate ; but this laft is in too {mall a quantity to affeét the working of the colour very fenfi- bly. The caufe of thefe effets is to be fought for in the very complicated play of affinities, which exilt in fuch com- pounds, and which future inveftigation and difcovery may perhaps unfold. ‘The f{peculative philofopher, who is igno- rant of the minute details of an art, that involves in it con- fideration and difficulties, unfufpected in the laboratory, will hence learn to fufpend his judgment in deciding on the merits of a formula, till experience fhall have proved the in- utility of thofe ingredients which theory would reject as abfurd. A But to return to our fubje&, there is a wide ficld open for experiment and difcovery in the production of greens, into which logwood does nct enter. A calico printer near London, celebrated for his ingenuity and invention in co- loure of this clafs, has long employed a green which, from its beauty and durability, when compared with the fore- going colours, indicate the prefence of indigo as a contti- tnent part. Pruoffian blue in a minutely divided ftate, and mixed with bark or berry-yellow has been employed ; but the blue in this cafe has fo little adherence ro the cloth, that mere mechanical force, the operation of rinfing and wafhing is fufficient to difengage it. With one or other of thefe fubitances, however, it is likely that greens much fupe- rior in beauty, and probably alfo in durability to thofe ge- nerally in ufe, might, by a feries of patient and well con« duéted experiments, be readily obtained, Pink, The pale, and more delicate fhades of red, belong ing to this clafs, are chicfly fought after in calico print- ing, hey are employed in giving relic or effo& to other admixtures of a more fober cait, and all the fill of the coe lour-maker ts exerted in giving them brilliancy-and richnefs of tnt. They are chiefly produced trom decettions of Brazil, nicaragua, or peachwood, and cochineal, r ifed and fixed on the cloth with folutions of tin, rarely with the alu minous mordants, though delicate and lively colours may be produced this way. The nitro-muriate of tin is chiefly employed, though the relative proportion of the two acids, and their degree of fa- tuvation with tin, varies almoft with every calico printer, The folution itfelf, made according to eftablifhed rule, and with the fame properties, varies fo confiderabiy at different times, as wholly to alter the nature of its compounds, with- out any apparent caufe of failure. ‘The fource of this dife cordance is to be fought for in the conftitution of the folu- tion itfelf, which, from caufes that we fhall endeavour to ex. plain, is {ubjeét to confiderable variation, Firtt, from the ftrength or concentration of the acids ems ployed, which are feldom uniform or corftant; muriatic acid from the fame manufaéturer varying often in fpecific gravity from 1.12 to to 1.18, and nitrous acid not lefs than from {.15 to 1.23, without reference to the common dii- tunétion of fingle and double aquafortis. When the fpecific gravity of the acids is neglected, as is but too generally the cafe, thefe differences oecafion ferious inconveniences in the ufe of folutions, whofe pro- perties often depend on the accuracy of their proportions, and on determinate degrees of faturation. Secondly, from the 1mpurity of the acids. ‘The muriatie acid of commerce always contains iron and fulphuric acid ; if the former exift in any notable proportion, it is unfit for the folution of tin; the prefence of the latter is of lefs ims portance, though, on the whole, unfavourable to delicate colours. ‘The nitrous acid varies confiderably in its purity, being fubje& to greater or lefs admixture with the muriatic; the nitre it is made from being feldom free from marine fait. The aquafortis of commerce 1s, in fact, anaqua regia. This variation of the proportion of muriatic acid in the nitrous, is of the utmoft importance, fince the properties of the fo- lution eminently depend upon this. With muriatic acid only, tin forms a colourlefs and:permanent folution, one of whofe diftinguifhing properties is, its {trong affinity or at- traction for oxygen. With deco¢tion of cochineal, it forms a deep and dul! purple-coloured precipitate, which, how- ever, gradually abforbs oxygen, and becomes crimfon, efpe- cially when expofed on the filtre. With decoGions of Brae zil and_peachwood, it affords crimfoa precipitates, varying in intenfity with their faturation with tin. It decompofes all the combinations of iron with colouring matter, deoxy- genating the iron which it carries of, leaving the tin in combination with the colouring matter. Thus a madder black becomes a red on the application of muriate of tin. On fhis property is founded the art of printing on dyed grounds, of which we fhall treat hereafter. With nitrous acid, unlefs very dilate, tin contraéts a very feeble union, and is generally precipitated as {oon as diffolved, in a flate fully faturated with oxygen. ‘The addition of a {mall quan- tity of muriatic acid renders this folution more permanent, provided it be not fully faturated with tin, and the addition of a of Jarger portions approximates the folution ftill more to the nature of the former, and renders it capable of fupport- ing a greater degree of faturation. The properties of the folution depend greatly on the proportion of mue riatic acid, and confequent:y of muriate of tin contained in it, Woen f{mall, the precipitate with cochiueal is bright carmine fearlet. It does not decompofe the combinations of iron with colouring matter, unlels the folution be far from fa- turation, and this cffcét is then due to the difengaged acid enly. The purity of the tin is another requifite which fhould be carefully attended to. The fine tin of Cornwall, commonly called grain tin, fhould be employed. If alloyed with lead, it is wholly unfit for thefe purpofes. In Jieu of muviatic acid, fal ammoniac and common falt are oftentimes employed to form an aqua regia with nitrous acid. The folution differs little from that formed by a mix- ture of the two acids, the allowance being made by the por- tion neutralized by the alkali of the neutral falt. From this fhort outline of the hiftory of the fubftances employed in the formation of the folutions of tin, and of the properties of the folutions themfelves, may be de- duced fuch general ideas as will elucidate and explain many anomalous effects ia their combinations with different colour- ing matters, and feem to direét future experiment in the diicovery of thofe minute, but often important, conditions neceflary to the formation of particular fhades of colour. The following examples of fpivit reds, as they are impro- perly called by calico printers, will illuitrate fome of the preceding obfervatious, and may be confidered as {pecimens of the moft beautiful and brilliant colours iteis poflible to form upon cotton. 1. Prepare an equa regia by diffolving two oz. of fal am- moniac in one pound of nitrous acid of {pecific gravity 1.25. To this add two ounces of fine grain cin; decant it care- fully off the fediment, and dilute it with } its weight of pure or diitilled water. To one gallon of water add one pound of cochineal, ground as fine as flour; boil half an hour ; then add two ounces of finely pulverized gum dragon, and two ounces of cream of tartar, and ftir till the whole is diffolved. When the liquor is cool,add one meafure of the preceding folution of tin, totwo of the cochineal liquor, and incorporate well by flirring. Apply this with the pencil or block, fuffer it to remain in the cloth fix or eight hours, then rinfe off in {pring water, This colour will be a bright and beautiful icarlet. . 2. Boil 12 pounds of Brazil chips during an hour in as much water as will cover them. Draw off the decoGion, and pour on frefh water, and boil as before. Add the two ' Hiquors together, and evaporate flowly down to one gallon. To the decoétion whilft warm add four ounces of fal ammo- niac, and as much gum dragon or fenegal as will thicken it for the work required. When cool, add one of the folu- tion of tin before defcribed, to four, fix, or eight of the Brazil liquor, according to the colour wanted. Suffer it to remain from 18 to 24 hours on the cloth, then rinfe off in {pring water as before. The colour will be a pale and delicate pink. If it is required deeper, the decodtion muft be made dtronger, and ufed in the proportion of three or four to one of the folution of tin. Nicaragua or peachwocd, though not fo rich in colouring matter as Brazil, yields a colour, how- ever, which is, if poflible, more delicate and beautiful. The fine pinks produced by certain hofifes, which have for years been the envy and admiration of the trade, are afford. ed by titis fine dye-wood,. COLOUR. Thefe colours require no liming, fimple affufion with wa- ter being fufficient to precipitate the colouring matter ia combination with the tia, ‘The theory of thele mixtures is the fame as the preceding. ‘They require, however, a greater excefs of acid to hold the colcunng matter in folution. A deco€tion of cochineal poured into a faturated foluiion of tin, occafions an inftant precipitate which is not rediflolved, and the greater part of which, if applied to cloth, would come off in the eperation of rinfing. It is fametimes ne- ccflary to add a {mall quantity of muriatic acid to prevent this precipitation, or to correél it when it happens, and fal ammoniac is fuppofed to have the fame effect, probably by engaging the water cf the foluton, With the aluminous falts, the decoGtion of cochineal and Brazil forms colours lefs brilliant than thofe we have juft de- feribed, but which are applicable in cafes where the excels of acid in the folutions of tin is attended with inconvenience. I. Yo one gallon of water, add eight ounces of finely ground cochineal, and two ounces of bru'fed galls; boil half an hour, ftraia the liquor whilft hot through a fine cloth, upon four ounces vf cream of tartar and four ounces of gum, and thicken with gum dragon, This colour requires liming. : 2. Upon 6lbs. of Braziland 2 oz. of galls, pour one gal- lon of water, let them foak fome time, then boil two hours, replacing the evaporated liquor with frefh water. Strain through a fine cloth upon 4lb. of gum fenegal, and add one pint of the acetite of alumine, defcribed in a former part of this article. The addition of galls in the two preceding formule is fuppofed to import folidity to the colours in fome way ana- logous to the operation of galling in filk and cotton dyeing, of which we fhali have occafion to {peak hereafter. ‘Their conititution is otherwife the fame as the berry and bark yel- lows, and moft others of this clafs of colours. Df urple. 1. If the folution of tin dire&ted for the pink in the laft article be mixed with fix times its bulk of a decoétion of logwood poured whillt hot upon four. ounces of fal ammo- niac, and 2A ibs. gum fenegal, a bright and lively purple wiil be obtained, the bue of which varies with the-ftrength of the decoétion and the proportion of folution of tin em- ployed. 2. Lf inftead of the folution of tin, the acetite of alumine before alluded to, be ufed in various proportions of onefixth, eighth, &c. purples differing in fhade and intenfity will be formed, applicable in fome cafes, but poffefling lefs folidity than molt of the colours already defcribed. The conftitution of thefe compounds is. the fame as the preceding. Olive. Olives are varioufly compounded, according to the colour required. ; 1. By mixing chemical black in various proportions with berry or bark yellow. ‘Che depth and fulnefs of the olive depends on the quantity of black, 2. By a decoction of logwood added in greater or lefs quantity to the bark or berry yellow. 3. By the addition of copperas or-nitrate of iron to de- coctions of yellow or altringent colouring matters, fuch as bark, fumae berries, weld, &c. each of thefe produces a dif- ferent hue, varying from the green olive to a drab or cloth colour. By mixing thefe decoctions in different proportions, and by varying their flrength, and the quantities of copperas i er COLOUR. ‘ ernitrate of iron added to each, a multiplicity of fhaces may be produced, of which it is impoflible to convey any precile or deGnite ideas. Thefe colours may be indifferently thickened with flour or gum, as belt fuits the work required, but when nitrate of iron is added to folutions containing gum, the inilant coagu- lation that tekes place mult be counteracted by the addition of a porticn of free nitrous acid. This effect arifes from the {trong attion exerted by metallic oxyds, at the maxt- mum of oxydation, on mucilage or gum. When the decoc- tion is very concentrated, and contains fufficient colouring matter to engage the whole of the iron, this effect takes place in a lefs degree, but with folutions adapted to the produétion of the foregoing colours, a coagulation invarta- bly takes place, unlefs counteraéted by the prefence of a portion of free acid. OF this aétion of metallic oxycs on the {olution of gum we fhail further treat under the article Gum. Clafs III. In this clafs, the colouring matter is fimply held in folu- tions, by an acid or alkali, and in that flate app'ied to the cloth without the intervention of any morcant. The molt important of thefs colours, is the alkaline folu- tion of indigo which forms the topical or Pencil Blue. t. Prepared folution of pot-afh, by boiling together 7zibs. of quick lime, and 15lbs. of pot-afh, in 10 gallons of water. Decant off the clear liquor, and feparate the re- mainder from the lime by means of the filter. To one gallon of this folution, add 1ib. of red arfenic, or orpiment, and rib. of fine indigo, both previoufly groucd together in a mili with fufficient water to form athick pafte. Bring them up gradually to a boil, ftirring carefully all the time, and then withdraw the fire. ‘hicken the folution with the beit gum fenegal, and for the pale fhades of blue, dilute with one, two, &c. meafures of gum-water. The quantities and relative proportions of pot-ath, orpi- ment, and indigé in a gallen of pencil blue vary confiderably with different calico printers, and within certain limits, it appears, that the accuracy of thefe propo:tionsis not of great importance. Haufman, an intelligent French printer, em- plo; s 15ibs. of pyt-ath, 6lbs. of orpiment, and Sibs. of indigo, to 12 gallons of water; and Oberkampf, proprietor of the celebrated manufaGtory of Tony, a {till greater proportion -of indigo. Some printers add brown fugar, and Bancroft has propofed to fubftitute this for the orpiment, but with- out fuccels. The folution, when recently made, is a yellowifh green, but by expofure to air, becomes gradually deeper, and at lalt blue. In this ftate, it is wholiy unfit for ufe, it contracts no union with the cloth, and is detached from it in the firfk operation of rinfing. Of the peculiar nature and properties of indigo, we fhall have occation to treat hereafter, nuder its proper head, at prefent it will fufficeto obferve, that it owes its colour and infolubility in alkalies, to a portion of oxygen intimately eombined with it. To render it foluble, therefore, it mutt be deprived of this oxygen, by the ation of a fubltance having a more powerful affinity for it, and the fulphuret of arfenic, or orpiment, is ufed for this purpofe. Sulphate of iron, has a ttrong affinity for oxygen, and is employed in de-oxygenating indigo for eertain purpofes; but the oxyd of iron not being foluble in alkalies, the folutions of indi zo, formed by it, become quickly regenerated by the abforption of oxygen, and cannot even be transferred from one veilel to another. The fulphuret of arfente, on the contrary being very foluble in alkalies, prefents the double advantage of de-oxygenating the indigo, and of retaining it awhtie in that ftate, till on its application to cloth, it becomes bour, be of greater confequence to the Britifh nation to retain, yet Co- lumbo is in every refpect greatiy fupertor. The number of its inhabitants is much greater; its fort and black town are much larger; the country in which it is fituated much more fertile; and the rich diltriét depending upon it much wider, being not lefs than 20 leagues in length and ro in breadth. Columbo is commonly fuppofed to have been firft fortified by the Portuguefe; but captain Percival queitions the truth of this ftaternent, as Laurence de Almeyda, after his firft treaty with the king of the ifland, found that the Moors and Malabars had a fortrefs here, on which fome guns were planted, which had been procured from fhips wrecked on this coaft. ‘That part of the fort, where thefe ancient works ftood, is now ftrongly fortified, and fhewn as the firlt works of the Portuguefe, It is in a manner detached from the main body of the fort, being feparated from it by an entrenchment and wall, with a foffe or ditch, now almolt choaked up. The fort is placed on a peninfula projecting into the fea, and it is thus expofed on all fides to the fea- breezes, by which the air is rendered temperate and healthy, though it lies fo very near the equator. This fort is up- wards of a mile in circumference; and is indebted for its flrength both to nature and art., On the fouth fide the furf runs fo high, and the fhore is fo rocky, that it would be dangerous to approach it. On the weft fide of the bay, where the fea is {moother, and near the wharf or landing place, which at all feafons of the year is fafe for boats,- the only attempt could be made ; but thefe quarters are fo well defended by the batteries which commaud the harbour, that there is hardly any probability of its fucceeding. On the weft fide of the fort, and facing the fea, are two very fine batteries, en darbet, intended for the fecurty of the bar- bour. Thefe itand on a part that projeéts a conliderable way from the main body of the fort, from which they are feparated by a high wall and ditch flanked with baltions, and have gates that communicate with the interior of the fort. Here the wharf or landing place ts found ; it con- fills of large piles of timber, extending feveral yards into the fea, and affords avery commodtous ftation for loading and unloading floops and large boats, which may be brought clofe alongfide. At this end feveral ftore-boufes, and bar- racks for half a regiment are erected, ‘The ramparts of the fort are very ftrong, having eight principal batlions ; and they have alfo a number of leffer ones, with curtains, ban- quets, and parapets, communicating with each other all round the fort, and fitted for troops to lineand defend with mufketry and field-pieces. ‘The whole fort is furrounded by a road and deep oval ditch, over which draw-bridges are thrown at each of the gates. On the outfides are fome fmall magazines, with a powder-mill and a faw-mill attached to the fort. Adjoining to the covert-way, and at the foot of the plain, is a lake extending three or four miles into the country, ina N. E. direGtion. For near a mile on the out- fide of the fort, the neck of land which conneéts it with the country, is not above five or Sx hundred yards broad ; and in the middle of this {pace lies the lake, leaving room on each fide only fora narrow cauleway. Near the plain an approach might be entirely cut off, by opening the fluices and cutting the road acrofs, where the lake would be con- neted with the fea, and the garrifon completely infulated. In the centre of the lake is an ifland, communicating with: a fally~ COLUMBO. a fally-port on the eaft face, by a narrow caufeway and draw-bridges. This is a pleafant fpot, abounding with cocoa-nut trees, and was called by the Dutch ‘* Slave Ifland,”” as it was the place whither they fent their fick flaves. A battalion of Malays is ftationed here. ‘This ifland is very convenient, as it lies contiguous to the fort, and opens the neareft way to the cinnamon gardens, which are clofe by it. The fort has three gates; the principal one, where the main-guard ts ftationed, which is called the Delph- gate, and leads into the “ pettah,’’ or black town. It has two draw-bridges to pafs over the ditch, which here forms an angle. At each of the gates are guard-houfes, with a fubaltern’s guard placed over them. ut The plan of Columbo is regular. It is nearly divided into four equal quarters, by two principal ftreets, which crofs each other, and extend the whole length of the town. To thele {mailer ones run parallel, with connecting lan-s between them. At the foot of the ramparts, in the infide, js a broad fheet or way, which goes round the whole fort, and communicates with the baitions and foldiers’ barracks ; and alfo affords, at the different angles, open fpaces for their private parading. The grand parade is by no means {ufficient for the garrifon, as it can hardly contain one com- plete regiment. On one tide of it are ranges of public of- fices for the civiland military departments, with the town or ftadt-houfe in the centre of them, where the Dutch held their high court of juftice. On the arrival of the Brith troops they found a rack, wheel, and many other imp!'e- ments of torture, which had been ufed for inflicting punifh- ment on criminals, particularly flaves, but thefe favage modes of punifhment were immediately abolifhed by the Britifh government. On the other fide of the grand parade ftand the cinnamon {tore-houfes, or ‘6a9-downs,”” as they are here called. At the upper end of the parade the Dutch had begun to erect a church, which has never been finithed. The Dutch ufually attended divine fervice at a {pacious and handfome church in the black town, about a mile diftant from the fort ; and worfhip is {till performed there for the Englifh, either before or a‘ter that of the Dutch inhabit- ants. The government houfe, which faces the harbour, is a very long and capacious building, but more convenient than elegant: feveral offices are attached to it, where the bufinefs of government is tranfzGted. Behind it is am ex- cellent garden, intended for a ‘* tank’’ or refervoir, in cafe of a fiege; for though every houfe has a weil plentifully fupplied with water through the year, yetit 's of a brackifh quality, and not fit to drink. The Europeans, therefore, both of the civil and military eftablifthment, are fupplied with water from a f{pring, about a mile from the fort, which is brought by means of bullocks, in leathern bags, called here “ puckally bags,” a certain number of which is at- tached to every regiment and garrifon in India. Columbo is built more in the European tlyle than any other garrifon in India. The interior of the fort has alfo more the appearance of a regular town; the Dutch houfes are all regularly built, though few are above one {tory high; and the windows have all glafs-panes, after the European manner. Before each houfe, and conneéted with it, is a large open {pace, roofed in and {upported on pillars of wood, called a ‘¢ viranda.”’ affording a fhade from the fun, and ex- ofed to the refrething breeze of the fea. The houfes are alfo agreeably fhaded by a double row of thick foreading trees, planted on each fide of the feveral ftreets. The wails of the houfes are plaftered over and white-wathed with a very fine bright lime, made of burat fhells. This beauti- fully white colour may contribute to the coolnefs of the houfes, but it throws an iafypportable glare on the eyes of ’ the paffengers along the ftreets, The houfes are for the moft part uniformly conftructed, confifting of the hallin the front, with a chamber at each fide, and another room in the back part, equal in length to the other three, and called the “back viranda.’? Behind this are one or two ranges of {mall buildings, proportioned to the fize of the houfe and defigned for the accommodation of fervants, for cellars, and fometimes for fleeping rooms. The houfes are covered with indented tiles, which «fford no fecurity againit rain. In the centre of the principal ftrect is a very handfome and lofty houfe, which belonged to the Dutch governor, and has fince been occupied by the commander of the Britith forces on the ifland. ‘lhere'is a fo another very handfome and fpacious houfe for the commandant of the yarrifon, with fuitable of fiees and ga:cens. The holpita!, deSyned ‘or toldiers and failors, is a roomy 2nd convenient building, Three or four battalions are ufually ftationed as a garrifon is the fort of Columbo. The harbour of Columbo, which lies on the weft fide, is an open road, affording good and fafe anchorage to fhips for only four months of the year, from D:ccmber to April, when the N.W. winds do not prevail to any great degree ; but about May, when the monfoon fets in on the Malabar coaft, and extends its ravages to the W. coaft of Cylon, the roads of Columbo no longer afford any proteétion. Hence it is, that Columbo is cut off-from any intercourfe by f argenlea. Corurea caule genifie fungofo ; Bauh. Hitt. See Coro- NILLA juncea. Corurea enneaphyllos filiquofa ind. orient. ; Pluk. Alm. Sze Inpicorera enneaphylia. CotuTeA exotica anguflifolia; Pluk. Alm. See Coro- NILLA aculeaia. Coxrurea indica humilis, ex qua indigo; Burm. Zeyl. See InDIGOFERA ¢inéoria. CoLuTeEA minima difpermos ; Pluk. Phyt. See Inpico- FERA enneaphyila. Corutea filiquofa glabra ternis quinifve maderafpatana; Pluk. Aim. See InpiGorera glabra. Corutea filiquofa five feorpioides major et minor ; Bauh. Pin. See Coronivya emerus. Cotutea fcorpioides; Cam. Epit. emerus. Co.utea feorpiotdes maritima glauca folio; Bauh, Pin. See Corontxva glauca. Coxiutea feorpisides minor coronata; Bauh. Pin. See CoRONILLA coronata. Co.utea fcorpioides odorata; Alp. Exot. See Coro- NILLA argentea. 2 Corurea fecundaz Cluf. See Coroniixa coronata. Co.uTEA xeylanica argentea tota; Herm. Lugdb. Rai. Hitt. See SorHora tomentofa. COLUTHUS, in Biography, a Greek poet, a native of Lycopolis, lived under the emperor Anaftafius in the begin- ning of the fixth century. His only work that has come down to us is upon the * Rape of Helen,”’? which, though of inferior merit, has been frequently edited, and was tranflated into French by M. du Molard in 1742. Mo- See CoroniLra reri. COLVIUS, Anprew, was born at Dort in Holland, in the year 1594, where he officiated during a confiderable part of his life as paftor of the Walloon church. In 1620, he was chaplain to the embafly at Venice, and cultivated an intimate friendfhip with the celebrated father Paul, whofe treatife on the inquifition he tranflated from the Italian into the Latin language. Colvius was istimately acquainted with many literary charaGters of his own age, and was him- felf a philofopher and poct of eminence, but he is chiefly cOoOL known as a colle€tor of rarities of every defctiption, of which, in the year 1655, he publifhed a catalogue intitled ‘© Catalocus Mufcei And. Colvii.”? He died at Dort in 1675. Moreri. COLYBA, or Cotysus, a term in the Greck Liturgy, fignifying an offering of corn and boiled pulfe, made in honour of the faints, and for the fake of the dead. Balfamon, P. Goar, Leo Aliatius, and others, have written on the fubje& of co/ybe = the fubftanee of what they have {aid, is as follows : The Greeks boil a quantity of wheat, and lay it in little heaps on a plate; adding beaten peas, nuts cut {mall, and grape-ftones, which they divide into feveral compartments, feparated from each other by leaves of parfley. A little heap of wheat, thus feafoned, they call xoavéw. They have a particular formula for the benediétion of the colybe: wherein, praying that the children of Babylon may be fed with pulfe, and that they may be in better condition than other people, they delire God to blefs thofe fruits, and thofe who eat them, becaufe offered to his glory, to the honour of fuch‘a faint, and in memory of the faithful deceafed. Balfamon refers the inftitution of this ceremony to St. Atnanalius ; but the Greek Synaxary to the time of Julian the Apoftate. Many of the Latin divines having fpoken injurioufly of this ceremony, Gabriel archbifhop of Philadelphia, has write ten a difcourfe in its vindication : wherein he endeavours to fhew that the defign of the colyba is oniy to reprefent the _ refurrection of the dead, and to confirm the faithful in the belief thereof. The colybe, he fays, are fymbols of a general refurre€tion ; and the feveral ingredients added to the wheat, fignify fo many different virtues. COLYBRASSENSIS, in Ancient Geography, an epif- copal fee of Africa, in Pamphylia, according to the aéts of the council of Conftantinople, held in the year 381. COLYMBIS, in Ornithology. Bellonius deferibes the tufted duck anas fuligula of modern writers under the name of colymbis. COLYMBUS, a genus of the anferes, having the bill toothlefs, fubulate, ftraight, and pointed; throat denticn« lated ; noftrils linear, and fituated at the bafe of the bill; legs fettered. Linneus includes in the co/ymbus genus three families of birds; the guillemot, the divers, and the grebes, each of — which, in the opinion of moft ornithologifts, ought to be confidered generically diflin@. The guillemots live chiefly elofe to the fea, and inhabit rocks; they have a flender tongue the fize of the bill, and the bill itfelf of a comprefled form, with the upper mandible a little bent, and the bafe covered with fhort feathers; they are principally diftin- guifhed by having the feet three-toed. The divers have a ftrong bill, leis pointed, cylindrical, the edges of the mandible turned in, the upper one longeft ; noitrils divided in the middle by a membrane tongue long, fharp, ferrated at the bafe each fide; legs flender ; tail-feathers twenty in number; the-chief character of thefe confift in the feet being furnifhed with four toes, and palmate ; they frequent frefh waters. ‘The grebes are without a tail, have a ftrong bill; lores naked ; tongue a little cleft at the tip; body depreffed, and thickly covered with foft fhining plumage ; wings fhort, and the legs compreffed ; the principal charac- teriftic of this family are the lobate feet ; confilting of four toes each. Thofe laft mentioned birds frequent meres, and other inland watery places. * Feet three-toed, Guillemot. Marmoratus. Above freaked with chefnut and brown; beneath CiOLiIY M.Bwis. beneath waved with dufky and whites lezs tawny ; bill, tail, wings, and claws black. Colymbus marmaratus, Gmel. Marbled guillemot, Lath. Syn. Uria marmorata, Lath. Ind. Orn. Tohabits the weftern parts of America and Kamtfcatka, This bird is ten inches in Jength; the crown is dufky; fome of the greater quill-feathers edged with white; chin dufky, with white flripes. Lacreotus. Snowy; bill and legs brownihh fleth- colour. Colyndus ladealus. Gmel. Cebphus ladeolus, Pal- Jas Spic. White guilleniot, Lath. Gen. Syn. Uria laéteola, Lath. Ind. Orn. Lives on the fea-coafls, and chiefly inhabits. the N-ther- lands. A variety of this bird is deleribed by writers (San- der Naturf. &c.) that has a black fpot on each fide behind the eyes; interfcapulars and area of the wings black ; upper mandible black, the lower yellowih. Gryztie. Body deep black ; wing-coverts white. (o- lymbus grylle, Linn. Gmel. Colymbus groenlandicus. Wein. Uria minor nigra, Brifl. &c. Greenland dove, fia turtle, Albin. Black guillemot, Lat. Denov. Brit. Birds, &c. A general inhabitant of Europe and America, frequent- ing the fea-coalt, and preying on fith; it builds its neft on the ground, the eggs are whitifh, and fpotted with black. This fpecies is liable to fome variation in the difpolition of its fpots, and appearance of plumage. One variety found at Aoonalafhka is of a footy black colour, with a double white band. Another is ttreaked above; beneath white, banded with cinereous; upper wing-coverts varied with white and black; this is the wria dalthica of Brunnich, and inhabits Greenland. A fecond variety mentioned by the fame author has the back, wings, and tail black; head, neck, and body beneath, with the {pot on the wings white. Dr. Latham deferibes a variety from Kamtfchatka of a black colour, with the crown clouded; the greater wing- coverts, and under fide of the body, varied with white and black ; throat entirely white ; and laflly, the uria grylloides of Brunnich is confidered by fome as a variety of this foecies; the upper part of the plumage of this bird is fpotted white and black, the colour beneath white. Troire. Body black; breaft and abdomen fnowy; fecondary wing-feathers white at the tip. Colymbus troile, Lien. Lomwiahoieri. Ray. Le guillemot, Bulk. Lumme, Marten Spitf, Fueli/h guillemot, Penn. Donov. Brit. Birds, &c. This bird inhabits Europe and America, and is found in maritime fituations, as its principal food confilts of fea-hfh ; its ufual reforts are the {teepeit and moft inacceflible cliffs on the fea-coaft, and in fuch places is feen in valt numbers on our own coails during the fummer, in which feafon they breed. ‘The places molt celebrated as the refort of thole birds are the ifle of Priefthoim, in Beaumaris bay, between Caernarvonfhire and the ifland of Anglefea; on a rock called Godreve, not far from St. Ives, Cornwall; the Farn ifland, near the coalt of Northumberland ; and the cliffs about Scarborough, Yorkfhire. They are filly birds, and fo ftupid, that having once attained acce/s to their haunts, they may be knocked down in any numbers with aftick, for though they fee their companions killed before them, they never attempt to quit the rocks. In many parts they are killed by the inhabitants both for the fake of their flefh and {kin ; the former is, however, not remarkable for its delicacy, and has a {trong fifhy tafte. The natives of Greenland and Kamtfchatka make garments of their fkins, Like the auk, this bird lays but a fingle egg; the eggs are in more elteem for the table than the flefh. The length of: this bird is feventeen inches. There are feveval varieties of this {pecies. We have followed the example of Linnzus and Gmelin in confidering the four above-mentioned birds as appertain- ing to the colymdus genus, but it fhouid be at the fame time obferved, that Brunnich conttitutes a diftinet genus of them under the title of uta, and that this genus 1s adopted by Dr. Latham, in his ** Index Ornithologicus,’? thoueh he adheres to the Linnean method in his '* General Sy- noplis.”” %*% KEeet four-toed, palmated, Diver. Geraciaris. Head and neck violaceous black ; a white interrupted band on the chin and upper part of the neck, Colymbas glacialis, Linn. Colymbus torquatus, Brun. DLer- gus nevus, Brill. Crlymbus maximus caudatus, Ray. L? In brina, Bull. Greateft fpeckled diver or loon, Albin. Nor- thern diver, Penn. Donov. Brit. Birds. Yhis is alarge bird, meafuring about three feet in length ; the upper part of the body with the bill, legs, and tail are black; the back and upper part of the wings is marked with a number of white {pots difpofed in rows. Inhabits the Northern feas, and is rare in England, The {pecimea in the London Mrfeum. In Iceland and Greenland, where thofe birds breed, they are very frequent. It is alfo abundant on the fhores of Norway, and along the Arétic coatts as far as the river Obey, in the dominions of Rufia. It is feldom feen on land, except in the breeding feafon, being, for the moft part, in the open fea, where it is continua'ly diving for fifh, which ic does with the greatelt addrefs. Among the northern maritime nations, the {kins of thofe birds are pre- pared by the natives, and manufactured with the feathers on them into caps and other articles of drefs. Garments, we are told, made of thefe fins are warm, and never imbibe the leaft moilture, and are alfo more durable in wear than might be imazined. The bird is likewife met with among the lakes of Hudfon’s bay, where the natives adorn their: heads with cirelets of their feathers. Immer. Body above blackifh, undulated with white ; beneath entirely white. Colymdbus immer, Linn. Mergus major, Briff. Le grand plongeon, Butf. Ember goofe, Sib- bald. Jmber diver, Penn. Donov. Brit.-Birds. The length of this bird is two feet ; the feathers of the back, wings, and tail are edged with white; in the male bird the front and fides of the head and neck.are fpotted! with brown. This fpecies inhabits. the Arétic ocean ; it ranks as a Britith. {pecies,. but is rarely taken in our country. Srevtarus. Cinereous-brown or dufky, fpotted with white ; throat pale ath, beneath white. Colymbus /lellatus, Brun. Gmel. “férgus minor, Brill. Colymbus caudatus Jfiellatus, Wills Le petit plongeons Buff. Speckled diver, or loon, Lath. Obferved in plenty about the fhores of the Baltic, and white fea, and in America. They occalionally migrate in flocks, purfuing the fame courfe as the fhoals of her- rings and iprats, the latter in particular, and it is for this - reafon known in many parts by the name of? /prat loon. Thefe birds are more common in the temperate, or fouthern . parts of Murope, than any other of the diver tribe. ‘The length is twenty-feven mches, the bill bern colour; legs brown. It builds no neft, but lays its eggs, which are two - in number, in the grafs on the borders of lakes contiguous to the fea-soatt; thofe eggs are dufky, fpotted with black. Arcricus, CcOoOLy Arcticus. Head hoary; neck beneath violaceous, black, with an interrupted white band. Colymbus ardicus, ok Mergus gutture nigro, Brill. Black-throated diver, ath. Length two feet ; inhabits the north of Europe, Afia, and America. SEPTENTRIONALIS. Body above blackifh, beneath white; neck beneath with a fhield-like fpot. Colymbus JSeptentrionalis, Linn. Mergus gutture rubro, Bril. Le plongeon a gorge rouge, Bufk. Red throated diver, Lath. Donov. Brit. Birds, &c. Inhabits Europe, Afia, and America, frequenting lakes, and oftentimes the open fea in queft of prey, which con- filts of fifth, marine infects, and crabs. The body is brown above, with minute white f{pots, beneath white; bill black, head and chin cinereous, {potted with brown; neck ahove with {mall white and brown lines; the legs dufky. Length about thirty inches. Thefe birds lay their eggs in June, the young are hatched and ready to fly before the end of Auguft, and undertake their annual migrations with the parent birds in September. They breed chiefly in Ame- rica. Boreais. Body above blackifh, with numerous white ftellated fpots; beneath white; neck on the fore-part rufous. Colymbus borealis, Brun. This bird was fhot near Copenhagen; it refembles in fize and appearance colymbus flellatus, and is, perhaps, a variety of that bird. Brunnich confiders it as a diftinct {pecies. Srriatus. Blackith, beneath white; head and neck grey, lineated ‘with black. Colymbus ftriatus, Gmel. Striped diver, Lath. Inhabits North America, where it frequents lakes ; 1t is reprefented as a noify clamorous bird, and one continually jn motion or on the wing, flying backwards and forwards. The bill of this fpecies is dufky, or black, and {trong ; the cheeks white. Sinensis. Greenifh-brown, with deeper fpots; breatt and belly reddifh-white, {potted with rufous; wings and tail blackifh. Colymbus finenfis, Gmel. Chine/e diver, Lath. : This fpecies inhabits China, and is f{uppofed to be one of thofe kinds of aquatic birds which are trained up, and em- ployed by the Chinefe for catching fifh. The bill is duflcy ; and the irides and legs cinereous. *** Beet four-toed, and lobed. Grebe. Cristatus. Fufcous, beneath white; head rufous; collar black; fecondary quill-feathers white. Colymbus criftatus, Lion. Colymbus cornutus, Brifl. Le grebe cornu, Buf. Grefled grebe, Lath. Length of this fpecies twenty-three inches; bill flefh- colour, with the tip brown, beneath white; head tumid, varies in colour by age, and has been defcribed in the firit, fecond, and third years’ plumage, as three diftinét {pecies. Like the reft of the grebe tribe, thefe birds form a floating neft, compofed of grafs and flags, interwoven with the roots and ftalks of other aquatic plants. ‘The female lays four eggs, which are of a white colour, and fits in the neft half immerfed in water till the eggs are hatched. It preys on eels and fifh, which it procures with great facility, by diving into the water. The flefh is rank, but the fkins, which are prepared with the beautiful filken and filvery white plumage on them are in high requeft for muffs and tippets. Many,of the grebes are taken on the lakes of MBUS. Geneva for that ‘purpofe. In England, thofe birds fre- quent the meres of Shropfhire and Chefhire, and the great fens of Lincolnfhire, in all which places they are known to breed. The tippet grebe 1s faid to be the young of this {pecies. Cayanus. Blackifh brown, beneath white ; under fide of the neck rufous. Colymbus cayennenfis, Gmel. grebe, Buff. Grebe de Cayenne, Pl. Enl. Lath. : A native of Cayenne. This bird is nineteen inches and 2 half in length ; the bill and legs are dufky ; and the lower mandible yellow at the bafe. Avritus. Blackifh-fufcous, beneath white ;. neck be- neath rufous. Colymbus auritus, Linn. Le petit grebe, Buff. Dufky grebe, Penn. Donoy. Brit. Birds. Inhabits tenny places in Kurope and America. Length eleven inches. The bill is black, and red at the fides; irides and lores purple; upper edge of the wings white ; legs flefh-colour, inclining to purple. Cornutus. Head gloffy-green, and tumid; neck be- neath, and breaft fulvous; through the eyes a yellow tufted band. Colybus coruutus, Gmel. Horned grebe, Ark. Zool. An inhabitant of Hudfon’s bay ; length twelve inches. Dr. Latham deferibes the little horned grebe, le petit grebe cornu of Buffon as a variety of this fpecies. Ruspeicoitis. Somewhat crefted; chin, checks, and regions of the ears afh-coloured ; neck beneath, and breait rufty red; belly and fecondary quill feathers white. Co- lymbus rubricollis, Gmel. Colymbus fubcrifiatus, Jacq. Le grebe a joues grifes jougris, Buff. Red necked grebe, Lath, Donov. Brit. Birds. The length of this bird is eighteen inches; the bill is dufkyv, and at the fides at the bale tawny ; the legs dufky. This is a Britifh fpecies ; the male is very rare, the female {carcely known ; both fexes are preferved in the London Mufeum. Caspicus. Head fmooth; body above dark brown, beneath filvery ; bill lead colour; chin and cheeks white $ wing-coverts brown. S. G. Gmel. Inhabits near the Cafpian fea. Txuomensis. Fufcous; beneath white, fpotted with grey ; quill-feathers pale rufous ; breaft with a black (pot. Colymbus thomenfis, Gmel. Le grebe duc-laart, Buff. Blaek- breafied grebe, Lath. q Lefs than the common hen; the bill is black, with the tip pale; irides and {pot between the bill and eyes white ; legs dufky. Inhabits St. Thomas’s ifland in America. Minor. Fulvous brown; beneath, fpot on the quill feathers, and lower part of the rump,’ filvery white; neck beneath tawny grey. Colymbus minor, Gmel. Podiceps minor, Ray. Little grebe, Lath. Donov. Brit. Birds. This bird inhabits Europe and America, is ten inches in length, and feeds on worms, {mall fifh, and aquatic infeGs. Buffon deferibes a variety of it under the title of “ Le Caftagneuz des Philippines ;”’ it is larger than the former, the plumage above purple brown ; and the cheeks and fides of the neck reddifh. Found in the Philippine ifles. Dominicus, Head fmooth; body beneath thickly fpotted. Colymbus dominicus, Linn. Le caflagneux de St. Domingue, Buff. White winged grebe, Lath. Inhabits the Antilles and Surinam. Its length is eight inches; the bill is black; body dufky, beneath filvery grey ; quill-feathers cinereous white ; legs brown. Hexsrivicus, Head {mooth; body blackifh; chiar black; Le grande Cayenne grebe, . cOoM Wack} throat fub-ferrnginous ; belly cinereous, mixed with seth Colyinbus hebridicus, Gmel.. Black-chin grebe, ath, A {mall and rare fpecies, found chiefly in Tiree, one of the iflands of the Hebrides. Popicers. Body fufcous ; bill olive, dufky at the bafe, with a tranfyerfe black band in the middle. Colymbus po- diceps;° Linn, Le cafagneux @ bec circlé, Buff. Pied dill grebe, Lath, A native of North America; length fourteen inches ; irides white; chin black, furrounded with white; body beneath filvery ; breaft waved with cinereous; fecondary quill-feathers black at the tip. The female has no black mark on the bill. ‘Lupovicianus. Fufcous; fides of the neck and body ferruginous ; beneath white, with tranfverfe blackifi fpots. Colymbus udovicianus, Goel. Le grebe de la Loujfiane, Buff. Loufiane grebe. _ Tnhabits Loufiane. The head is fmooth; legs dufky ; middle of the belly filvery white. COLYTON, or Cuttiron, in Geography, is a {mall but ancient market town in Devonfhire, England. It is calied by Rifdon, a ‘ borough of reputation; the haufekcepers of a fmall diftrit, called the borough, annually chofe a por- treve at the lord’s court. At the Norman conqueft, Coly- ton was the king’s demefne ; and king John granted the in- habitants a fair, to continue eight days. ‘The houfes are in general built with flints and moftly thatched. The parifh church is a {pacious {tone fabric, with a tower rifing above the chancel, the upper part of which is oGtagonal. On the fouth fide of the chancel is an inclofed burial-place, belong- ing to the De la Pole family, containing» various cflizies, and other monumental decorations: and in a {mall aifle ad- joining, is the figure of a girl, apparently about five years of age, under a canopy of ttoze; fhe is faid to have been the grand-daughter of Edward IV., and to have been choked by a filh-bone; over her are the royal and Courtenay arms. Colyton arms is fituated 153 miles S.W. from. London: the number of houfes is 289; of inhabitants 1641. COLYTTUS, or Cottyrus, in Ancient Geography, the name of a quarter of the ciry of Athens, belonging to the Egeide tribe, and adjoining to that called Melitos. COM, or Kom, in Geography, one of the oldett, and for- merly of the largeit towns of Perfia in the province of Irak Agemi. It bas futlered greatly by the civil wars with which the Perfan empire has been fo often diltracted, but is fill a very populous place; go miles S. of Calbin, and 150 N. of Tlpahan. It is celebrated for its filk manufactures, chiefly velvet. N. lat. 34°. E. long. 50°. COMA. See Como. Coma, in Medicine, a preternatural propenfity to fleep, though the patient frequently does not flvep, or if he docs, awakes without relief. It fleep enfues, the difeafe is called coma fomnolentum ; m this cafe the patient continues in a pro- found fleep, and when awaked, immediately relapfes, without being able to keep open his eyes. If he does not flvep, but is continually awakened with frightful dreams, 1t is called coma vigils in this cate he appears to fleep, having his eyes conttantly fhut. Coa ts produced by debility, by the want of food, exereife, &e. See APpoPLExy. i Coma, in Botany, from xoyn, a head of hair, is applied to a leafy crown, whether of the proper leaves of the plant, or of braéteas, rifing above the fructification. In the pine- apple and crown imperial it 1s of the former kind ; 10 /alvia Aorminum, or purple topped clary, of the latter, beinz more- over eleganily culuuicd with pk or purple Sse Co MOSE, Vor. TX. © O} MM Coma aurea, africana frutefcens foliis angnfliffimis trifidis, Burm. See ArHanasta erithmifoiia. Coma africana frutefcens, foliis inferioribus incifis, Comm. See AtHanasia dentata. ’ Coma africana fruticans erice folio, Comm. See Curr- SOCOMA ¢Cularis. Coma africana fruticans, foliis erithmi marini, Comm. See ATHANASIA erithmifolia. Coma africana fruticans folits glaucis ES in extremitalibus trifidis, Comm, See Aruanasia irifarcata. Coma africana fruticans foliis linaria, major, Comm. See CHRYSOCOMA cernua. Coma africana fruticofa omnium maxima, Comm. Sce Artuanasia pubefceus. Coma foliis multifidis glaucts, Burr, parvifolia. Coma Berenices, Berenice’s Hair, in Aflronomy, a modern conftellation of the northern hemifphere ; compofed of un- formed flars between the Lion’s tail and Bootes. This conftellation is {aid to have been formed by Conon, an a{tronomer, in order to confole the queen of Pto'emy Euergetes, for the lofg of alock of her hair, which was ftolen out of the temple of Venus, where fhe had dedicated - it on account of a victory obtained by herhufband. Ricciol. Alm. lib. vi. cap. 4. The ftars in the conftellation Coma Berenices, in Tycho’s Catalogue, are 14; in Hevelius’s, 21; and in the Britannic Catalogue, 42. COMACENUS Lacus, in Aacient Geography, the lake of Como, which fee. COMACHIO, in Geography, a {mall town of Italy, the fee of a bifhop, in the Ferrarefe, furrounded by falt marfhes, which render the air infalubrious, and inhabited chiefly by filhermen ; 33 miles S.E. of Ferrara. N, lat. 44° 32’. E. long. 12° 6’. COMACLUM, in Ancient Geograpty, a town of Ve- netia. COMAGENA. See Commacene. COMAGEN, a place of Norica, diftant, according to Antonine?s Itinerary, 24 miles trom mount Cetius. COMANA, atown cf Pontus, feated on the river Iris, towards the mountain of Paryadre, on the fouto. It was famous for a temple of Bellona, The town and territory depended on a pontiff, who, on folemn days, wore a diadem, and poffefled a kind of fovereignty. Venus alfo was wor- fhipped in this city ; her feait was celebrated with great magnificence, and {he had many courtezans. Comana, a town of Alia, in the greater Cappadocia, feated on the river Sarus, in Cataonia, Jt was alto called Chryf, and bere the appellation of Cappadocian. Comana, or Bocana, a town of the ifland of Taprobana, according to Prolemy. Comana, or Commacus, a town of Afia, in Pifidia—Alfo, another town in Phrygia. Ptolemy. Comana, in Geography, a town of South America, in the northern divilion of ‘Terra Firma. It lies on the north- ealternmolt part of the fea-coatt. COMANCHES, or Hisrans, a tribe of Indians in Lauiiana in America, who have no fixed place of relidence, and who have ucither towns nor villages. They are divided into fo many hordes, that they have fearcsly any knowledge of one another. They never continue in the fame place for more thaa a few days, but follow the buffalo, the fleth of which is their priucipal food, Some of them purchale of the Panis or Towiaches, another tribe, corn, beans, and pumpkins; but their number is fo great, that thefe arti les jurouh a fwall quantity of their food. "Their tents are made of See ATHANASIA cOMmM of fins neatly dreffed, and fafhioned in the form of a cone, affording room for a family of 10 or 12 perfons; thofe of the chiefs are capable of accommodating 50 or 60 perfoss. When they pitch their tents, they form regular {treets and f{quares, exhibiting a fort of town fuddenly raifed, as it were by inchantment, and at a fignal for march, they are as {nd- denly ftruck : to every teat are allotted two horfes or mules, one for carrying the tent, and another for removing the poles or flicks, which are neatly made of red cedar; they all travel on horfeback. Their horfes are tied for grazing with a long: halter, and they are fo numerous as to require fre- quent change of place. Dueir horfes are fo managed, as to be remarkably docile and gentle. Jt is their praétice to hunt the buffalo on horleback; and they kill this animal with the bow, or a fharp ftick like a fpear, which they carryintheir hands. They are generally at war with the Spaniards, committing frequent depredation upon the inhabitants of Santa Fé and St. Antoine; but they have been always friendly and civil to any French or Americans who have been amonglt them. With regard to their per- fons, they are ftrong and athletic, and, in advanced life, cor- pulent. As favages, they are uncommonly clean: the drefs of their women is a long loofe robe, reaching from the chin to the ground, tied round with a fancy fath or girdle, all neatly mede of dreffcd leather, on which they paint figures of different colours and fignifications: the drefs of the men confifts of clofe leather pantaloons, and a hunting fhirt, or frock of the fame. Their continuance in the fame place does not admit of their making any plantation; but the {mall Cayenne pepper grows {pontaneoufly in the country, and with this, together with fome wild herbs and fruits, particu- larly a bean that grows plentifully on a {mall tree, refembling a willow, called Mafketo, the women cook their buffalo beef in a manner that renders it grateful food. They alternately occupy the immenfe {pace of country from the Trinity and Braces, crofling the Red river, to the heads of Arkanfa and Miffouri, to river Grand, and beyond it, about Santa Fé, and over the dividing ridge on the waters of the Wettern Ocean, where, as they fay, they have feen veffels, which they defcribe as fhips, with fails and rigging. Their native language differs from that of any other nation; but they have a mode of making themfelves underitood to all the In- dians by figns. Among them are many Spanifh men and women, who are flaves, and who were made prifoners by them in their youth. : COMANI, ian Ancient Geography, a people of Afia, pro- bably of Scythia, who inhabited the country Comania, men- tioned by Pliny. They were probably the fame with the Comi of Ptolemy, and the Comari and Coamani, placed by Pomponius Mela in the vicinity of the Paropanifians. COMANIA, acountry of Afia, according to Xenophon. See Comant. } Comania, alfo called Daghe/lan, a country in the north- ern part of Turkey in Afia, fouth from Little Tartary, and north from Georgia bounded on the eaft by the Cafpian fea, W. by the Caucafus, N. by Circaffia, and S. by Skirvan. Its inhabitants are known by the name of Comoncks. See DacuesTan. ; COMANNA, an inland country of Africa, on the Slave coaft, bounded on the eaft by Infoko, on the fouth by Lobadde and Ningo, two provinces of Aqu:mboe ; its northern limit is unknown. Little is known of the country, except that its natives bring great quantities of gold to the markets of Akkaradi, a kingdom touching it on the weit, who afterwards carry it to Aboni, and thence to the negroes of the fea-coaft. Beyond Comanna, in regular fucceffion from E. to W, but with unafcertained boundaries to S. and COM N., are the kingdoms of Latabi, Equea, Bonu, firuated far north: Tafa, Quaka, Aboni, Sankug, Agua, and! Achem, all {uppofed to be rch in gold; but more efpe- cially Quaka. COMARCHIOS, in Antiquity, the vame of a particu= lar air, or tune, defizned to be {ung at entertainments. COMARGO, in Geography, a town of North Ame- rica, in New Leon, fituate on the fouth fide of Rio Bravo, which empties itfelf into the gulf of Mexico on the welt fide. COMARIA Promontorium, in Ancient Geography, a maritime place @f India, at the extremity of the penintula, on this fide of the Ganges. Ptol. See CapeComorin. COMARIS, in Lithology, a name given by the Greek writers to the /elenites, or apbro/elene. : ; COMAROIDES, in Botany, alpina argentum; Seguie See PorenTiLea nitida. COMARTCH, in Geography, a river of South Wales, in the county of Brecknoek, which runs into the Yrvony eight miles W. of Builth. COMARUM, in Botany, (Koyapos,, a name given” by Theophraitus to an evergreen tree, {uppefed to be an arbu- tus.) Linn. Gen. 638. Schreb. 869. Wiild. 1004. Gert. (451. Vent. 3. 347. (Pentaphylloides ; Tourn.) Clafs and order, i/ocandria polyeynia. -~ Nat. Ord. Senticofe, Linn. Rofacee, Juff. Vent. Gen. Ch. Cad Perianth one-leafed, tencleft, very large, {preading, coloured, permanent; alternate fegments fmaller, inferior. Cor. Petals five, oblong, acuminate, ins ferted on the calyx, much fmailler. Stam. Filaments about twenty, awl-ihaped, infertedinto the calyx, length of the corolla, permanent; anthers crefcent-fhaped, deciduous. Pift. Germs numerous, roundifh, very {mall, collected into a head; ftyles fimple, fhort, from the infide of the germs fligmas fimple. Peric. none. Seeds naked, ev-n-furfaced 5- attached to a large, egg-fhaped, {pongy, villous, perfilting receptacle. ‘ Eff. Ch. Calyx ten-cleft, inferior. Petals five, lefs than the calyx. Receptacle egg-fhaped, fpongy, villous, per- fitting. Seeds even-furfaced. Sp. C. palufire. Marth cinquefoil. Linn. Sp. Pl. Mart. Willd. Flor. Dan. tab. 636. Lam. Ill. tab. 444. Eng, Bot. tab. 172. (Quinquelfolium rubrum; Bauh. Pin. 326, Pentaphylium paluitre; Cord. Hift. 96. 1. Fragaria, Hall. Helv. n. 1128. Potentilla; Scop. Carn. n. 617.) Root creeping. Stems decumbent at the bafe, cylindrical, leafy, {mooth. Leaves on long petioles, quinate-pinnated 5 leaflets on fhort petioles, oblong, ferrated, hoary underé neath ; ftipules embracing the ftem. //owers dark pursle, fomewhat panicled ; peduncles one-flowered, braétes two, lanceolate ; ftamens, anthers, ftyle, and receptacle, nearly black. A nativeof England, and moft other parts of Eu- rope in boggy ground, and by the fides of ponds. ‘There isa variety with thicker and more villous leaves, but Miller affures us that after one year’s growthin a garden it is not to be diftingutfhed from the common fort. COMARUS Porrus, in Ancient Geography, a name given by Dion Caflius to a port of Epirus, which he places in the gulf of Ambracia, Strabo calls it Comarus Sinusy and makesit a {mail gulf of Epirus. COMAYUAGUA, or Vattapotip, in Geography, a Jarge town of the province 6f Honduras, in Old Mexicos or New Spain, in North America, on a river which falis into the gulf of Honduras. It is the fee of a bithop, and has rich filver mines in its neighbourhood ; go miles S.E. of Truxillo.. E. Jong. 85° 4’. N.Jat. £4° 30% COMB, oe COM COMB, an inftrnment made of horn, ivory, tortoife-fhell, box, or hoily-wood, &c. and ufeful for feparating and ad- jusing the hair, &c. Comp making. Combs are not only made for the purpofe of cleaning the hair, but for ornament: they are fometimes fet with brilliant ftones, pearls, and even Giamonds ; fome again are ftudded with cut ftecl; thefeare of different ihapes, and are ufed to falten up the hair when ladies drefs without caps. Combs may of courfe be had of all prices, from the value of a few pence to almoft any fum. They are generally made of the horns of bullocks or of elephants, and fea-lvorf{ces teeth, and fome are made of tortoife-fhell and ivory, others of box or holly-wood. The horns of bullocks are thus prepared for this manufaétory: the tips are firit fawn off; they are then held in the flame of a wood fire, this is called rozQing, by which they become nearly as foft as leather. White in that flate they are flir open on one fide, and preflcd in a machine between twoiron plates; they are then plunged into a trough of water, from which they come out hard and flat; they are then fawn into lengths, according to the fize wanted. To cut the teeth, each piece is fixed into a tocl called aclaw. The maicer fits on’a triangular fort of a ftool to his work, and under him is placed the claw that holds the horn, ivory, &c. that is to be formed into acomb. ‘lhe teeth are cut with a fine faw, or rather a pair of faws, and they are finifhed with a file. A coarfer file, called a rafp, is ufed to reduce the horn, &c. to a proper thicknefs ; and when they are completely mae, they are polifhed with char- coal and water, and receive their lalk finihh with powder of rotten ftone. The procefs ufed for making ivory combs is nearly the fame as that already deferibed, except that the ivory is firft fawed into chin flices. The belt 1vory comes fiom the ifland of Ceylon and Achen in the Fait Indies, as it pofl:{fes the property of never turning yellow ; it is con- fequently much dearer than any other kind. Torteife-fhell combs are much efteemed; and there are mcthods of {taining horn, fo as to imitate it, of which the following is one: the horn to be dyed is firlt to be preffed into a flat form, and then done over with a pafte, made of two parts of quick-lime and one of litharge, brought into a proper confiltence with foap-ley. This patte mutt be put over all the parts of the horn, except fuch as are proper to be left tran{parent, to give it a nearer refemblance to tortoife- fheil., Tne horn mutt remain in this ftate tll the pafte be quite dry, when it is to be brufhed off. It requires tatle and judgment fo to difpofe the pafte, as to form a varie.y of traniparent parts, of different magnitudes and figures, to look like nature. Some parts fhould alfo be femi-tran{parent, which may be effe€ted by mixing whiting with a part of the pafte. By this means {pots of a reddifh brown wiil be pro- duced, fo as greatly to increafe the beauty ef the work. Horn thus dyed is manufaGtured into combs, and thefe are frequently fold for real torto‘fe-fhell. The wages of jour- neymen in this bufinefs are from 215. to g1s. per week. In Plate XV. of Mechanics is reprefented a machine for eutting combs, for whych Mr. William Bundy, of Pratt Place Camden Town, took out a patent in the year 1796, and the fame is deferibed in the Repertory of Arts. The frame A A, fig. 3 of the machine, is like a common lathe, contain- ing a {pindte, with a crank and fly-wheel, D, upon it, turned by the alternate motion of the treadle, B, which is moved by the workman’s foot; FE is a wheel fixed on the crank fpind!=, carrying a line in its groove, crofling between the cheeks of the lathe, and pafling over the pulley, F, which turns on a centre fixed in the puppet, G; it has two holes in it to receive the horned cateh, a, fy. 2, ferewed on the end of an arbor, 4, about feven inches in length, and half an COM ; inch in diameter; this arbor is mounted between two circular brafs plates, H, I, fig. 1, connected by three pillars, it carries as many circular fteel cutters, or faws, K, fig. 4, as the comb to be cut is to have teeth. M, jig. 5, reprefents another arbor, which is fixed in the frame-plates, fig.1, by its ends; it is triangular, and has a piece of fteel, L, fig. 4 (called a euide), fitted on it between each faw, on the arbor, J. Thefe parts are put together by firft putting the end of the arbor, 4, fig. 2, through the hole in the centre of the frame-plate, I, and {crewing on the catch, @; the end of the arbor, fig. 5. 13 putinto a fquare hole made in the plate, I, to receive it, andis fixed by a ferew; a guide, L, fg. 4, is then put on the arbor, M, clofe againit the thoulder, d; next a cutter, If, is put on the arbor, 4, touching its fhouider, ¢; a piece of iteel plate, N, called a guide-wather, is then put on the arbor, M, and another guide, L, clofe to it; the guide- wafher is a little thicker than the cutter oppofite it, fo that the cutters each turn between two guides without touching them. Thefe being in their places, a {mall wafher, O, Jig. 4, is put on the arbor, 4, and a cutter, then a guide- wather and guide, on the arbor, M, and fo on alternately, till the right number of cutters are put on; the {Jiding fhoulder, f, fig. 2, is then taken, and with the octagonal nut, g, {crewed falt up again{t the Jaft cutter, put on the arbor, 4, this will pinch all the cutters and wafhers between the fhoulders, e and f, and hold them faft. The fame is done to the arbor of the guides , and, laftly, the frame-plate, H, is put on the ends of the pillars, and ferewed falt ; the whole forming the refemblage fhewn in fig. 1. ‘The frame-plates with the arbors, as in fig. 1, are now to be put in their place in the machine, fig. 3, the horns of the catch, a, going into two holes in the pulley, F, and the other end of the arbor, d, into a centre that goes up with a fcrew in the puppet, Q ; the ferews, 4, 4, are defigned to fteady the frame-platcs (which hold the arbor of the guides) again{t the dove-tail, P P, fupported by brackets projecting from the front of the cheeks, fufficiently to let the block, 7, which flides in the dove-tail, and holds the comb, be drawn forwards to give rcom for the hand to put ia or take out the combs clear of the cutter. To the bafe of the dove-tail is ferewed a plate, holding one of the centres for a worm-wheel, 4, whofe axis is made of fteel, and hasits end cut with a deep thread-{crew 5 the ferew-end of this axis works in a centre, fixed to the bafe of the dove-tail, and the block, 7, is cut away to pafs clear over it and the threads of the {crews, without touch- ing them. The worm-wheel, &, is turned by an endlefs fcrew, on the arbor of the wheel, r, which receives its mo- tion from the pulley, ¢, by an endlefs line. The block, i, which holds the comb, movesin the dove-tail, and is to carry the comb towards the cutters while cutting. As the ferew en the axis of the wheel, KX, is to carry the block up in heu of anut; a knife-edge, faftened toa {mall lever, 4, moveable on acertre in the face of the block, is applied to it, and kept down (fo that the knife-edge may take into the threads of the ferew) by a catch fimilar to. the latch of a door, which is releafed by pufhing in a thumb-ftud, and allows the {pring, o, to throw up the lever, /, and difengage the fcrew, fo that the block may be breught forwards in the dove-tail. The piece of ivory intended to be cut into a comb, is put under.a plate, p, and held down by two ferews to the face of the block, which js in the fame’plane with the arbor of the cutters; the workman then puts down the knife-edge, and the catch keeps it fo; he then turns the machine by his foot, and pufhes the block towards the cutters (the comb rrefting clofe on the guides) till the knife-edge take the firtt thread of the {crew, which turns round as before defcribed, and pufhes the block and comb up to the cutters, as far aa O2 the COM the {crew extends, andthe cutters faw the teeth inthe comb; the thumb-Rud is then pufhed in, and the fpring, 0, throws the knife-edge up, fo that the block can be brought back by hand, and the comb taken out. The diltance which the comb projects from the face of the block towards the cutters, and confequently the length of the teeth, is regulated by a flraight edge of metal on the top of the block, 2, under the plate, p, againft which the back of the comb refts; it can be moved parallel to itfelf acrofs the top of the block by two ferews, {which are feen at the upper corners cf the face of the blocks), for combs of longer or thorter teeth. The foindle of the crank has a wheel, R, on it, turning an arbor, 5, by a line, which carries a fet of cutters for pointing the combs. The arbor is fhewn feparately in fig. 6, and a cutter in fig.73 itis made up in the fame manuer as the former one, and fattened by a fcrew, T; the ends of the teeth of the comb are applied to this cutter by hand, firft on one fide, and then on the other, til] the points are made. ‘Vhis is performed to one comb, while the teeth are cutting in an- other. Comp, or Coomb. in Hufbandry, a meafere of corn, con- filing of 2 long ttikes = 4 Winchefter buthels = 16 pecks = 32 dry gallons = 128 dry quarts = 256 dry pints 8601.6 cubic inches 4.97 cubic feet = 1.843621 cubic yards = 37.32142 cubic links: in fome places the befh-1 conta‘ns eight gallons and a quart. Coms, Coomd, or Carnook. of wheat, according to the gth and grit Henry IIT. rath Heary VII., &c., was 256!b. troy = 210.66r4lb. avoirdupoife = 2 ftrikes = 16 pecks = 32 gallons = 256 pints or pounds. Comes, in Oruitholozy, the creft, or red flefhy tuft grow- ing on the head of a cock. Comp, ina /hip, a little piece of timber, fet under the lower part of the beak-head near the middle : it has two holes in it, and fupplies to the fore-tacks, what the cheft- trees do to the main-tacks; that is to bring the main-tacks aboard. Coms, in the Manufa@ure of Tapefiry. See Tapestry. COMB-MARTIN, in Geography, a town of England, onthe north coait of Devonfhire, in the Briftol channel, with a {mail creek for boats; near it are filver-mines, which formerly yielded. a confiderable quantity of ove; 59 miles W. of Bridgewater, and 176 W. of London. COMBA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia Mivor, in the interior of Lycia, and in the vicinity of mount Cragus. Prolemy.—Alfo, a marth of Greece, in Macedonia, near mount Athos, mentioned by Athenzus. ' COMBAHEE, in Geography, a confiderable riverof South Carolina, which enters St. Helena Sound, between Coofa and Athepoo rivers. The ferry of the fame name on this river is diltant £7 miles from Jackfon’s borough; 15 from Pocotaglio, and 52 from Charlettown. ~ COMBAM, or Commu, a town of Hindooftan, in the country of Cuddapah; 65 miles N. of Cuddapah. Com- bam is reckoned 25 coffes from Innaconda, and 32 from Onsole, or ebout 51 geographical miles from the latter. Tavernier calls it Kaman. COMBAMET, a town of Hindooftan, in the country of Golconda; 68 miles E. of Hydrabad. COMBANA, or Nommana, in dactent Geagraphy, a town of Afia, in Carmania, fituated near the fea. CAMBARONES, in Antiquity, the fellow-barons or commonalty of the Cieque-Ports. COMBAT, in a general fenfe, denotes an engagement ; or a difference decided by means of army. Authors fometimes dilinzuifh in an army, between a combat and a battle; the latter exprefiing the general ac- COM tion of the whole army; the former only a particular fkire mifh, or engagement of a fingle part ; fo that the combat is properly a part of a battle. Comsat, in Lazy, or fingle combat, denotes a formal trial, between two champions, of fome doubtful caufe or quarrel, by the fiword or batoons. This form of prqceeding was anciently very frequent, particularly among the barbarous naions in their original fettlements; and obtained, not erly im criminal, but alfo in civil caufes; being built on a prefurption, that God would never grant the vidory but to him who had the belt right. It was originaliy permitted, in order to determine points refpecting the reputation of individuals, but afterwards became much more extenfive. See Duer. The form and ceremony of the combat are deferibed in the grand Coutumier of Normandy. Vhe aceufer, “firtt, {wore to the truth of his accufaticn; the acculed gave him the lie: upon which, each threw down a gage, or pledge of battle; and the parties were committed prifoners to the day of combat. See CHampion. Hiftorians tell us, that Alphonfus, king of Caftile, in the eleventh century, defiring to abolifh the Mofar- bic liturgy, and to introduce the Roman office; the people op- poling it, it was agreed to terminate the difference by combat, and leave the caufe to the decifion of Heaven, One of the earlielt reftritions of this practice that occurs in the hiltory of Europe, is that of Henry I. of England ; which was afterwards followed by an edict of Louis VIE. of France to the fame effe&. Robertfou’s Hii. of Charles V. vol.i. p. 61, &c. and 350, &c. Sve. Compar is alfo ufed for the folemn games of the ancient Greeks and Romans, performed in honour of their gods 3. as the Olympic games, Pythian, Iftthmian, and Nemzaa games; the ludi Aétiaci, Circenfes, &c. which fee in their places, Orympic, IstHm1an, &c. The combats here celebrated, were running, wreflling, oxing, ceflus, &c. The combatants, who were called athlete, prepared themfelves for it from their youth, by conitart exercife, and a very rigid regimen: they only eat certain things, and at certain hours; drank no wine; had no com- merce with women; and both their labour and their reit were regulated. COMBATANT, in Heraldry, termed by the French heralds confronté, when two ammals are borne in coat armour in a fighting pofture, erect on their hind feet, and facing each other. COMBATTANT, in Ornithology, the name given by French writers to the Linnean ¢ringa pugnax, the bird known in this country by the name. of Auffs and Reeves, the fale being called the Ruff, the femase Reeve. Sce- TRINGA pugnax. COMBEAUFONTAINE, a {mall town of France, in the department of Upper Saone, chicf place of a canton, in: the diitri&t of Vefoul. It contains 588 and the canton: 7596 inhabitants, The territory includes 190 kiiometres: and 17 communes. COMBEFIS, Francis, in Biography, a learned French; monk, was born at Guienne, in the year 1605. He purfued his ftudies fiift under the jefuits at Bourdcaux and after— wards at Paris. He devoted himfelf principally to the pur-. fuit of Greek literature, and veas employed in editing new editions of the Greek fathers, for which he received a very: handfome remuneration. He likewife publithed a colle&tion of the lives of different fathers, popes, ard martyrs; fome additions to the ‘“ Bibliotheca Grecorum Patrum,” ia Greek and Latin, in three volumes foho; “ Hitone By- zantiag Scriptores, pot Theophanem,”? undertaken by command a a cOM command of the eclebrated Colbert. He died in 1679 of the ftone, adifeafe to which ftudions and fedentary men are peculiarly liable, Nouv. Diét. Hitt, COMBANY, in Gergraphy, a river of South Wales, in Carmarthenshire, whtch diicharges itfelf into the Loughor, miles N.F. of Lianalthy. COMBER, Tuomas, in Biography, was born at Wef. terham in Kent, in the vear 1645, where he received the rudiments of a jearned education; from thence he was ad- mitted in Sydney college Cambridge. He was remarkable for diligence in his {tudies, and took his degrees of bachelor of arts.in 1662, and of matter of arts in 1666. Some years atter- wards he was created doctor of divinity, probably by a di- ploma from Lambeth. After this he attained to confider- able rank in the church, and was preferred to the precen- torfhip of York, the deanery of Durham, to be chaplain to their majelties, and other pofts of emolument and honour. Dr. Comber mairtained a correfpondence with Tillotfon, Burnet, and other moft eminent divines of the age in which he flourifhed. The excellence of his charaGer, and his zeal for the church of which he was a member, were the caules that led him to that diltinction to which he attained, and which was a fure earneft and pledge of {till greatcr prefer- ment if he had lived, but he died 19 November 1699, in the 55th year of his age, and was:buried at Stonegrave in York- fhire, of which he was rector. He was author of many learned works relating principally to the Common Prayer, aad tothe offices of the Church of England. There was alfo another Dr. Fhomis Comber, born in Suffex, Jan. 1575, who was educated in Trinity college Cambridge, and afterwards made dean of Carlifle. In 1642 he was imprifoned, plundered, and deprived of all his preferments, and died at Cambridge in 1653. He is known as the author of “ An Hittorical Vindication of the Divine Right of Tythes,” 4to. written in anlwer to ‘f Sel- den’s Hiftory of Tythes.”? Biog. Brit. Comper, in Jchthyology, a {pecies of wraffe or old-wife fith, found fometimes on the coaft of Cornwall, and which is defcribed under this name in Ray’s. Synopfis, No. 163. See Lanrus Comber. : COMBER-MERE, in Geography, a lake of England in the county of Chefter, on the borders of Shropthire ; five miles S. of Nantwich. COMBINATION, is properly underftood of an affem- blage of feveral things by two and two; but is more parti. cularly ufed in Mathematics, to denote the variation, or al- ternation of any number of quantities, letters, founds, or the like, inallthe different manners poffible. P. Merfcenne gives us the combination of all the notes and founds in mufic, as far as fixty-four; the fum whereof amounts to ninety figures, or places. The number of poflible combinations of the twenty-four letters of the alphabet, taken firlt two by two, then three by three, &c. according to Mr. Preltet’s calculation, amounts to 139172428888725 2999425 128493402200, The words in the following verfe may be combined a thoufand and twenty-two fevera] ways. Tot tibi funt dotes, virgo, quot fidera calo. F. Truchet, in the Memoirs of the French Academy, fuews, that two fquare pieces, each divided diagonally into two colours, may be arranged and combined fixty-four different ways, fo as to form fo many different kinds of chequer-work, which appears furprifiag enough, when one confiders that two letters, or figures, can only be combined twice. This note may be of ufe to mafons, paviours, &c. See Pavemenz, and CuAnGes.. COM Comnrnation, dofrine of.—Any number of quantities Leing given, together with the number in each combination; to find the number of combinations. One quantity, we obferve, admits of no combination ; two, aand b, of one, viz. ab3 of three, a, 4, c, there are three combinations, viz. ab, ae, bes of fonr, fix, ab, ea, bc, ad, bd. cd; of five, ten, ab, ac, bc, ad, bd, cay ae, be, ce, ce, de. Whence it appears, that the number of combinatiins proceed as, 1, 3, 6, 10, &c. which are triangular numbers, whofe fide differs by unity from the number of given quan- tities, or which are produced by the continual addition of the ordinal feries, 0, 1, 2, 3, 45 5, &c. Hence if the number of things to be combined be g, the fide of the number of com- binations will be g--1 3 and therefore the number of combi- Gu ix go nations ———_ « See TRiaAnGuuiar nun.ber. I 2 ‘ If three quantities are to be combined, and the number In each combination be three, there wil! be only one combi- nation, adc, if a fourth be added, the combinations will be found abc, abd, bcd, acd; if a filth, ten, abc, add, bcd, acd, ae, bde, bee, ace, ade, cdes if a fixth,. twenty, &c. The numbers of combinations, therefore, pro- ceed, as I, 4, 10, 203 i. e. they are the firft pyramidal tri- angular numbers, whofe fides differ by two units fr-m the number of given quantites. See PyramipAaL number. Hence, if the number of given quantities be g, the fide will be g — 2; and therefore, the number of combinations- q—2xXq-'txg-—0o r a 3 Hence is eafily deduced a general rule for determining the number ot combinations in any cafe; for, fuppofe the number of quantities to be combined, g, the exponent of the combination 2, the number of combinations will be ga-atixg—r+2xg-nt+3Xg-2t+4xq—-at+ 5 I 2 3 4 5 &e. till the number to be added'be equal to z. Suppofe, v. gr. the number of quantities to ke combined = 6; the exponent of the combination 4; the number of 6—4+1xX6-4+2x6-44+3x eo:nbinations will be ————— I 2 3 6—4-+ 4=6—3 K6—2x%6—1X6—0. | eee. 6 Saga — ——- = pape XS + L 2 2 4 tae Coroll. If-it be defired to have all the poffible combina- tions of the given quantities beginning with the combinations of the feveral two's, proceedisg to three’s, Sc. there mut —Ixg—-o0 g—2Xq—Itxg-9 9—-3%xX ba ded eg a Se a ea dae 5 2 I z 3 4 —2 —IXg-—o ee BT ke, 2 o 4+ Whence the number of combinations poflible will be ONG Ee CE ed wT ge ee 9 3 I 2 I 2 3 i 2 3 “ip PERG A EK RS ISS LS fee. which is the 2 2 3 4 7) fum of the uncie of the binomial, raifed to the power gs and abridged of the exponent of the power increafed by unity, 7 +1. Wherefore, if 1+ 1 = 2 reprefent the bi- nomiai to which thefe uncie belong, 27—g — 1 is the number of all the poffible combinations. V. gr. If the number of quantities be 5, the number of poflible combina- tions will be 23 — 6 = 32 — 6 = 26, ~ 4 2 Fray 2. 4itlF9 com . Any number of quart ities being given, to find the number of changes and alterations, which iby of 4 ntilies, combined 1a ali the manners pofible, can undergo. Suppofe two quantities, aand J, their variations will be 2; confequently, as each of thofe may be combined, even with itfelf, to thefe there mult be added two variations. The whole number, therefore, will be 2 + 2 = 4. If there were three quantities, and the expenent of the variations were 2, the combination will bez, and the changes 35 to which if the three combinations of each quantity with iiell ga, bb, cc, be a we fhall have the number of changes, 34+3-+3= in like manner it is ele§ if the given quantities were 4, and the exponent 2, the yumber of changes would be JEON AG 105 (BiG KGe In general, if n,n? ee ih quantities 3, and the exponent of variation 33 the number of changes is found, 27 = 33; viz. aaa, aab, aba, baa, abb, aac, aca, caa, abc, bac, bea, ach, cab, cha, acc, cac, cca, bba, bab, bbb, bbc, cbb, bcb» bec, che, ech, ece. After the fame manner, it will appear, if the quantities were 4, and the exponent 3 3 the number of changes would be 64 = 43; and, in general, if the number of quantities the =n, ana the exponent 3, the number of changes will b: 73. By thus proceeding, it will be found ti vat if the number of quantities be #, and the exponent 7, the nua ber of changes will be x"; wherefore, if all the antecedents be added, where the Sepa riante is lefs, the number of ae changes will be found 2" a"! + nt3 + nP4 4 PO nS Rae) ll at length, the number feeeet ee n- leaves 1; becaufe the beginning is from fingle quantitics taken once. Since then the number of voffible changes is in a geo- metrical progrefiion, whofe firft or fmallelt term is n', the n™t hn greatcf x”, and the ratio n; it will be = io 7 changes the Suppofe, v. er. n= 4, the number of poflible Fa 1020 a a aa 340. number of Suppofe, again, n= 24, 2s pa be cans fi poffible changes will Py aa 32009555644406818986777 9§53482726¢0 a a2 Bees 1391724289887 2529994251284934022c0. In fo many various manners, therefore, may the twenty-four letters of the alphabet be varied and combined among themfelves. | Comsination, in Chemiffry, denotes the union of two bodies of different natures, from which anew compound body refults. An acid united with an alkali furn: thes an inftance of combination, See AFFINITY. Comsinations, in Law. Combinations to do unlaw= ful a&ts, are punifhable before the unlawful aéts are execut- ed; this is to prevent the confequences of combination and confpiracies, &c. g Rep. 57. Comaination, in Military Science. One ought to re- gard combination as forming a part of military fcience. A general, who has an enterprize in contemplation, fhonld, ‘before he rifts the execution of it, combine well in his mind all the ideas, that can lead to its fuccefs; and he ovght not always to rely on his own folution of the cafe. But when his ideas on the fubje& are pretty well fixed, he Ahould lay them before the general officers, who are under ‘his orders or command, for ‘their opinion and concurrence. COMBINATORY difillation. See Distitiarion. Comainatory mufice, Mufica combinatoria, that part of amufic which teaches the mauner of combining founds vas com tonfly ; that is, of chasaing their place and figure in dif- ferent mannérs. See Wusic. COMBING of waol, in Commerce, the drawing of woal acrofs the teeth of a kind of card, calculated to difpole it for fpisning. Sse Carpine and Scrispiine. COMBLEAN. Cordage, which ferves for charging and difcharging the pieces of artillery, for mounting them on their cartages, and for raifing other great weights by means of a crane COMBLEMENT pes Fossés, the filling of the ditches. When the befiegers have advanced fo far as to be matters of the covert-way, they exert themfelves by every pcflible means to fill up the ditches by eft. blifhing is them gallenes to put their workmen under cover, in order to be abie to condu& the miner with fecurity to his operations, avd te retrench themfelvés there at the fame time, to Rete them- felves againft the fallies and infults of the b-fieg CO MBLES, in Gengraphy, a town of reds in the department of the Somine, chief place of a canton, in the diitrict of Péronne.* It coritains 1579, and the canton 12,196 inhabitants. The territorial extent is of 155 kilio- metres, and it includes 23 communes, COMBOURG, a {mail town of France, in the depart- ment of Ille'and Vilaine, chief place of a canton, in the ditriG@ of St. Malo, 18 miles S. of St. Malo. The place contains 4170, and the canton 12, 151 ihabitants; the territory ineludes 207 7% kihometres and 10 communes. COMBRAILLE, formerly a fubdivifion of the bithop- ric of Limoges, in France, now a department of Creutle. It was a barony belonzing to the ducal houfe of Orleatis. COMBREA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Greece, fituated to the north of Pallene, on the Thermaic gulf. Byes calls the country in which it lay Crofea, be- tween Lipaxos and Life. COMBRE’E, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Mayne and Loire, and chief place of a canton in the diftri&t of Seavé; 7 miles W. of Segié. COMBRET, a town of mance, in the department of the Aveiron; 8 leagues E..of Alby. \ COMBRE'TUM, in Botany, (the name of a plant in Pliny)" Linn. Gene ays. Schreb. 64'n. Geert: 272, Joff. 320. (Chigomier, Lam. Encyc.) Clafs and order, odandria monogynia. Nat. Ord. Calycanthema, Linn. Onagre, Jaff. Gen.Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, one-leafed, bel!-fhaped, four or five-toothed, caducous. Cor. Petals four er five, egg-fhaped, about the length of the calyx, and placed be- tween its teeth. Stam. Filaments eight or ten, generally very long, inferted into the calyx; anthers egg-fhaped or oblong. Pi/?. Germ inferior, linear; {tyle briftle -fhaped, about the length of the ftamens; fligma acute. eric. none. Seed fingle, with four or age thin. membranous wings. (Cap/ule with four or five wings. Seed linear, {mall, with four or five angles, Lam. Eff. Ch. ricr, corolla four or five-petailed, inferted into the calyx. Stamens generally very long. Sced fingle, with four or five membranous angles, Sp. 1. C. laxum. Linn. Sp. Pl. x. Mart. 1. Lam. 1. Wilds 3. Jacq. Amer. toy. Gert. tab. 136? Aubl. Guian. 1.350. tab. 137? Lam. Iiuft. tab. 282. fig. 1? Lefl. It. 308. Swartz. Obf. 143. (Guara frutiofa, Lefl, It. 248?) “ Flowers oGtandrous; {pikes lax, quite fimple.”? Lam. “ Leaves oppofite ; racemes lax, without bradtes ; calyxes villous within? Willd. A fhrub. Branches cylin drical, climbing, younger ones brachiate. Leaves three inches long or more, petioled, acuminate, fometimes obtule, entire, Calyx risinoar five-toothed, bell-fhaped, fupe- cOoM entire, fnooth: 2owers yellowihh or whitith; in fimple, axillary, and-terminal*{pikes, or rather racemes; ftamens more than an inch long. Avnative of Guiana and the Welt Indies. 2: C. fecundum. Linn. Sp. Pl. 2. Mart. 2. Lam z. Willd. 2. Jacq. Amer. 103. tab. 176. fig. 30. Swartz. Obf. 144. * Flowers oflandrous; {pikes com- pound, paaicle-pinnated.”? Lam. ‘ Leaves oppofite; ra- cemes unilateral, without braétes ; calyces {mooth.” Willd. A. fhrub, or {mall tree, ten or twelve feet high. Branches cylindrical, very long, fupporting themfelves by the neizh- bouring trees and fhrubs. Leaves three or four inches long, on fhort petioles, ovate-oblong, acuminate, entire, fmooth, veined underneath. /owers very numerous, whitifh or yellowifh, in feveral fpikes or racemes, which form a kind of panicle at the fummit of the branches; anthers red. The flowers, and not the racemes, are often unilateral. Lam. A native of South America, in Guiana, and about the neizhbourhood of Carthagena. ‘lhe fynonyms of thefe two fpecies are very confuted and uncertain. Jacquin fuppofes Aublets and Leofling’s plants to be the fame, and to conftitute a third fpecies, 3. C. purpureum. Mart. 3. Willd. 3. Wahl. Symb. iii. 53. (C. coccineum, Lam 3. Ill. tab. 283. fig. 2. Criftaria coccinea, Sonnerat. It. i. 247. tab. r40.) ** Flowers decandrous; fpikes lax, pani- eled.”” Lam. ‘ Leaves oppofite, egg-fhaped, acute ; ra- cemes unilateral, bra€teate; bractes fhorter than the peduricle; flowers decandrous.” Willd. A very fmooth furmentous fhrab, with cylindrical brachiate branches. Leaves three inches long, petioled, quite entire, fomewhat coriaceous. FYowers bright red, in terminal panicled ra- cemes ; bratte folitary, at the bafe of each pedicel brifle- fhaped. A native of the ifland of Madagafcar. 4. C. decandrum. Willd. 4. Roxb. Coroman. i. 45. tab. 59. « Leaves oppofite, oblong, acuminate; racemes lax, braétes longer than the flower ; flowers decandrous, in two rows.” . Flowers white, in panicled racemes; brates lan- ceolate ; flamens alternately fhorter, a little lorger than the corolla. A native of woody mountains in the Ealt Indies. 5. C. alternifolium, Willd. 5. Jacq. Amer. 104. Pid. 53. tab. 260. fig. 27. (C. decandrum, Mart. 4.) “ Leaves alternate ; flowers decandrous.”” A weak climbing fhrub, twenty feet high ;: older branches: prickly. Leaves two or three inches long, oval-oblong, ending in a blunt, chan- nelled, cartilaginous, quite entire, fhintag, petioled. Spikes lax, half a foot long, about ten on one common peduncle, near the end of the Jittle branches, which are often con- tinued weak and leaflefs, fix feet beyond the flowers. Flowers {mall, ufually coming out before the leaves on very fhort pedicels. A native of South America, about Car- thagzena. COMBRONDES, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of Puy de Dome, chief place of a canton, in the dilriG of Riom, containing 1568 ichabitants. The territorial extent is of 125 kiliometres, with a population of 47580 individuals diftributed in 12 communes. COMBS of Bees. See Honey-coms, COMBURENDO Heretico. See Hzretico. - COMBUST, in Afironomy. When a planet is in con- junction with the fun, or not diftant from it above half their difk ; it is faid to be combult, or in combuttion. According to Argol, a planet is combuft or in combu% tion, when not above eight degrees and thirty minutes dif- tant from the fun, either before or after him. COMBUSTA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Gallia Narbonnentis, marked in the Itinerary of Antonine, 0a the route that leads from Narbonae to the paflaze of the Py- renées, . com COMBUSTIO pecunie. the ancient way of trying mixed | and corrupt money, by melting it down, upon payments in- to the Exchequer. In the time of king Henry II. a con- ftitution was made, called the trial by combultion ; the prac- ‘tice of which differed little or nothing from the prefent me- thod of effaying filver. But whether this examination of money by combuiftion was to reduce an equation of money only of fterling, viz. a due proportion of alloy with copper, or to reduce it to pure fine filver, does not appear. Os making the conftitution of trial it was confidered that though the money did anfwer numero et pondere, it might be deficient in value ; becaufe mixed with copper or brafs, &c, Vi'é Lowndes’s Effay upon Coin, p. 5. COMBUSTION, a tire, a burning, denotes the decom- pofition of certain fubftances, which are thereby called com- buitibles; accompanied with heat and light. The procefa cf combuttion, the various phenomena it exhibits, its afto- nifhing effects, its infinite ufes, and its devaftations, have at all times, rendered it the principal object of human attention in allthe various ftares of life. The whole extent of civileconomy, the preparation of food, as well as of almoft all the articles of necefiity and of luxury, moft of the arts of more effential ufe to mankind, fuch as the manufactures of metals, of glafs, of pharmacy, &c. depend almoft entirely upon combuition. The inclemencies of the weather, and the difmal darknefs of night, are removed by means of combufion. The moft ac- tive inftruments of deftruétion depend upon combuttion, The greateft {cenes of wonder, admiration, and terror, like the conflagration of towns, and the eruptions of volcanos, are thofe in which combuttion is the fole ator. Whilft the wants and the economy of the multitude, have at all times called forth their induttry in devifing eafy methods of lighting and warming their apartments, of cooking their vigtuais, &c.; the calm contemplations of philofophers have endeavoured to inveftigate the caufe or caufes, the commence- ment, the progrefs, the various intenlity, and the products of combuftion, It is natural to fuppofe that their firft ideas muit have been extremely fanciful and incoherent ; fince the prefent theory, which refts upon the foundation of innume- rable experiments and ftrict reafoning, is valtly different from any fort of hypothefis, which even the wifeit philofopher would have been led to form, without the light of thofe experiments, Th: Grit plaufible theory of combultion was formed by Stahl, an eminent chemift. The ftriking difference between bodies combultible and incombultible ; that is, between bodies that are, and thofe that are not fufceptible of com buftion; induced him to fuppofe that the combuttibles were endowed with a peceliar principal of inflammability, which the incombuftibles had not, and to this f{uppofed princ'ple he gave the name of phiogiffon. According to this fuppoli- tion, when combultibles were heated to a certaia decree, they began to part with this phlogifton, and continued to burn as long as they had phlogifton to lofe; after which, they remained ia a ftate of incombutibility ; hence, in the former ftate, thofe bodies were faid to be phlogitiicated, and in the latter they were faid to be dephlogitticated. With ceitain bodies the combuttion was attended with a feparation of other components, fo that afterwards they could not be brought back to their former flate by the mere addition of phlogifton; but with other bodies, as for inftance, with the metals, the procefles of dephloyiltication and phiogiltication might be repeated without end. Thus, a piece of zinc in the metallic flate was fuppoled to be loaded with phlogilton, therefore, when expoied to a fuf- ficient degree of heat, it would burn, viz. it would part with its phlogifton, and would thereby be reduced into the itate COMBUSTION. flate of » calx, deftitute of phlogiftor, and of the metellic appearance ; but by placiog: this caix in conta& with bodies which contained abundance of phlogilton, in a preper fitua- tion, the calx would thereby be enabled to recover its phlogifton, and with it its metalle {tate aud combultibility. Jt might then be bernt again, and fo forth. This plaufible theory was no fooner made known, than it was eagery adopted by philofophers and chemilts; fo that for a long period it remained the moft prevailing theory of combuttion. But though the theory was univerfally adopted, the exilt- ence of the principle upon which it was eftablifhed could not be proved. ‘There was no exhibiting the phlogiltion by itfelf; and it was merely a fuppolition that a bedy ac- quired or loft its inflammability, accerding as it was com- bined with, or deprived of, its phlogifton. A fuppefition which, on a clofer examination of ta¢is, was found inade- quate to the explanation of the comcomitant phenomena. For inftance, when a piece of zinc (and {uch was alfo the cafe with other combultibles as far as they might be fub- jected to experiments) of a determinate weight, was burnt and reduced to a calx, the yen of the calx was found to exceed the original weight 6f the zinc. It was, therefore, evident that it’ had acquired fomething ponderable, and this was-utterly repugnant to the philogiitic theory, for by the lofs of phlogifton it ought rather to have ioit part of its original weight. In anfwer to this, a firange idea was fuggelted, namely, that the phlogifton was a prirciple of lightnefs; fo that bodics became lighter by the daa of phlogifton and wice verfé. But this {up- pofition, fo finguiar and fo repugnant to the gene- ral laws of gravitation, was foon abandoned by phi- Jofophers when a variety of decifive experiments, the eoncurrence of recent dilcoveries in other branches of philofophy, a and a {ti& mode of reafoning, introduced a new theory of combuftion, which is both fupported by ac- curate experiments, and fufficient to account for the phe- nomena. Qne of the principal labours in the experimental inveftigation, and the fuli eflablifhment of this new and rational theory, was the uufortunate Lavoifier, to whofe genius, and to whofe perfevering indultry, the {cientific world muit ever think itfelf indebted. In order to render this theory mote eafily underftood by the reader. we fhall prefix the following experiment. ‘Take a glafs veifel of a cylindrical fhaps, having a a ftopple « ~pable of excluding the entrance or exit of any air, and ict the outhde of this veffel be graduated, fo as to divide its capa- Citv into p: ctty fmail portions. Put isto this vefl-l, tuil of commen air, a picce of dry phofphorus of a determinate weight ; clofe the veflel tight, and heat gradually that part of ibin which the piece of phofp shorus flands, by means of the flame of a candle. As foon as the phofphorus has been heated to a certain degree, it takes fire of iticlf, burn- ing with a flame and thick white fmoke; but it foon eeafes to burn. Suffer the veffel to cool, and the fmoke will fall in the form of flakes, if the veff-] and the air con- tained in it were quite dry, otherwife thefe flakes will melt inthe moilture. Is, in this experiment, the veflel be weighed before and after the combuftion, it will be found precifely of the fame weight. When the veicl ig cooled to the actual temperature of the atmofphere. plunge the aperture of it under water, and in that fituation remove the ftopple You will find that the water rifes in it, which fhews that a portion of the air has been deftroyed ur abforbed ; in fhort, it has difppeared. By meafu wring the height of the water rien within the veffel, which 1s Indicated by the graduation en the outlide of it 5 in general, it will be found that about one quarter of the original quantity of air has difappeared ; and the remaining air will be. found unfit for the combutlion of. ph ofphorus or of any other com~ baftible; and is ikewife unfit forthe refpiration of animais, fo that if a bird, amoufe, or any other ‘anicnel be confined in it, death will foonenfue. If the water which hes rufhed into the veffel be examined, it will be found te have con- trated a four tafte indicating that an acid has been gene- rated. Ifthe veffel, initead of being cpened in water be in- verted and opened in quickfilver, then the fakes which in the preceding experiment were ciffulved by the water, will now remain on the furface of the quickfilver. ‘This is the acid of phofphorus, and if it be carefully gathered and weighed, it will be found together with the remaining phof- phorus (if part of it remains unburned), equal to the weight of the original quantity of pbofphorus together with the weight of the air that hasdifappeared. ‘Therefore it is evident that the whole precefs of combutlion confifts in a Seer on of the purelt part of refpirable or atmofphe- rical air; the pure part of it, which is about a quarter of the whole, is decompofed, its bafe is abforbed by the com- bultible, and generally communicates to it acid properties, in confequence of which that portion of the atmofpherical fluid has been calied oxygen gas) from the Greek ; meaning the acidifying pnaciple. ‘The reiore, in combuttion, the decom polition of the oxygen gas is effected by the burning bady, when this body has been heated to a certain degree, which degree varies with the nature of the body. “Le bafe of the oxygen gas is abfo:bed and fixed by the burning body, which has thereby its weight increafed, and its nature changed; whilk the caloric being difengaged, paflcs off in the ftate of fenfib'e heat, and fometim nes with fuch a portion of light as gives the appearance of red cr white heat. Acids in general are formed from the abfcrption of oxygen during combultion. See Cxyern Gas. When the con buition is accompanied with red heat, but not with flame, it is called ignition. But ignition may alfo be applied to incombaftible fr bitances, for thefe may be rendered red or white hot, without fuffering any decom- pofition. When a vapour ariting from the heated body burns over it,itis then called inflammation ; and when the in- flammation 1s rapid and attended with nore, it is called de- tonation. Hi: aving now compendioufly itated the mew thes ory of combultion, it is neceflary to add feveral neccflary remarks re{peling every part of it, which could not be in- termixed with the theory without rendering 1t confufed and lela intelligible. In the tirft place, fince the procefs ef combuftion con- filts ina decompofition of oxygen gas, the generalizing fpi- rit of modern phiiofophy includes every procefs, in which oxygen gas Is decompofed, under the gcueral name of com- buition ; thus, animal Peston in which this gas is dee compofed, its bafe abforbs?, and heat evolved; may be reckoned amongit the proccffes of flow combstlion, , See Ruspixation. The gradual «bforption of oxygen by netallic bodies may alfo be reckoned amongit thofe proe cefles. Since com buftion confitts in a decompoftion of oxyzen gas, it naturally foilows that without oxygen no con buliion con take plece. The oxygen, however, may be contaned in other {ubfances, in conicquence of which thofe fubitances become capable of afliing combuftion. Now there are feven of thefe fubftances, which, from thcir containing exygen, are cailed fupporters of combuition; and thefe are oxygen gas, atmofpheric ait, nitrous exyd, nitric oxyd (which is preeured by digefling copper and mereury in diluted nitrous acid, and colleGing the gas which is extricated}, nitric acid, osygenized mv-- 3 riati¢ COMBUSTION. viatic acid, and hyperoxygenized muriatic acid. See the nature of thofe fub‘tances under the article Gas. It a'fo follows that with a given combuitible, the qnicknefs of the decompofition is proportionate to the fupply of oxygen, which fhews the reafon why a fire is increafed by blowing common air, and much more by blowing oxygen ga¢ upon it. But ceteris paibus with different combullibles, the fire is flrongeft when the combuftb'e has the ftrongett at- traction for oxygen. he flame of hydrogen gas urged by oxygen gas is reckoned to produce the moft intenfe heat. A combuftible body, though expofed to oyxgen, generally requiresto be heated to acertain degree b-fore the combuttion commences, That degree varies with the nature of the body, and the purity of the oxygen; fo much fo that fome of them, though not many, take fire immediately on being ex- pofed to fome of the above-mentioned fupporters of com- buftion in the common temperature of the atmofphere, whilft others muft be heated to a red and even toa white heat, before the decompofition takes place. When the combuttion has once commenced, the heat or caloric, in the form of fenfible heat, which is extricated from the oxygen gas, raifes the temperature of the adjacent parts of the combuttib'e to that degree which is neceflary for its combuftion,and the heat evolved by the burning of this part heats the next and fo on. But this is not the cafe with all forts of combuftibles; far fome there are which muft b- k-pt up at a given high temperature in order to effet their combultion, and a diamond is of this fort. However the nature of combuftibles in this refpe& varies ac- cording to the purity and quantity of oxygen. For inftance, if a flender fteel wire be expofed to the flame of a candle in com- mon a'r, that part of it only will burn, which is ated upon im- mediately by the flame; butif the fame wire be lighted by means of a bit of tinder, and then be plunged in a veffel full of oxygen gas, it will burn fucceffively to the very end, like a flip of paper ; exhibiting a remarkable bright light, and very confiderable heat. Of the fimple bodies of nature, the chemifts reckon three eombultible ones, and two that are incombuttible. The former are fulphur, phofphorus, and hydrogen; and the latter are azote and muriatic acid; but amongit the compound bodies, the combuftibles are much more numerous, Such are oils, acids, and a vait variety of others which being of a fluctuating nature need not be particularly fpecified. A. variety of experiments, which may be found under the article Gas, prove that gaffes owe their elaftic nature to a confiderable quantity of caloric, which muft neceflarily com- bine with their bafe, in order to affume the aerial form. Therefore, when, in confequence of the fuperior affinity of the combuttible for oxygen, the oxygen gas is decompofed, and its bafe condenfed, the caloric, which was neceffary to its aerial form, being fet at liberty, appears in the form of fenfible heat; hence the heat which accompanies combuf- tion is naturally fuppofed to proceed from the oxygen gas ; and the quantity of it varies according to the rapidity of the procefs, fo much fo that in certain proceffes like the de- _ compolition of oxygen effe&ted by metallic fubftances in ¢ommon air, it is not attended with any fenfible degree of heat; for the heat evolved, being very flight, is inflantly dif- fipated among the furrounding bodies. With certain combuitible bodics a peculiar procefs takes place. It is a remarkable flow procefs of fpontaneous combuftion. The body, by attracting oxygen from the at- mofphere, becomes thereby gently heated, in confequence of which its affinity to oxygen is increafed, a greater de- compofition of the latter enfues, more heat is evolved, and thus the procefs is gradually accelerated until flame and Voy, IX. vifible combuftion take place. Such is fometimes the cafe with hay, the faw-dult of certain woods, and various other fubftances. The well known mixture of iron filings and fulphur moiftened with a little water, is an inftance of this fort; for if this mixture be buried a little below the farface of the ground, it will of itfelf, after the lapfe of fewerd hours, burft forth in a ftate of tgnitian. This experiment has been generally called the artificial wlcanc. Though heat in combutlion is derived from the oxypen gas, the derivation of light is net fo evident. It has been for a long time fuppofed that this element allo was one of the components of oxygen gas; but the obfervations made refpeéting the light yielded by fe- veral bodies when they.are flightly heated, or even fpontaneoufly, and that fome of them vield much more hight than others, feem to prove, that light forms a compo- nent principle of molt bodies, and that it is evolved from thecombutftible, It is likely, however, that part of it may be derived from the oxygen alfo. » The foilowing lift of bodies fnbje& to fpontaneous in- flammation is given by profeffor Bartholdi; meaning the in- flammation occafioned by different bodies ating upon each other, without the aid of another body previoufly in a {tate of combuftion, 1. Friétion. Thus pieces of wood rubbed againft each other are thereby inflamed. The belt for this purpofe are box-wood rubbed againft mulberry, or laurel again{t poplar, or againtt ivy, &c. Tt is in confequence of frition that the wheels and axletrees of carriages fometimes take fre, when they are not fufficiently greafed. In turning alfo, picces of wood fometimes take fire. - 2. The aétion of the fun’s rays concentrated by lenfes, or concave reflectors, or even by p'ane reflectors, provided their reflections be thrown upon the fame fpot. See Bury. 1nG-Gla/s, and Rervecrors. : 3. ‘Phe fudden flacking of quicklime has fometimes been known to produce the combuttion of adjacent bodies. 4. The fermentation of animal and vegetable fubftances, Thus great accumulations of hay, turf, or flax, and hemp, heaps of linen rags in paper mills, &c. take fire, provided they are not quite dry ; for without moifture, fermentation and thé confequent evolution of heat cannot take place. 5. The accumulation of animal and vegetable fubitances covered with an oil, efpectally when the oil is of a drying quality. Thus lamp-black mixed with linfeed oil is apt to take fire, andan earth of a brown colour, calied the d/uck wad of Derbyfhire, {prinkied over with a little linfeed oil, takes fire and appears red-hot like burning fmall coal, im about an hour’s time. : 6. There are feveral fubftances, which have the property of inflaming fpontaneoufly, increafed by torrefaction. Coffee, French beans, lentils, &c. are of this nature. . 7. Sulphuraced and dhofphorated hydrogen was. The caufe of fubterraneous fires and volcanoes in general, ts attri- buted to the decompofition of pyrites, or metallic fulphur- ets, buried in the interior of the earth. Thefe pyritons maffes are decompofed by the contaét and concurrence of water and air, and the decompofition is always accompanied with a great extrication of caloric, and a difengagement of a very inflammable gas, called /u/phurated hydrogen gas. This gas iflames at an elevated temperature, and com- municates the inflammation to the fulphur of the pyrites, to the coal and other bituminous matters, which generally ac- company it. 8. Sulphuret and phofphuret of lime and of potaft, formed in the combuttion of feveral vegetables. g. Phofphorus fometimes contained in charcoal. et “ec 1 Lous The lait particu'ars which we need take notice of, con- cerning the thtory of combuttion, are its produéts, But thefe muft not be miftaken for thofe bodies which exifted if certain combutibles, and lave been left-by themfelves when the other components of the combuftible have been fenarated, fuch as earthy particles, &c.. The real products of combuftion are thofe which did not exift before, and thefe, upon a ftri&t examination, will be found to be either water, or an oxyde, or an acid. Water confifts of oxygen and hydrogen. See Warrr. An oxyde is a compound of the combullible with oxygen, but not fuch as to poffefs decided acid properties, (and the procefs is called oxydation), or an acid, which confilts of the acidifiable part of the com- buttible, combined with oxygen fufficiently to give it decided acid properties. © Thus, the combination of carbon and oxygen forms the carbonic acid gas, and this is produced in almoft every combuttion, alfo in refpiration, &c. COMCHE, in Geox ‘y, a town. of Perfia, where the caravans reft in their way from Ifpahan to Ormus. COME, in Biography. See Cosme. -Come. ©The {mail fibres or tails of malt, upon its firft fhooting forth, are thus called. COME-IN. Soldiers are faid to come in as recruits, volunteers, &c. when they come to join any particular corps or ftandard. : *COME-OVER. When men defert from one army and join another oppofed to it, they are faid to come over to theone, which they join or go over to. ~ To come in to, to join, to bring aid or affiftance. To come up with, to overtake. To come up with an enemy, is a military phrafe much made ufe of. Come fopra,‘in the Italian Mufic, literally fignifics as above, and is uled when any foregoing part 1s to be repeated. COMEA, in Ancient Geography, a place of European Myfia, which was an epifcopal fee, called by the council of Nice Comeenjis. » COMED, a people of Scythia, comprifed by Ptolemy under the general name of Sace. COMEDONES, a name given to a f{pecies of worm, with which the children of Mifnia, and fome other countries, are teiribly afflicted; and of which Hofiman, in his se Treatife of Endemial- Difeafes,”? gives this account ; children in the country are frequently feized with a fort of tabes, which fo dettroys their fcfh, that they appear merely like fhadows. The common people generally fuppofe thele children to be-under the influence of witchcraft; but fuch as have inquired more narrowly into the diftemper, have found that it is owing to certain worms, refembling black hairs or cords, lodged under the fkin. When the flin is rubbed with honey, in a bath, or any warm place, they will appear and come out; but when it is contracted by cold, they keep concealed within. See Arrectio bovina, and Dracuncurtn * ‘COMEDY, in its proper fenfe, fignifies an allegorical réprefeniation of fome charaGteriftic tranfaCtion in private life’ The drama, under its various forms, has in all ages and countries been cultivated, not only as a rational and polite amufement, but as a ferious art, alfeGting the moral conduét of men, and influencing the condition of focicty. According to the field it ocenpies, whether the lighter traiis of incidental character, or the important events of life, it affomes the form of tragedy or comedy. The firlt com- mands awe ; the laft excites more pleafureable and exhilarat- invefenfations. ‘The firft exhibits the fallof a hero; the laft conduéts the fortunes of lovers to the goal of marriage, and fers down the eccentricities of every character it “meets with enthe way. If therefore tragedy is more exalted, comedy S COMEDY. comes clofer to the heart, and appeals more powerfully ta, the experience of man. The ftronger paffions, the virtueg,- the crimes, the fufferings of maikind are the theme of the one: our humours, our follies, the effervefcence of youth, or the feverity of years the topics of the other. Terror and pity are the inftruments of pleafure in the firft cafe, but ridicule in the lait. : It is therefore very eafy to difcriminate the: general {pirit and ftrain of comedy from that of tragedy. Neither is it lefs moral or lefs ufeful, when confidered as a fatirical exhibi- tion of human life, with all its improprieties and abfurdities. There is nothing in the nature of thefe compofitions, in either kind, which militates again{t good morals; though a French author endeavoured to affix the imputation of a pro- fane and antichriflian f{pirit on the great Corneilie. The improvement of manners, the regulation of focial intercourfe, the fubjection of vicious conduét to the lath of infamy, are among the beneSts refulting from this fpecies of poetry. Ri- dicule often fucceeds where argument fails. Yet is it a dan- gerous weapon, when unfkilfully wielded. For itis by no means the telt of truth. It may be applied to mifl-ad and fe- duce, in{ftead of reforming ; and the blended colours of ridicule are fometimes more difficult to feparate, than the ftrong lights and fhades of truth and error. Cicero quotes fome lines of a comedy, where love is reprefented as the greateli of the deities. On the ftrength ef this fentiment, he exclaims loudly againft comic poetry as a corrector of morals; con- tending at the {ame time, that the art could not exift, if ithad not vanity or villainy to feed upon. Befides this, it happens too frequently, that the ridicule falls where it is leat deferved. This however is the tault of the writer, and not to be im- puted to the nature cf his fubj-ét. It cepends on the com- batant, whether the fword fhall be drawn in a pood caufe, or in abadone. The fuccefs of tragic reprefentations gave rife to the ancient comedy at Athens. Inthe latter, as well as in the former, the unity of action and fubjeé& is abfolutely reguifite, and thofe of time and place fhould be as nearly as poflible preferved. By this is meant, that the time of action -fhould be reduced to moderate limits, and the piace never changed but with the termination of the a&t. The fcenes of converfation mult be united in a natural fucceffion, and the ftage fhould be perpetually occupied during the continuance of the 2ét. The audience fhould likewife be made to perceive the neceflity of the various perfonages appearing and difap- pearing jult as they do. By thefe means, the imitation is allied to probability, and pleafes in proportion. Probability is indeed more indifpenfibly neceflary in comedy, which defcends to ordinary life, than in tragedy. Nature, whether in the management of the incidents, or the deitnea- tion of charaGer and fentiment, is tie only folid foundation for this {pecies of writing. The feene and fubject of comedy fhould be laid in the country and time, where and when it 1s to be reprefented. The little proprietics or indecorums of charaGer and behaviour vary with the moment, and become unisterelting or unintelligible, except where they are fcen and known in real hfe. ‘The various perfonages in a well managed comedy onght to be diftin@ly-marked, without the aff-ctation of contrafting them by pairs. Ordinary writers may feem to acquire a ftrong light and fhadow by quaint artifices hke thele: but a matter looks no further than real life, and reprefents it as it is. ‘The didtion fhould be eafy, natural, and polifhed, on alevel with the converfation of gentlemen in the higher walks, but above the groffaefs of the vulgar in the lower. Perhaps ‘there is nothing in the art fo difficult, as to fupport a [pirited and happy dialogue. The parade of mifplaced wit has {poled almoft as many comedies as actual dulnefs. The . COM The feat of Bacchus, Safarton on his flage, and Thefpis in his cart, are the humble origin ufually atcribed to the grama, Sufarion reprefented his firlt pieces towards the ear 580 B. C... Thefpis made his firft attempts in tragedy, and afted:his Alceftis in 536 B.C. ‘lhe former attacked the vices and abfurdities of his time; and the latter treated more noble fubje€&is, which he took from hiltory. Sve Drama and ‘THeatre. Comedyhad three ftages among the Greeks. The ancients indulged in the licence, not only of dramatifing aétual and well-known: occurrences, but -of identitying them with living perfons. The name veven.of Socrates was. not withheld from theatrical ridicule ; and _,the . philolopher was among the number of the audience. This licence in procefs of time was interdied by the authoricy of the magiftrates. The players no loager at liberty to fport with real names, contrived mafks to refemble the features of thofe whom they meant toattack : ‘this was the middle comedy. This latter abnfe was fcarcely lefs offenfive than the former; and was at length «prohibited. :Deprived of mafks as well as of names, the new conedy con- dined itfelf within thofe mod-{ and tora! bounds, which -Menander fet to its irregularities in the time of Alexander the Great. On this mode!, Plavtus and Terence formed their ftyle, without taking the trouble of trans‘erring the feene to their own country. This {pecies of entertainment was then fearcely naturalized among the Remans ; and their performances were rather tranflations than. origina's. In the courfe of time, Rome diltinguifhed its comedy, founded on native manners, by the name of Comedia Togata, and that which was borrowed from the Greeks, was diltinguifhed as the Comedia Palliata. Before the introduction of modern comedy, a fpecies of dramatic reprefentation wes in vogue, taken from the tories in the Old and New Tettament, the Martyrdoms of the Saints, and other religious fubjeéts. They were called mytteries: as the myltery or the Play of the Paffion, the myftery of the Aéts of the Apoftles, the myftery of the Apocalypfe, &c. Thefe entertainments were at firft given in the churches, and made a part of the ecclefiaftical cere- monies. Afterwards the mylteries were played on a public flare. On the entrance of Charles VII. into Paris in the year 1437, fcaffolds were erected all along the great ftrect, St. Deny’s, on which were aéted, with fplendid and appropriate decorations, the Annunciation of the Bleffed Virgin, the Nativity, our Lord’s Paffion, his Refurredction, the day of Pentecoft, and the laft Judgment. Inthe year 1486, the chapter of the cathedral at Lyons voted fixty livres to the performers in the myftery of Jefus Chrift’s paffion. About 1540, the fame city exhibited on Sundays and holidays, for the .{pace of three or four years, the greater part of the hiftorical fa&s in the Old and New Tettament, fucceeded by a farce, in the fame mannerasin our theatres. ‘he popular name of the play-houfe was Paradife. 'Thefe facred comedies were much in fafhion in France under Francis I. who patronized them, and attended their reprefentation. One of thofe, which attraéted his approbation, was entitled the myttery of the paffion of our Lord and Saviour Jefus Chrift. Tt is faid in the title page to have been performed “ tri- umphantly at Angiers :’?? and indeed fo it mult have been ; for there were one hundred and forty-one characters in the dramatis perfone. The date of it is 1541. But the abufes to which thefe religious performances gave rife occa- fioned at leneth a very fevere law throughout the kingdom, againft the exhibition of ** Our Lord’s Paffion,”? and other fimilar fubjets. Many of thefe pieces are ftill extant in priit. . ‘ “ E DY, One of the fir® objeAs in modern comedy, is the Spanith theatre, fertile as it has been in dramatic produ@tions. Lopez, de Vega, Guillin, and ‘Calderos, are ‘the priticipal comic writers of Spain. Phe tir of thefe, and the molt cele- brated, is {aid to have written above’a thoufand plays our furprife at their number’ is leflened when we become ac- quainted with their natare- Neither the unities;nor any other rules of dramatic writing-are in any degree obierved. Ore piece often contains the life of a man,ner is the fcene limited “to one quarter of the globe. They are for the molt part tra- gi-comedies, taken from Spanifh biltory ; where war and heroifm are coarfely mixed up with ridicule and buffoonery. Allegorical and mythologiéal chara¢ters, the Pantheon and the facred myfteries, contribute their joist flock .to thefe extravagant and unique performances. Yet are they ‘not without ftrong traits of fenius, and much fplendcur of ima- gination. The charaéters are fonetimes well drawn, and the fituations happy. _ To this writer; more than any other, are the public indebted for that talte for the furprifing, which fo firongly pervades the modern drama. It 1s plain from his’ own apologies, that Lop:z de Vega complied with the whimficai fancies GE his countrymen; and that had he been at liberty to have led the taite of his times, -inftead of following it, his ftories would have ‘been more natural, sbis intrigues more flalfuily entangléd and unravelled, and his charaéters more confitently preferved. The French comic theatre is in genetal an excellent {chool of manners; correét, chafe, and decent. lt may well boat of fuch writers as Regnard, Dufrefny, Dancotrt, and Marivaux ; but Moliere is the glory of their ftage. No writer in any department rofe to a higher reputation, * in the brilliant age of Louis XIV. It may indeed be qutef- tioned, whether any comic writer has ever dppeared with fo many excellencies and fo few defetts. ‘Vice and foily are the only objects of his fatire. Though his chara&ers are often peculiar to his own country and times, the tidicule is applied fo july as fearcely to have loft its force with fo- reigners or with polterity. His mirth is not indulged atthe expence of’ good morals. The “ Mifanthrope,’’’ and « Tartuffe,”? are in verfe; they therefore rife into greater dignity, and aflume the ftyle of elegant fatire. In his profe comédies he is more ludicrous. His excellence confifts more in the ftrength of his charaéters, than in the cenduét of his plots. Heis occafionally too farcical in his profe, and too prolix in his verfe. ‘‘ Tartuffe’”’ in the grave comedy, and his Avare,” inthe lighter, are ufually confidered as his matter-pieces. : Englifh comedy abounds more in original charaGters, than the comedy of any other modern nation. Humour is a leading feature in the character of the people. The free- dom of our government and manners affords a wider {cope to the comic mufe, than fhe is allowed in the defpotic courts of the continent. This boldnefs has, however, too often dege- nerated into a licence almoft bordering on the immorality of the ancient Greek comedy. But this error has, however, been corre¢ted in later times, and the ftage has conformed to the more decent manners of an age which is rapidly difcarding the groffaefs of vice from public view. It now only, remains to give a charatter of fome of our molt eminent comic writers. Shakfpeare decidedly takes the lead in’each department of the drama; but his excellencies are fo univerfally felt and underftood that it would be fuperfluous to enter into a criticifm of his produ€tions. Of Jonfon it will only be he- ceflary to notice a few leading pieces. ‘ Every Man in his Humour” isa play which places this writer fearcely lower thar COMEDY. than the highelt, whether we advert to the variety of its characters or the energy of its compofition, It is to the erecit of the prefeat talte, that it regained poffeffion of the flage, in defiance of its cbfolete allufions, and antiquated garb. ‘Every Man out of his Humour” has much lefs to recommend it than the preceding comedy, though ftrongly marked in point of charaéter. It has undergone the ufual fate of perfonal fatire, to. die with the individuals at whom it glances. © Cvathia’s Revels’? and the “ Poetafter” are chiefly to be remembered, as having been ated by the children of gueen Elizabeth’s chapel; a relic of theatrical entertainment after the mode of its ancient in{titution, when the facred myfleries were reprefented by the choir of the charch or monattery. : Volpone is perhaps the be& of this author’s comedies. "Phe language and- character are wrought up to the higheit finifh, and the poet exhibits an originality of plot, coucep- tion, and execution, which proves that he could throw afide the trammels of the {tudent, and lay claim to the honours of an unindebted thinker, as well as thofe of a fuccefsful imitator. ‘The pi@ures of Volpone and Mofca are finely imagined, and their circumftances molt happily delineated. His “* Epicene” is excceded by few comedies inthe Englith language. If to thele two we add the « Alchymilt,” the merits of which are univerfally allowed, though the objeét of its fatire has given place to other errors and other follies, we fhall form fuch a conftellation of co- mic genius, as will outthine all competition but that of his illuftrious contemporaries. His later pieces, confifting of his “ Bartholomew Fair,’’ ‘* Staple of News,’ ‘ New Inn,”? “ Magnetical Lady,’”? and ‘Tale of a Tub,” rather detra& from his reputation than augment it; and prove, what many other dramatic writers would have done well to eonfider, that faculties devoted to the entertainment of the public will at Jength be exhaulted, without fome fources of repletion from change of f{cene or circumitances. The triumvirate, fuch as was never equalled, before or fince, inthe republic of letters, was completed by John Fletcher, whofe merits are clofely blended with thofe of his affociate Beaumont. His genius rather affimilates with Shak{peare than with Jonfon, to whom he is confeffedly in- ferior in propriety and precifion, while he furpafles him in creative powers and poetical fecundity. The next writer that obtained a large portion of the public favourand attention was Davenant, whofe propentity to poetry is faid to have appeared fufficiently early in life to attra the favcurable notice of Shak{peare, though the great bard died when this young rhymer was only ten ygars old. What is commonly confidered as Davenant’s firtt play was produced in 1629, though he had attempted dramatic ¢ompofition two or three years before. It is not worth while to enumerate the order or titles of his plays and mafques; which were in general well received, and pro- cured his promotion to the laurel, vacant by the death of Jonfon, as areward for the affiduity with which he directed the diverfions of the court, as long as the troubles of the times permitted it to have any. It was to his addrefs, that the people were indebted for the gradual reftoration of the mufes, after an interregnum of feverity and gloom. At firfk he prevailed on men of tafte and learning to counte- nance a hafty fpecies of dramatic melange, which was al- lowed becaufe it was bad, by the ignorant bigots who held the reins of empire, while rational and regular plays were abfolutely prohibited. But he imperceptibly en- larged his fphere of compofition, and after the reftoration 2 obtained the patent of the theatre in Lincoln’s Inn Fields, The ftage is not perhaps more deeply indebted to any mar than to Davenant, for the convenience and aptitude of its arrangements in the manager’s department. Befides many lefs material improvements, it owes to him the introduétion of female performers, and painted fcenery ; and from his revival of ** Macbeth’ and the ‘“* Tempelt”? may be dated that devotion to embellifhment, which has ever fince inun- dated the Englifh tage, and, in the judgment of feverer cri- tics, overwhelmed the fenfe and difcernment of the audience, His irregular entertainments, reforted to in the firtt in~ ftance only as fubftitutes for better things, may indeed be confidered as the root of all that theatrical evil, we fo gravely condemn, but at the fame time fo freely encourage. Yet he had the praife of bringing forward to the public eye {cenery, women, and Betterton. Mallinger was alfo among the fterling fupports of the Enghth drama; of which he may jultly be reputed one of the fathers. His ftyle was rough, manly, and vigorous; he prefled upon his fubje& with a fevere but matterly hand ; his wit was cavftic, and his ferious dialogue, according to its fubject, ftern and impreffive, or natural, eafy, and inte- refting. Daaen did not commence his career as a writer for the theatre, till the thirty-fecond year of his age; but from that period he kept pofleffion of it, and produced eight and twenty dramas, not indeed without competition or cenfure, but with a large fhare of predominant reputation. His firft produétion was the ‘ Wild Gallant;” a comedy, which met with fo indifferent a reception, that had Dryden beena man of fortune, the ftaze had never again been benefited by hisaffitance. He was aflociated with Davenant, in the alteration of the ‘* Tempeft;”? but he acknowledges the invention and writing of the new charaéters chiefly to belong to his colleague. We cannot, however, help contemplating the perfeGtions of Shakfpeare with aftorithment, when we find that two fuch powerful minds could produce little or no addition to the effedt. On the character of his comedies, it will not be difficult to decide. He has, himfelf, acknowledged his inaptitude to that {pecies of compofition ; and certainly his plays in eneral have much Jefs merit than-his other writings. Yet, after all, he has eftablifhed a reputation that will never fade, evenin this branch of poetry ; and his drama of the ‘* Spa- nifh Friar’? may be feleGted, as an inftance of happy coinci- dence and real ingenuity, in the combination of ferious and rifible materials. Indeed the unfitnefs of his comic perform- ances for modern reprefentation arifes more from their ex- treme licentioufnefs and immorality than from any defe& of ower, E The comedies of Otway are defervedly excluded from the reading defk as well as from the ftage, on account of their undifguifed obfcenity. Congreve, at the age of twenty-one, produced the “ Old Bachelor,’’ at the theatre in Drury Lane, to amufe himfelf in a flow recovery froma fit of ficknefs. It received fome requifite touches from the maturer judgment of his friends, and Dryden declared that he had neverdeen fuch a firft play. The “ Double Dealer,”? and * Love for Love”? fucceeded it, at an interval of ayeareach. Five years afterwards his comedy, called the ‘* Way of tne World,” clofed his dra- matic lebours at a time of life, when writers in general are but beginning their career. The indifferent fuccefs of his mafterpiece excited his difguft at the caprices of the public. He never refumed his pen in the fervice of the theatre, ex- cept to write a mafque, called the “ Judgment of siete: an COM and an opera, called ‘Semele,’? which was never repre- fented ; but as his fame refts on his five regular pieces, we may confider him as loft to the ftage, after the unkind re- ception of a play, which has fince vindicated its ftation among the moft brilliant ornaments of the drama. It is on his comedies principally, that Congreve’s reputation fubfilts. Here, all is luminous, all genuine, pointed, and original. His men of fafhion are gentlemen, and even his fops are wits. Congreve is confidered as having lefs humour and lefs of real life, than his illuftrious rivals of the fock. But, furely “ Forefight’? abounds with the richeft humour, and that of adefcription, which, though now anti- quated, was living and current at the time. Indeed it isan un- doubted teftimony to the happy drawing of this character, that though it is only recognized by the modern f{peator ae a picture of the days that are gone by, it never fails to excite rifibility on the ftage in a very powerful degree. The leading feature of Congreve’s genius is wit. Dr. Johnfon fays, that he formed a peculiar idea of comic ex- cellence, which he fuppofed to confit in gay remarks and unexpected anfwers. Now, certainly, in adopting fuch a theory of compofition, he too much narrowed his own fphere. Still, however, no more is to be required of a writer, than what he himfelf undertakes; and Congreve . performed what he undertook with a brilliancy of fuccefs, which, with the exception of Mr. Sheridan, has neither been rivalled nor approached in the revolution of the century that haselapfed. It has been objected, that “ his perfonages are a kind of intelleGtual gladiators; every fentence is to ward or ftrike; the conteft of {martnefs is never inter- mitted.’? This remark is undoubtedly true; yet, when we find Congreve thus formidably cenfured for the exuberance of his wit, it isimpoffible not to feel as the king of Pruffia did, when he wifhed a certain mad commander to bite fome of his generals. Could the licentioufnefs of Congreve’s topics be as eafily jultified as the overflowings of his gaiety, his fame would continue to blaze without danger of eclipfe. But in truth, the offence his mufe occafions to the purer ears of a more moral age, has an unhappy tendency to fhorten his theatri- cal exiftence. The ob{ervation applies equally, if not ina greater degree, to all his witty, but gracelefs contempora- ries ; and it may be remarked on [uch freedoms in general, that they create difgutt and alienation, at leait in fome minds, ina place and on an oceafion, where it fhould be as much an author’s ftudy never to offend any, as occafionally to pleafe all; confequently though they may increafe the num- ber of temporary plaudits, they infect the vitals of a repu- tation, that otherwife might have been immortal, with a principle of early decay. To particularize the merits either of Congreve’s rivals, Wycherly, Farquhar, Vanburgh, &c. or the numerous clafs of writers in the fucceeding ages, who have culti- vated the comedie larmoyante, would exceed the limits of this article. The latter is indeed almoft as obfolcte as the coarfe but flerling wit of king Charles’s days. It has given place to the diftorted portraits and philofophy-run mad of the German fchool ; a tafte from which it is moft devoutly to be withed that the drama may be {peedily refcued. COMENII, in Ancient Geography, a people of Illyria, according to Ptolemy, adjoining to the Daurfiani and Var- dani. COMENITZA, in Geography, a town of European Turkey, in the province of Epire, 52 miles S.W. of Delfino. COMENIUS, Joun Amos, in Biography, a celebrated grammarian and divine, was born in the year 1592, in Mo- ravia. He ftudied at Herborn, and returned to his own cOM country in 1614, and was appointed rector of a college there. In 1618 he became pattor of the church at Fulnec, and was appointed matter of the fchool which had been lately erected. Here he conceived the idea of an improved method of teaching the languages, -but his writings on this fubjec&t were deftroyed in 1621, when the town was taken and plundered by the Spaniards. In 1624 he retired from the perfecutions inflicted upon the Proteftants in Germany, to Lefna, a city of Poland, where he devoted himfelf to the inftruétion of young perfons in the Latin language: here he publifhed in 1631 his ‘* Janua Linguarum referata,”’ a work which obtained for him great reputation, and which was fpeedily tranflated into 12 European languages, and alfo into the Arabic, Turkifh, Perfian and Mogul languages. He was now invited into Sweden to take the charge of the public fchools in that kingdom, which he declined; and having publifhed the ‘* Panfophiz Prodromus,’’ or “ Fore- runner of Univerfal Science,”? he was folicited by the parlig- ment of England to undertake the reformation of the {chools there. He arrived in London Sept. 1641, but owing to the civil wars his propofals were neglected, and he went to Swe- den, and from thence to Elbing in Pruffia, where he em- ployed fix years in perfecting his new method of inftruction, but did not meet with fufficient encouragement to induce him to publifh his thoughts on the fubje&. In 1648 Co Menius was invited to the court of Sigifmund Ragotfki, prince of Tranfylvania, where he lived four years, and pro- pofed regulations for the college of Patak, upon the plan of his Panfophia, from whence he returned to Lefna, and con- tinued there till 1656, when the town was burnt in the war between the Swedes and the Poles. On this occafion he loft all his manufcripts excepting what he had compofed on his Panfophia, and the Apocalypfe. He ficd into Silefia, thence to Brandenburgh, afterwards to Hamburgh, and lattly to Amfterdam, where he continued till his death, which happened in 1671. -At Amiterdam he publifhed his «* New Method of Teaching,’? which added nothing to his reputa- tion, and which the learned Bayle has declared of no worth whatever in the art of inftru@ion. In this opinion he is fanétioned by the concurrent voice of the learned in every fucceeding age to the prefent time. Comenius was not only intent upon the reformation of fcholaftic learning, but he embraced the notions of a {peedily approaching millennium, and pointed out as characters who were to be eminently diinguifhed in fulfilling the prophe- cies, Gultavus Adolphus, Cromwell, and others, who had little claim to the honours of a divine miffion. Succeeding events contributed to diffipate, in fome meafure, the enthu- fialtic notions which he had embraced and cherifhed. By fome of his contemporaries he was charged with having poffefled more knavery than credulity, but of this there feems to be no fatisfa€tory evidence. He publifhed ‘* Com- mentaries on the Apocalypfe,”? fome treatifes on the Soci- nian controverfy, and ‘ Hiltoria Fratrum Bohemorum,”’ in 4to. Nouv. Hilt. Did. Bayle. COMENOLITARI, in Geography, a country of mo- dern Greece, which comprifes the ancient kingdom of Ma- cedonia and Theifalia. COMENSES, in Ancient Geography, a people of Afia Minor, towards Galatia, according to Pliny. Hardouin calls them Chomenfes, deriving their name from Choma, a town fituated in the interior of Lycia. COMERCHIN, in Geography, a town of European Turkey, in the province of Romania; 62 miles E. of Em- boli. COMES Nervi Phrenici, in Anatomy, is a {mall branch of the internal mammary artery. See ARTERIES. Comes, . - Th Comes, in datiquity, See Count, . *, Comus, Narauts, in Biggraphy, was born at Milan in the fixteenth century, and is greatly diftinguifhed for his claffical learning. He tranflated from Greek into Latin the ‘ Deip- ncfophilke of Atheneus,” the ‘ Rhetoric of Hermogenes,” acd he pub.ifhed poems of his own in both thefe languages. In 1581 be publithed a hittory of his own times from r545 to.1572, but his principal work is a fyftem of mythology entitled, .“¢ Mythologie, five Explicationis Fabularum, lib. x.”? It was dedicated to Charles IX. of France. He died in 1589, and on account of his love of allegory and myfticilm he was denominated by Jofeph Scaliger “* Homo futilif- fimus.”? Moreri. Comes Domefticorum Eguitum et Peditum: Colonels, of the archers of the body-guard of the Roman emperors. Thofe archers were all of them chofen men of Armenia; and their number. amounted to feven thoufand five hun- dred. COMESSAZZA, in Geography, a river of Italy, which runs into. the Ogio; 9 miles N.JS. of Sabionetta, > COMESSAZZO,.a town of Italy, in the duchy, of Mantua, 34 miles N. of Sabionetta. COMESUS, a Jake of America, in the ftate of New York; 27 miles S. of the lake. of Ontario. ~ COMET, in Afronomy, a heavenly body,in the planetary region, appearing {uddenly , and again difappearing : and dur- ing the time of its appcarance moving in a proper, though very cecentric orbit, likea planet. Comets, like the planets, Trove in djflerent planes, but the motion of fome of them is direct, and that of others retrograde. Comets, popularly called blazing fiars, have this to diftin- guith them from the other ftars, that they are -ufually at- tended with a long train of light, always oppofite to>the fun, and which is of a fainter luftre, the farther it is from the body, Hence arifes a popu.ar divifion of comets into three kinds, viz. bearded, tailed, and hairy comets ; though in effcG this divifion rather relates to the feveral circum- ftlances of the fame comet, than to the phenomena of f{e- vera, ¢ Thus, when the comet is eaflward of the fun, and moves from it, it is faid to be bearded, becaufe the light precedes it in manner of a beard. When the comet is weftward of the fun, and fets after it, it is faid to be ¢ai/ed, becaufe the train follows. it in manner of a tail. Laftly, when the comet and the fun are diametrically oppofite, (the earth being be- tween them), the train is hid behind the body of the comet, excepting a little that appears around it in form of a bor- der of hair, or coma, whence it is called hairy, and whence the name of comet is. derived. . Comets, nature of—As to the nature of comets, the infrequency of their appearance, together with the feeming irregularities of their phenomena, have left philofophers of ancient, and even more modern times, much in, the dark. Thofe who lived before Ariftotle, accounted for them by fuppofing the heavenly {paces full of an infinite number of ftars ; and many of them too remote, or too {mall, to have ever come under the notice of aftronomers ; thefe invifible ftars they farther fuppofed to move by their own proper motion every way ; finihing their courfes in very unequal times. Now, a comet, according to them, was a vaft heap or aflemblage of thefe little ftars, meeting together, by rea- fon of the inequality of their motions, and uniting isto a vilible mafs;, which mult again difappear, as thofe ftars feparated, and each.proceeding in its courfe. But how thofe ftars fhould thus meet, coalefce, and form a body, which in all pofitions of the fun fhouldrefemble a tail, and again fe- parate, is a myllery. cOM ET. This opinion, therefore, Aviftotle eafily overturned; ful flituting another in its ftead, - According to Ariftetle; co-_ mets were only a kind of tranfient fires or meteors, -conlilt- ing of exhalations raifed to the upper region of the airy-and there {ct on ‘fre; far below the moon’s courfe. But nei- ther is this hypothefis more juft than the other :- for on! this principle, the light of the comet, being independent of the fun, would be difperfed every way alike, without ‘any ap- pearacce of a train; or tail, which is contrary to the phe- nomena. Moreover, they are obferved at the fame time in places on the earth very remote from each other. Befides, the modern aftronomers who. have méafured the diitance between the comets and the earth, find that the comets have no fenfible diurnal parallax ; which could not be, were they not much more remote than the moon,-whofe parallax is {enfible : and yet'as they have a fenfible annual parrallax, they are not fo remote as the fixed ftars. Indeed, there were fome, Pliny tells us, among the ancients, who, ‘* bad juft- er notions ; who took thefe ftars to be perpetual, and be- lieved they moved in their proper orbs; but were never feen, unlefs when left by the fun.” Ariftotle, in-his firfk book of Meteors, mentions this dotrine of ‘the ancient philofo- phers; and obferves, that fome of the Italians,’ called. Py- thagoreans, faid, that a comet is one of the planets, but that they do not appear unlefs after along time, and are feen but for a fhort time, which happens alfo to Mercury. Apollonius Myndius, declared, that he took comets for re= gular ftars; aflircsing alfo, that the comets were reckoned by the Chaldzans among the planets, and to have their pe- riods like them. Healfo ventured to foretel, that one day the periods and laws of their motion would be dfcovered. And more fully Seneca, Queit. Nat. lib. vi, He had himfelf feen at leaft two comets, one in the reign of Clav- dius, the other in that of Nero; befides that which he faw in his youth, a little before-the death of Auguttus, which in one place he calls a comet, and i» another a pro- digy. He intimates that he thought them above the moon, and argues ftrongly againit thofe who imagined that they were meteors elevated into the air by winds, or who held fome other abfurd opinions concerning them. ‘ Iam not of the common opinion,” fays he, ** nor do I take a comet to be a fudden fire, but efteem it among the eternal works of nature.” Quid autem miramur cometas, tam rarum mundé Spedaculum, nondum teneri legibus certis, nec initia illorum Jine{que inrtotefcere, quorum ex ingentibus nec intervallis recurfus eff? Ventet.tempus quo ifta que nunc latent, in lucem dies exe trahat, F longioris evi diligentia. Veniet tempus quo pofleré nofiri tam aperia nos nefciffe mirentur. Erit qui demonftret ali quando, in quibus comete partibus errent 3 cur tam fe dudlia cateris errent, quanti quale/que fint. : This predi€uion we have {cen accomplifhed in our days by the great fir [faac Newton; whofe do€trine concerning them will appear in the fequel of this.article. Seneca re= commended it to aftronomers to keep a catalogue of the comets, in order to be able to determine whether they res turned at certain periods. The authority of Ariftetle, how- ever, long prevailed ; and comets were generally confidered as,meteors, exifting in our atmofphere, till the time of Tycho Brahe. This excellent aftronomer was the firlt among the moderns, who, after diligently obferving the comet of 1577, and finding that it had no fenfible diurnal parallax, affligned it its true placein the planetary regions. (See his book De Cometa, annirg577.) - Although few comcts have approached fo near the earth as to have a diurnal parallax, they afford fufficient indications of an annual parallax ; that is, the revolution of the earth in her orbit caufes their apparent motion to be very es rom, OME TT. from what it would be, if they were viewed from the fun, or any fixed place, Sce the firlt of the phenomena recited in the fequel. ‘This fhews that they are not fo diltant as the fixed ftars, which have no annual parallax ; and, as He- velius obferves, affords a proof of the carth’s revolution round the fun; for, without fuppofing that, thefe motions _ of comets are inexplicable. Tycho was preceded by Kep- Jer, who, in his book ‘* De Cometis,”? concluded from obfervations of the comets which appeared in 1607 and 1618, that comets move freely through the pla- netary orbs, with a motion not much different from a. reGtilineal one; but of what kind he could not precifely determine. He was followed by Hevelius, an accurate obferver of the heavenly bodies, who fonnd, by his own obfervations of two comets that appcared in his time, that they were not fubject to diurnal parallax ; that calculations of their places, mede upon a fuppofition that they moved in ftraight lines, did not agree with their true places; but that their orbits were concave towards the fun; and concluded, that they moved in parabolic trajefories. Hevelius, from a great number of obfervations, propofes it as his opinion, that the comets, like the folar macu!« or {po.s, are formed and condenfed out of the proffer exhala- tions of his body: or that they are generally in the atmof- phere of a planet, and difcharged from it, partly by the rotation of the planet, and then revolved about the fun in a parabola by the force of projection and its tendency to- wards the fun, in the fame manner as a projectile upon the earth’s furface defcribes a parabola. In which notion he agrees nearly with Kepler, who maintains, that comets are generated. in the wther in vaft numbers, like fifhes in the ocean; though they do not ali become vifible ; either be- eaule of their {mallneis, or becaufe they lie a long time under the borizon. . But fir Mfaac Newton has fhewn the fallacy of this hy- pothefis, by proving that the comet of 1680, in its paflage thr ugh the neighbourhood of the fun, would have been difioated, had it confilted of exhalations of the fun and planets: for the heat of the fun, it is ailowed, is as the denfity of his rays, 1.,e. reciprocally as the fquares of the diflances of places from the fun. Wherefore, fince the Giftance of that comet in its perihelion, December the Sth, was obferved to be to the diftance of the earth from the fun, nearly as 6 to 1000; the fun’s heat in the comet at that time, was to his heat with us at midfummer, as 4oo00c0 to 36, or 28000 to I. Andagain, finding by experiment, that the heat of bail- ing water is little more than three times the heat of our dry earth, when expofed to the midfummer’s fun; and aflum- ing the heat of red-hot iron to be about three or four times as great as that of boiling water; he thence concludes, that the heat of the dried earth, or body of the comet in rts pe- nhlion, muft be near 2000 times as great as that of red- hot iron. . Such an immenfe heat once acquired in its perihelion, the eomet muft be a long time in cooling again. The fame au- thor computes, that a globe of red-hot iron, of the dimen- fions of our earth, would fcarce be cool in 50000 years, If then the comet be fuppofed to cool 100 times as talt as red-hot iron; yet fince its heat was 2000 times greater, fup- pofing it of the bignefs of the earth, it would not be cool in a million of years. James Bernouilli, in his “* Sy tema Cometarum,” fuppofes . fome primary planet revolving round the fun in the {pace of four years and one hundred and fifty-feven days; and at - the diftance, from his body, of 2583 femidiameters of the magnus orbis; this planct, he concludes, cither from its vaft diftance, dr {malluefs, to be invifible to us: but, however, to have, at’ various diflances ftom him, feveral fatellites moving round him, and fometimes defcending as low as the orbit of Saturn; and that thefe becoming vi~ fible to us, when in their perigaum, are what we callico- mets. Des Cartes advances another opinion: he conje&tures that comets are only ftars, formerly fixed like the reft, in the heavens; but which becoming by degrees covered with macula, or fpots, and at length wholly robbed of their light, cannot keep the'r: place, but are carried’ off. by the vortices of the circumjecent {tars; and, in «pro- portion to their magnitude and folidity, moved in fuch manner as to be brought nearer the orb of Saturn; and thus coming within reach of the fun’s light, rendered vis fible. : But the vanity of all thefe hypothefes abundantly ap-~ pears from the phenomena of comets; the chief of which we fhail enumerate; as being the telt by which all theories are to be tried. ; Firlt, then, thofe comets which move according to the order of the figns, doall, alittle before they difappear, ei- ther advance flower than ufual, or elfe go retrograde, if the earth be between them and the fun; and more {wiftly, ifthe earth be fituate in’a contrary part. On the other hand, thofe which proceed contrary to the order of the figns, pro- ceed more {wiftly than ufual, if the earth be between them and the fun; and more flowly, or go retrograde, when the earth is in a contrary part. 2. So long as-their velocity is increafed, they move, near- ly, in great circles; but towards the end of their courfe, they deviate from thofe circles ; and as often as the earth. proceeds one way, they go the contrary way. 3. They move in ellipfes, having one of their foci in the centre of the fun aod by radii drawn to the fun, defcribe areas proportionable to the times. 4. ‘Lhe lizht of their bodies, or nuclei, incrzafes in their recefs from the earth toward the fun; and on the contrary, decreafes in their recefs from the fun. 5. Their tails appear the largelt and brightelt, immedi- ately after their tranfit through the region of the fun, or after their perihelion. 6. The tails always decline from a juft oppofition to the fun towards thofe parts which the bodies, or nuclei, pafs over, in their progrefs through their orbits. 7. This declination, ceteris paribus, is the {malleft, when the heads, or nuclei, approach nearett the fun: and is lefs, fil, nearer the nucleus of the comet, than towards the extremi- ty of the tail. 8. The tails are fomewhat brighter, and more diftin€lly defined in their convex than in their concave part. 9. The tails always appear broader at their upper extreme than near the centre of the comet. ro. The tails are always tranfparent, and the fmalleft {tars appear through them. Thefe are the chief phenomena of comets; which it is evident, cannot eafily be reconciled with the wild notions of the ancients, and the weak conjectures of many of the moderns. «“ The comets,” fays fir Ifaac Newton, ‘ are compact, folid, fixed, and durable bodies: in one word, a kind of planets ; which move in very oblique ‘orbits, every way with the greateft freedom; perfevering in their motions, even again{t the courfe and diretion of the planets; and their tail is avery thin flender vapour, emitted-by the head or nucleus of the comet, ignited or heated by the fun,” This COMET. This at once folves all the foregoing phenomena: for, I. * Itis evident, that thefe which proceed according to the erder of the figns, a little before they difappear, mutt move more flowly, or appear retrograde, if the earth be betwixt them and the fun; and {wifter if the earth be in a contrary part. On the contrary,-thole proceeding againft the order of the figns,” &c. For fince this courfe is not among the fixed flars, but among the planets; as the motion of the earth cither confpires with them, or goes againft them; their appearance, with regard to the earth, muft be changed ; and, like the planets, they mut fome- times appear {wifter, fometimes flower, and fometimes re- trograde, 2. * When the comets move the fwifteft, they muft proceed in ftraight lines; but in the end of their courfe, decline,?’ &c. Becaufe, in the end of their courfe, when they recede almoft direGly from the fun, that part of the apparent motion which arifes from the parallax, mutt bear a greater proportion to the whole apparent motion. 3. The comets mu% move in ellipfes, having one of their foci in the centre of the fun.”? Becaufe they do not wander precarioufly from one fictitious vortex to another ; but, making a part of a folar fyftem, return perpetually, and run a conftant round. Hence, their elliptic orbits being very long and eccentric they become invifible, when in that part moit remote frem the fun. From coafidering the curvity of the paths of comets, fir Tfaac concludes, that wher: they difappear, they are much beyond the orb of Jupiter; and that in their periheiion they frequently defcend below the orbit of Mars, and the inferior planets. 4. © The light of their nuclei muft increafe in their rece(s from the fun, and vice verfé.’? Becaufe as they are in the regions of the planets, their accefs toward the fun bears a confiderable proportion to their whole di- ftance. From obfervations of the comet of 1680, fir Ifaac New- ton found, that the vapour in the extremity of the tail, Ja- muary 25th, began to afcend from the head before Decem- ber 11th; and had therefore {pent more than forty-five days in its afcent ; but that all the tail which appeared Decem- ber roth, afcended in the fpace of thofe two days, then jult paft fince its perihelion. The vapour, therefore, at the beginning, when the comet wag near the fun, afcended witha prodigious fwiftnefs; and afterwards continued to alcend with a motion retarded by the gravity of its particles; aed by that afcent increafed the length of the tail; but the tail. ‘not- withftanding its length, confitted almoft wholly of vapours, which had afcended from the time of its perihelion; and the vapour which afcended firft, and compofed the extreme of the tail, did not vanifh till it was too far from the fun to be illuminated by h m, and from us to be vifible. Hence alfo, the tails of comets that are fhorter, do not afcend with a quick and continual motion from the head, and then prefently difappear; but are permanent columns of va- pours and exhalations, gathered from the head, by a very gentle motion, and a great {pace of time; which yet, by participating of that motion of their heads they had at the beginning, continue eafily to move along with their heads through the celeitial regions: whence alfo the vacuity of thofe regions is argued. See Vacuum. 5- ‘ Theirtails mutt appear the largeft and brighteft im- mediately after their tranfit through the region of the fun.” Becaufe, then, their heads being the moft heated, will emit the molt vapours. From the light of the nucleus, or apparent ftar, we infer their vicinity to the earth, and that they are by no means in the region of the fixed ftars, as fome have imagined ; fince, in that cafe, their heads would be no more illu- minated by the fun, than the planets are by the fixed ftars. 6, “ The tails mul ftill decline from a diftin@ oppofition to the fun, towards the parts which the heads pafs over, in their progrefs through their orbits.” Becaufe all fmoke, or vapour, emitted from a body in motion, tends upwards obliquely, ftili receding from that part, towards which the {mokiug body proceeds. 7. * That declination will be ftill the leaf near the nu- cleus of the comet; and when the comet is neareft the fur.”? Becaufe the vapour afcends more {wiftly near the head of the comet, than in the higher extremity of its tail; and when the comet is at a lefs diftance from the fun than when at a greater. 8. * The tail is brighter, and better defined in its cone vex part than in its concave.’? Becaufe the vapour in the- convex part, which goes firlt, being fomewhat nearer and denfer, refleCs the light more copicufly. 9. “ The tail muft appear broader towards the higher extremity of the comet than towards the head.” Bes caufe the vapour in a free fpace is perpetua'ly rarefied and dilated. ro. * The tails muft be tranf{parent.” ing of infinitely thin vapour, &c. Thus accurately does the hypothefis tally to the pheno- mena. Comers, phafes of—The nuclei, which we alfo occafton- ally call the Aeads and bodies of comets, viewed through a telefcope, fhew a very different face from thofe of the fixed ftars, or planets. They are lable to apparent changes, which fir Ifaac Newton afcribes to changes in the atmofphere of comets ; and this opinion was confirm- ed by obfervations of the comet in 1744. Hift. Acad. Scieac. 1744. Sturmius tells us, that, obferving the comet of 1680, with a telefcope, it appeared like a coal dimly glowing, or a rude maf{s of matter illumined with a. dufky fumid light, lefs fer fible at the extremes than in the middle ; rather than as a ftar, which appears with a round dik, and a vivid light. Hevelius obferved of the comet of 1661, that its body was of a ycllowifh colour, very bright, and confpicnous, but without any glittering light: inthe middle was a denfe ruddy nucleus, almoft equal to Jupiter, encompaffed with a much fanter, thinner matter. February sth, its head was fomewhat bigger ard brighter, of a gold colour; but its light more dufky than the relt of the ars: here, the nucleus appeared divided into feveral parts. February 6th, the diil< was leflened; the nuclei ftill exitted, though lefs than before: one of them, on the lower part of the difk, on the left, much derfer and brighter than the reft, its body round, and reprefenting a very lucid little ftar: the nuclei ftill encom- paffed with another kind of matter. February roth, the head fomewhat more obfeure, and the nuclei more confufed, but brighter at top than bottom. February 13, the head diminifhed much, both in magnitude and brightnefs. March ad, its roundnefs a httle impaired, its edges lacerated, &c. March 28th, very pale and exceeding thin; its matter much difperfed; and no diltin@& nucleus at all appearing. Weigelius, who faw the comet of 1664. the moonand a little cloud illumined by the fun at the fame time, obferved, that the moon, through a telefcope, appeared of a continued luminous furface ; but the comet very different; being per- fecily like a little cloud in the horizon illumined by the jun. Becaufe confifte Comes. fun, From thefe obfervations it was, that Hevelius con- cluded comets to be like macule, or {pots formed out of the ’ dolar exhalations. Comets, magnitude of. The eftimates that have been given by Tycho, Hevelius, and fome others, of the magni- tude of comets, are not fuffictently accurate to be depended upon; forit does not appear, that they diftinguifhed between the nucleus and the furrounding atmofphere. ‘Thus Tycho camputes that the true diameter of the comet in 1577, was in proportion to the dmmeter of the earth as 3 is to 14. Hevelius made the diameter of the nucleus of the comet of 1661 and allo that of 1665 at the commencement of their appearances to be lefs than a 1oth part of the diameter of the earth, and from the parallax and apparent magnitude of the head of the comet of 1652 on the roth of Decem- ber, he computed its diameter to be to that of the earth, as 52 to100. By the fame method he found the true diameter of the head of the comet of 1664 tobe at one time 12 femi- diameters of the earth, at another time not much above 5 femi-diameters. The diameter of the atmofphere is often ten or fifteen times as great as that of the nucleus; the for- mer, inthe comet of 1682, was meafured by Flamiteed, and found to be 2’, but the diameter of the nucleus only 11 or 12”. Some comets, from the apparent magnitude and d.f- tance compared, have been judged to be much larger than the moon, and even equal to fome of the primary planets. The diameter of that of 1744, when at the diltance of the fun from us, meafured about 1’, and therefore its diameter muft be about three times the diameter of the earth : another time the diameter of its nucleus was nearly equal to that of Jupiter. Hence it has been conjeGured that fome of the folar echipfes, recorded in hiftory, that cannot be verified by calcu- lation from tables of the fun and moon, have been occa- fioned by the interpofition of comets between the fun and the earth. ‘he ecliples of the fun mentioncd by Herodotus (|. vii. c. 37, and l.ix. c. 10.) have been thus accounted for, and alfo the eclipfe that happened a few days before the death of Augultus, mentioned by Dion: and it is obfervable, that Seneca faw a comet the fame year. Hiftory records fome comets that have appeared as large as the fun, (vid. Seneca, N. Q.1.7. ©. 15); and, therefore, if fuch a comet near its perizee were to come between the fun and our earth, it would eclipfe him fora time. Some have thought that the darknefs which occurred at our Lord’s crucifixion might have been occafioned by a comet then paffing between the earth and the fun. (Hevel, Cometogr. p. 540. Freret, reflexions fur un ancien phenomene celeile au temps d’Ogyges, Mem. de Literature, vol. xix. p. 357). Dr. Herfchel obferved feveral comets which feemed to him tohave no nucleus. The fix comets difcovered by his filter were of this kind, and appeared to be mere collections of vapours condenfed abouta centre. _ Five more were obferved by himfe'f, which were nearly of the fame nature. ‘This circumltance, he fays, ‘* throws a myftery over their def- tination, which feems to place them in the allegorical view of tools, probably defigned for fome falutary purpofes to be wrought by them; and, whether the reforation of what is lo!t to the fun by the emiflion of light may not be one of thefe purpofes, I fhall not prefume to determine. he motion of the comet dfeovered by M. Meffier, June, 1770, plain!y indicated how much its orbit was liable to be changed by the perturbation of the planets, from which, and the little agreement that can be found between tae elements of the orbits of all the comets that have been obferved, it appears clearly that they may be direéted to carry their falutary influence > ee part or the heavens,” Vou.I Comets, Formation of the tails of. Sir aac Newton fhews, that the atmofphere of comets will furnifh vapour fufficient to form their tails : this he argues from that won- derful rarefaGion obferved in ovr air, at a diftance from the earth: a cubic inch of common air, at the diftance of halfthe earth’s diameter, or four thoufand miles, would neceflarily expand itfelf fo far as to filla fpace larger than the whole region of the planets. Since then the coma or atmofphere of a comet, is ten times higher than the furface of the nucleus, counting from the centre thereof; the tail, afcending much higher, mutt neceffarily be immentely rare: fo that it is no wonder the ftars fhould be vifibie through it. Now, the afcent of vapours into the tail of the comet, he fuppofcs occafioned by the rarefaCiion of the matter of the atinofphere at the time of the perihelion. Smoke, it is obferved, afcends the chimney by the impulfe of the air whercin it floats; and air, rarefied by heat, afcends by diminution of its f{pecific gravity, taking up the {moke along with it: why then fhould not the tail of a comet be fuppofed to be raifed after the fame manner by the fun? for the fun beams do not aét on the mediums they pafs through any otherwife than by reflexion and rare- faction. The refleQing particles, then, being warmed by the ation, will agam warm the zther wherewith they are compounded ; and this, rarefied by the heat, will have its {pecific gravity, whereby it before tended to defcend, dimi- mihed by the rarefaction, fo as to afcend, and carry along with it thofe refleQing particles, whereof the tail of the comet is compof-d. This afcent of the vapours willbe promoted by tkeir cir- cular motion round the fun; by means whereof, they will endeavour to recede fromthe fun, while the fun’s atmo- fphere, and the other mattersin the celeftial fpaces, are either at reft, or nearly fo; having no motion but what they receive frem the fun’s circumrotation. Thus are the vapours raifed into the tails of comets in the neighbourhood of the fun, where tke orbits are molt curve; and where the comets, being within the denfer atmofphere of the fun, have their tails of the greatcft length, ‘The tails thus produced, by preferving that motion, and at the fame time gravitating towards the fun, will move round his body in ellipfes, in like manner as their heads ; and, by this means, willeveraccompany, and freely adhere to their heads. In effcét, the yravitation of the vapours to- wards the fun will no more occalion the tails of the comets to forfake their heads, and fall down towards the fur, than the gravitation of their heads will occafion them to fall off from their tails: but by their common gravitation, they will either fall down together to the fun, or be together fuf- pended, or retarded. This gravitation, therefore, does not at all hinder, but that the heads and tails of comets may receive and retain any pofition towards each other, which either the above mentiored caus, or any other, may occafion. The tails, there’ore, fide produced in the peri- helion of comets, will go off along with their heads into re- mote regions ; and either return whenee’ tegether with the comets, after along feries of years; or teh be there lott, and vauith iby little and little, and the comets be left oe ; till at their return, cefcending towards the fun, fome little fhort tails are graduzlly ana flowly produced from the heads; which afterwards, in the perihelion, defcend- ing down into the fun’s atmofphere, will be immenfely increafed. The vapours, when they are thus dilated, rarefied and diffuled CG OOMUEY T. diffufed through all the celefial regions, the fame author obferves, may probably, by little and little, by means of their own gravity, be attracted downto the planets, and become intermingled with their atmofpheres. He adds, that for the confervation of the water, and moif- ture of the planets, comets feem abfolutely requifite; from whofe condenfed vapours and exhalations, all that moifture which is fpent in vegetationsand putrefaétions, and turned into cry earth, &c. may be refupplied and recruited. For all vegetables g grow and increafe wholly from fluids; and, again, as to their grea atclt part, turn, by putrefation, into earth again ; and ‘earthly {lime being perpctually precipitated to the bottom of putrefying liquors. Hence, the quantity of ery earth mult continually increafe, and the moilture of the globe decreafe, and at lait be quite evaporated, if it has rot acontinual fupply from fome part or other of the univerfe. And I fufpect, adds our yreat author, that the fpirit, which makes the finelb, fubtileft, and the beft part of our air, and which is “abfolutely requilite for the life and being of all things, comes principally from the comets. So far are they from portending any hurt or mifchief to us which the natural fears of men are apt to fuggelt from the appearance of any thing that is uncommon and aftonifhing. On this principle, there feems to be fome foundation for the popular opi:noa of prefages from comets; fince the tail of a comet thus intermingled with our atmofphere, may produce changes very fenfible in animal and vegetable bodes. Bat the tranfmutation of water into earth is now juftly expioded : Woodward, Boerhaave, and others, having oblerved that water is only an agent in conveying the nutritious matter to vegetable bodies, and not that matter itfelf. Another ufe which fir Ifaac Newton conjefures comets may be defigned to ferve, is that of recruiting the fan with freth fuel, and repairing the con fumption of his light by the {treams continually fent forth in every direGtion from that lum‘nary. In fupport of this conje eure he obferves, that comets.in their perihelion may fuffer a diminution of their projeGile force, by the refi ance of the folar a’ mofphere ; fo that by degrees their gravitation towards the fun may be fo far increal d, as to precipitate their fall into his body. Thus alfo, fixed ftars which have been gradually watted, may be fupplied with freth fuel, acquire new {plendour, znd be taken for new ftars: of this kind are thofe fixed ttars, which appear on a fudden, or fhine with a furprifing brightnefs at firlt, and afterwards vanith by degrees. . ‘There have been various conjeétures cbont the generation of the tails ofcomets. Apian, Cardan, Tycho Brahe, and fome others, apprehended that they were produced by the {un's rays tran{mitted through the nucleus of the comet, which they fuppofed to be tranfparent, and there refracted as ina lens of ylafs, fo as to ferma beam of hght behind the comet. But thiscannot be the cafe, becau comet’s taildoes not correfpond to fuch arefraftion, and alfo becaufe fuch refracted Ji ght would not be feen by an eye placed fideways to it, Hai fs it fell upon fome refle&ting fub- fiance denfer than the circumambient xther. Kepler fup- pofcd, that the rays of the {un carry away fome of the grofs partsof the comet which reflect the fun’s rays, and give the apovarance of atail. Hevelius thouzht, that the thinneft parts of the atmofphere of a comet are rarefied by the force of the heat, and driven from the fore-part and each fide of the comet towards the parts turned from the fun. Des Cartes accounted for the phenomenon of the tail by the refrac- » tion of hght from the head of the comet to the eye of the {peStetor, If this were the cafe, the plancts and principal fe the figure of a> fixed Rars muft have tails alfo; for their rays pafs throvgh the fame medium before they ‘reach our eyes, as light from the comets does. Mairan fuppofes that the tails are formed ovt of the luminous matter that compof-s the fun’s atmo- fphere, which is fuppofed to extend as far as the orbit of the earth, and to furnifh matter for thofe northern lights called the Aurora Borealis, which fee. M. De la Lande combines this hypothefis with that of Newton above recited. He thinks that part of the vapour which forms them arifcs out of the atmofphere rarefied by heat, and is puthed for- ward by the force of the light ftreaming from the fun ; and alfo that a comet pafling through the fun’s atmo{phere ts drenched therein, and carries away forme of it. Mr. Rown- ing, who is not fatisfied with fir lfaac’s opinion, accounts for the tails of comets in the following manner. It is well known, fays he, that when the hight of the fun pafles through the atmofphere of any body, as the earth, that which paffes on one fide, is by the refraétion thereof made to converge toward that which pafles on the oppofite one; and the convergency is not wholly effected either at the en. trance of the lighti into the atmofphere, or atits going out ; but beginning at its entrance, it icreafes in every point of its progrefs. It isaifo agreed that the atmofpheres of the comets are very large and denfe. He therefore fuppefes that by fuch time as the hght of the fun has pafled through a confiderable part of the atmofphere of a comet, the rays thereof are fo far refracted toward each other, that they then begin fenfibly. to illuminate it, or rather the vapours floating t therein; and fo render that part they have yet to pals through viGible to us: and thatthis portion of the at- mofphere of acomet, thus illuminated, appears to us in form of a beam of the fun’s light, and paffes under the denomi- nation of a comet’s tail. Rowning’s Natural Philofophy, part iv. chap, 11. We have an inquiry into the caufe of the tails of comets, by Mr. Euler, in the Mem. de l’?Acad. de Berlin, tom. il. p. 117 73 feq. He thinks there is a great affinity between thefe tails, the zodiacal light, and the Aurora borealis; and that the common caufe of them all, is the aGtion of the Soni light on the atmofphere of the comets, of the fun, and of the earth. He fuppofes that the impuife of the rays of light on the atmofphere of comets, may drive fome of the finer particles of that atmofphere far beyond i its limits; and that this force of impulfe combined with that of gravity towards the comet, would produce a tail, which would always be in oppefition to the fun, if the comet did not move. But the motion of the comet in its orbit, and about an axis, muit- vary the pofition and figure of the tail, giving it a curva- ture, and deviation from a line drawn fromthe centre of the fun to that of the comet ; and that this deviation wili be greater, asthe orbit of the comet has the greater curvature, and that the motion of the comet is more rapid. It may even happen, that the velocity of the comet, in its perihe- lion, m may be fo great, that the force of the fun’s rays may produce a new tail, before the old one can follow 3 in which cafe the comet might have two cr more tails. The pollibility of this is confirmed by the comet of 1744, which was obferved to have feveral tails while it was in its perihelion. See Aurora Jdorealis, and Zopiacau light. Dr. Hamilton urges feveral obje€tions againft the Newton- ian hypothefis; obfe: erving, that we have no proof of the ex- iftence of a folar atmo{phere ; ; and if we had, that when th comet 1s moving in its per rihelion, 3 in a direction at a angles to the direction of its tall, the vapours which then _arife partaking of the great velocity of the comet, and being alfo {pecifically lighter than the medium in which they move, mutt G OM: Et muft fufera much greater refitance than the denfe body of the comet dees, and therefore ought to be left behind, and would not appear oppofite to the fun ; and afterwards they ought to appear towards the fin. Befides, if the fp!endour of the tails be owing to the reflexion and refra@tion of the fun’s rays, it ought to diminifh the luftre of the ftkars feen through it; which would have their light reflected and re- fra&ted in like manner; and confequently their brightnefs would be diminifhed. He concludes that the tail of a comet is formed of matter which has not the power of refraGing or reflecting the rays of light; but that itis a lucid or felf- fhining fubltance ; and from its fimilarity to the Aurora borealis, produced by the fame caufe, and a proper electrical phenomenon. Dr. Hamilton {upports his opinion by the following arguments. A fpetator, at a diftance from the earth, would fee the Avrora borealis in the form of a tail oppofite to the fun, as the tail of acomet lies. ‘The Au- rora borealis has no effect upon the {tars feen through it, nor has the tail of acomet. ‘The atmofphere is known to abound with eleétric matter, and the appearance of the eleétric matter in vacuo refembles exactly that of the Aurora borealis, which, from its great altitude, may be confidered to bein as perfe&t a vacuum as wecan make. The electric matter in vacuo fuffers the rays of light to pafs through, without being affeéted by them. The tail of a comet does not expand itfelf fideways, nor does the elefiric matter. Hence, he fuppofes the tails of comets, the Aurora borealis, and the eleétric fluid to be the fame kind of matter, As a further confirmation of this opinion it may be added, that - the comet in 1607 appeared to fhoot out the end of its tail. Le P. Cyfat remarked the undulations of the tail of the comet in 1618. Hevelius obferved the fame in the tails of the comets in 1652 and 1661. M. Pingre noticed the fame appearance in the comet of 1769: and thefe are circum- ftances jimilar to the Aurora borealis. Dr. Hamilton con- jectures, that the ufe of the comets may be to bring the electric matter, which continually efcapes from the planets, back into the planetary regions. ‘hefe arguments very much corroborate this hypothefis ; and if it be true, we may further add, that the tails are hollow; for if the electric fluid only proceed in its firft dire€tion and do not diverge fideways, the parts direétly behind the comet will not be filled with it ; and this thinnefs of the tails will account for the appearance of the ftars through them. Dr. Halley feemed inclined to this hypothefis, when he faid, that the ftreams of light in an Aurora borealis fo much refembled the long tails of comets, that at firft fight they might well be taken for fuch: and that this light feems to have a great affinity to that which the effuvia of electric bodies emit in the dark. Phil. Tranf. N° 347. Hamilton’s Philofophical Effays, p. 91, &c. Hevelius particularly informs us, that he obferved the comet of 1665 to caft a fhadow upon the tail, for in the middle of its length there appeared a dark line. Caflini alfo obferved in the tailof the comet of 1680 a darknefs in the middle of the tail ; and the fame appearance was taken notice of by a curious obferver in the tail of the comet of 1744. The lengths of the tails of comets are various, and depend ona variety of circumftances. Longomontanus mentions a comet that in 1618, December the roth, had a tail which appeared under an angle of ro4°: that of 1680 appeared under an angle of 70°, according to fir 1. Newton, and very brilliant: the comet of 1744 had a tail, which at one time appeared to extend 16° from its body ; and which, allowing the fun’s pa- rallax to be 10”, muft have been above 23 millions of miles in length. ‘The diameter of its nucleus was nearly equal to that of Jupiter. The tail of the comet of 1759 appeared, according to M, Pingré, under an angle of go°; but the light was very faint. The length of a. comet’s tail may be thus found. Let S ( Plate 1V- Afironomy. fig. 23.) be the fun, Ethe earth, C the comet, C L the tal when dirc&ed from the fun; then, knowing the place of the comet, we know the angle ECL, EC, andthe angle CEL, theangle under which the tail appears; hence we ind CL the length of the tail. If the tail deviate by any angle LCM, found from obfervation, we fhall then know the angle ECM, with _CE, and the angle CEM, to find CM. M. Fatio has fuggelted that fome of the comets have their nodes fo very near the annual orbit of the earth; that if the earth fhould happen to be found in that part next the node, at the time of a comet’s paffing by ; as the apparent motion of the comet will be incredibly fwift, fo its parallax will become very fenfible; and the proportion thereof to that of the fun will be given: whence fuch tranfits of comets will afford the belt means of determining the diftance of the earth and fun. The comet of 1472, v. gr. had a parallax above twenty times greater than the fun’s: and if that of 1618 had come down in the beginning of March to its defcending node, it would have been much nearer the earth, and its pa- rallax much more notable. But, hitherto, none has threat- ened the earth with a nearer appulfe than that of 1680: for, by calculation, Dr. Halley finds that November 11th, rh. 6min. P.M. that comet was not above one femidiameter of the earth, to the northward of the way of the earth; at which time bad the earth been in that part of its orbit, the comet would have had a parallax, equal to that of the moon: what might have been the confequence of fo near an appulfe, a contact, or, laftly, a fhock of the celeftial bodies ? If the earth had been at this time in that part of her orbit neareft to that node of the comet, through which it pafled, their mutual gravitation muft have caufed a change in the plane of the orbit of the earth, and in the length of our year. Dr. Halley adds, that if fo large a body, with fo ra- pid a motion as that of this comet near its perihelion, were to ftrike againft our earth, a thing by no means impoffible, the fhock might reduce this beautiful frame to its original chaos. Whitton, who, from Flamftced’s meafure of the ap- parent diameter of this comet, concluded its nucleus to be about ten times as big as the moon, or equal toa fourth part of our earth, attributes the univerfal deluge, in the time of Noah, to its near approach. His opinion was, that the earth paffing through the atmofphere of the comet, attraéted from it a confiderable part of the waters of the flood ; that the proximity of the comet raifed a great tide in the fubterraneous waters, fo that the outward cruift of the earth was changed from {pherical to oval ; that this could not be done without making fiffures and cracks init ; that through thefe fiffures the fubterranean waters were forced, in confe- quence of the change of the hollow of the earth into a lefs capacious form ;—that, along with the water thus {queezed up upon the furface of the earth, much {lime or mud would rife; which, together with the grofler parts of the comet’s atmofphere, would, after the fubfiding of the water partly into the fiffures and partly into the lower parts of the earth to form the fea, cover all over to a confiderable depth the antediluvian earth :—and thus he accounts for trees and bones of animals being found at very great depths in the earth. He alfo fuppofed, that before the fall the earth re- volved round the fun in the plane of the ecliptic, keeping always the fame points of its furface towards the fame fixed ftars ; by this means, as every meridian would come to the fun but once in a whole revolution, a day and a year were then the fame: but that a comet ftriking obliquely upon t Q2 earth CAO rye i. earth gave it the diurnal rotation. Moreover, heapprehend- ed, that the antediluvian year confiited of 360 days: but that the additional matter depofited upon the earth from the atmofphere of the comet at the time of the deiuge, fo retarded its revolution round the fun, that it 1s not now performed in lefs than 365 days and about a quarter. The fame comet, he imagined, would probably, by com- ing near the earth after being heated to an immenfe degree in its perihelion, be the inftrumental caufe of that great cataftrophe, the general conflagration, foretold in the Sa- cred Writings, and from ancient tradition, mentioned by heathen writers. See Conrracration, DeiuGe, and Theory of the Eartu. Comets, di/lance of. The analogy betweea the periodi- eal time of the planets, and their diftances from the fun, difcovered by Kepler, takes’ place alfo in che comets. Hence, the mean diftance of a comet from the fun may be found by comparing its period with the time of the earth’s revolution round the fun: thus, the period of the comet that appeared in 1531, 1607, 1682, and 1759, being about 76 years, its mean diftance is found by this pro- portion; as 1 the fquare of one year, the earth’s periodical time, is to 5776 the {quare of 76, the comet’s periodical. time, fo is 1000000 the cube of 100, the earth’s mean diftance from the fun, to 5776000000 the cube of the comet’s mean diftance; the cube root of which is 1794, the mean diftance itfelf, in fuch parts as the mean diftance of the earth contains 100. If the perihelion diftance of this comet 58 be taken from 3588 double the mean diftance, we fhall have the aphelion diftance 3530 of fuch parts as the diltance of the earth contains 100; and this 1s a little more than 35 times the diftance of the earth from the fun. By a like method the aphelion diftance of the comet of 1680 comes out 138 times the meaa diltance of the erth from the fun, fuppofing its period to be 575 years; fo that this comet in its aphelion goes to more than 14 times the diftance from the fun that Saturn does. The limit of a comet’s diftance may be very eafily afcertained from its tail, it being fuppofed to be directed from the fun. Let S (jig. 24.) be the fun, E the earth, E T the line in which the head of the comet appears, E W the line in which the extremity of the tail 1s obferved, and draw S T parallel to E W; then the comet is within the diftance ET; for if the comet were at T, the tail would be directed in a line parallel to EW, and therefore it couid never appear in that line. TE W is known by obfervation, and confequently its equal ETS, together with TES, the angular diftance of the comet from the fun, and ES, to find S T the limit. E.G. On December 21, 1680, the diftance of the comet from the fun was 32° 24’, and length of the tail 70°; hence ST : SE = fin. 92° 24’: fin. 70° :: 4: 7 nearly; confequently the comet’s diftance trom the fun was lefs than # of the earth’s diftance from thefun. Hence fir Ifaac Newton deduced this conclufion, that all comets, whilft they are vifible, are not further diftant from the fun than three times the earth’s diftance from the fun. This muft, however, depend upon the goodnefs of the telefcope, and magnitude of the comet. Vince’s Aftr. vol. i. p. 446. Comets, motion of. If the paths of comets be fuppofed dire&tly parabolical, as- fome have imagined, it would follow, that being impelled toward the fun by a centripetal force, they defcend as from fpaces infinitely diftant; and by their falls acquire fuch a velocity, as that they may again run off into the remoteft regions; {till moving upwards, with fuch a perpetual tendency as never to return. But the frequency of their appearance, and their degree of velocity, which does not exceed what they might acquire by their gravity towards the fun, feem to put it paft doubt that they move, planet-like, in elliptic orbits, though exceedingly eccentric ; and fo return again, though after very long periods. The apparent velocity cf the comet of 1472, as obferved by Regiomontanus, was fuch as to carry it through 40° of a great circle in 24 hours: and that of 1770 was ob- ferved to move through more than 45° in the lalt. 25 hours, G. S. Doérfell, minifter at Plaven in Upper Saxony, made obfervations upon the comet of 1680, and found that its motion might very well be reprefented by a parabola, © having the fun in its focus; but not underftanding the laws by which the motion of a body in a parabola is regulated, he erred confiderably in his parabola, making the pershelion diftance about 12 times greater than it was. This was publifhed five years before the Principia” of Newton, in which this illuftrious author proved that Kepler's law, by which the planctary motions are regulated, was a ne~ ceffary refult of his theory of gravity; whence it immedi« ately followed, that comets were governed by the fame law ; and the obfervations upon them agreed fo accurately with his theory, as to leave no doubt of its truth. Newton, Flamfteed, Halley,and the Engclith aftrcnomers, &c. feem fatisfied of the return of the comets. Caffini, and others of the French, thought it highly probable ; but De la Hire, and others, oppofed it. Thofe on the affirmative fide fuppofe the comets to des {cribe orbits prodigioufly eccentric, infomuch that we can only fee them in a very {mall pert of their revolution: out of this, they are loft in the immenfe fpaces ; hid not only from our eyes, but from our telefcopes. That little part of their crbit near us, M. Caffini, &c. has found to pafs between the orbits of Venus and Mars. For the reafons of the return of comets, M. Caffini gives thefe which follow. 1. In confidering the courfe of the comets, with regard to the fixed ftars, they are found to keep a confiderable time in the arc of a great circle, 7. e a circle whofe plane pafles through the centre of the earth: indeed, they deviate a little from it, chiefly towards the end of their appearance; but this deviation is common to them with the planets. 2. Comets, as well as planets, appear to move fo much the fafter as they are nearer the earth; and when they are at equal deft nces from their perigee, their velocities are nearly the fame. By {ubtra&ting from their motion the apparent inequality of velocity occafioned by their different diftances from the earth, their equal motion might be found: but we fhould not be certain this motion were their true one; becaufe they might have confiderable inequalities, not diitinguifh= able in that {mall part of their orbit vifible to us. It is, indeed, probable, their real motion, as well as that of the planets, is unequal in itielf: and hence we have a reafon why the obfervations made, during the appears ance of a comet, cannot give the juft period of their ree volution. 3. There are no two different planets whofe orbits cut the ecliptic in the fame angle, whofe nodes are in the fame points of the eclipiic, and whofe apparent velocity in their perigee is the fame; confequently, two comets feen at different times, yet agreeing with all thofe three circumftances, can only be one and the fame comet. wind this were the comets of 1577 and 1680 obferved to do; and thofe of 1652 and 16983 not that this exact agrees COMET. agreement, in thefe circumftances, is abfolutely neceflary to determine them the fame comet. M, Caffini finds the moon herfelf trregular in them all: accordingly, he is of opinion, there are feveral which difagree herein, and yet may be accounted the fame. The great objection againft the return of comets, is, the rarity of their appearance, with regard to the number of revolutions affizned to them. In 1702, there was acomet, or rather the tail of one, feen at Rome, which M. Caffini takes to be the {2me with that obferved by Ariftotle, and that fince feen in 1663, which would imply its period to be thirty-four years. Now, it may feem ftrange, that a ftir which has fo fhort a revo- lution, and of confequence fuch frequent returns, fhould be fo feldom feen. —Again, in April, of the &ame year, 1702, a comet was obferved by Meff. Bianchini, and Maraldi, fuppofed by the latter to be the fame with that of 1664, both by reafon of its mot‘on, velocity, and dire€tion. M. de la Hire took it to have fome relation to another he had obferved in 1698, which M. Caffini refers to that of 1652. On this fuppofition, its period appears to be forty-three months; and the number of revolutions between 1652 and 1698, fourteen: but it is hard to fuppofe, that in this age, wherein the heavens are fo narrowly watched, a ftar fhould make fourteen appearances unperceived; efpecially fuch a ftar as this which might appear above a montir together : and of confequence be frequently difengaged from the crepufcula. For this reafon M. Caffini was very referved in maintaining the hypothefis of the return of comets, and only propofed thofe for planets, where the motions are eafy and fimple, and are refolved without ftraining, or allowing many ir- regularities, M. de la Hire propofes one general difficulty againft the whole fyftem of the return of comets, which would feem to hinder any comet from being a planet: and it is this ; that by the difpofition neceffarily given to their courfes, they ought to appear as large at firft as at laft ; and always increafe, till they arrive at their greateft proximity to the earth: or, if they fhould chance not to be obferved, as foon as they become vifible, for want of attention thereto ; at leaft it is impoffible but they mutt frequently fhew them- felves before they have arrived at their full magnitude and brightnefs. But he adds, that none were ever yet obferved till they had arrived at it. But the appearance of a comet in the month of OSober 1723, while at a great diftance, fo as to be too fmall and dim to be viewed without a tclefcope, may ferve to remove this obftacle, and fet the comets, ftill, on the fame footing with the planets. Sir Ifaac Newton fuppofes, that as thofe planets which are neareft the fun, and revolve in the leaft orbits, are the {malieft; fo among the comets, fuch asin their perihelion come nearelt the fun, arethe fmalleft, and revolve in lefler orbits. In order to prove that comets defcribe ellipfes, and not parabolas or hyperbolas, Dr. Halley, in his ‘* Synopfis of the Aitronomy of Comets,” advances the following reafons. «* Fiitherto I have confidered the orbits of comets as ex- a@ly parabolic; upon which fuppofition it would follow, that comets being impelled towards the fun, by a cen- trivetal force, would defcend as from fpaces infinitely diftant; and, by their fo falling acquire fuch a velocity, as that they may again fly off into the remoteft parts of the univerfe, moving upwards with a perpetual tendency, fo as never to return again to the fun. But fince they appear frequently enough, and fince none of them can be found to move with an hyperbolie motion, or a motion “fwifter than whet a comet might acquire by its gravity to the fun, it ishighly probable they rather move in very eccentric elliptic orbits, and make their returns after long periods of time; for fo their number will be determinate, and perhaps not fo very great. Betides, the fpace between the fun and the fixed {tars is fo immenfe, that there is room enough for a comet to revolve, though the period of its revolution be vaitly long. Now the /atus re@um of an cllipfis is to the /atus redum of a parabola, which has the fame diftance in its perihelion, as the diitance in the aphelion, in the ellipfis, 1s to the whole axis of the ellipfis. And the velocities are in a fubduplicate ratio of the fame; wherefore, in very eccentric orbits, the ratio comes very near to a ratio of equality ; and the very {mail difference which happens, on account of the greater velocity in the parabola, 1s eafily compenfated in determining the fituation of theorbit. The principal ufe therefore of the tabie of the elements of their motions, and that indeed which in- duced me to conftrué it, is, that whenever a new comet fhall appear, we may be able to know, by comparing ’to- gether the elements, whether it be any of thofe which has appeared before, and confequently to determine its period, and the axis of its orbit, and to foretel its return. And, indeed, there are many things which make me believe, that the comet which Apian obferved in the year 1531, was the fame with that which Kepler and Longomontanus more accurately deferibed in the yeat 1607; and which I myfelf have feen return, and obferved in the year 1682. All the elements agree, and nothing feems to contradic this: my opinion, befides the inequality of the periodic revo- lutions; which inequality is not fo great neither, as that it may not be owing to phyfical caufes. For the motion of Saturn is fo dilturbed by the reft of the planets, efpecially Jupiter, that the periodic time of the planet is-uncertain, for fome whole days together. How much more therefore will a comet be fubjeét to fuch like errors, which rifes almoft four times higher than Saturn, and whofe velocity, though increafed but a very little, would be fufficient to change its orbit, from an elliptical to a parabolical one. And I am the more confirmed in my opinion of its being the fame; for, in the year 1456, in the fummer-time, a comet was feen pafling retrograde between the earth and the fun, much after the fame manner; which, although nobody made obfervations upon it, yet, from its period, and the manner of its tranfit, Icannot think different from thofe I have juft now mentioned. And fince looking over the hiftories of comets, I find, at an equal interval of time, a comet to have been feen about Eaiter, in the year 1305, which is another double period of 151 years before the former. Hence, I think, I may venture to foretel that it will return again inthe year 1758.”? Dr. Halley computed, levi calamo, as he him(felf informs us, the effe& of Jupiter upon this comet in 1682, and found that it would increafe its periodic time above a year, in confequence of which he predicted its return at the end of the year 1758, or the beginning of 1759. M. Clairaut computed the effects both of Saturn and Jupiter, and found that the former would retard its return in the laft period 100 days, and the latter 511 days; and he determined the time when the comet would come to its perihelion to be in April 15, 1759, obferving that he might err a month, from negleét- ing {mall quantities in the computation. It pafled the perihelion on March 13, within 53 days of the time com. puted. Now if we fuppofe the time ftated by Dr. Halley, to mean the time of its pafling the perihelion, then if we add to that 100 days, arifing from the aon of Saturn which : Cr ORMar Tr which he did not -confider, it will bring it very near to the timerin which it did pafs the perhelion, and prove his computation of the effedt of Jupiter to have been very aceurace. If he mean the time when it would firlt appear, his prediction was very accurate, for it was fir feen on December the r4th, 1758, and his computation of the effects of Jupiter will then be more accurate than could have been expected, corfidering that he made his calcu- lations only by an indire€&t method, and in a manner profefledly not very accurate. Dr. Halley, therefore, had the glory, firtt to foretel the return of a comet, and the event anf{wered remarkably to his prediGtion. He fur- ther obferved, that the a¢lion of Jupiter, in the defcent of the comet towards its perihelion in 1682. would tend to increafe the inclination of its orbit; and accordingly the inclination in 1682 was found to be 22’ greater than in 1607. From the obfervations of M. Meffier upon a comet in 1770, M. Edric Profperin, member of the Royal Academies of Stockholm and Upfal, fhewed, that a para- bolic orbit would not anfwer to its motions, and he re- commended it to aftronomers to feek for the elliptic orbit. This laborious tafk was undertaken by M. Lexell, who has fhewn that anellipfe, in which the periodic time is about years and 7 months, agrees very well with the obfervations. (See Phil. Tranf. for 1779.) As the ellipfes which the comets defcribe are all very eccentric, aftronomers, for the eafe of calculation, fuppofe them to move in parabolic orbits for that part which lies within the reach of obfervation, by which they canvery accurately find the place of the perihelion ef a comet, its diftance from the fun, the inclination of the plane of its orbit to the ecliptic, and the place of the node. But before we can determine the orbit of a comet, from obfervation, it will be neceflary to premife fuch par- ticulars ref{pe€ting the motion of a body ina parabola, as may be requifite for fuch an inveftigation. Accordingly let APM (fig. 25.) bea parabola, S it’s focus, A the vertex, P the piace of the hody, draw PQ perpendicular to AS, and PD perpendicular to the tangent PT, alfo SM perpendicular to AD. Now, by the pro- perty of the parabola, QD is equal to half the latus rec- tum ; hence if AS=1, then QD=2;; alfo the angle PSA =2 PDA; therefore if QD be radius, PQ will be the tangent of PDA, or } PSA; hence to the radius AS, PQ will be twice the tangent of = PSA; therefore-if 2t=PQ, ¢ will be the tangent of (=) half the true anomaly PSA, to the radius AS=1, Alfo, by the property of the parabola, AQ x 4AS=PQ’, hence AQ =?#’; alfo the area AQP=4 #; and asQS=1—/?, the area QPS =/—?; hence the area AS P=t#++#; alfo the area ASM = ¢. Now Jet a and & be the times in which the comet moves from A to M, and from A to P; then, as the areas de- {cribed about S are proportional to the times, a: 6 :: 4: 40+, therefore at + 3at=40. Hence if a, and the true anomaly be given, we have the timeb=1taP+ at. Alfo, becaufea:5:: 4:48 +4, there- fore if the true anomaly, and confequently ¢, be given in different parabolas, the times of defcribing thofe true ano- malies from the perihelions will be in proportion to the times of deferibing 90° from the perihelions. Jf the times a and J be given, the true anomaly may be round from refolving the cubic equation ¢3+4 3/= eb which aoay ‘be done thus. In the right-angled triangle CAB, b (fg. 26.) let AB=1, AC=_, and compute BC; then find two mean proportionals between BC+AC and BC —AC, and their difference is the value of 4 : : h - Take the fluxion of Bul apestee and we have ¢=— x : a . | e . but ¢=14+¢ X &3 hence we get 2¢ i+f°? b — : aa ee ao x col. zt x 4 the variation of the true Te By . anomaly correfponding to any {mall variation 6 of time ex- preffed in decimals of a day, a being expreffed in days. Let SA (fg. 25.) be the mean diltance of the earth from the fun ; then the area of the circle, defcribed with that radius, will be 3.141593 alfo the area AMS = 4, Now the velocity in the parabola : velocity in the circle :: 1; for let Pp (fig. 27.) be an indefinitely {mall arc deferibed by the body, S the place of the fun, SN a line drawn from the focus S, perpendicular to a tanzent to the parabola APD at the point P; then, rit, The velocity u in any point P of the parabola, is as the [quare root of the pa- rameter to the axis, divided by SN: for, the velocity is as the are Pp oru = pP: now, pM being perpendicular to, F S, in the fimilar right-angled triangles P M,PSN, SN: ; _pMx SP SP::pM:pP= SN the fquare of the deferibed fe@tors; therefore R (the para- meter) = p M? x SP’, and.yR=pM x SP; and by a BESS S4 AS SN SN nature of the parabola. 2dly, The velocity u in any point P of the parabola, is to the velocity V of a body running through the cir- cumference of a circle with a ceniral force tending to its centre, the radius being equal to SP, as .f 2:1. For, finceu = x Looe fa So: But the parameter is as fubftitution, p P or wz , fromthe —< AS a u? = 55 on, becaule SN? = SP x 4AS SA (by the property of the Parabola), u*= SPXAS = op But the circle whofe radius is SP, being taken as an cllipfis, its parameter. is = 2S P; and the velocity V 2.5 \P P being uniform, it is every-where as ~-—— ; therefore V V S 2SP 2 : 4 2 = = u 23 V2 3 —— 5 = gpr=¢g confequently x7: V SP? 5p = 2scp Tus) and, therefore; (2) Vi ssa4/s2) 5) w/a le seayaetionne The areas defcribed in the fame time will be in the fame ratio as the velocities, becaufe at A the motion in each orbit being perpendicular to SA, the areas des fcribed will be as the velocities, and it being fo in one cafe, it muft be always fo, becaufe in each orbit refpeCively equal areas are defcribed in equal times. But the times of defcribing any two areas are as the areas dire@tly, and the areas defcribed in the fame time inverfely ; therefore 3-14159 | 4 Jd :: the time of the revolution in ‘ 372 3 a the circle = 365d. 6h. 9’: the time of defcribing A M= rogd. t4h. 46’. 20”. Now as the time of defcribing A M is in a given ratio to the time in the circle, which 3 varies as AS, therefore if r the perihelion diftance us rs) 3 in any other parabola, we have 1* : r?:: 1ogd. 14h. 46’. 207: the time of defcribing go° in that parabola from ~ the perihelion. Hence, knowing the time correfponding to any true anomaly in that parabola whofe pertheliou diftance = 1, we know the time correfponding to the fame true anomaly in any other parabola, becaufe the times COMET times of defcribing go” are as the times correfponding to the fame true anomaly; therefore if n bz the number of days correfponding to any given anomaly in that parabola 3 whofe perihelion diitance is unity, then 2 r? will be the time ¢correfponding to the fame anomaly in that whofe perihe- lion diftance is r; this may be readily found thus. Maulti- ply the log. r by 3 and divide by 2, and to the quotient add the log. n, and the fum will be the log. of the time required. Hence alfo = = therefore if from the log. ¢ we fubtract 2 log. r, it gives the log. x of the number of days corre- {ponding to the fame anomaly in the parabola, whofe perihelion diffance = 1; hence the anomaly will be found from a table which exhibsts the times corre- {ponding to the true anomaly for 200000 days from the perihelion, in that parabola whofe perihelion diltance is unity. This table may be coritru¢ted by the pre- ceding problem, by taking a= 109, 6154, and afluming =, 2, 3: 4, &c. and finding the correfponding values of # Dr. Halley firft conftru&ed a table of this kind. M. de la Caille changed it into a more convenient form, by putting the areas for the times; Mr. Vince has given that which was computed by M. de Lambre. (Sce Vince’s _Atftron, vol. 1. p. 454, &c.) Draw SY perpendicular to the tangent; then SP : SY :: SY : SA, therefore /SP: VSA:: SP: SY: rad. : cof. PSY, or PSA the true anomaly; or S P > SA inrad. = col. 4 true anom. * Hence, if SA =1, anda + x= 5PSA,a—x=pSA, thes: SP i: cof. a+ x: rad. and VSp: 1:: rad. : cof. a— x; hence VS p VS Ps: cof.a-+x : col.a—x. SA Hence SP = ——————, ‘radius’ being unity ; col. + true anom.* ¥ therefore from log. S A fubtra& twice the log. cof. Z true anomaly, and the remainder is the log. of the diftance of the comet from. the fun. : Ere& BD (fig. 28.) perpendicular to A B, take BC= AB, produce AC to E, and draw EDF perpendicular to AE, meeting AT parallel to BD in F, join AD, and draw DG, CH parallel to AB. Then, as EAF = 45°, EA=EF; alfo F G=G D=AB; hence AF = BD+BA, and GH=BD—BA; afo, by fimilar triangles, AFor BD + BA: CD=GH or BD— BA: EPFor EA: ED ::rad\: tan. DAE; but AB ~: BD :: rad. : tan. BAD. from which fubtraQ 45°, and we have BD + BA : BD —BA :: rad. : tan. of that difference. If BD= ./SP,and BA= Vv Sp, then VSP: fp : rad. : tan. BAD =\/ =i hence, to get that angle, take half the difference of the logarithms of SPand Sp, and add ro to the index (becaufe in the log. tangents, the index of log. tan. of 45°, or log. of rad. = 1, is Fo, inftead of 0,) and it gives the log. tangent of the angle; from which take 45°, and we have SP + VS p 2/8 P—V/ Sp :zirad. : tang. of that difference. Hence if we know two radii SP, Sp (jig. 25.) and the angle P Sp between, we can find the two anomalies. For let abe Sof ASP + AS 4, and x be of ASP—AS¢p, then 5 ASP =a-+x, and 1 ASp=a—x; hence Sp: JSP :: cof. a+ x : cof. a—-«x :: (by plane Trig.) cof. a x cof. x — fin. a x fin. x : cof. a x cof. x + fin. a x fin, x, therefore ./SP + Jp: VSP 7 — cof. a — VSp: cof. @ x cof.x: fin. a x fa. x Seat 1. a fin. x 7 ¢ Fi :: cot. @.: tan. x. Now the ratio of the two cof. x firt terms is found from the Jaft article, and as the angle P Sp is given, the value of x will be given, hence we find a, and confequently we know the fum and difference of ASP, ASg@, therefore we know the angles themfelves. If p lie on the other fide of A, then we know a, to find x. Given two dillances SP, Sp from the f cus to the curve of a parabola, and the angle between them, to find the parabola (fg. 29-) With the centres P and p, and radil PS; ps; dcf{cribe two circular arcs r wt, mon, to which draw the tangent avw 4; draw ST perpendicular to ad, and bife@ it in A, and it will be the vertex of the parabo a; hence we may defcribe the parabola. Having the Elements of the Orbit of a Comet, to compat ibs place at any time. The elements of the orbit of a comet are, 1. The time when the comet paffes the perihelion—z. The place of the perihelion.—3. he diilance of the perihelion from the fun, —4. The place of the efcending node.—5. The inclination of the orbit to the ecliptic. From thefe elements, the place at any time may be computed; and, for example, we fhall take that given by M. de la Caille in his Altronomy. The comet in 1739, which was retrograde, paffed its perihelion on June 17, at 10h. 9’ 30” mean time; the place of the perihelion was in 3° 12° 3S’ 40”; the perihelion diftance was 0.67358, the mean diitance of the earth from the fun being unity ; the ef{cending node was in o° 27° 25’ 14”, and the inclination of the orbit 55° 42’ 44”; to compute the place feen from the earth on Augult 17, at 14’ 20” mean time. Let WA V (fg. 32) be the parabolic orbit of the co- met, N the afcending nede, P the place of the comet, T the correfponding place of the earth, and draw P v perpendi- cular to the ecliptic; produce SN, Sv, SP, ST to n, uv, pand the {phere of the tixed flars, and defcribe the great circles np, nu sp ¢ and pu. I. The interval of time from the perihelion to the given time is 61d. 44. 10' 30” = 61.174, whole log. is 1.786557 5 alfo the log. of .67353 is y.825358, 3 of which log. (from the nature of logarithms) is 9.742582. which fubtraét-d from 1.786567 leaves 2.043985, the log. of 110.65%7 days, which, by the table, anfwers to 3° a° 21" 33” the true ano- maly P SA at the given time. If. Subtraét 3° 0° 21’ 38" from 3° 12° 38’ 40" the place of the perihelion, becaufe the comet was retrograde, and had paffed the perihelion, and it leaves 12°17’ 1” for the helio- centric place p of the comet in its orbit. III. The longitude of 2 is 25! 14", alfo pn = 27° nn? 2] 25! 14” — 12°17' 1" = 15° 8 13"5 hence rad. : cof. pnu = 55° 42! 44% 23 tan. pa = 15° 8 13”: tan. un = 9° 30 53 the diftance of the comet from the afcending node, meafured upon the ecliptic. IV. Subtra& this value of wn from the place of the node, and there remains 18° 45! 21’= 9p u the true heliocentric place of the comet reduced to the ecliptic. V. Asrad.: fin. pa = 15° 8! 13":: fin. pnu = 55° 42’ 44’: fin. pu = 12° 27’ 34’ the latitude feen from the fup, which is fouth. VI. The true place T of the earth at the fame time is ro! 24° 34' 36’; hence TS yp = 35° 25’ 24"3 therefore TSp ty Su=TSo=i'z4°10' 45" AlfoTS= 1.0135. VII. By GOMET. VII. By a preceding article, cof. 45° 10' 49" : rad. 207358: SP = 1.350%. VIII. Asirad..: col. PS.o = 12°29’ 34" 2: S P = 1.3557 2 Di Pg 297. IX. In the triangle TS v, we know TS, Sv and the included angle TS v; hence, by plain trignometry, we find the angle ST ov = 77° 33! 384, which fubtracted from 4 24° 3436", the place of the fun, leaves 2‘ 7° 0! 57” 3 for the comet's true geocentric longitude. X. Moreover, as fin. 54° 10’ 45": fin. 77° 33’ 38" 3 3: tan. P So = 12°27’ 94": tan. PT o = 14° 54! 4! the.co- met’s true geocentric latitude. To determine the Orbit of a Comet from Obfervation. Sir I. Newton firft refolyed this problem, which he called Problema longe difficillimum. The orbit of a comet may be computed from three obfervations; but although thefe data be fuflicient, the dire folution of the problem is imprac- ticable. Aftronomers therefore have folved this problem by indirect methods, firft finding an orbit very near to the truth by mechanical and graphical operations, and then, by com- putation, correcting it, until {uch a parabola was found as would fatisfy the obfervations. Mr. Vince therefore begins, by fhewing the methods by which the orbit may be nearly determined; and then explains the manner in which it may be corrected by calculation. M. de la Lande propofes the following mechanical method of finding the orbit nearly. Divide the diffance of the earth from the fun into ten equal parts, and de- icribe ten parabolas whofe perihelion diftances are, 1, 2, 3, &c. of thefe parts, and divide thefe parabolas into days from the perihelion, anfwering to the motion of a body in each. Let S (fg. 31.) be the fun, a, 3, c, the places of the earth at the times of three obfervations of the comet. Then take three geocentric latitudes and longitudes of the comet, and fet off the elongations Saa, 548, Scy, in longitude. * From a, J, c, extend three tise threads am, hn, ep, vertical to aa, 08, cy, making an- gles with them equal to the geocentric latitudes refpeétively. ‘Then take any one of the parabolas, and placing its focus in S apply the edge to the threads, and obferve whether you can make it touch them all, and whether the intervals of time cut off by the threads upon the parabola be equal to the refpective intervals of the obfervations, or very nearly fo: aud if thefe circumftances take place, you have then gotten the true parabola, or very nearly the true one. But if the parabola do not agree, try others, till you fnd one which does agree, or very nearly fo, and you will then have got very nearly the true parabola, whofe inclination, place of the node, and perihelion, are to be determined as accu- rately as poflible from menfuration ; alfo the projection upon the ecliptic. If none of thefe parabolas fhould nearly an- {wer, it fhows, that the perihelion diftance muft be greater than the diltance of the earth from the fun, in which cafe, other parabolas muft be conftruéted; but this does not very often happen, This method will determine the elements very nearly; but it would be extremely troub!efome to conttruét and divide fo many parabolas, if we only wanted to compute the elements of one comet ; for thofe who pur- pofe to make many computations of this kind, it might be worth while to have a fet of parabolas thus divided. T'o avoid this trouble therefore, Mr. Vince propofes to do it in the foliowing manner, by means of one parabola, with- out dividing it. Take a firm board perfectly plane, and fix on paper for the projeG:on; let-a groove be cut near the edge, and five perpendiculars be moveable in it, fo that they may be fixed at any diltances. Let S (fg. 32.) reprefent the fun, and defcribe any number of circles about it. Compute five geo- centric latitudes and Jongitudes of the comet, from which you will have the five elongations of the comet at the times of the refpedtive obfervations. Draw SA,SB,SC,SD, SE, making the auglks ASB, BSC, CSD, DSE, equal to the fun’s motion m the intervals of the obferva- tions; and on any one of the circles, make the angles Saa, SB, Sey, Sdd, See, equal to the refpeStive elongations in longitude, and fix the five perpendiculars, fo that the edge of each may coincide with «, B, y, 3, €. _ From the points a, 5. ¢, d,e, extend threads to the refpective perpen- diculars, making angles with the planz equal to the geocen- tric latitudes of the comet; then fix the focus of the para- bola in S, and apply its edge to the threads, and if it can be made to touch them all, it will be the parabola required, correfponding to the mean diftance Sa of the earth, which we here fuppofe to revolve in a circle, as it will be fuffici- ciently accurate for our purpofe. If the parabola cannot be made to touch all the threads, change the points a, J, cy d,e, to fuch of the other circles as you may judge, from your prefent trial, will be molt likely to fucceed, and try again ; and by a few repctitions you will get fuch a diftance for the earth, that the parabola fhall touch all the threads, in which pofition, find the inclination, obferve the place of the node, and meaiure the perihelion diftance, compared with the earth’s diftance, and you will get very nearly the elements of the orbit. : The next method of approximating to the orbit of a comet, which we fhall explain, is that given by Bofcovich, Let S (fiz. 33-) be the fun, X Z the orbit of the earth, fuppofed to beacircle; ‘I’ the place of the earth at the firft obfervation. and ¢ at the third; draw TC, ¢c to repre- fent the obferved longitudes of the comet; and let L, /,a be the longitudes at the firft, fecond, and third obferva- tions; m and n the geocentric latitudes of the comet at the firft and third obfervations; and ¢, ‘I’, the intervals of time between the firft and fecond, fecond and third obfervations. Affume C for the place of the comet, at the firlt obferva- tion, reduced to the ecliptic; then to determine the point at the third obfervation, fay T x fin.a—/:¢ x fin. /—L =: TC : te, and ¢ wili be nearly the place required 5 (See Bofeov. ‘* Opufcula,” vol. ii. or fir H. Engle- held’s valuable work upon comets, p. 27.) join Ce, and it will reprefent the path of the comet on the eclip- tic, upon this affumptfon. Perpendicular to the eclip- tic draw CK, cé, taking CK: TC:: tan. m: radius, and ch:te::tan.n: radius; join K4, and it will reprefert the orbit of the comet, if the firft affurption be true. Bu- feét Ce in x, and draw xy parallel to C K, and y will bife& KAé; joinyS. Let SX = 1; then if v be the mean velo- city of the earth in its orbit, the velocity of the comet A) ata wees taking therefore v = Tf, compute Sy T : ae and if this be equal to K2, meafured by the VS fcale, the affumed point C was the true point. But if thefe quantities be not equal, aflune a new point for C, in doing which, the error of the firft affumption will direct you which way, from the firlt aflumed point, it muft be taken, and about how far from it; if, for inftance, the com- puted value of K& be greater than the true value, and the lines C K, c 4, are diverging from each other, and receding from the fun, the point C mult be taken further from T, and how much further we muit conjecture from the value of the error, and alfo from hence, that the velocity of the comet diminifhes as it recedes from the fun. Thefe confi- 3 deraticns COME fF. derations will lead us to make a fecond affumption near to the truth. Having thus determined the true points C, c, very nearly, produce cC, £ K to meet at N, join NS, and it will be the line of the nodes. Draw Cr, ¢x perpendicu- lar to SN, and the angles KrC, &xc will meafure the inclination of the orbit. From the two diftances SC, Sc, and the angle between, the parabola may be conftruéted, and applied as in the lalt method, from which the time of pafling the perihelion may be found. Another method by which we may readily get the orbit very nearly, is this. Let S (fg. 34.) be the fun, T, ¢, 7 three places of the earth at the times of the three obferva- tions ; extend three threads Tf, ¢n, zm, in the direétions of the comet, as before direfed. Affume a point y for the place of the comet at the fecond obfervation, and meafure Sy; then if ST = t, and the velocity of the earth V¥2xv Sr let VSy v be reprefented by T's, tz; and upon any ftraight edge v2xTt V2 te Sy VS y apply the point ¢ to y, and, by turning about the edge, try whether you can make the point ¢ fall in Tf, and the point d in xm; if you find this can not be done, the error will di- rect you to affume another diftance ; and bya very few trials you will find the point y where the points c and d will fall in T p,+m. This method is very eafy in prattice, ard fuf- ficiently accurate to obtain a diftance Sy, from which you may begin to compute, in order to find the orbit more cor- reGtly, when the comet is not too near to the fun, as, fays Mr. Vince, I have found by experience. Having determined the parabola nearly, we firft affume fome one quantity as known at the firft and {ccond obferva- tions, and thence compute the place of the comet at thofe times, and alfo the time between; and if that time agree . with the obferved interval, you have got a parabola which agrece with the two firft obfervations; if the times do not agree, alter one of the aflumed quantities, and fee how it then agrees ; and then, by the rule of falfe, you may correct the fuppofition which was altered, and get a parabola which will agree with the two firft obfervations. In like manner, by altering the other affumed quantity, you get another parabola agreeing with the two firft obfervations. Then fee how they agree with the third obfervation, and if they do not, a correétion muft be made by proportion, and the three obfervations will be anfwered. For further particulars we muft refer to Vince’s Aftrono- my, vol. i. p. 428, &c. See alfo An account of the difcoveries concerning comets, with the way to find their orbits, and fome improvements in conftruéting and calcu- lating their places, to which are added new tables, fitted for thefe purpofes ;”” by Thomas Barker, Gent. Lond. 1757. As the comets do not move in parabolas, but in very eccentric ellipfes, it is impoffible to find a parabola agreeing accurately to all the data; it will be fufficient, therefore, when it agrees very nearly. When great accuracy is re- quired, we muft take into confideration the effe& of aber- ration and parallax; the former may be computed in the manner {tated under the article ABegraTion, and the latter by taking the horizontal parallax to that of the fun = 8”,75 as the diltance of the fun is to the diltance of the comet; and then finding the parallax in latitude ard longitude. ‘To afcertain the periodical time of a Comet, and the axes of its Orbit. If comets, after having receded from the lower regions Vou. 1X, be v, the velocity of the comet at y will be ; then » and ed= PQ, fet off ce = of the folar fyftem to vaft diflances beyond the orbiis of the mott diftant plinets, return again to the neighbourhood of the fun, the paths they deferibe muft be nearly elliptical ; and then, if obfervations have been made fufficiently cxaét to be a bafis of the operations, the requifites of the-problem may be determined in the following manner: Let AK BI (fig. 35-) be the trajeCtory of a comet, A B its major axis, IK the minor, S, I’, the two foci, the former of which beine the place of the fun, C the place of the comet, CS its diftarce from the fun, C c the fpace it pafles over in a very fmall portion of time, D CE a tangent to the curve in the point C, SD, FE, perpendiculars demitted thereon from the foci: draw SG parallel to the tangent, and joia FC. Alfo, let A L Bbea circle, defcribed on the major axis AB; APTBa reCtangle about the ellipfis A I B, and AQ RB a fquare about the circle ALB. Lafly, let A NO be the elliptic orbit of any planet, S, f, its foci ; put SC=a,S D=4, Cc=e, the time in whie! it is de- {cribed f, the major axis of the cometary orbit A B=x, of the planetary orbit A O=g, the circumference of the circle AV O defcribed on the fame axis = f, the periodical time of the comet =f, and that of the planet = nv. The {pace C c deferibed, the diftance S C, and the angle SCD, being all determinable by obfervation, are given quantities. The mean diflance of the comet is AH=S K = x, and of the planet is Ag=S N=$ q; and, becaule the fquares of the periodical times are as the cubes of the mean diftances, we have # g? : } x‘ :: n? : #3; therefore I -3 yp)? 3 Tp chet! nx os ti =. and ¢ = —— /—: ag ig, q But it is neceffary to find another expreffion for the pe- riodical time ¢, which may be done thus: becaufe Cc isa very minute portion of the orbit, it may be efteemed a right line, and the fe€tor C Sc as a reCtilineal triangle, whofe area 2SD x Cc= 3 be is given: then, as the area 4 be, is to the whole area of the ellipis AK BI = A; fo is the time J, to the whole periodical time ¢; wherefore ¢ =~ x A. tbe Now, in order to determine the area A, we mutt find the femiconjugate H K ; and here, becanfe AB=SC+FC, we have F C=x—a; and by the fimilar triangles SDC, FEC, we have SC: SD:: FC: FE, thatis, a: b:: ssa: So _ PE, confequently FG = FE Gnesi 22") Ain, SCs CUE OR ora: Va—B:: x—a: = Vv @—b?: hence D E or SG =10f 3/61. x—a y eh + V¥e—P = ~/f—F, But FG,= ee. therefore FS’ = 40 6+a* x -x?— ex VE G+ Soa /* se a eae a = \/ oie 0s ae AN = a a’ b* and, of courfey SH = bre, /2* sel anwee 3 \ 4a # Moreover, fince SK = AH = $x H K a V SESH = \/ze-T 2 se tate Vv 44 AF pr therefore IK = 2 HK = —m R /ax—a, COMET. ———— x b ateseeeteennieed /ax—a, and — VY ax—a" = area of the reGangle a = APTB. Let P be the periphery of the circle AL B, whofe diameter is x, then its area will be LH x P= 3% P, and we fhall have x7: 2.x P:: 2°:3 xP: AQRB >ALB: APTB:AI1B:: ¢:igp; thatisg: tgp xb ,——- _ bpx , ——— Bei gel Regt Vai =r AV Bs? But a 42q as b x re 2ATB=ATKB=A = p va x —a’: therefore, 2aaq fubilituting this value of A, in the preceding expref- by y, tbyeass SS : fion, we have ¢ = + B® Vv ax—a’. Equate this va- aeq “ QF nx ms lue of ¢, with that already given, then —, / = tp NX a’ = = a — ee Vax—a@: which equation reduced, gives x = ae af Pp : F seertiet aOR = A B, the major axis of the comets ellip- Fat Fer tical trajetory. Tf we fubltitute this value of x, in the above equation, 2 fn? a 3B for ¢, we fhall have ¢ = cB A Se 3 = the periodical Gi Pi Geka b time. Alfo, becaufe the conjugate I K = aie fax—@ a =¢, we have x = pain a es SES ae whence 40a jf Ian by reduGtion, we findc =2ben Vie the q NBER minor axis of the orbit. From thefe equations, it obvioufly appears, that when the velocity of the comet is fuch that f? p* g = a én’, the axis x will be infinite, and confequently the traje€tory will be a parabola ; if a ¢* n* be greater than f? p* g, the dire@ion of the axis will be on the other fide of the curve, which will be an hyperbola ; in either of which cafes, the comet can never return: but in every inftance where f* /” g is greater than @ ¢* n*, the comet will defcribe an ellipfis; among thefe af’ py TP qa—aen : x= and f*p? g = 2ae'n*, whencee = Ceo= if 7 et ip the V~ 2 we may comprife the circle, where x = 2a = arc of the circle deferibed in one day, or one hour, accord- ing as the value of n is given in days, or hours. Let the earth be the planet which we fuppofed to defcribe the ellipfis A NO; then its mean diftance 4 g = 100000, or g = 200000, and £ = 628318; alfo the periodical time % = one year: then if Cc be the portion of the comet’s orbit l 395-2505 The other expreffions will become as follow: 59182509235..% eS and for the periodi- 591820599235 — ae 4750500000 x a3 eae 591820509235—a¢)3” It is extremely difficult to determine, from computation, the elliptic orbit of a comet, to any degree of accuracy ; for when the orbit is very eccentric, a very {mall error in the ob- fervation will change the computed orbit into a parabola, or hyperbola. Now, from the thicknefs and inequality ef the atmofphere with which the comet is furrounded, it is im- poflible to determine, with any great precifion, when either defcribed in one day, we have f = = 0.0027378. for the prin- eipal axis, x = eal time ¢ = 6 the limb or centre of the comet pafs the wire at the time of obfervation. And this uncertainty in the obfervations will fubje& the computed orbit to a great error. Hence it hap- pened, that M. Bouguer determined the orbit of the comet in 1729 to be an hype:bola. M. Ecler firft determined the fame for the comet in 1744; but having received more ac- curate obfervations, he found it to be an ellipfe. The pe- riod of the comet in 1680 appears, from obfervation, to be 575 years, which M. Euler, by his computation, determined to be 1663 years. ‘The only fafe way to get the ptriod of comets, is to compare the elements of all thofe which have been computed, and where you fird they agree very well, you may conclude that they are elements of the fame comet, - it being fo extremely improbable that the orbits of two dif- ferent comets fhould have the fame inclination, the fame perthelion diitance, and the places of the perihelion and node the fame. Thus, knowing the periodic time, we get the major axis of the ellipfe; and the perihelion diftance being known, the minor axis will be known. When the elements of the orbits agree, the comets may be the fame, although the periodic times fhould vary a-little; as that may arife from the attraGtion of the bodies in our fyftem, and which may alfo alter ali the other elements a little. We have al- ready obferved, that the comet which appeared in 1759, had its periodic time increafed confiderably by the attraGtion of Jupiter and Saturn. This comet was feen in 1682, 1607, and 1531, all the elements agreeing, except a little variation of the periodic time. Dr. Halley fufpeGed the comet in 1680, to have been the fame which appeared in 1106, 5315 and 44 years before Chrift, when Julius Czfar was mur- dered; and that its period was five hundred and feventy-five years. Mr. Dunthorne, however, inthe Phil. Tranf, vol. xlvii., has endeavoured to fhew from a MS. in Perbroke-hall li- brary, that the comet of 1106 could not be the fame with that of 1680. But M. de la Lande adopts the opinion of Dr. Halley. He-alfo conje€tured, in the firit edition of his Synopfis, without repeating it in the fecond edition, that the comet obferved by Apian in 1532, was the fame as that obferved by Hevelius in 1661; if fo, it ought to have re- turned in 1789, or 1790, but it has never been obferved. The interval between the paflages of the comet by the perihelion in 1532 and 1661 is 128 years, 89 days, 1 heur, 29 minutes, (32 of the years bemg biffextile) which, added to the time of the perihelion in 166r, together with 11 days to reduce it from the Julian to the Gregorian file, whi-h we now ufe, brings out the time of the next pe- tihelion, to be April 27th, 1” 20’, in the year 1789. But M. Mechain having colleéted all the obfervations in 1532, and calculated the orbit again, found it to be ferfibly different from that determined by Dr. Halley, which renders it very doubtful whether this was the comet which appeared in 1661; and this doubt is increafed, by its not appearing in 1790. The comec in 1770, whole periodic time M. Lexell computed to be five years and feven months, has not been obferved fince. There can be no doubt but that the path of this comet, for the time it was obferved, belonged to an orbit whofe periodic time was that found by M. Lexell, as the computations for fuch an orbit agreed fo very well with the obfervations. But the revolution was probably longer before 1770: foras the comet paffed very near to Jupiter in 1767, its periodic time might be fenfibly increafed by the attion of that planet; and as it has not been obferved fince, we may conjecture, with M. Lexell, that having pafled in 1772 again into the fphere of fenfible attraStion of Jupiter, a new d:fturbing force might probably take place and de- ftroy the effe&t of the other. According to the above ele- ments, the comet would be in conjuadion with Jupiter on Auguit f OC COMME YT. Auguft 23, 1449, and its diftance from Jupiter would be only z4, of its diftance from the fun, confequently the fun’s action would be only 53, times that of Jupiter. Whata change mult this make in the orbit ! If the comet returned to its perihelion in March 1776, it would then not be vifi- ble. See M. Lexell’s. account in the Phil. Tranf. 1779. The elements of the orbits of the comets in 1264 and 1556 were fo nearly the fame, that it is very probable it was the fame comet ; if fo, it ought to appear again about the year 1848. Mr. Cole, in his Theory of Comets,’’ advances an hy- pothefis, which, in fome cafes, may perhaps, be accurate. He fuppofes that the orbit of a comet is not an ellipfe; but that, when it paffes its perihelion, it has acquired fo great a velocity, that its centripetal force is overcome by its centri- fugal, and that confequently the comet continues to fly off in a parabola or hyperbola, tll it come within the attraction of fome fixed flar; that this attraction may give ita new dire&tion, and increafe its velocity tull it come to an apfis below that ftar, when it may again fly off either in a para- bola or hyperbola, and proceed till it fall within the attrac- tion of another {tar ; and thus vilit many different fyftems. Dr. Halley has given us a table of the aftronomical ele- ments of twenty-four comets, on the fuppofition that they moved in parabolas ; though he thought it extremely pro-’ bable that they really moved in very eccentric ellipfes, and confequently returned after long periods of time. This table commences with the year 1337, and clofes with 1698. By means of this table, and others fimilar to it, it may be determined whenever anew comet fhall appear, by com- paring it therewith, whether it be one of thofe which have already appeared, and confequently its period and the axis of its orbit be afcertained, and its return foretold. See his Synopfis of the Aitronomy of Comets, annexed to Grego- ry’s Altronomy. ‘This was firft publifhed in the Philofo- phical Tranfactions in 1705, and republifhed with his A ftro- nomical Tables in 1749. M. de la Caille changed this table into another of a more convenient form, by putting the areas for the times. Another table has fince been computed, from the obfer- vations contained in the Philofophical Tranfactions, De Ja Caille’s Attronomy, and De la Lande’s Hiftoire de la Comete de 1759, and Connciflance des Movemens Celeftes 1762 & 1764. In this table are feen the elements of twen- ty-five other comets, from the year 1264 to 1762. The molt extenfive table for calculating the motions of comets, was computed by M. de Lambre; it is inferted, as we have already menuioned, in Mr. Vince’s Aftronomy, vol. i, Azother table on an extenfive fcale, computed by Mr. Lee, an ingenious friend of the editor, an excellent aftrofomer, and an attentive obferver of the heavens, is annexed to this article. The number of comets that are ftated in the moft accu- rate accounts to have appeared, fince the commencement of our zra, is about 500; and before that xra, about 100 others are recorded to have been feen, though it is probable that not more than half of them were comets. » The elements of the comet of 1770, and the trajectory of its path, may be found in the Tranfaétions of the Ame- rican Philofophical Society, vol. i. In Whilton’s Solar Syftem, the orbits of feveral comets are delineated, and the periods of as many of them as were then known, expreffed. ] Comet, To determine the place and courfe of a. For this purpofe, it will be advifable to take the apparent diameter very frequently ; as a judgment may thus be formed of its relative diftance at different times; its degree of motion, its brightnefs, &c, mult alfo be regarded; for when it moves with the greateit velocity, or appears moft bright, we may infer that it is near its perihelion. If the place of the comet can be obferved when it has no latitude, the place and time of its being in one of its nodes will then be exactly known ; but as this can feldom be a€tually obferv- ed, thefe elements are generally obtained by approximation from other obfervations. In order to obtain the proper courfe of a comet, obferve its diftance from two fixed ftars, whofe longitudes and latitudes are known: or, find its altitude when in the fame azimuth with any two known fixed ftars; from the-diftance or altitude thus found, calculate the place of the comet by trigonometry, after the manner delivered under PLanet, or in the preceding article. By repeating the obfervations and operations for feveral days fucceflively, the courle of the comet will be had. Comet, to determine the courfe of a, mechanically, and with out any apparatus of infiruments. The following ingenious method, by a thread, we owe to Longomontanus: Ob- ferve four {tars round the. comet, fuch, as that the comet may be in the interfe€tion of the right lines that join the two oppofite flars; which is eafily found by means of a thread placed before the eye, and extended over-againft the ftars and comet. Suppofe, v. gr. the comet’s place in the heayens A (P/.IV. Ajironomy, fig. 36.) between the four ftars, B, C, D, E; where the line joining the ftars B and D, paffes through the body of the comet; and the like does the line pafling through C and E. On a globe, whereon thefe four flars are found, extend a thread through B and D, and another through C and E; the point of interfe€tion will give the place of the comet. This practice being repeated for feveral days, the comet’s courfe will be had on the globe; which courfe will be found to be a great circle: if this great circle, drawn through three diftant places, and fhewing. its path among the ftars, be continued tll it interfe&t the ecliptic, it will fhew nearly the place of the node, and the inclination of the orbit to the eeliptic. “Fhe plane of the node and inclination of the orbit being thus found from feveral triplets of places inde- pendent of cach other, a medium of the refults may be confidered as tolerably accurate. Comet, to determine the parallax of a. Comer, trajectory of a. See PARALLAX. See Trajectory. 2 The COU EST. 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On the fubje& of Comets, fee Newton’s Principia, lib. iti. Halley’s Synopfis of Comets ; Sejour Effai fur les Cometes, 17753 M. Pingre’s Cometographie, 2 vols. ato. 1781, Sir H. Englefield’s work « On the determination of the Orbits of Comets ;’? M. Bode’s General Confderations on the fituations of the Orbits of all the Planets and Comets which have hitherto been calculated, inferted in the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences of Berlin ; Dr. Gregory’s Altronomy ; O. Gregory’s Treatife on Attro- nomy, 1803; De la Lande, Theorie des Cometes, 17593 ard Altronomie, vol. iii.; An Account of the Difcoveries concerning Comers, with the way to find their Orbits, &c. by Thomas Barker, 1757; Vince’s Attronomy, &c. &c. COMETARIUM, or Comerartan, in Mechanics, is the name of a machine, contrived by Dr. Defaguliers, for the purpofe of exhibiting and explaining the eccentric motion of a comet, agreeably to that law, of planetary motion, by which equal areas are defcribed by the radius vector in equal times, Ben. Martin has given an account ef this machine, in his ‘* Young Gentleman and Lady’s Pnilofophy,” and Mr. Fergufon has defcribed it {till more particularly in his ‘* Altronomy,”? but as thofe authors have not given a perfpective view of the parts of action, we have thought it neceflary to give a new drawing, fuch as we conceive will render the mechanifm clearly intellizible to every reader. In Plate 1. of Planetary Machines, fig. 1. reprefents the cover of the cometarium, taken from the box which contains the wheel-work, and jz. 2. fhews the box and its contents, with the exception of the cover, and one fide, the latter of which is {uppofed to be re- moved, in order to difclofe more fully the difpofition of all the contained parts. A Bin jig. 2. is the bottom of the box, which fupports the lower pivots of the three vertical arbors; C D 1s a longitudinal bar inferted into the ends of the box, and bearing the upper pivots of the faid arbors, as may be clearly feen in the figure; E is the han2le put on the end of the horizontal arbor EF, which arbor is pivoted into the front and back fides of the box; on this horizontal arbor, under the letter C, is an endlefs {crew actuating the wheel G, with teeth not rounded but cut a little obliquely; the number of which teeth may be aflumed at option, to correfpond to an aliquot part of a circle, fappofe 72, in which cafe one tooth, or revolution of the hand:e, will correfpond to 5°; at the inferior end of the arbor of wheel G, is fixed another wheel H, of the fame number of teeth, that a€tuates a fimilar wheel I, on the fecond vertical arbor; fo that thefe two wheels, H and I, alfo revolve each in ='-d part of a circle, or 5°, at each revolution of the handle. Mr. Fergufon has placed the endlefs {crew as in fie 2. of Plate I1., between the wheels H and I in fuch a way, as to'impel them both in contrary dire€tions at the fame time, which conttruc- tion is {till more fimple, az it difpenfes altogether with the wheel G, and requires no rounding of the teeth; to the arbor of wheel I a folid plate I, in the form of an ellipfe, is fixed fait at a point out of the centre, and has a groove round its edge to admit a cord to pafs round it; and a fecond elliptic plate L, every way fimilar to plate K, is attached, at a point equally ditant from the centre, to the third vertical arbor, but in fuch a way, that, when an endlefs cord is made to embrace the grooves of both, after crofling between them, the long radius of one is always directed towards the fhort radius of the other reciprocaily, fo that as the radius of plate K continues to lengthen in revolv- ing half round, the radius of L continues to fhorten, and vice verfé during the other half of the revolution ; this alreration of gradual lengthening and fhortening of the radii, of the equably moving elliptic plate K, produces an alternate acceleration and retardation of motion in the plate L, fuch as correfponds with the equated motion of a heavenly body, defcribing equal areas in equal times; and the quantity of eccentricity given to the elliptic plates determincs the quastum of the greatelt equation in the orbit to be reprefented. Above the crofs-bar CD is fixed an elliptic plate M, by two ferews, feen in both the figures, round which the comet O is confined to move in its motion round N, the fun, which is a ball attached to the fuperior end of the arbor of the plate L of unequable motion; to the ball N, the arm or radius ve€tor N Ois attached, which therefore alfo moves with alternate accelerations and re- tardations of motion along with plate L; and as the comet O has liberty to flide along the radius veétor, while a ftud under it penetrates the black elliptic groove, made in the cover round the plate M, the variation of diftances is there- by effected as the comet is carried round: the point of the greateit diftance, where the motion is floweft, 1s called the aphelion, from ero, from, and *Asy, che fun, and the point of neareft diftance, where the motion is quickeft, is called the perihelion, from zee, round, and “As, the fun. The two circles of figrs, and allo the graduated elliple, are marked on the cover of the machine, and the arm G, in fig. 1, is placed on the equably moving arbor of wheel G, in jig, 2, fo that whenthe arm G moves through the figns in the {mall circle, by equal arcs im equal times, the arm N O moveable round the point N, pafles through correfponding unequal arcs in the larger circle of figns, while the differ- ence between the places of the two faid arms fhews the quantity of profthapherefis, er equation in any fituation in the large graduated circle, which is aflumed to be pa- rallel to the comet’s orbit. In order that the nature of the comet’s motion may be the more apparent to the eye of a {peétator, when referred to its own orbit, the {mall ellipfe, beyond the darkened aperture that regulates the dittances, 1s alfo divided into figns, but in fuch a way, thac the anoles fubtended by each fign, when referred to the point N, or centre of motion, are unequal among themfelves throughout each fix fucceflive figns, and if lines were drawn from each point where the comet is found at the end of each day or week, to the point N, they would include equal areas, or plane furfaces taken geometrically ; in fome of the machines indeed, thofe lines are aétually drawn, and the feparate triangular areas correfponding to each equidiltant period are painted alternately black and white, to render the doGtrine of the celebrated Kepler fill more evident to the fenfes. The principal objections to the conftruétion of the machine before us is, that the comet O is apt to move by jerks in certain parts of the orbit, particularly when the eccentricity is great; and alfo the cordis liable to flide in fome fituations, without pro- ducing the correfponding motion in the elliptic plates K and L; the latter of which objections has been attempted to be obviated, by attaching forked pieces of metal to the plane of one of the eltiptic plates near its end, and pins to the other, asin fiz. 2. Plate 11. to form a kind of- teeth; but a better plan, and which has been adopted fometimes ia practice, where the eccentricity is not very great, is to cut the elliptic plates themfelves into toothed wheels, and to fubftitute them for the wheels H and I, in which cafe the cord may be difpenfed with altogether, and the arm NO, we prefume, will thus be lefs hable to jerks —Afrer all, however, this machine docs not profefs to reprefent the period of a revolution of any of the comets or planetary bodies. but is intended merely to explain the law of ther motion, which it will do in a very fatisfactory manner, when well made ; and it is eafy to fee, that, as the plate M may be fixed more or lefs out of the centre, fuch a change of diftances ; COMETARIUM. diftances may be produced, as fhall correfpond to the changes of angular velocity; which is the chief difficulty to be overcome in the mechanical representation of the orbit. New Cometarium by Mr.’ Fones. Subfequently to our writing the preceding account of the cometarium, Mr. W. Jones, optician in Holborn, has fa- voured us with a drawing and defeription of a new con- ftru€tion of the cometarium, which he fays is free from the jerks that we have {tated as an objection to the plan of Dr. Defaguliers, and which, therefore, we lay before the public as nearly in the author’s own words as our arrangement and obfervations on it will admit. Fig. 1. of Plate 11. of Planetary Machines is a reprefent- ation of the external part of the machine, which is not confined to any particular dimenfions, but has generally been made as follows; viz. ABCD is a mahogany box, about 12 inches lorig, g wide, and 4} deep, containing the wheelwork that gives motion to the comet x; the dark el- liptical {pace isa groove reprefenting the orbit of the comet, which is carried round in the dircétion of the alphabetical order of the letters. The point a is the perihelion, and the point ¢ the aphelion; and the triangular {paces or areas, aSb,bSc, &c. are all réfpe€tively equal to each other: in one turn of the handle N, the comet x is moved over one of thefe areas ; confequently, in the fame time that it moves from f to g, or from g to 4, it moves from m to a, or from ato dé, and in like manner throuzh each fucceeding area, the quicke(t motion being at a, and the flowelt at g; thus fhowing that the velocity of a comet in its orbit continually and gradually decreafes from the perihelion a to the aphe- lion g, and increafes in the fame proportion from the aphe- jion to the perihelion. The elliptical orbit is divided into twelve figns with their refpe€tive degrees, and in a limilar - manner is the circle no ps ¢. which reprefents a great circle in the heavens, and to which the motion of the comet is referred by the extremity of the wire W, moveable at S, ‘and a€tuated by the ftem of the comet, which flides againft it, in and out alternately, in its progrefs in the orbit. During the comet’s motion in its orbit from f to g, its ap- parent motion is only about five degrees in this circle, as pointed out by the end of the wire; but in the fame time as the comet moves from m to a, or from a to 4, it appears to defcribe the large angular {pace f, or no in the heavens, each of which arcs contains about 120°, or four figns; and if the eccentricity of the orbit were ftill greater, the greater would be the difference between the two extreme velocities. The figures 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. to 12, reprefent a {mall compa- rative circular orbit, for fhewing the equable motion of a body, fuppofed to move concentrically round the fun S, and to deferibe equal arcs, as well as equal areas, 1S 2, 2 S 3, &c. in equal times with thofe of the comet x in. its elliptic orbit before mentioned. Suppofe now the bodies x and 9 to commence their motions at the fame inftant from the points a and 1, and to arrive at the fame refpe¢tive points again, after a revolution of each, at the fame initant, it will be obferved, during their progrefs, that the body x will be more forward than the body o in the firft fix figns from a to g, but mote backward in the next figns from g to a, and the difference between the places of the two bodies, in any part of the fmall or equable orbit, will be the equation of the centre in that particular part. At the points a, 1, and g, %, the bodies are together, and confequently the equation vani(hes, and from thence begins to take an oppofite cha- sacter, changing from plus to minus, and vice ver/d at the yefpe@tive points; alfo, the diftance from the aphelion point, jn the {mall orbit, is called the mean anomaly, reckoned in Vou, IX. fiens and degrees ; and the diftance from a; in the large cir- cle, reckoned ina fimilar manner, is called the true or equated anomaly. Thus the reafon appears evident, why, in aitrono- mical calculations taken from the tables of Dr. Halley, or la Lande, the grand equation of a body moving in ar el- liptic orbit is additive in the firft fix figns, and fultre@ive in the fecond fix, with refpe& to the place afcertained by an aflumption of mean motion; and the fame application of the grand equation, after fome modification of its varying quan- tity, 1s ufed from the apogee to the perigee, and back again from the perigee to the apogee of the lunar orbit. The mechanifm, by means of which thefe motions ‘are produced in the original cometarium, has been already ex- plained above, from which that of Mr. Jones is very difler- ent, and is thus explained by him. From the circumitance of its being confidered as imprac- ticable to obtain an eafy and uniformly fteady motion of a comet, by Dr. Defagulier’s mechanifm, Mr Jones has adopt- ed the plan of ufing only one great wheel revolving on an arbor placed out of the centre, agreeably to the drawing exhibited in fig. 3. of PlateI[. near the point H, and un- der the cock attached to the plane of the wheel, by three vifible ferews. he different parts and aétion of the me- chanifm are thefe ; A B reprefents the infide bottom of the box, feen in fg. i. of the fame plate; C D is an oblong piece of mahcgany, fitted fo as to flide eafily but fteadily in the grooves of two parallel fide-pieces of the fame wood, made fa{t to the bottom, and denoted by the letters E and F; G is the large brafs wheel, about five inches diameter, which we have faid revolves on an eccentric arbor, near the point H; over this point is placed the cock, or bent arm, H 1, with an oblong flit through it, to receive the flid- ing piece a, which piece fupports the low end of the ttena that carries the comet X in fig. 1. K and L are two wheels pivoted above into a bridge P, fhaped like a crofs, and have equal numbers of teeth, the latter of which wheels is atuated by the contrate wheel M, inferted on the axis B, of the handle N; onthe fame arbor with K, and clofe under the bridge P, is a {mall wheel (feen in the figure) that impels the large wheel G, round its eccentric arbor ; it will hot perhaps appear evident to an ordinary mechanic, how the action of the {mall and large eccentric wheel is rendered continual, and the pitching of the teeth made good all round the great wheel, notwithftanding the con- {tant variation of the diltances from the eccentric point, which is the centre of its motion, and the fucceffive points of its circumference ; to effect this apparently difficult pur- pole, confiderable ingenuity was neceffary ; by examining the croffes and rim of the large wheel, it will be feen, that the thicknefs of the croffes, and of the teeth, is lefs than of the rim, fo that the rim may be faid to have a circular edge-bar on its plane projecting upwards ; this edge-bar is embraced by two rollers, the larger one moving round on the arbor of wheel K, above the {mall wheel, and the fmall- er one carried by a cock O, faft to the crofled bridge P ; fo that, as the great wheel is urged round by the {mall one, thefe two rollers yive motion to the fliding piece af wood C D, alternately in and out, and confequently bring the teeth of the wheel borne by this fliding piece, intaa proper depth to act with its fmall impelling wheel, in every part of the revolution of the former, which therefore atts as well, when the teeth are direéted towards the centre of mo- tion, as if the arbor had been in the centre of the wheel, and placed on a ftationary bar. ‘lhe wheel, however, has many more teeth coming fucceflively into action during one half of its revolution, round the eccentrie point of its ma- tion, than it has during the other; and on this circum- ftance depends the variable velocity of the comet attached & tv cOM to its arm I, as it regards the faid centre of motion. We fhall have occafion to fhew, in another place, that the equa- tion, produced by this caufe only, would be juft one half of the proper equation of the centre, or very nearly fo, provided the fun were placed exaGly over the centre of motion, or eccentric point of the wheel: it is alfo not dif- ficult to fhew, that if the wheel had no eccentric motion, but had the fun placed at a fimilar diftance out of its centre of motion, one half of the due equation would alfo, in that cafe, be effected, fuppofing the circle of fizns, point- ed to by the wire, to be eccentric with regard to the wheel, and fuppofing the fun to be in its centre; now, in the inftrument before us, thefe two caufes operate together to produce the total equation due to the orbit, where the ec- centricity of the wheel is to its radius, and alfo the eccen- tricity of the fun’s pofition, at the oppofite fide of the wheel’s centre, to the fame, as the eccentricity of the comet is to the radius of its orbit. It muft, however, be ac- knowledged, that the joint agency of the two faid caufes of the equation, fuppofes the fliding bar C D to be fta- tionary, 1n which cafe the aGion of the wheels would foon be impeded; confequently, that part of the equation which depends on the fun’s eccentric pofition, as it regards the w 10 9 202 2048” -9950950,7525, which reckoned downwards, by its arith~ metical complement, is .0049049,2475; and its value in Euler’s logarithms is .o16295, being that decimal part of an oftave. The minor comma is marked by Overend, Dr. Boyce, Dr. Callcott, and others, with a dathed c, (c), fimi- lar to the mark for f{cruple in apothecaries weight, but reverfed. (See “Philofophical Magazine, vol. xxviii.) It is equal to 10.007863 times the fchifma (=) = to -909170 times, or nearly }°ths of the major comma. It is equal to the fum of ten {chifmas and one minute (10 © +m). And it refults as the difference when a fchifma ia taken from a major comma, a diafchifma from two major commas, two major commas from a femitone minimum, a ma- jor comma from an enharmonic diefis, a femitone minor from a limma, an apotome from a femitone maximum, a femitone minimum frem two enharmonic diefes, a femitone medius from a femitone major, aleffér fration from a prifma, two {chifmas ratio is and its value in Briggs’s logarithms CcOoM fhifmas from a diafchifma, a hyperoche from a femitone fub- minimus, two femitones medii from a tone major, &c. The comma minor is equal to the following additions of intervals in triples, viz. a {chif{ma, a major refidual and a medius reli- duals two {chifmas, a major refidual and a minor refidual ; four {chifmas, a major refidual and a leffer fra€tion ; fix fehif- mas, a greater fra€tion and a medius refidual ; nine fchif{mas, a greatcr fraction and a lefler fraCtion ; nine fchifmas, a me- dius fra@ion and two lefler fractions, &c. (See Overend’s MS. before quoted.) The ratio of this interval is compofed of thefe primes, o4e? ~ > , which refolved.as fhewn above, give *4ths — V —~ *1II, and 34ths — *1II — 3, as different methods of prac- tically tuning the minor comma upon an organ, piano- forte, &c. Comma Maximum, of Pythagoras, Boetius, &c. or an- 524,285 cient comma; this interval, whole ratio is = = 531441 I2 © + m,is now called the Diascuisma ; fee that article. Comma, Greater, has erroneoufly been applied by fome 12 nical, ss Q a = 212 + 2m, which is the LExharmonic 13 Diests; fee that article. Comma Minimum, according to fome former writers, ex- 32768 32805 Scaisma; fee that article. Comma, Ancient, according to Galileo, had a ratio of 625 648 nimus, which fee. : : : 220- . Comma of Philolaus, is the ratio of <2, intended as to the ratio —_— FF = ay which is now called the prefles the ratio = 322 + 32m, which is now called the Semirone Mi- ~) an approximation for 4th part of a tone major, but which 229 it exceeds ccnfiderably; befides, the fra&tion ae is not compofed of the {mall or mutical primes 2, 3, and 5, and cannot therefore be admitted into mufical computations. Comma of Boetius, according to Glareanus, alfo of D. Sy Nicola was ith part of the tone maior, or 11 ov P J a ae m, whereof 5 made their femitone majus or apotome, and 4 made their femitone minus or limmas: this interval was anciently fuppofed by fome to be the fame with the modera diafchifma (12 2 + m), but from which it differs, 4s half a fchifma. The ancients mention another comma, £ of the tone minor, 5 vs : f+m (See Dr. Callcott’s * Mufical aT of 477702 X Zy or nearly ori > 8 Grammar,” pages 119 and 49. Comma, 4rtificial, of Nicholas Mercator, is the <4 part of 2 12 x the oGiave, or rr E+ = fm. (See 5) 53 tor’s * Temperament of the Mufical Scale’’). Comma of Merfennus. According to Holder’s “ Trea- tife on Harmony,” page i104, Merfennus divided the o€tave into about 584 parts, and called one of thefe a comma. Komma of Galileo. eee Merca- ————, called a “he interval The : 524289 3 com comma in the writings of this author, was intended to have 524288 been the diafchifma or , as Mr. Overend has fhewn, 31 vol. i. p. 140, of his MS. before referred tos the error ori- ginated in an erroneous multiplication, in the fecond figure of Galileo’s numerator, by which it was rendered unfit for the mufical feale. (See fir John Hawkins Hift. Muof. vol, i. p. 321.) Comma and half of Galilee, has a ratio oo =e 4 + 3 m, which is the SEMITONE minimum ; fee that article. Comma and half of Rameau. This interval refults frona the addition of a major comma and a major refidual, and is alfo the difference between a femitone fubminimus and a hy- 1990625 *9917338,2179 and Euler’s log. 0.027456 ; its common logarithm is iz7=— f 9 peroche; its ratio is + 2m. The component primes of this ratio are = : 2 Whence it appears, from the procefs before explained, that — ‘III, or five minor thirds upwards, and four major thirds downwards, furnifh a practical method of tuning this interval above any note, and the reverfe of this procefs or ‘I1I] — °3 would tune the fame below any given note, Comma, Semi. See-Sem1-Comma. Comma Redundant, or Juperfluous, ar deficient, or dimi= nifked; thele terms are applied to fuch intervals, whether concords or difcords, as exceed or fall fhort of the true ratio of that interval by a major comma, as a comma re- dundant fifth, a comma deficient third, &c. Sometimes the term comma is omitted in naming thefe intervals, as a redundant fifth, a deficient third, &c. See Firru,T urn, &c. COMMAGENE, or Comacene, Kamajh, in Ancient Geography, a country of Syria, bounded on the weft by mount Amanus, on the north by part of mount Taurus, on the eait wathed by the Euphrates; and with regard to its fouthern boundaries, it is uncertain whether it is contiguous to Seleucia, Cyrrheftica, or both. It is near the north corner of Syria. ‘This country is mentioned by Strabo, Ptolemy, Pliny, and Ammianus Marcellinus, but they affign to it different extents. Its chief cities were Samofata upon the Euphrates, its capital, Antiochia ad Taurum, Germanicia, Singa, Chaonia, and feveral other cities, once of great note, but long fince utterly deftroyed. In the time of An- tiochus the Great, Commagene was fubje&t to the Syrians, and left to him by the treaty of peace which he concluded with Rome, after the famous battle of Magnefia; and hence it is probable, that it was feized by fome of the princes of the Seleucian family, during their inteftine wars, as no mention of the kings of Commagene occurs till the time of Pompey, and the names of thofe, who afterwards reigned there, are altogether Syrian. The firft that is men- tioned is Antiochus, who joined with Darius king of Media, in oppoling the entrance of Pompey into Syria, after the defeat of Tigranes; but, being overcome in battle, he fub- mitted to the conqueror, and was not only confirmed in his kingdom, but rewarded with part of Mefopotamia. In the civil war between Caefar and Pompey, he fent large fuppiies to the latter. Antiochus having been put to death by order of Augultus, for the affaffination of the Roman ambaffa- dor, was fucceeded by Mithridates, on whom Auguftus beftowed the kingdom of Commagene, in recompence of his fervices during the war with Antony and Cleopatra. Upon the death of Mithridates, Antiochus I]., the fon of Antiochus I., was permitted by Auguttus to take roe ion COM fiot of the kingdom. This prince died in the reign of Tiberius ; and Commagene became a Roman province, and at the requelt of the nobles, it was governed by a pretor, But Caligula reftored the kingdom to ‘Antiochus IIL, the fon of Antiochus IIJ., adding to it the maritime parts of Cilicia. He was fucceeded by his fon Antiochus IV., fur- named Epiphanes, who diltinguifhed himfelf under Velpa- fian ia his war with the Jews, and particularly at the fiege of Jerufalem. Wefpafian, however, having reduced Com- magene to the form of a Roman province, would not allow any of the fons of Antiochus to fucceed him. This conn- try was afterwards made part of the province called Auguf- tophratenfis, or as Ammianus has it, Euphratenfis, and was commonly known by the name of Enphratenfia. COMMAND, in French Commandement, in Military Language ; the a& or a&tion of him who commands ; a thing commanded ; the right of commanding and making one’s felf obeyed. The movements of a battalion at exercife, are performed by the words which the major or commanding officer pronounces. Hence, the word of command is a phrafe in common ufe among military people. Commanp denotes alfo authority. Every command falls to the eldett officer in the fame circumftances, whe- ther he belong to the horfe dragoons, artillery, engi- neers, foot, or marines. In our fervice when the com- miffions of two officers are of the fame date, a retrofpec- tion of former commiffions takes place, or length of fervice is examined into, and the difpute, if any arifes, is de- termined according to precedents, and the rules of war. Commanp, in the Royal Navy, implies the rank or power of an officer, who has the management of a fhip of war of any kind under twenty guns. He ranks with a major in the army. COMMANDANT, or Commanper, the perfon who commands an army, a brigade, a garrifon, a fort, cattle, regiment, company, &c. COMMANDE, a rope made ufe of for boats and pon- toons. COMMANDER, is a name given to a large wooden mallet ufed in a fhip. COMMANDERY. See Commannry. COMMAND in front, in Fortification, a height, or an eminence, which is dire€tly oppofite to, or faces the work, that it commands. CommanpD in rear, an eminence or a height, which is dire€tty behind the work that it commands. Command in flank, or by enfilade, a height or an eminence on the flank, or prolongation of any part of a work, which it fees and looks along. COMMANDEMENT, fr. A commanding ground, an eminence or elevation, which overlooks a pott or {trong place. ‘There are three forts of commandemens; namely the commandement in front, which faces a work, and batters or fires on it in front; the commandement en revers, or in reverfe, which is behind a work or place, and fires on its rear either direGtly or obliquely; and the commandement de courtine or in enfilade, which is on the flank of a work, and fires along the whole extent of a reétilinear part of it. Nine feet in perpendicular height, conftitute a fimple command or commandement ; 18 feet a double one; 27 feet a triple one ; and fo on. ; ComMANDEMENT, Order of, among the officers of mfantry and cavalry, In France it was cuftomary ina place of war, and every inclofed city, for the officers of infantry to have the command over thofe of the cavalry, and on the other hand to be commanded by them in the open field. ' COMMANDEUR, Ir. The commander of an order cOM of knights. In fome orders of chivalry it is the titles which a profefled knight takes the moment he pronounces the vows, that fubjected him to celibacy without his ceafing on that account to be military. There are, how- ever, in Spain orders of chivalry, that do not require celi- bacy on the part of the commanders. Commanpeur, in Ornithology, the French name of Oriolus Phoeniceus, which fee. COMMANDINUS, Freperick, in Biography, was born at Urbino, in Italy. 1509. He was defcended trom a noble family, and celebrated for his great claffical learning, and for his extenfive acquaintance with the mathematical fcien- ces; He was patronized by Francis Moria, duke of Urbino, and by his liberality enabled to publifh tranflations of various parts of the works of Archimedes: the Conics of Apollonius; the Elements of Euclid, and many other works of high reputation. He was alfo author of a book entitl-d, ‘* De Centro Gravitatis Solidorum.”? Bologn. 1565; and of another entitled, ‘‘ Horologiorum Defcriptio”’ Rome, 1562. He died in 15753 a funeral oration was delivered in his praife, by Antonio Toroneo. Gen. Biog. COMMANDMENT, ina Legal Senfe, has various ufes : as, Commandment of the king, when on his own mere motion, and from his own mouth, he cafts a man into prifon. Commandment of the juflices, is either abfolute or ordinary ; abjolute, as when, on their own authority, and their own ditcretion, they commit a man for contempt, &c. to prifon, as a punifhment. Ordinary, as when they commit him rather for fafe cufady, than punifhment.—A man committed by an ordinary commandment is repleviable. Perfons committed to prifon by the fpecial command of the king were not formerly bailable by the court of king’s bench; but at this day, the law is otherwife. 2. Hawk. P.C. Co He § 36. ComMANDMENT, is alfo ufed for the offence of him who direéts or wills another to tranfgrefs the law; as by murder, theft, and the like. See AccrEssory. He that commandeth any one to do an unlawful a&, is acceflory to it and all the confequences, if it be executed in the fame manner as commanded: but if the commander revoke the command; or if the execution varies from it, or in the nature of the offence; in fuch cafe he will not be acceffory. 3 Inft..51, 57. 2 Inft. 182. In another fenfe of this word, magiftrates may command others to affilt them in the execution of their offices, for the doing of juttice ; and fo may a juftice of peace, to fupprefs riots, apprehend felons; or any officer to keep the king’s peace, &c. Bro. 3. ; A mafter may command his fervant to drive another” man’s cattle out of his ground, to enter into lands, to feize goods, to diftrain for rent, or to do other things ; if the thing be not atrefpafs to others. The command- ment of a thing is good; where he that commands hath power to do it; and a verbal command is in mott cafes fufficient ; unlefsit be, where it is given by a corporation, or when a fheriff’s warrant is to a bailiff to arreft, &cy Bro. 288. Dyer, 202. In trefpafs, &c. the mafter fhall be accountable for the act of the fervant done by his command; but fervants hall not be excufed for committing any crime, when they a& by command of their mafter, who have no authority to give fuch commands. The commands of infants and feme coverts are void; but in forcible entries, &c. an infant or feme covert may be guilty in refpe& of actual violence done by them in perfon, ComMANDMENTS, Jen. See DEcALoGueE. COMMANDRY, or Commanpery, akind of benefice, ar cOM er fixed revenue belonging toa military order, and con- ferred on ancient knights, who had: done confiderable fer- vice to the order. There are fri, or regular commandries, obtained in order, and by merit: there are others of grace or favour, conferred at the pleafure of the grand mafter. There are alfo commandries for the religious in the orders of St. Bernard and St. Antony.—The kings of France have converted feveral of the hofpitals for lepers into command- ries of the order of St. Lazarus. The commardries of Malta are of different kinds; foras the order confitts of knights, chaplains, and brother fer- vitors, there are peculiar commandries, or revenues, attach- ed to each. The knight to whom one of thefe benefices or com- mandries is given, is called commander: which agrees pretty nearly with the prepofius fet over the monks in places at a diftance from the monattery, whofe adminiftra- tion was called ofedientia : becaufe depending entirely on the abbot who gave him his commiffion. Thus it is with the fimple commanders of Malta, who are rather farmers of the order than beneficiaries ; paying. a certain tribute, or rent, called refponfio, to the common treafure of the ordér. The commandries belonging to the priory of St. John of Jerufalem in England, confifting of manors, Jands, &e. fuch was that of New Eagle in Lincolnfhire, Sclbach in Pembrokefhire, and Shengay in Cembridgehhire, were given to Henry VIII. by ftatute 32 Hen. VIII. c. 20.; fo that the name of commandries only remains, the power being long fince extin&. COMMANTI, in Geography. See Commenpvo. COMMANIPULARIS, in Ancient Military Language, a Roman foldier, who could not fleep but with his own century, nor fight but under its ftandard. COMMANOES, in Geography, one of the {mall Virgin ifles in the Welt Indies, fituated to the N.N.E. of Tortola. N. lat. 18° 25’. W. long. 63°. COMMANTAWANA, a bay on the north coaft of the ifland of St. Vincent, about one mile eaft of Tarraty oint. COMMARCHIO, in Antiquity, the confines of the land; whence probably is derived the word marches. *“ Im- rimis de noftris landimeris, commarchionibus”’ Du-Cange. COMMARODES, in Ancient Geography, a place of Thrace, in the vicinity of Conttantinople. COMMEATUS, in Military Language, a pafsport or per- miffion granted to a Roman foldier to abfent himfelf from the army:for a fixed or limited time. The fame name was alfo given to foldiers’ provifions and their efcorts. COMMELIN, Joun, a dittinguifhed botanift, was born at. Amfterdam, July 23, 1629. He fucceeded his father as one of the magiftrates of the city, and while hold- ing this office, was very active in forming a new botanical garden; the ground occupied by the old gardenhaving been taken into the city. The fecond and third volumes of the « Hortus Indicus Malabaricus,’? owe much of their value to his judicious notes and obfervations. He publifhed ‘ Caca- logus Plantarum indigenarum Hollandiz,” 1683, 12mo. It contains a lilt of 776 plants; and, in 1789, ** Catalogus Plantarum Horti Medici Amftelodami, pars prior.”’? Thefe have been frequently reprinted. While preparing to com- plete this work, he died at Amfterdam in. 1692. Comme tin, Gaspar, nephew to John Commelin. Af- ter taking his degree of doétor in medicine, he was appointed profeffor.in botany, and direétor of the garden at Amfter- dam, offices which he filled with diftinguifhed ability and COM attention. He completed the work begun by his uncle, which he publifhed in 1701. His next production was « Tlora Malabarica, feu Horti Malabarici Catalogus,”’ ferv- ing as an index to the Hortus Malabaricus. This was fol- lowed by ‘“ Praludia Anatomica,” 4to. 1703; and the fame year, ‘¢ Preludia Botanica,” with figures for the bene- fit of ftudents in thofe arts. In 1715, he publifhed, « Icones Plantarum, prefertim ex Indiis Colle¢tarum, ”* 4to.; and, in 1718, ‘¢ Botanographia Malabarica, a Nomi- num Barbarifmis reftituta,” Lugdusi Bat. folio. All ufe- ful to ftudents in botany, but ferving rather to fhew the great induftry, than the genius of the writer. Haller. Bib. Botan. Eloy. D:&. Hitt. COMMELINA, in Botany, (fo named by Plumier from the two rothers, John and Gafpar Commelin, celebrated Dutch botanifts.) Plum. 38. Linn. Gen. 62. Schreb. 806. Willd. . 104. Lam, Ill. $3. Gart. 56. Juff. 15. Vent. 2. 152. Clafs and order, triandria monogynia. Nat. Ord. En/ate. Linn. Funct, Jull. Foncacee, Vert. Gen. Ch. Cal. common. Spathe heart-fhaped, converging, compreffed, very large, permanent. Cal. proper. Perianth, three leaved; leaves egg-fhaped, concave. Cor. Petals three, unguiculated, larger than the calyx, alternating with its leaves ; one fometimes {maller. Stam. Filaments two, three, or fix, awl-fhaped, reclined; anthers oblong, verfatile. Nec. three, often cruciform, fixed to the top of their proper filaments, rifing above the ftdmens. Pi/?. Germ fuperior, roundifh ; ftyle awl-fhaped, revolute, fiigma fimple. Peric. Capfule, fomewhat globular, two or three-celled; two or three-valved. Seeds few. Eq. Ch. Calyx proper, three-leaved. Petals three, une guiculated. Neétaries three, or their proper filaments. Obferv. Linnzeus confiders the fpathe as the only calyx, and attributes fix petals to the flower; three exterior, {mall, refembling a perianth, and three interior, very large, coloured. * Two petals larger ; one fmall. Sp. 1. C. communis. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1. Mart. 1. Lam. 1. Encyc. 598. Ill. Willd. 1. Dill. Elth. tab. 78. fig. Sg. Gert. tab. 15. fig. 1. Lam. Iil. tab.35. fig. 1. Koofcki, Kempf. Jap. 888. tab. S89. 8. C. polygama; Roth. Cataleét. Bot. 1. p.1. ‘* Leaves ovate-lanceolate, acute, ftem creeping, {mooth.’? Root annual. Stems feveral, two feet long, jointed, branched, leafy. Leaves alternate, nerved, fupported by a membranous fheath with fhort hairs at its edge. Flowers axillary, two or three together, on fhort peduncles; two of the petals blue, the third whitith green. Capfule egg-fhaped, flightly comprefied on each fide, fome- what two-edged, two-celled, two-valved; valves thin, mem- branous, with the longitudinal partition on their inner fide. Seeds two in each ceil, affixed to the valves near the infertion of the partition, two adhering to each valve, gibbous and pitted on one fide, flat and furrowed, with a longitudinal line on the other, truncate at the end where they are oppofite to each other, umbilicated. A native of North America, Africa, and Japan. §. differs only in having polygamous diandrous flowers. In all other refpects it exactly correfponds with C. communis, of which it appears to be only avariety. Willd, 2. C. africana. Linn. Sp. Pl. 2. Mart. 2. Lam. 2. Ill. sg9. Willd. 2. Gert. tab. 15. fig. 3. Lam. Ill. tab. 35. fz. 3. ‘* Leaves lanceolate, fmooth; ftem decumbent.” Root perennial. Stems about a foot long, branched, fmooth. Leaves narrower, with ciliated or bearded fheaths, and a fmalicr one within the other. Flowers with two petals; yellow, unguieulated and roundifh, or kidney-fhaped ; the third fmall, oval, feffile, and cOM and of a pale colour, Cap/ule exg-thaped, two-valved, three- celled. Seeds in the upper ceils, two, three, or four, roundifh, fmooth, umbilicated; but always barren and deftitute of albumen; in the lower cell folitary, fertile, adnate to the valve on its whole length. A native of Africa. 3. C. mollis. Willd. 7. Lam. Tl. 600. Jacq. Collec. 3. 253. ic. rar. 293. ** Leaves egg-fhaped, petioled, villous; ttem creeping.” A native of South America, 4. C. dengalenfis. Linn. Sp. Pl.3. Mart. 3. Lam. 3. Ill. 6or. Willd. 3. (Ephemerum benghalenfe repens; Pluk. Alm. 135. tab. 27. fig. 3.) * Leaves egg-fhaped, obtufe ; flem creeping.’”? Roof annual. Stems numerous, {lightly villous, flender, branched. Leaves from an inch to an inch and half long, edged with very fhort hairs, petioled above the {heath ; fheath ciliated, marked with lines, {potted with purple. Spathe terminal, cowled, fomewhat triangular, marked with lines. Peduncles within the fpathe, two; one flender, longer, with a fingle flower ; the other thicker, channelled, bearing from two to four flowers, on jointed inflexed pedicels. Petals blue; {maller one paler. Nedaries yellow. A native of Bengal and Cochin-china. 5. C. ereda. Linn. Sp. Pl. 4. Mart. 4. Lam..4. Ill. 602. Willd. 4. Dill. Elth. or. tab. 77. fig. 88. « Leaves ovate-lanceolate; ftem ereét, fcabrous, quite fimple.’? Rost perennial, fibrous. Stems a foot and half high, leafy. Leaves a little hirfute, but not hairy, except at the fheath. J/owers pale blue; f{maller petal very narrow, whitilh and pellucid. Caf/ules roundith, ob- tufely triangular, with three feeds. A native of Virginia. ** Petals nearly equal. 6. C. virginica. Linn. Sp. Pl. 5. Mart. 5. Lam. 5. Til. 603. Wild. 5. (Ephemerum phalangoides; Piuk. Alm. 135. tab. 174- fig. 4.) “* Leaves lanceolate, in fhort petioles; bearded at the edge; ftems erect.” Nearly allied to the preceding, and perhaps, only a variety. Root perennial. Stems two feet high, fimple, flightly villous. Leaves {cabrous on the upper furface when rubbed from the bafe, pubefcent underneath, narrowed near the fheath. Sheaths nerved, fomewhat pubefcent, ciliated at the edge with reddith hairs. FVoqwers blue ; the lower one ona fhort onto petals heart-fhaped, quite entire. A native of irginia. 7. C. Jongicaulis. Willd. 6. Jacq. ic. rar. 2. tab. 294. Colle&. 3. p. 234. ‘¢ Leaves linear-lanceolate, feffile; fheaths ciliated ; ftemdecumbent.’? Roof perennial. Leaves {moothith. Pedicels in pairs, filiform, jointed. A mative of Caracas. 8. C. hexandra. Lam. 6. Ill. 604. Aubl. Guian. tab. 12. ** Flowers hexandrous, in racemes.”? Root perennial, Stems three feet high or more, farmentous, chmbing, bent at the joints. Leaves egg-fhaped, acute, narrowed and petioled near the fheath; fheaths half an inch long, ciliated. JYowers blue; filaments fhort and not vil- lous, as in T'radefcantia. 9. C. tudero/a. Linn. Sp. 6. Mart. 6. Lam.°7. Ill. 605. Willd. 8. Dill. Elth. 94. tab. 79; fig. go. Gert. tab. 15. fig. 2. Lam. tab. 35. fig. 2. * Leaves feffile, ovate lanceolate, fomewhat ciliated.’? Root perennial, confifting of feveral tubers fomewhat like thofe of ranunculus, or of common orpine (fedum tele- phium), joining together at the top and forming a head, diminithing gradually downwards, Stems a foot high, weak, afcending, branched at their bafe. Leaves villous underneath, {mooth above; fheath fmooth, {triated, reddith, fimply ciliated at the edge. Flowers blue, growing feveral toge- ther on flender peduncles. Cap/ule ovate-acuminate, fome- what deprefied, two-valved, three-celled; upper valvey divided Jpngitudinally into two cells; lower valve one-celled, a little concave above, convex below, clofely adnate to the ie seedy each of the upper cells two, tubercle wrinkled, @L. COM ferruginous ; in the lower cell, one, elliptical, fmoothy lenticularly compreffed, of a bay colour. Gert. A native of Mexico. 10. C. darbata. Lam, Ill. 606. « Leaves egg- fhaped, feffile; fheaths bearded; ftem creeping.” A native of the ifland of Mauritius. 11. C. longifolia. Lam. Ill. 607. ‘ Leaves lanceolate-linear; peduncles very long.’” A native of the ifland of Java. 12. C. zanonia. Linn. Sp. Pl.7. Mart. 7. Lam. 8. Gert. tab. 15. fig. 4. Lam. lil. tab. 35. fig. g. (Zanonia; Plum. Gen. 38. Tradefcantia zanonia; Willd. Swartz.) « Peduncles thickered; leaves lancevlate ; fheaths hairy at the edge; brates in_ pairs.” Root perennial. Stem about two feet high, cylindrical, jointed, fmooth, branched towards the top. Leaves four or five inches long, about two broad, green and fmooth above, flightly pubefcent underneath when young, with pur- ple-brown, or violet edges; fheaths whitifh-green, large. Flowers white; Lam. Sky-blue; Miller. Jruit berried, in an egg-fhaped terminal raceme: berries falfe, dark- purple, formed of the corolla changed into a fl-fhy fucculent three-lobed fubftance which compleatly enclofes the capfule; capfule cylindric-egg-fhaped, cruftaceous, dotted in rows, teftaceous, three-celled, epening at the tip into three parts. Seeds two, or one in each cell; in the cells which have two, angular, alittle wrinkled, cinereous, with a {mall pap on the fide covering the embryo; in the celi which has only one, elliptical plano-convex, a little wrinkled about the edge, bearing the embryo on the middle of the back. Gert. A native of Cayenne, in South America. 13. C. vaginata. Linn. Mant. 177. Mart. 8. Lam. 9. Ill.609. Willd. 9. ‘+ Leaves linear; flowers diandrous, fheathed with an in- volucre.”? Roof annual. Stems afcending, numerous, fome-~ what feabrous. Leaves feflile, acute. Peduncles terminal and axillary, elongated, ending in a ftriated, lanceolate in- volucre, which is fo convolute as to be almoft cylindrical ; _calyx-leaves lanceolate, acute, coloured at the tip; petals oval, the length of the calyx; filaments of the netary four, half the length of the ftamens; neGtaries linear; fila~ ments of the ftamens two, bearded, fomewhat recurved, the length of the corolla ; anthers yellow, marked with a black {pot; ftyle awl-fhaped, fomewhat recurved. Found by Koenig in the Eaft Indies. 14. C. audiflora. Linn, Mant. 177. Mert. 9. Lam. io. Ill. 60g. Willd. ro.‘ Peduncels - capillary; leaves linear, without an involucre; flowers diandrous.”’ Root annual. Stem about feven inches high, flender, nearly ere&t, decumbent at the bafe, fomewhat fca- brous. Leaves feffile, acute; fheath fhort, edged with a few lax hairs. Peduncles for the moft part terminal, froma two to four together, accompanied by avery fhort braéte. Flowers from four to fix on each peduncle, naked, pe- dicelled ; calyx-leaves ovate-lanceolate, acute, lefs than the corolla; petals three, egg-fhaped, unequally diftributed; the two lower ones moft diftant; filaments of the ne@lary three, half the length of the ftamens, naked; ne@aries deltoid ; filaments of the ftamens two, bearded, declining at the opening of the corolla; ftyle declining. Found by Koenig in dry paftures of the Eaft Indies. 15. C. cyoullata. Linn. Mant. 176. Mart. rr. Lam. 1t. Lil. 611. Willd. 11. (C. nervofa; Burm. ind. 18. tab. vie The 2.) “* Leaves eggs fhaped; involucres cowled, turbinate.” Rodt ax2Ual. Siem. feven inches high, creeping at the bafe, and fenan,y Ut filiform roots. Leaves nerved, petioled ; fheaths wider than the ftem; ciliated at the edge with diftant, {preading, briftle-fhaped hairs; involucres terminal, truncated, many~ flowered, entirely coalefcent by the fide. Flowers peduncled, minute. A native of the Eaft Indies. 16. C. japonica. Thunb. in Linn, Tranf. 2.332. Mart. 12. Willd. 12, “* Leaves ovate-lanceolate, undulated; ftem ereA, angular, eG hairy, COM hairy; flowers panicled.” Stem a foot high, furrowed, pa- nicled at the top. Leaves. alternate, theathing, acute, fmooth ; lower ones three inches long; upper ones about aninch. A native of Japan.. 17. C./pirata. Linn. Mant. II. 176. Hort. Kew. 77. (C. braéteolata; Lam.?) ** Leaves lanceolate: flowers panicled.’ Linn. « Léaves lanceolate-linear, unduiated, fomewhat curled; peduncles panicled, furnifhed with fmall braGes, half-embracing the ttem.”” Tuam. Root annual. Stem creeping, afcending, fomewhat fcabrous; Linn. Stem fix or feven inches long, very flerder, bent at the joints, almoft fmooth, leafy, branched; Lam. Leaves lanceolate, fheathing, very mi- nutely ferrated; upper leaf cordate-lanceolate; fheaths ciliated at theedge. Linn. Leaves narrow ; theaths fhort, ciliated; Lam. lowers fmall, blueithh; Lam. Panicle terminal, divaricated, with {mali fheathing bractes; Linn. Lam. Peduncles capillary. compound ; Lam. Calyx three- leaved; leaves ovate-lanceolate, concave; Lam. Perals three, equal, orbicular-egg-fhaped; Linn. Petals three, egg-fhaped, a little longer than the calyx. Lam. Filaments of the famens three, bearded, naked above the middle. Linn. Almoft entirely naked. Lam. Jilaments of the neclary three, fomewhat ciliated at the fides. Corpufcles crucitorm, g'obular at the tips, whitifh; Linn. corpufcles yellow; Lam. Style and /fligma {pirally convolved, and evolved varioufly ; Linu. Style permanent, a little fpirally twilted when the flower is palt; Lam. Found by Koenig in moilt ground, by the fide of rivulets inthe Eaft Indies; communicated to La Marck from the Eaft Indies by Son- nerat. La Marck feems to have no good reafon to doubt the identity of bis plant with that of Linneus. Obf. It is evident from the above defcriptions, that this genus, as it now ftands, is avery asoma'ous one. (en hexandra, if it had*bearded filaments, would unquettionably be 4 tradefcantia. C. vaginata, nudiflora, and {pirata, approach tliat genus, by their partialiy bearded filaments, but doffer in the number of ftamens ; the firft two have the additional anomaly of ‘being diandrous, without a cor- refponding-diminution in the number of the other parts. Linnzus, when he took up thefe three {pecies, in his fecond Mantiffa, feems to have forgotten, or to have difcarded, his original idéa with refpect to the flower; for he there attributes to it, not a fix petalled corolla, but a three- petalled one, with a proper three-leaved calyx. Gertuner is of opinion that commelina and tradefcantia are onetruly na- tural genus. Comme tina axillaris et criflata. Linn. See Trapss- “CANTIA. ; Propagation and Culture. All the fpecies are propagated by feed-. If the feeds of C. communis, which is an annual, be fown upon a warm border of light earth in the autumn, they will come up early in the {pring and ripen their fruit. ‘The roots of C. africana fend out offsets, by which the plaut is eafily propagated; but they will feldom live through the winter inthe open air. The other {pecies are tender, and mutt be fown in a moderate hot-bed in the fring; tranf- planted to a frefh hot-bed, when they are two inches hivh ; ‘aod in June, agaim tran{planted into a warm border of hght earth. C. tuberofa may be preferved, if p'anted in pots, and placed in the bark-itove in autumn: or its roots may be taken out of the ground in the autumn, kept in a warm place during the winter, and planted again in the fpring; they will be more forward and {tronger if placed on a hot- bed. COMMEMORATION, the remembrance of any one; or fomething done in honour of a perfon’s memory. Among the Romanilts, it is a practice for dying perfons COM to leave a legacy to the church, for the tehearfing fo many maffes in commemoration of them. Vhe euchartt is a commemoration of the fufferings of Je- fus Chrilt. Commemoration is alfo the name of two religious feats, ' otherwife called al/-/aints and al/-fauls. The occafion of their inftitution 1s varioufly related. Sce the articles. Commemoration of Handel, in Mufic. In order to record an event fo honourable to a liberal art, we fhall draw our information from the hiftory of that art, and from the account itfelf of the commemoration written exprefsly at the time, and publifhed in 4to. by the fame author, an attentive auditor of ali the performances, whofe fenfations and memory were more freth then than at the diftance of 22 years. In the “ Hiftory of Mulic,’”? vol. iv. p. 518. it is faid, that “ The year 1784 was rendered a memorable zra in the annals of mufic, by the fplendid and magnificent manner in which the birth, genius, and abilities of Handel, were celebrated in Weftminfter Abbey and the Pan- theon, by five performances of pieces felected from his own works, and executed by a band of more than 500 voices and inftrumentsin the prefence and under the immediate aulpices of their majefties and the firft perfonages in the kingdom. This event fo honourable to the art of mufic and an illuftrious arti!t, and fo worthy of a place here, having been minutely re- corded already in a diftin&t work, viz. ** Account of them nfi- cal performances in commemorationof Handcl,”’ by theauthor of this hiftory, written and publifhed for the benefit of the mufical fund; an eftablfhment which his majefty having fince deigned to honour with his patronage, the members and guardians have been permitted to incorporate themfelves under the ttle of Royal Society of Muficians: We thall only add, that this celebration has been fince eltablifhed into an annual mofical feltival for the ben fit of the fund, in which the number of performers, and perfeétion of the pere formances, as well as favour of the pubiic, have continued to increafe. In 17595, the vocal and initrumental band amounted to fix hundred and fisteen. In 1756, to feven hundred and forty-one; and in 1797, to eight hundred and fix vocal and inftrumenta! performers.” ' _ And in thefame ‘‘Hiiftory of Mufic,”’ at the end of the fame vol. the author tells us, that ‘The commemoration of Handel, in 1784. having been crowned with a fuccefs equally honourable to that great artift and to the nation, fimilar performances have fince been annually repeated, to {till more numerous audiences, for charitable purpofes, in Weitminfter-Abbey, under the title of a * Grand Mutical Feltival.”? In 1787, the band of vocal and inftrumental per- formers amounted to eight hundred and fix muticians, exclu- five of the principal fingers, confifting of twenty-two, with Madame Mara, Rubinelli, Harrifon, and Morelli at their head. And fuch is the ftate of pra€tical mufic in this coun- try, that the increafe of performers, inftead of producing confution, as might have been expecied, has conftantly been attended with fuperior excellence of execution; as experience, the beft of ali teachers, has fo guided the zeal of the direétors, and the feience of the condu@or and Icader of this great enterprze, that a certain road to full perfeétion in every de- partment feems to have been attained. Though this celebration happened fo recently, and is fo well known as fearcely to need being mentioned here for the information of the prefent race, among mufical articles 5 yet as our plan extends to hiftory and biography, as well as defimtions 2nd ({cientific explanations, a record of a mufical event of fuch magnitude feems neceflary for the in- formation of diftant times, if we may dare hope to reach them, ‘The origin and progrefs of the plan, as related ee the com the introdu@tion to the printed narrative, dedicated by per- miffion to the king, is the following. “Tt was in the year 1783, that the idea of this great en- térprize was conceived in a converfation between lord vifeount Fitzwilliam, the late fir Watkin Williams, and Joah Bates, late commiffioner of the vitualling office, on obferving how. much more London abounded with great mufi- cians, vocal and inftrumental, foreigners and natives, than any other city in Europe: but fo difunited ed difperfed at the operas, oratorios, theatres, and public and private con- ceits, that they can never be heard in the aggregate, nor can the effeéts which may be produced by fuch a umited band as our capital could furnilh, ever be known, unlefs fome plan was formed of a public periodical occafion for colleéting and confolidating them into one band; by which means a performance might be exhibited on fo grand and magnificent a feale as no other part of the world could equal. | The birth and death of Handel naturally occurred to three fuch enthufiaftic admirers of that great malter, and it was im- mediately recollected, that the next (now the prefent) year, would be a proper time for the introduétion of fuch a cuftom : as it formed a complete century fince his birth, and an exaét quarter of a century fince his deceafe. The plan was foon after communicated to the governors of the Mufical Fund, who approved it, and promifed thier affittance. It was next fubmitted to the direétors of the concert of Ancient Mufic, who, with an alacrity which does honour to their zeal for the memory of the great artift Handel, voluntarily undertook the trouble of managing and directing the celebrity. At length, the defign coming to the knowledge of the king, it was honoured with his majefty’s fanétion and patronage. Wett- min{ter Abbey, where the bones of the great mulician were depofited, was thought the propereft place for the perform- ance; and application having been made to the bifhop of Rochefter for the ufe of it, his lordthip, finding that the f{cheme was honoured with the patronage of his majefty, readily confented; only requefting, as the performance would interfere with the annual benefit for the Weftminfter Infirmary, that parg of the profits might be appropriated to that charity as an indemnification for the lofs it would fuftain. To this the projectors of the plan acceded ; and it was after- wards fettled, that the profits of the firlt day’s performance fhould be equally divided between the mufical fund and the Weltmintter Infirmary ; and thofe of the fubfequent days be folely applied to the ufe of that fund which Handel himfelf fo long helped to fuftain, and to which he not only be- queathed a 1000/., but which almoft every mulician in the capital annually contributes his money, his performance, or both, to fupport. Imprefled with a reverence for the memory of Handel, no fooner was the proje& known, but moft of the practical mulicians in the kingdom eagerly manifefted their zeal for the enterprife; and many of the moft eminent profeffors, waving all claims to precedence in the band, offered to per- form in any fubordinate ftation, in which their talents could be mott ufeful.”’ « By the latter end of February, the’ plan and neceffary arrangement were fo far digefted and advanced, that the directors ventured to infert in all the newfpapers, the follow- ing advertifement. Under the Patronage of His Majetty, In Commemoration of Handel, who was buried in Weltminfter Abbey, on the 2rft of April, 1759. On Wednefday the 21{t of April next, will be performed in Weftminfter Abbey, under the management of the com | Lord Paget | Right Hon. H. Morrice Vifcount Dudley Ward | Sir W. Williams Wynn, Bart. Vifcount Fitzwilliam Sir Richard Jebb, Bart. DireCtors of the concert of Ancient Mufic; Some of the mot approved pieces of facred mufic, of that great compofer. The doors will be opened at 9 o’clock, and the perform. ance will bezin precifely at twelve. And on the evening of the fame day, will be performed, at the Pantheon, a grand mifcellaneous concert of vocal and inftrumentat mufie ; confifting entirely of pieces {elected from the works of Handel. The doors will be opened at 6 o’clock, and the concert will begin exaétly at eight. And on Saturday morning, April 24th, will be per- formed, in Weftminiter Abbey, the facred oratorio of the Meffiah. Such is the reverence for this illuftrious mafter, that moft of the performers in London, and a great many from differ- ent parts of the kingdom, have generoufly offered their affitance ; and the orchettra will confift of at leaft 400 per- formers, a more numerous band than was ever known to be collected in any country, or on any occafion whatever. The profits arifing from the performances, will be applied to charitable purpofes. In order to render the band as powerfuland complete as poffible, the trombone, facbut, or double curtle, and double kettle drums, were fought and their ufe revived. In preparing Weftminfter Abbey for the reception of their majefties and the royal family, as well as the arch~ bifhops and bifhops, judges, great officers of ftate, and principal nobility and gentry in the kingdom, to the amount of three or four theufand, Mr. James Wyatt, the admirable archite&t of the ill-fated Pantheon, furnifhed the elegant drawings for the orcheftra, throne, and galleries, As this commemoration is not only the firft inftance of a band of fuch magnitude being affembled together, but of any band, at all numerous, performing in a fimilar fituation, without the afliftance of a manu-duétor, to regulate the meafure, the performances in Welftmintter Abbey may be fafely pronounced, no lefs remarkable for the multiplicity of voices aud inftruments employed, than for accuracy and precifion. When all the wheels of that huge machine, the orcheftra, were in motion, the effe& refembled clock-work in every thing, but want of feeling and expreffion, And, as the power of gravity and attraction in bodies are proportioned to their mafs and denfity, fo it feems as if the magnitude of this band had commanded and impelled adhefion and obedience, beyond that of any other of inferior force. The pulfations in every limb, and ramifications of veins and arteries in an animal, could not be more recipro- cal, ifochronous, and under the regulation of the heart, than the members of this body of muficians under that of the conduétor and leader. The totality of found feemed to proceed from one voice, and one inftrument ; and its powers produced, not only new and exquifite fenfations in judges, and lovers of the art, but were felt by thofe who never received pleafure from mufic before. This celebration was at firlt defigned to be extended to no more than two performances on the fame day : one at noon in Weftminfter Abbey, for facred mufic ; and the other in the evening of the fame day at the Pantheon, for fecular com- politions, felacted from the operas and mifcellaneous works of the hero whofe apotheofis was the efficient caufe of this extraordinary undertaking. But being countenanced by his majefty, the Suvi wa the concert of ancient mufic, z the Earl of Exeter Earl of Sandwich COM the governors of the mufical fund, and eagerly ps':onized by the public in general, while the plan was digefting, it determined the projectors, at the inftigation of his majefty, to have three performances. The firft and third in the morning, at Weltminfter Abbey, and the fecond at the Pantheon. Thefe performances having given fuch entire fatisfaction to all that were prefent, and becoming, of courfe, the ge- neral fubjeét of difcuffion and praife, excited a great defire in all lovers of mufic, and even of fplendid fpeétacles, who were abfent, to be enabled to judge and {peak of tranfac- tions fo memorable, from the convition of their own fenfes. But even thefe were not more eager in wifhing there might be a repetition of the performances, than thofe who had already attended them. Luckily for all parties, the withes of their majeities coincided with thofe of their fubje&ts ; and as the fcaffolding was ftill ftanding, and the band not yet difperfed, two more opportunities were given for the difplay of Handel’s wonderful powers, and the gratification of pub- lic curiofity. The fourth day was fupplied with a well chofen feleGtion of Handel’s moft grand and captivating compofitions, from his oratorios and anthems; and on the fifth, that fublime production, the Meffiah, was repeated; and though it had been performed in the Abbey but a week before, in fo per- fect and magnificent a manner, that no rehearfal, previous to its repetition, was neceflary to the band; yet, to gratify the wifhes of many timid and infirm lovers of mufic, who dreaded the croud that was likely to be affembled at a public per- formance, as well as to raife money for charitable purpofes, another rehearfal would certainly have been announced, if it had not been prevented from taking place by the cele- bration of his majeity’s birth-day, on which occafion there was a certainty that the chief part of the performers and company would be engaged. Thofe who attended this day’s commemoration at the Abbey were, feemingly, of a higher clafs than had yet ap- peared there ; fo that though the croud was fomewhat lefs than at the preceding performance of the fame oratorio, the exhibition was more {plendid. Indeed, as a f{pectacle, it was fo magnificent to the fight, and, as a mufical per- formance, fo mellifluous and grateful to the ear, that it will be difficult for the mind’s eye of thofe who were abfent, to form at adequate idea of the fhow, or the mental ear of the found, from defcription. Every one prefent muft have found full employment for the two fenfes which affords the moft refined pleafure ; as it is from the eye and the ear that intelle&t is fed, and the mind furnifhed with its beft intelligence. At the firft performance of the Meffiah, his majefty ex- prefled a defire to the earl of Sandwich of hearing the molt truly fublime of all choruffes, * Allelujah! for the Lord God omnipotent reigneth,”’ a fecond time; and this gracious wifh was conveyed to the orcheftra, by the waving of his lordfhip’s wand. At this fecond performance of that match- lefs oratorio, his majefly was pleafed to make the fignal himfelf, with a gentle motion of his right hand, in which was the printed book of the words, not only for the repe- tition of this, but of the final chorus, in the la{t part, to the great gratification of all his happy fubje@s prefent; and, perhaps, the fubjets of no fovereign prince on the globe were ever before fo delighted with the effets of a royal mandate. . Thus ended the fifth and laft of the performances for this memorable celebration; and fo great and perfe&t was the pleafure which the audience had received, that thofe wha cOoOM had attended all the Ave exhibitions feemed molt to regret this final clofe, The whole receipts at the five performances of this molt fplendid and magnificent celebration amounted to 12,7361. 12s. 10d. OF which, after all difburfements for building, band, and other incidental expences, to the amount of 57501. 12s. tod., 6ooo/. remained for the fund of the fo- tiety of decayed muficians, and 1000/. for the Weftminfter hofpital. At the end of the printed account of the firft year’s Com- memoration of Handel, is added in the Appendix, a “ Hittory of the Rife and Progrefs of the Fund for the Support of decayed Muficians and their Families, eftablifhed in 1738,” which has been fince laudably imitated by other profeflions, and in other countries; and it appeared in 1784, after thefe performances, that by the great acceffion to the fund from the commemoration, its capital became a ferious and weighty concern, amounting to upwards of 22,000/., in South-fea annuities and three per cents.; which realizes and afcertains an income of 678/. a year, exclufive of benefits or fubfcription. The path therefore which the governors and court of affiftants have now to purfue, is perfectly plain and pleafant ; the power of alleviating diltrefs and mifery, of feeding the hungry, clothing the naked, and adminiftering comfort to age and infirmities, is placed in their hands, without the trouble of providing the means. _ COMMENASA, in Ancient Geography, a river of Afiay according to Arrian, who fays that it ran into the Indus. COMMENDAM, in the Canon Law, exprefles the charge, truft, and adminiftration of the revenues of a be- nefice, given to a layman to enjoy, by way of depofitum, for the {pace of fix months, in order to its being repaired, &c. or to another bifhop, or ecclefiaftic, to perform the pattoral offices thereof, till fuch time as the benefice is pros vided of a regular incumbent. See Benerice. Anciently, the adminiftration of vacant bifhoprics belonged to the neareft neighbouring bifhop; which continued to be praGtifed between the archbifhopric of Lyons, and the bie fhopric of Autun: on this account they were called come mendatory bifhops. This cuftom appears to be very ancient: St. Athanafius fays of himfelf, according to Nicephorus, that there had been given him in commendam, i. €. in adminiltration, an- other church befides that of Alexandria, whereof he was ftated bifhop. The care of churches, it feems, which had no paftor, was committed-to a bifhop, till they were provided with an ordi- nary: the regifter of pope Gregory I. is full of thefe com- miffions, or commendams, granted during the abfence or ficknefs of a bifhop, or the vacancy of'a fee. Some fay, that pope Leo IV. firft fet the modern commendams on foot, in favour of ecclefialtics who had been expelled their benefices by the Saracens; to whom the adminiftration of the vacant churches was committed for a time, in expecta~ tion of their being reftored: though St. Gregory is faid alfo to have ufed the fame, while the Lombards defolated Italy. ra a little time, the practice of commendams became ex- ceedingly abufed; and the revenues of monafteries were given to laymen for their fubfiftence. The bifhops alfo pro- cured feveral benefices, or even bifhoprics, in commendam, which ferved for a pretext for holding them all without di- re&tly violating the canons. Part of the abufe has been re- trenched; but the ufe of commendams is {till retained, as an expedient to take off the incompatibility of the perfon, by the nature of the benefice. When com ‘When a parfon is made bifhop, his parfonage becomes vacant; but if the king by fpecial difpenfation give him power to retain his benefice, notwithftanding his promotion, he thall continue parfon, and is faid to hold it ia commendams but this muft be done before confecration, for afterwards it somes too late, becaufe the benefice is then abfolutely void. There are feveral forts of commendams founded on the fiat. 25 Hen. VIII. cap. 21. as a commendam femeflris, which is for the benefit of the church, without any regard to the commendatary, being only a provifional aét of the ordinary, for fupplying the vacation of 6 months, in which time the patron is to prefent his clerk, and only implies a fequeftra- tion of the cure and fruits till the clerk is prefented: com- mendam retinere, by means of which a bifhop retains bene- fices on his preferment, which has operated for a certain number of years, or even as long as the commendatary lived, and continued bifhop; aud thefe commendams are granted on the king’s mandate to the archbifhop, expreffiag his con- fent, which continues the incumbency, fo that there is no occafion for inkitution: a commendam recipere, which is to take a benefice de novo, in the bifhop’s own gift, or of fome other patron, whofe cosfent is obtained; and for life, when it is equal to a prefentation, without inftitution, or induc- tion. But all difpenfations beyond 6 months were only permiffive at firft, and granted to perfons of merit; the commendam retinere is for one or two years, &c. and fome- times for three or fix years, and doth not alter the ettate which the incumbent had before; and this, as long as the commendatary fhould live and continue bifhop, hath been thought good. Vaugh. 18. The commendam recipere mutt be for life, as other parfons and vicars enjoy their benefices; and as a patron cannot prefent to a full church, fo neither can a commendam recipere be made to a church that is then full. Show. 414. A benefice cannot be commended by parts, any more than it may be prefented unto by parts; fo that one fhall have the glebe, another the tythes, &e. or can a commenda- tary have a juris ufrum, or take to him and his fucceflors, fue or be fued, in a writ of annuity, &c. But a commenda perpetua may be admitted to do it. rr Hen. IV. Compl. In- cumb. 360. (See Nelf. Abr. 454.) Thefe commendams are now in fa&t feldom or never granted to any but bifhops; and in that cafe the bifhop is made commendatary of the benefice while he continues bifhop of fuch a diocefe, as the objcét is to make an addition toa {mall bifhopric; and it would be unreafonable to grant it to a bifhop for life, who might afterwards he tranflated to one of the vacant fees. ComMENnDAM, in popifh countries, is a real title of a re- gular benefice; as an abbey, or priory given by. the pope to a fecular clerk, or even to a layman, with power to difpofe of the fruits thereof during his life. No benefice that has a cure of fouls, i. e. no parfonage, or bifhopric, can be given in commendam. 'Vhis praduce being entirely contrary to the canons, none but the pope, who has a power of difpenfing with the canons, can con- fer it, When the commendam becomes vacant by the death of the commendatary, it is not elteemed vacant by his death ; but as it was before the commendam was granted: that making no alteration in the thing: yet the pope gives the fame benefice in commendam again, by a privilege which he Hill continues. By the pope’s bulls, a commendatary abbot has the full authority of the regular abbot to whom he is fubitituted. For this reafon, the bulls exprefsly require, that he be a priefl; or, that if he have not yet attained the age of pricit- COM hood, he fhall take orders as foon as he has, But this is a mere formality, or matter of ftyle, the thing is never exes cuted. Indeed, the fpiritual direction of the abbey, while it is in commendam, is lodged wholly in the clauitral priors. The commendatary abbots have not any authority over the religious in /piritualibus :.they even cannot either ap- point or fet afide the clanttral priors, who are nominated in the bulls the adminiftrators of the f{piritualities; in which, however, this reftriGion is added, viz. till the abbot arrive at the age of twenty-five years, to aflume the priefthood. The popes grant benefices in commendam, not only to clerks, by difpenfing with their age, and other qualifications required; but they alfo difpenfe with the clericate even in children yet in the cradle, till they become of age to take the tonfure: i¢ being fufficient to obtain a bull, that it be reprefented at Rome, that the child is deftined for the ecclefiaftic flate. In this cafe there is an ofCoNoMUS, or fteward, appointed to take care of the temporal con- cerns. Commennarary, a perfon who holds a church living or preferment in commendam. CommenpaTary Letters, are fuch as are written by one bifhop to another in behalf of any of the clergy, or others of his diocefe travelling thither; that they may be received among the faithful; or that the clerk may be promoted ; or neceffartes may be adminiftered to others, &c. Several forms of thefe letters may be feen in our hiftorians; as ia Bede, lib. ii. cap. 18. COMMENDATUS, one that lives under the protection of a great man. Commendati homines were perfons who, by a voluntary ho~ mage, put themfelves under the proteétion of any fuperior Jord ; for ancient homage was either predial, due for fome tenure, or perfonal, which was by compulfion, asa fign of neceflary fubjeétion ; or voluntary, with a defire of pro- te€tion. And thofe who by voluntary homage put them- felves under the proteétion of any men of power, were fometimes called omines ejus commendati, fometimes only commendati, as often occurs in Domefday. Commendati di- midii were thofe who depended on two feveral lords, and paid one half of their homage to each; and /ub-commen- dati, were like under-tenants, under the command of per fons who were dependants themfelves on a fuperior lord, There were alfo dimidii Jub-commendati, who bore a double relation to fuch depending lords. Domefday. This phrafe feems to be ftill in ufe, in the ufual compliment, commend me to fuch a friead, &c. which is to let him know I am his humble fervant. Spelm. of Feuds, cap, 20. COMMENDO, called alfo Commani, Kommani, Agueflo, and Guaffo,in Geography, a kingdom of Africa, on the Gold coa{t, bordered on the weit by the countries of Jabiand Jaben, on the north-weft by Adom, by Ambrambo on the north; on the ealt; by a little republic lying between Commendo and Fetu, called Addena, or Elmina; and by the ocean on the fouth. The dimenfions are about five miles along the fea-coaft, and about as many up the country. In the centre, on the ftrand, ftands Little Commendo, or Commani, call- ed by the negroes Ekki T'ckki, having cape Aldea das Terras on the welt, and Ampani on the eaft, with fome {mall ham. lets in the intermediate {paces. Commendo had formerly been a part of Saba and Fetu, but of late years it has been erected into a feparate monarchy. he chief city, or reti- dence of the king, is called ** Guaffo,” which is large and well inhabited, containing no lefs than 400 houfes, and fitu- ated on high ground, at the diltance of four miles from Little cOM Little Commendo; the Dutch diftinguifh both by the name of Great and Little Commendo. This kingdom produces but little rice; neverthelefs, the vallies are no lefs fertile than agree- able, and the hills covered with wood, which affords a very de- lightful profpe&. Behind Little Commendo, the land rifes bya gentle afcent into little hilis, beautifully ftheltered with woods of a perpetual verdure; and at the bottom are mea- dows and plains difpofed in the moft agreeable manner, and abounding with various kinds of fruit-trees. The natives are warlike, and fo numerous, that in this little king- dom, the fovereign is able to raife an army of 20,000 men. His ordiaary body-guard is compofed of 505 ftout fellows, well armed, refolute, and loyal. It has been faid that Commendo abounds in gold mines, but that the king, for fear of exciting the avarice of the Europeans, prohibits the working of them. This country is divided into two diftin& provinces. We fhall content ourfelves with deferibing Little Commendo. This province is called by the Portuguefe Aldea das Terras, and- by the natives Ekki Tekki. The town is faid to contain at leaft 100 houfes. It is fituated on the banks of a fine rivulet, that empties itfelf into the fea onthe fouthward, which forms a kind of canal, or little oblong harbour for canoes. The N.E. fide of the town, where the French had formerly a fettlement, is border- ed by little hills, at the foot of which lie fine rich mea- dows. and patture, as well as fertile fields, every where interfperfed with groves of fruit-trees. Little Commendo, which was once a place of great note, and one of the fineit towns in Guinea, has fince exhibited only the remains of a town deftroyed by fire, and the well peopled ruins of a once flourifhing and great city. The natives of Little Commendo are in general turbulent, cunning, and deceitful ; much ad- died to lying and ftealing. Their employment confitts either in fifhing or in commerce, and their neighbours em- ploy them as brokers and factors, particularly the people of ‘Akamen, who carry ona confiderable trade. Every morn- ing 70 or 8o large canoes may be fcen upon the coaft fifh- ing, or trading with the European fhipping in the road. About the middle of the day they put to fhore when the fouth-weft winds begin to blow, both for facility of unload- ing, and for fecuring a market for their cargoes, either at Great or Little Commendo, where the inland negroes affemble with the commodities of their principal countries. No markets on earth are better fupplied with all forts of grain, roots, fruits, pulfe, and fifh, than thefe, nor at a more reafonaple price. Here the Englifh and Dutch have forts. Next to Cape Coalt, the Englith fort is faid to be the principal which they poffefs in Guinea, at leaft on the Gold Coaft. The Dutch fort of Wodenbourgh, lies at the diltance of a mufket fhot, and was built in the year x688. N. lat. 4° 54/. E. long. 0° 34’. The principal commodities for which there is a demand by the negroes of Commendo, are glafs beads, brafs bells, and buttons, long linen cloths and woollen ftuffs. They are very dextrous in the adulteraticn of gold, and the practice is very common. When the people of Commendo are at war, they have ufually a flave-market at Little Commendo, for the more quick difpatch of their bufinefs. Here alfo they keep quantities of gold in the hands of certain agents employed to carry on trade, while the reft are fighting the enemy in the field. The gold trade, however, is not very confiderable. COMMENDONE, Gianrrancesco, in Biography, an eminent prelate in the church of Rome, was born at Venice in 3524, and began, at the early age of ten years, to com- pofeverfes. He purtued his ftudies at Padua, and in the year 255% he was introduced to pope Julius III., by whom he c*O M was made chamberlain, and afterwards employed on public bofinefs. In 1553, he accompanied the legate cardinal Ban- dino to Flanders, and from thence he was difpatched fecret- ly to England, to enquire into the ftate of religion under queen Mary. Paul IV. made him bifhop of Zant, and commiffioned him to excite the different ftates of Italy te unite with him in a common league. By Pius LV. h> was raifed to the office of cardinal in £565, while he was nuncio in Poland. _ He was employed in various other miffions to foreign ftates, and in all thefe he aGed with zeal for his church, and executed whatever was committed to his charge with the utmoft difpatch and fidelicy. Under Gregory XIIT. he tas profecuted by the imperial factiot for having too great a partiality towards France ; his own party was, how- ever, fo ftrong, that he was not only acquitted, but upon a dangerous tilnefs of the pope, it was projeéted to raife him to the papal crown. The pope, by recovering his health, difappointed his expeGtations, and Commendone himfelf died at Padua, in December, 1584. He is not celebrated as an author, having -left behind him only fome Latin poems, among thofe of the Academy of Occulti, of which he was the zealous patron, and fome letters inferted in the notes to thofe of Julio Poggiano. Commendone was reckoned one of the ableft politicians of his own time, a man of great learning, and a friend to literature. He cultivated an intimate friendfhip with many of the moft emi- nent fcholarsin Italy, and to him were addreffed fome letters of Annibal Caro. Gen. Biog. CommeENSuRABLE Quantities, in Geometry, are {uch as have fome common aliquot part, or which may be meafured or divided without leaving a remainder, by fome meafure or divifor, called their common meafure. Thus, a foot and a yard are commenfurable; there being a third quan- tity which will meafure each, viz. an inch ; which taken 12 times makes a foot, and 36 times a yard. Commenfurables are to each other as one rational whole number to another. In incommenfurables it is otherwife. The ratio of commenturables, therefore, is rational; that of in- commenfurables irrational : hence, alfo, the exponent of the ratio of commenfurables is a rational number. CommensurABLe Numbers, in Arithmetic, whether integers or fractions, are fuch as have fome other number which will meafure or divide them without any remaigder. Thus, 6 and 8, both divided by 2, are refpetively commenfurable numbers: 3 and 2, or 58, and ;°,, are commenfurable fraGtions, becaufe the fraction ~ or y will meafure them both; and in this fenfe all fra€tions may be faid to be commenfurable. ComMENSURABLE in Power. Right lines are faid to be commenfurable in power, when their fquares are meafured by one and the fame fpace, or fuperficies. ComMENsuRABLE Surds, are {uch furds as, being reduced to their leaft terms, become true figurative quantities of their kind; and are therefore as a rational quantity to a rational: fuch are 3 ,/ 2 and 2\,/2 being one to the other as 3 to 2. See Surp. COMMENTACULA, among the Romans, therod which the flamens carried in their hands when going to facrifice. COMMENTARIENSIS, in Ancient Military Language, the perfon who was gaoler of the foldiers’ prifon among the Romans, and Kept its regifters. He was fubje& to the ‘¢ triumviri capitales.’” COMMENTARY, or Comment, a glofs, or interpre- tation, affixed to fome ancient, obfcure, or difficult author, to render him more intelligible, or to fupply what he has left undone. The biblical ftudent may find fome judicious aad ufeful remarks on commentators, or thofe who have written commentaries on the Sacred Scripture, in Mr. Locke’s Pre- face COMMERCE. fece to his Paraphrafe and Notes on the Epifles of St. Paul. Commentary is alfo ufed for a fort of hiftory, written by a perfon who had a chief hand in the tranfactions re- lated. Such are the commentaries of Cefar, of Sleidan, Mont- luc, &c. The word is alfo nfed for certain books written on fome particular fubjeét: Kepler has an excellent book of com- mentaries on Mars, containing obfervations on the motion of that planet. COMMEQUIERS, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Vendée, 15 miles N. of Sables d’Olonne. COMMERAGH, or Cummeracu, the name of a high ridge of mountains which lie between Dungarvan and Clon- mell, in the county of Waterford, Ireland. On the fides of this chain, fays Dr. Smith, are many horrid precipices and fteep declivities, and the vallies are full of large fragments intermixed with fand and gravel. On the tops of moft of them are alfo large heaps of ftones. Smith’s Water- ford. COMMERCE, the interchange of commodities, or the difpofal of produce of any kind for other articles, or for fome reprefentative of value for which other articles can be procured, with the view of making a profit by the tranfac- tion. The term is ufually reftriéted to the mercantile in- tercourfe between different countries ; the internal dealings between individuals of the fame country, either for the fup- ply of immediate confumption, or for carrying on manufac. tures, being more commonly denominated /rade. The mutual convenience of an exchange of commodities, mult have been evident almoft as foon as any part of man- kind had acquired an idea of diftiné& property ; the difficulty of communication between different countries mult, however, have long rendered commercial intercourfe very limited and uncertain. The dangers attending long journies induced thofe who engaged in triding to diflant parts, to affociate together for mutual affiltance and defence; and thefe com. panies of merchants, or caravans, were well adapted for the improvement of commerce, from the information which the individuals compofing them would communicate to each other, and the conne¢tions they might occationally form. In the book of Genefis, mention is made of the companies or caravans of Ifhmaelite merchants trading in {pices from Gi- lead into Egypt; to one of whom Jofeph was fold, about 620 years afterthe flood. But this mode of communication between different countries was infufficient for the enter- prifing fpirit of commercial adventurers; remote countries cannot convey their commodities by land to thofe places where, on account of their rarity, they are molt defired, and confequently become moft valuable. It was not till fome progrels had been made in the art of navigation, that the power was acquired of tranf{porting with facility the fuper- fluous ftock of one part of the earth to fupply the wants of another part, and that the aétive fpirit of commerce could extend its multifarious concerns to all the known parts of the globe. The Egyptians, foon after the eftablifhment of their mo- narchy, are laid to have opened a trade between the Arabian Gulph or Red Sea, and the weltern coaft of the great In- dian continent. The commodities which they imported from the ealt, were carried by land from the Arabian Gulph to the banks of the Nile, and conveyed down that river to the Mediterranean : but the maxims and manners of Egypt were ‘inimical to commerce, and this profitable tyaflick foon de- clined, Eh 7 The firuation and cireumltances of the Phenicians natu- rally led them to look to commerce as the only fource from which they could derive opulence or power; and according- ly, the foreign trade carried on by them, particularly from Sidon and Tyre, became more extenfive and important than that of any ftate in the ancient world. ‘[heir fhips not only frequented all the ports in the Mediterranean, but they were the firft who ventured beyond the ancient boundaries of na- vigation, and paffing the ftreights of Gibraltar, vifited the weltern coalts of Spain and Africa. ‘They revived a com- mercial intercourfe with Arabia and the continent of india, on the one hand, and with the ea(tern coalt of Africa on the other; the cargoes which they purchafed in Arabia, Ethi- opia, and India, being landed at Elath, the fafeft harbour in the Red Sea towards the north: thence they were carried by land to Rhinocolura, the diftance not being very con- fiderable, and, being re-fhipped in that port, were traniport- ed to Tyre, and diftributed over the world. The wealth which the Phentcians acquired by monopo- lizing the commerce of the Red Sea, incited their neigh- bours, the Jews, under the profperous reigns of David and Solomon, to aim at being admitted to fome fhare of it. So- lomon fitted out fleets, which, navigated by Phenician pilots and mariners, failed from the Red Sea to Tarfhifh and Ophir, from whence they brought fuch valuable cargoes as fuddenly diffufed wealth and fplendour through the king- dom of Hfrael. But the inftitutions of the Jews were by no means favourable to commerce, which was never carried to any great extent by them while they inhabited Judea. The Carthaginians applied themfelves to commerce and Navigation with ardour, ingenuity, and fuccefs; but as the Phenicians had engrofled the commerce of India, their ad- ventures were chiefly made to the weft and north. _ Follow- ing the courfe which the Phenicians had opened, they ex- tended their voyages beyond the fhores of the Mediterranean, viliting not only all the coafts of Spain, but thofe of Gaul, and penetrating at laft to Britain. They made voyages of difcovery in different direCtions, and thus eltablifhed a com- mercial intercourfe with places which before were wholly unknown; but whacever knowledge of this kind they ac~ quired, it was concealed from the inhabitants of other flates with the utmoft care. The Greeks, although their country was almoft encom- pafled by the fea, which formed many fpacious bays and com modious harbours, and though it was furrounded by a num- ber of fertile iflands, were, notwithftanding fuch a favour- able fituation, a long time before they attained any degree of perfection in navigation, ‘They fearecly,carried on any commerce beyond the limits of the Mediterranean, heir chief intercourfe was with the colonies of their countrymen planted in the leffer Afia, in Italy, and in Sicily, hey fome- times vifited the ports of Egypt, of the fouthern: provinces of Gaul, and of Thrace, or pafling through the Hellefpont, they traded with the countries fituated around the Euxine fea. ‘The expedition of Alexander into the ed{t confider- ably enlarged the geographical knowledge of the Greeks. He had obterved the refonrces which commerce creates, in the exertions of the republic of Tyre, and therefore it be- came part of his plan to render the empire which he pro- pofed to eftablifh, the centre of commerce as well as the feat of dominion. With this view, he founded Alexandria near one of the mouths of the Nile, that, by the Mediter- ranean fea, and the neighbourhood of the Arabian gulph, it might command the trade both of the eaft and welt. This fituation was fo judicioufly chofen, that Alexandria [con became the chief commercial city in the world. Not only during the fubfillence of the Grecian empire in Egypt and mw COMMERCE. in the eaft, but amidft all the fucceeding revolutions of thofe countries, commerce, particularly that of the Eat Indies, continued to flow in the channel which the fagacity and forefight of Alexander had marked out for it, till the dif- covery of the navigation by the Cape of Good Hope opened a more expeditious and independent channel to ail the ma- ritime ftates of Europe. In the early periods of the Roman hiftory, commerce ap- pears to have been much negleéted and undervalued; it feems to have been thought a degrading employ by this mi- liary people, and to have been left almoft entirely in the hands of the natives of the countries they conquered. The extent, however, of the Roman power, which included the greatelt part of the known world, the vigilant infpe@tion of the Roman magittrates, and the fpirit of the Roman go- wernment, no lefs intelligent than active, gave fuch additional f{ecurity to commerce, as animated it with new vigour; and, as foon as the Romans acquired a tafte for the produdions of other countries, commerce, particularly the trade with India through Egypt, was puthed with new vigour, and carried on to a greater extent. he pilots who failed from Egypt to India firit ventured to quit fight of the fhore, and depending wholly on the trade winds, boldly failed from Ocelis at the mouth of the Arabian gulph, acrofs the ocean, to the coall of Malabar, returning with the eaftern monfoon, and thus procuring the {pices and other rich commodities of the continent and iflands of the farther India, which were brought to the port of Mulfiris by the Indians themfelves. The commerce thus carried on will appear confiderable even in the prefent age, as the trade with India is {aid to have crained the Roman empire every year of more than four hundred thoufand pounds, and that one hundred and twenty fhips failed annually from the Arabian gulph to that coun- try. The reign of Auguftus was very favourable to com- merce, as the peace which then prevailed over the civilized parts of the world, enabled the merchants to purfue it un- molefted. Under Tiberius we find the Romans extending their protection to the north, and the town of Havern, the moft ancient in Friefland, founded. Under Nero, the capi- tal of England is firft mentioned as a confiderable place. ‘Tacitus, who lived for fome time at London, fays it was famous for its many merchants, and plenty of its merehan- dize. Rome, however, as the feat of wealth and luxury, continued to be the metropolis of the commercial world, until the fourth century, when Conftantine removed the feat of empire to Conltantinople, and made it the emporium of commerce. ‘This city was undoubtedly well adapted for that honour; it was favoured by nature with a fine climate, and in a moft advantageous fituation for carrying on an ex. tenfive correfpondence with every part of the world then known. j The invafion by the northern nations in the fifth century, not merely arrefted the progrefs of commerce, but effectually diffolved all commercial conncétions, and deprived the mer- chants of any market for their commodities. Europe be- came parcelled out into many {mall and independent ftates, differing from each other in language and cuftoms; no in- tercourfe fubfifted between the members of thefe divided and hoftile communities; their mode of life was fimple, they had few wants to fupply, and few fuperfluities to difpofe of . Cities, in which alone an extenfive commerce can be carried on, were few, inconfiderable, and deftitute of thofe immu- nities which produce fecurity or- excite enterprife. It be- came difagreeable and dangerous to vifit any foreign coun- try, and thus the knowledge of remote regions was lolt ; their fituation, their commodities, and almoft their names, were unknown. The prefervation of Conftantinople from ; 3 the general deftru&tion, however, prevented ¢ommercial ins tercourfe with diftant nations from ceafing altogether. Ina that city the knowledge of ancient arts and dilcoveries was preferved ; a tafte for fplendour and elegance fubfifted ; the produétions of foreign countries were in requeft; and com- merce continued to flourifh there when it was almoft extin& in every other part of Europe. The merchants of Con- flantinople did not confine their trade to the iflands of the Archipelago, or to the adjacent coalts of Afia; they took a wider range, and following the courfe which the ancients had marked out, imported the commodities of the Eaft In- dies from Alexandria. Wher Egypt was torn from the Roman empire by the Arabians, the induftry of the Greeks difcovered a new chanel, by which the produétions of In- dia might be conveyed to Conftantinople. They were car- ried up the Indus, as far as that great wiver is navigable ; thence they were tranfported by land to the banks of the river Oxus, and proceeded down its ftream to the Cafpian fea. There they entered the Volga, and failing up it, were carried by land to the Tanais, which condutted them into the Euxine fea, where veffels from Conflantinople waited their arrival. This extraordinary and tedious mode of con veyance, Dr. Robertfon obferves, is a proof not only of the violent paflion which the inhabitants of Conftantinople had conceived for the luxuries of the eaft, and of the ardour and ingenuity with which they carried on commerce, but it de- monttrates, that during the ignorance which reigned in the reft of Europe, a knowledge of remote countries was flill preferved in the capital of the Greek empire. Robertfon’s Hitt. Amer. vol. i. The devaftations of the Huns in Italy induced many of the richeft inhabitants of the country near the bottom of the Adriatic, to fly with their beft effeCts into the numerous {mall fandy ifles lying amongft the fhallow waters near the fhores of the continent ; on which ifles, about feventy-two in number, they built fuch habitations as their circumttances would admit ; and here by degrees arofe the celebrated com- mercial city of Venice. Neceflity firft obliged them to de- vote themfelves to commerce, the earlieft branch of which was naturally the fifheries.. Their next commercial object was the manufacture and exportation of falt. Thus by the application of its inhabitants, and the fecurity of its fitu- ation, Venice gradually became the general magazine for the merchandize of the neighbouring continent, to which the many rivers that fall into the Adriatic fea greatly con- tributed ; and as the Venetians in time became the carriers of this merchandize into diftant countries, they were enabled to bring back raw materials for various manufactures which greatly enlarged their commercial dealiags. In this manner, Venice firft, and Genoa, Florence, and Pifa afterward, from inconfiderable places became populous and wealthy cities, and laid the foundation for the revival of commerce throughout the Mediterranean, which, in procefs of time, was extended to the countries of Europe without the ftreights of Gibraltar. The free cities of Italy, were, for feveral centuries, the only places in Europe, weft of the Eaftern or Greek empire, which had any confiderable com- merce, or any valuable manufactures for the fupply of other nations. ‘[hetr merchants frequented Aleppo, Tripoli, Alexandria, and other ports of Syria and Egypt, where they procured the produce of India; and vifiting the mari- time towns of Spain, France, the Low Countries, and Eng~ land, by diftributing their commodities over Europe, com- municated to its various nations fome tafte for the valuable productions of the eaft, as well as fome ideas of manufac- tures and arts, which were then unknown beyond the pree cintts of Italy. The C)O.M M ErR>C)E. The firft mention of the city of Antwerp, afterwards fo famous for its trade, is in the year 517, when Theodoric expelled the Danes from it. Some towns in England, as Chichelter and Abingdon, are faid to have been founded about this time, which fhews that trade and manufactures were gaining ground in this country. The unfettled ftate of Europe, arifing from the fierce and reftiefs difpofition of the barbarous tribes wha had taken poflcflion of the weftern empire, caufed for feveral cen- turies a great flagnation of commercial intercourfe. Ve- nice however continued to improve its commerce, and Lon- don became “ a mart town of many nations, which repair- ed thither by fea and land.”? Some of the Italian cities be- gan to aflume a degree of independence, and feveral towns were founced in Germany and Flanders, which afterwards became of much commercial importance. The commerce of Europe revived a little under the government of Charle- magne, who, among other endeavours to promote it, is faid to have formed a project for uniting the two great rivers of the Rhine and the Danube, and thus forming a communica- tion between the German ocean and the Black fea, without failing up the Mediterranean, But his engineers had not fufficient fkill to overcome the difficulties they met with, and the undertaking was foon relinquifhed. Ina letter from this prince to Offa, king of Mercia, he grants leave for fuch Englifh as went in pilgrimage to Rome, to pafs through his dominions free ; but fuch as travelled for the purpofes of trade were to pay the cuftomary tolls; and promifes that the merchants fhould have legal patronage and redrefs of grievances. Thefe merchants were probably perfons who carried their whole {tock with them, which of courfe could not be of any very great amount. The eftablifhment of Chriftianity in Germany produced a much more intimate and regular correfpondence between the north of Europe, and the earlier Chriftianized coun- tries of Italy, France, Spain, and Britain; fo that their fuperfluities and produce were mutually communicated to each other, while Germany received by degrees, from its intercourfe with thofe countries, confiderable improvements with refpeé to agriculture, mining, vine-drefling, manufac- tures, and the arts, more immediately conducive to the comforts of civilized life. It confiderably increafed the ci- ties and towns, where cathedral churches and houfes for the bifhops and clergy were ereéted. ‘Thus the propagation of Chriflianity greatly favoured the advancement of commerce in the north of Europe; while Charlemagne by his con- queft of Italy, and by rebuilding and reltoring many of the decayed cities of that country, infpired thofe cities with the {pirit of commerce, mannfacture, and navigation, for which they became in after times fo juitly famous. Tis period may be confidered as the firlt dawn of the revival of commerce in Europe; for although fub{equent to this time the Saracens or Moors, and the Normans, by their ravages and conquefts in various parts, greatly obitructed and re- tarded its progrefs, yet in fpite of all oppofitiom, the free cities in both the extreme parts of Europe in confequence of the increafe of their wealth and population from the en- couragement of commerce, gradually arofe to very confider- able importance. In the tenth century, the commercial intercourfe which the Germans had previoufly cultivated with the neighbour- ing {tates was much increafed by the difcovery of valuable filver mines at Goflar in Saxony, which occafioned other parts of Germany to be explored for mines with conlider- able fuccefs. The woollen manufa&ture of Flanders began to acquire fome degree of importance, being much encou- raged py Baldwin, third earl of Flanders, who invited into Vox. IX. the country all manner of handicraftsmen for making ail forts of manufactures, to whom he granted great privileges. He alfo eftablifhed annual fairs, and fixed markets on ftated days of the week at Bruges, Ccurtray, Torhout, Mont- Caffel, and other places, where merchants could exchange their goods for others; for ‘* by reafon of the fearcity of morey at that time, the Flemings dealt moftiy by permutation, or barter of one kind of merchandize for another; which we read was alfo the pradtice of almoft ali the Germans and Sarmatians.”’ Tie republic of Venice had now acquired fo -much wealth and ftrength by the great extenfion of her com- merce, as to have becomea formidable political ftate, and having annexed to their dominions many cities aud towns on the eaft coaft of the Adriatic fez, the doze of Venice af- fumed the title of duke of Dalmatia. They eftablithed a regular commercial intercourfe with the Saracens of Epypt and Syria, ‘* countries ever famous for the produétion of rice, fugar, dates, fenna, caffia, flax, linen, balm, per- fumes, galls, wrought filk, foap, &c. behdes the rich {pices and precious {tones of India, brought to thofe two countries; with all this rich merchandize, the Venetians now traded all over the wefterm parts of Europe, to their immenfe profit.” They obtained from the Greck empe- rors a freedom from all cuftoms and taxes in their empire; and in the year 996 the emperor Otho III. likewife granted them various privileges, with a right to fet up fairs in fe- veral parts of Germany, where they carried on a valt commerce. ‘The crufades contributed materially to the extenfion of commerce during the 11th and 12th centuries. The Ge- noefe, the Pifans, and the Venetians, furmifhed the tranf- ports neceflary to carry the vaft armies that embarked on thefe wild enterprizes: they alfo fupplied them with pro- vilions and military ftores. Befides the immenfe fums which they received on this account, they obtained commercial privileges and eftablifhments of great confequence, in the fettlements which the crufaders made in Paleftine, and in other provinces of Afia. From thefe fources they acquired great wealth, and a proportionate increafe of power: By the expeditions into Afia, the inhabitants of all the ftates of Europe had an opportunity of obferving the manners, the arts, and the accommodations of people more poliihed than themfelves. The adventurers who returned from Afia come municated to their countrymen the ideas which they had ac- quired, and the habits of life they had contracted by vifiting more refined nations. ‘Che Europeans began to be fenfible of wants with which they were formeily unacquainted ; and fuch a tafte for the commodities and arts of other countries gradually fpread among them, that they not only encou- raged the refort of foreigners to their harbours, but began to perceive the advantage and neceflity of applying to come merce themfelves. - The great commercial progrefs of the city of Lubeck foon caufed other towns to be founded in the neighbour hood of the Baltic; which, fuffering much from the occa- fional attacks of neighbouring powers, and the depredations of pirates, were induced to enter into an affociation for their mutual fafety, and the protection of their navigation. Thus was gradually formed the famous Hanfeatic confederacy, which made {o great a figure in the commercial hiltory of » feveral fucceeding centuries, and of which Lubeck was from the firlt confidered as the dire&tor or head. Werdenhagen fixes on the year 1169 for the firft of this confederacy, which confilted of the twelve following towns on the Baltic fhore: viz. Lubeck, Wifmar, Roftock, Straelfund, Grypef- wald, Anclam, Stetin, Colberg, Stolpe, Dantzick, Elbing, U and COMM and Koningfberg; though probably not all of them at the firlt; as fome of them do not appear to have been founded till a later period. Lambecius, librarian to the emperor Leopold, is of opinion, that the Hans-league did not pro- perly commence till after the league between Lubeck and Hamburgh in 1241, at which time the towns comprehended in this affociation were in poffeflion of all the commerce of the fouth fhores of the Baltic, from Denmark to the bot- tom of the gulph of Finland, befides an extenfive commerce to more diftant parts. About this time the commerce of Norway began to acquire fome degree of importance, and in a treaty between the monarch of that country and Henry TIT. of England, m r2r7, it was agreed that their refpect- ive flates fhculd be free for merchants and others on both fides. At the beginning of the 13th century, the German mer- ehants of the Steel-yard engroffed all the foreign commerce which then exifted in England, which at that time had very few merchants, and fewer fhips of her own. About 1250, however, a fociety of Englifh merchants was formed, who are faid to have had privileges granted to them in the Ne- therlands, by John duke of Brabant; whither they had begun to refort with Englifh wool, lead, and tin, bringing in return fine woollen cloths, linen, and other articles. From this fociety, the company ftyled ‘¢ Merchants of the ftaple of England” took its fe. In 1274, a treaty was concluded with the earl of Flanders for the fettlement of fome com- mercial difputes which exifted between the two countries. France at this period poffeffed very little foreign com- merce, but in the cities of Italy it had increafed greatly. The republic of Genoa was in its meridian glory, being the greateft maritime power then exifting. Even Venice, great as it was now become, was eclipfed by Genoa, which, towards the conclufion of this century, had reduced the re- public of Pifa, till then alfo powerful at fea, to the loweft ebb of fortune, never again to rife to greatnefs, and foon to lofe her independence. A new era was now about to commence in commercial hiftory. The difcovery of that valuable, but now familiar inftrument, the mariner’s compafs, Dr. Robertfon obferves, may be faid to have opened to man the dominion of the fea, and to have put him in full poffcffion of the earth, by en- abling him to vific every part of it. But the effeéts of this difcovery were not fo fudden or extenfive as might be ex- pected. The ufe of the compafs enabled the Italians to perform the fhort voyages to which they were accuitomed, with greater fecurity and expedition, but near half a cen- tury elapfed, before navigators ventured into any feas which they had not been accuftomed to frequent. One of the firft fruits of fuch adventures, was the difcovery of the Canary lands by the Spaniards. Many of the princes of Europe were now becoming more fenfible of the importance of commerce, which led them to enter into treaties for its regulation and defence. Edward I. in 1302 publifhed his famous charter ftyled Charta Mercatoria, by which ** The merchants of Almaine, France, Spain, Portugal, Navarre, Lombardy, Flo- rence, Provence, Catalonia, Aquitaine, Thouloufe, Flan- ders, Brabant, and of all other foreign parts, who fhall some to traffic in England, fhall and may fafely come with their merchandize into his cities, towns, and ports, and fell the fame, by wholefale only, as well to natives #3 to foreigners.” Some particular articles they were allowed to fell by retail; and they were to export any goods they might want from England on paying the ufual cuf- toms, except wine, which could not be exported without a Fpecial licence. The countries here mentioned shew the x ER CE. pats to which the commerce of England was at that time chiefly confined; and a very good idea of its extent may be ~ gained from the following account of the exports and ime ports, in the 28th year of Edward III. from a record in the Exchequer, Exports. es Se eas 31,651 facks of wool, at fix pounds er fack, and 3036 hundred weight and 65 fells, each hundred weight being 6 fcore, at forty thillings per hundred weight, with the cultoms, &c. thereon, amounted to - - - 277,606 2° .9 Leather, with its cuftom = - - © ¢ 90. 2. o 47743 coarfe cloths, at 40 fhillings each, and So614 pieces of wortted, at 16s. 8d. per piece- - = = - = 16,266 18 4 Cuftoms thereon - = - - - = = - 215 13 7 Total Exports, with the duties thereon 294,184 17 2 Imports. 183r fine cloths, at 6/. per cloth, which, with the cuftoms, comes to + 11,083 12 @ 397% hundred weight of wax, at 40 fhillings per hundred weight, which, with the cuftoms, comesto - = - = 815 7 §& 18293 tons of wine, at 40 ‘hillings per ton, which, with the cuftoms, comes Ove) =) ey et =e alfa t se i Oe eT ORES Linen cloth, mercery, grocery, and all other wares whatever - - - =.» 22,943 6 10 On which the cuftom was - -.* - = 285 18 3 Total Imports, with the duties thereon 38,970 3 6 Thus, as fir William Temple obferves, «* when England had but a very {mall foreign commerce, we were rich in proportion to our neighbours, by felling fo much more than we bought.’ It is not very probable, however, that ee excefs of the exports was generally fo great as is here ated. The materials of commerce were now increafing by the improvement of manufaétures in various parts of Europe ; while the difcoveries of the Portuguefe on the coatt of Africa, and in the adjacent feas, excited.a more enterprifing {pirit of mercantile adventure, and at length, in 1487, led to the difcovery of the Cape of Good Hope, which they doubled about ten years after, and thus accomplifhed the: firft regular voyage to the Eaft Indies. About the fame time alfo was accomplifhed the great difcovery of the wettern continent. ‘Thefe events, which filled the world with aftonifhment, and gave rife to an infinity of new fpe- culations, have fince fupplied it with a prodigious increafe of wealth, and with many new and excellent materials for the immerffe additional commerce which has thus- accrued. to all the ftates of Europe. The whole of the valt regions difcovered in the Eaft and: Welt, was by the papal authority divided between the Spaniards and Portuguefe. The former firft made herfelf miftrefs of the iflands, and next of the principal part of the continent of America;- in confequence of which the cities. oF Seville and Cadiz became the ftore-houfes for the riches of the newly-difcovered weftern world. Portugal purfued her commerce and rapid conquefts in the Eaft Indies, ie a OR G'O°M ME RIC E: Lifbon foon became (what the now declining city of Venice had been for many centuries paft) the great magazine for ~ all the rich produétions of the Eaft. They had alfo difco. vered Brafil in South America, which foon became an almot inexhauftible fund of wealth to Portugal, which may be faid to have been then at the height of its commercial great- nefs. In the courfe of the 16th century many circumftances occurred which contributed greatly to the extenfion of com- merce. The Englifh in the purfuit of a north-weft paflage to India had difcovered the whole coaft of North America, where, after fome years, they began to attempt fettlements. They engaged in the Newfoundland fifhery, and alfo in the whale fithery at Spitfbergen or Greenland. The continual jealoufies and difputes between the Englith merchants and the German Hanfeatic merchants of the Steel-yard in Lon- don, were at length terminated by the abolition of the pecu- har privileges of the latter. The difcovery of a paffaze to Ruffia round the north Cape of Lapland, opened a field for other new difcoveries, and new branches of commerce; in confequence of which a company for trading to Ruffia was immediately formed and incorporated. The commerce with Turkey was encouraged by the incorporation of a company; and the intercourfe with Guinea and other places on the coatt of Africa, was alfo thought of fufficient importance to have a company eftablifhed for carrying it on. While the importance of the Italian cities was declining, and the commerce of the towns on the Baltic experiencing fome diminution, the cities of Hamburgh and Antwerp had rifen into confiderable importance. ‘The latter in particular, from the convenience of its fituation, might for fome time be confidered as the centre of the commerce of Europe, as well for the merchandize of both the Indies, as for the naval ftores and other bulky commodities of the northern {tates. It was however foon to find a rival among its indultrious neighbours in the United Provinces, who, from the time of their independence, applied themfelves to manufaQures and commerce with the utmoft affiduity. France was at this time beginning to encourage the cultivation of the vine, and the improvement of her broad filk manufaGture; while Spain, by expelling the proteftants from the Netherlands, fupplied England, Holland, and the Hanf-towns with great numbers of wealthy and induftrious manufaCturers and artificers, as well as with an acceflion of many ingenious and beneficial new manufaétures. : The 17th century was the period in which the principles were adopted, and molt of the eftablifhments formed, which have contributed to advance the commerce of Europe to its prefent altonifhing height. The interefts of nations became better underftood than in any former age; the utility of commerce had become evident to every one, from the wealth and power it had conferred on the ftates which had encou- raged it; and commercial treaties became frequent between the different nations. Navigation was improved; new fettle- ments were formed, and many of thofe before made were rifing into importance; manufaétures were advancing in many parts of Europe; fhipping was increafing, and the in- tercourfe between diftant places, from the accumulation of knowledge and experience, becoming more expeditious and fecure. The lucrative commerce of the Eaft became one of the leading objects of mercantile purfuit. An Englifh Eaft India company was formed in 1600; and the Dutch com- panies, which were united in 1602, became one of the moft celebrated commercial eftablifhments ever formed. The French vifited the Eaft Indies in 1601, but did not eftablith a regular company for carrying on the trade till 1664. The Danes eftablifhed an Eat India company in 1617, and in 1627 the king of Sweden iffued letters patent for forming an Eaft India company, but it was not carried into execu- tion till fome years after. The Spaniards and Portuguefe, however, at this period, poffeffed by far the greateft fhare of the commerce of India, which had now become very con- fiderable. The following account publifhed by Mr. Munn, in 1621, of the quantity of Indian merchandize confumed annually in Europe, gives a very good idea of the propor- tion of the different articles of this branch of commerce : the prices affixed are the prime coft in India, including all charges till attually fhipped for Europe. Sopa 6,000,000 lb. pepper, at o 24 per |b. 450,000 lb. cloves, at ° 9g per lb. 150,000 lb. mace, at o 8 per lb. 420,000 Ib. nutmegs, at o 4 per lb. 352,000 |b. indigo, at Tp, .2.iperlb: 1,000,000 Ib. raw filk, at. S o per lb. This ftatement was probably meant to include only the principal articles; at leaft it is certain that about 163r fe- veral other kinds of merchandize were ufually imported trom India, as taffaties, painted callicoes, drugs of various forts, and China ware. ‘Tea, the great objet of commercial in- tercourfe with China, was either not yet an obje& of com- merce, or was imported in fuch {mall quantities, that in England at Jeaft, in 1660, it was not thought of fufficient confequence to be fubjected to a duty. Dr. Davenant, who publifhed his ** Difeourfes on Trade’’ in 1698, was of opinion, that from about the year 1656 to 1688, England had every year gradually increa‘ed in riches; and that about the Jaft mentioned year, the increafe or addi- tion to the wealth, and general ftock of the nation, arifing from foreign trade and home manufactures, was at leaft two millions per annum. In this eftimate the different branches of trade are ftated as follows : The plantation trade may bring in - £ 600,000 The Eaft India trade may briug in = 500,009 The European, African, and Le- vant trade, by our own product may bring ir - - - 600,000 Ditto, by re-exports of plantatien goods - - - 120,000 Ditto, by re-exports of Eaft India goods . - - 180,000 Total 23000,000 This account is probably fomewhat beyond the truth, with refpe& to the period to which it refers; but that there had been aconfiderable influx of wealth, is {hewn by the ob- fervations of the fame author, that from the year 1600 to 1688, the general rental of England was nearly trebled, and the purchafe of land half doubled; that the ftock of the kingdom was multiplied above five fold, and the money in circulation above four fold. This rapid advance in wealth, can be afcribed to no other caufe than the improvement of commerce, which was now becoming of the utmott import- ance to all the European ftates, particularly to fuch as were defirous of maintaining any degree of naval power. The increafe of wealth arifing from the extenfion of com- merce, gave rife to the eftablifhment of banks, by which its operations have of late years been fo much facilitated. The commercial cities of: Venice and Genoa had long ex-~ perienced the utility of fuch inftitutions, which were now adopted in other ftates. The banks of Amfterdam, of U2 Hamburgh, CBT Be Rc Hamburgh, and of Rotterdam were eftablifhed ; avd in 1694, the bank of England, and the bank of Scotland. he bufinefs cf private bankers Itkewife took its rife, and had become confiderable, when it received a fevere check from the unjuitifiadle conduct of Charles IL. in fcizing the mony the bankers had advarced on credit of the neh of mercantile intercourfe hag however which taxes. Tnis- bre been fince carried to an extent which in former times would have deemed wholly incredible. Thas, with its principles generally underftood; with mot of the elfablifhments formed which are neceflary to facilitate i sus; with laws and treaties in force for its en- vent and protection ; markets eltablifhed for the ‘Hafe or fale of commoditics in almoft every part of the globe; navigation brougnt toa high degree of perfection, waft impfovements in arts and manufactures; and a great increafe of artificial wants from the progrefs of luxury and refinement ; the commerce of the world, and particularly. of Europe, has, during the 18:h century, expanded in an altonifh- ing degree, and become intimatcly connected with the po- litical exiftence of almoft every ftate._ Commeace of Great Britain. The moft authentic mate- rials from which an idea can be formed of the progrefs and extent of the commerce of Great Britain, are the accounts kept in the office of the infpector-general of “exports and imports, at the cuftom-houfe of London. Thefe accounts do not thew the current value of the commodities exported or imported, but are formed from their quanzties, accord- ing to certain rates of value.effixed to the feveral articles of foreign trade in 1696, by which they have been rated ever fince. It is evident, therefore, that, as the price of all kinds of merchandize is fubje& to great flu€tuations, and in general bas much increafed in this country within the lalt hundred years, thefe accounts are far from fhewing the aGtual valuesin the later years ; they are, however, from this very circumftance of being uniformly made up at the fame yates, the better adapted toa comparative view, and fhew a progreflive increafe which has arrived to an amount never before known inthe commerce of any nation. According to thefe eftimates the total amount of the exports ard imports of Great Britain have been as follows: Years. Imports. Exports. 1700 £L 5:9795175 £ 73025716 1701 “ 53809;600 7,621,053 1702 451599304 512359874 1703 4,526,599 0,644,103 1704 53383,200 6,552,019 1705 403 1,049 5,501,077 1700 451133933 6,512,086 1707 45274,055 6,707,178 1709 4,698,663 6,969,089 1709 4,510,593 6,627,045 1710 4,011,341 6,690,828 I7it 4,685,785 6,447,170 Ly Ai 42454082 7:408,857 At the conclufion of the war, by the peace of Utrecht, a commercial treaty with France was likewife negociated : but when the particulars of it came to be difcufled, two of the articles, by which the produce and manufadures of France were to be admitted into this country on the fame terms as thofe of the molt favoured nation, excited {uch general difapprobation, that the bill for carrying it into effeét was rejeéted by the houfe of commons. The ftrongeft objection to the principle of the treaty, was that it might ruin the trade then carried on with Portugal, which was 2 confidered as tke moft valuable branch of our European commerce. Tt is evident, that from the year 1705, notwithftanding the difadvantages it always labours under in time of war, commerce had been gradually increafing ; bat when peace enabled it to return to its ufual channels, and reltored fome branches which had been contiderably interrupted, its general advancement became more obvious, aud although from the mode then ufually adopted, of jucging of the profits of commerce merely by the excefs of the value of the exports, the balance appeared lefs than it had been in former years, the wealth which flowed into the country from foreign trede, being no longer abforbed in publi¢ loans, foon enabled the government to make a permanent reduétion in the legal rate of intereft. ‘The war with Spain in 1715, did uot caufe much interruption of commer- cial intercourfe, except in the direct trade with that country. Years. Imports, Exports. 1713 £ 5,811,077 £ 75352055 TZN 539293227 8,361,033 1715 5,049,943 7379-409 1716 5,800,255 7,614,085 1717 6.346,708 9.147.700 1718 6,669,390 $,7553302 1719 5.367.499 72729528 1720 6,090,083 4,036,728 1721 51768,510 8,681,200 At this period the judicious principle of promoting the exportation of Britifh manufactures, which had hitherto been applied only to woollen goods, was extended to Bntifh ma- nufactures and produce in general ; which were allowed te be exported duty free, except a few articles chiefly matcrials for manufa€turcs, the exportation of which it would not have been proper to encourage ; while drugs and other ma- terials ufed for dyeing, were, upon being firft duly entered, to be imported duty free, but upon re-exportation were to pay fpecific duties. For this highly beneficial regulation, fo fimple in its principle, and fo comprehenfive in its extent, the country was indebted to the enlightened wifdom of Mr. Walpole: the experiment excited much doubt and foli- citude as to its fuccefs, but it foon appeared that the lofs of revenue in the duties thus given up, wasa mere trifle in com- parifon with the ftimulus it gave to manufactures and the confequent extenfion of commerce. Years. Imports. Exports, 3722 £ 6,378,098 £ 9:650,789 1723 6,525,676 9,459,811 1724 733945405 951431356 172 7,094,708 11,352,480 1726 6,677,865 9,406,731 1727 6,798,908 9955 3,043 1728 75569,299 11,631,383 1729 72540,620 11,475,771 1730 7:780,019 1159745135 1731 6,991,500 11,167,380 1732 7,087,914 11,786;658 1733 8,016,814 | 11,7775;306 1734 7,095,861 11,000,645 1735 8,160,184 1395445144 1736 7307966 11,616,356 1737 7,073;638 11,842,320 1738 71438,960 12,239,495 The above period was almoft wholly a time of peaee, during which the commerce of Great Britain was gradually advancing, cOoMM advancing, both from the improvement of feveral of the exiting branches, and the acquifition of new ones. The South-fea company undertook the Greenland whale fifhery, which had been entirely relinquifhed by this country for fome years palt ; and encouragement was given to fifherics on the coaft of America. Aitempts were made to obtain a fhare of the fur trade of north America, which was almolt entirely in the hands of the French, The Oltend Eaft India company, which had been found prejudicial to the Eaglith trade in thofe parts, was fufpended ; while our trade with China increafed confiderably, particularly in the article of tea. ‘The trade of the Levant company was very flourifh- ing; as was likewife that of the Hudfon’s bay company, though the latter was but of {mall extent. The produce of feveral valuable commodities was at the fame time augment- ing, from an increafed cultivation of rice 1a the American colonies, and of coffee in the Weft India iflands, while great quantities of corn were annually exported from Great Britain to France, Portugal, Spain, and Italy. The war which began in 1739, was occafioned chiefly by difputes refpeéting our commerce in the Weit Indies, which had been much interrupted by the Spaniards. It caufed, at firlt, fame decine of foreign trade, which however foon regained the extent to which it had been carried during the preceding peace, Years, Imports. Exports. 1739 £7:829,373 £ 94951366 1740 6,703,778 8,869,939 I74L 73936,084 11.469,872 1742 6,866,864 31,594,427 1743 7,802,353 14,623,653 1744 6,362,971 11,429,628 W745 75475123 104973329 3746 6,205,687 11,300,792 1747 72110,757 11,442,049 1745 8,136,408 12,351,433 At this time, a much greater proportion of the exports eonfilted of unmanufaétured produce than it has fince ; as it _ appears there had been exported from England in five years, from 1744 to 1748, no lefs than 3,768,444 quarters of corn, which at medium prices was worth 8,007,948 /. That aconfiderable increafe of commerce had taken place, is evident from the quantity of fhipping employed. The total tonnage of veflels that cleared outwards on an average of three years preceding the war, had been 503,568 tons; the average of the three years, ending with 1751, was 661,184 tons. ‘The encouragement of the fifheries, and the regu- lation of the Guinea or African trade, which had been in the hands of an exclufive company, but was now in a great meafure laid open ; caufed fome extenfion of foreign trade, although the Levant, or Turkey trade, which had been con- fidered as one of the moft valuable branches, was beginning to decline rapidly, from the French improving the natural advantages they poflefs for a trade with thofe parts. Years. Imports. Exports. 1749 £7:917804 — £ 14,099)366 175° 797723939 153132,004 1751 719433430 13,967,811 1752 4,889,369 13,221,116 1953 8,625,029 14,264,014 1754 8,093,472 13,390,853 1755 8,772,865 12,182,255 3750 7,961,603 12,517,040 1757 932539327 13,438,285 3758 814151025 1539341994 FE Re @ Ee Years, Finports, Fyports 1759 8,922,976 14,096,892 1760 g.832,802 153579:073 761 9 543,001 16,365.-953 1762 8,870,234 1451343093 It is evident that commerce had not been very materially affeted by the war. The years 1755 and 1756 marked the lowelt point of its depreffion; whence it gradually rofe, till it had gained a fuperiority over the unexampled traffic of 1750, a year of eltablifhéd peace and fecurity. By the peace of 1763, although many iflands which had been taken in the Weft Indies were reitored, Great Britain retained a number of newly acquired iflands, perhaps more thav could be tmmediately brought into cultivation with ad- vantage. The arrangements reipecting Afia were very fa- vourable to the Eaft India company , and in Africa an ex- clufive trade was fecured in the article of gum Senegal, a material indifpenfably neceflary to the perfection of many of our manufactures. ‘The immediate confequence, how- ever, of the acquifition of additional territories, was, that a wide field was opened for {peculation and commercial en- terprife, which caufed much produétive capital to be with- drawn from the trade and mavufactures of Great Britain ; yet our merchants were not only able to maintain their own credit, but alfo to affiit their correfpondents during the commercial embarraffments in Holland and other parts of the continent. In 1765, the principles and meafures were adopted which foon involved the country in difputes with its American co- lonies. Impolitic re{triétions were laid on a beneficial in- tercourfe which had long fubfifted between the Britith colo- nies and the Spanifh Weft India fettlements ; which being foon followed by other caufes of difcontent, drove the Americans into public refolutions to make no further ims portations from Great Britain, but fuch as were unavoid- ably neceflary, and to encourage, to the utmoft of their power, every kind of manufacture that was practicable among themfelves. This ftep foon produced ferious effeéts in Great Britain ; the merchants conneéted with America found themfelves unable to fulfil their engagements by the ftoppage of large fums due to them from that country; the whole fyftem of their bufinefs was deranged, and general diitrefs {pread through the circle of their conneétions; the manufacturers fuffcered by the want of regular payments from the merchants, while their materials, and made up goods, to an alarming amount, were becoming a dead ftock upon their hands; in confequence of which, great numbers of workmen were thrown out of employ. Peti- tions were prefented to parliament from all the trading and manufacturing towns, which probably had fome effect in procuring a temporary adjuftment of the difpute. The non-importation agreement in America, was renewed in 1769 and 1770; yet the commerce of Great Britain, not- withftanding thefe interruptions of an important branch of it, continued to increafe ; and previous to the war which fol- lowed, had attained to a greater extent than in any former years. Years. Imports, Exports. 1763 £ 11,665,036 f£ 16,160,184 1764 10,364,307 16,512,403 1765 10,889,742 14,550,597 1766 2134753795 14,024,964 1767 12,073,950. 13,844,511 1768 11,878,661 15,117,982 #769 11,908,560 13,438,236 B70 COMMERCE. Years. Imports. Exports. 1770 12,216,937 74,266,653 177 12,821,095 17,161,146 1772 14,508,715 18,732,379 1773 12,522,643 16,654,052 1774 14,545,902 17,6071447 The prohibition of all trade and intercourfe with the American colonies excited ferious alarms, not only on ac- count of the lofs of a valuable branch of trade, but from the fuppofed encouragement which the acquifition of it would give to the trade of thofe powers who affifted the colonies. Thefe apprehenfions, however, in a few years appeared to be in a great meafure groundlefs, many Bnitifh manufa@ures found their way to America, though not im- ported dire@tly from hence; and Mr. Chalmers obferves, that ‘ there was an evident tendency in our traffic to rife in 1779, till the Spanifh war impofed an additional burthen. There was a fimilar tendency in 1780, till the Dutch war added, in 1781, no inconfiderable weight. And the year i781, accordingly, marks the lowelt degree of deprefiion, both of our navigation and our commerce, during the war of our colonies. But with the fame vigorous fpirit, they both equally rofe, in 1782, as they had rifen in former wars, toa fuperiority over our navigation and commerce, dur- ing the year wherein hoitilities with France began.” Years. Imports. Exports. 1775. & 14.516,955 £ 19,946,523 1779 32.449,159 15,055,107 Fides 12,643,834 14,152,243 1778 10.9753533 125759712 1779 31,435,203 13559777! 17890 11,714,967 13,689,073 178 12,723,013 11,470,385 1782 10,341,628 13,224,637 The opportunity of renewing the commercial conneCtions between this country and America, from the conclufion of peace, was eagerly embraced; but fubfequent experience proved, that a greater degree of caution had now become neceflary to render it a beneficial trade. The arrangements relative to the commerce of Ireland, had a very beneficial effe@ in that country, which had hitherto been excluded from almoft every fpecies of commerce, and reftrained from {ending the produce of her own foil to foreign markets. The convention with Spain fettled more accurately the li- mits within which Britifh fubje&s were allowed to cut log- wood on the Mufquito coaft, and confequently gave great- er certainty and fecurity to the trade with thofe parts. The commercial treaty with France, by difcontinuing many of the prohibitions and prohibitory duties which had exited for almoft a century between the two nations, opened a wide field for fpeculation and adventure. The confolidation of the cuttoms by the abolition of all the confufed and com- plex duties which then exifted, and the fubftitution of a fingle duty on each article in their ftead, was a meafure of great convenience to all perfons engaged in mercantile tranf- actions. Under all thefe circumftances, fupported by the improvements which had taken place in feveral of the prin- cipal manufaGtures, the foreign trade of Great Britain in- creafed greatly during the peace, and in the year 1792, had attained to an unparallelled- height, both in point of value, and with refpe&t to quantity of fhipping employed ia it. Years. Imports. Exports. 1783 £.135122,235 £ 151450,778 1784 15,272,802 14,901,074 1785 _ 16,279,490 16,779,239 1786 15-786,072 16,300,730 1787 17,804,024 16,870,114 1788 * 18,027,170 17,4.72;408 1799 17,825,102 19,340,548 1790 19,130,886 20,120,121 1791 19,669,782 227311995 a9 19,659,353 24,905;200 The total number of veffels which belonged to the feveral ports of the Britifh empire on the goth September 1792, was 16,07g; the amount of their tonnage 1,540,145 tons; and the number of mem and boys ufually employed in navigating them 118,286. The number of vefiels that entered inwards at the feveral ports of Great Britain (including their re- peated voyages) was as follows: Ships. Tons. Britihh, -.- -. 32,030 1,587,045 Foreign = - - 2,477 304,074 Total 14,507 1,891,719 At this period, the commerce of Great Britain, was ge- nerally admitted to be in a very flourifhing ftate. The ap- plication and improvement of machinery in almoft every branch of manufaéture, had reduced the charges of work- manfhip fo far, as to enable our manufa&urers to fupply foreign markets on better terms than any’ other country could offer; while the increafe of capital, arifing from the accumulation of the profits of fuccefsful commerce during a period of peace, gave our merchants the means of allow- ing longer credit than could be obtained elfewhere. The high price cf the public funds, led many perfons to employ their money in difcounting private fecurities, which greatly facilitated the extenfion of commercial credit, but probably tempted fome to trade much beyond the amount which their capital juftified, or to {peculate largely without any real property of their own; fo that when the apprehenfion of war produced a greater degree of caution, and began to af- fe&t particular branches of trade, many were involved in embarraffments; and on the commencement of the war in 1793, commercial concerns, in general, experienced a feri- ous fhock. The affiftance afforded by government to fuch houfes as appeared to be really folvent, by lending them exchequer bills for a certain time, operated very fuccefsfully, and averted the confequences that were apprehended ; cre- dit revived, and as the war in its progrefs almoft annihilated the foreign trade of fome of the powers engaged in it, the commerce of Great Britain received a confiderable augmen-, tation ; and, protected by its naval fuperiority, continued to increafe, notwithftanding all the meafures which political animofity could devife to obftruét or deftroy it. Years. Imports. Exports, 1793 £ 19,256,717 £, 20,390,180 1794 22,288,894 26,748,967 1795 22,736,889 27,312,338 1790 23,187,319 30,424,184 1797 21,013,956 28,917,0%0 1798 27 857,889 335915777 1799 26,837,432 359911529 COMMERCE, Years. Imports. Exports. 1809 30,570,605 43,152,019 180% 3257953557 42,301,708 The increafe during the above period, though really very great, was not however equal to what it would appear from the above accounts to have been. This irregularity in the comparative view which the account of imports and exports * generally furnifhes with fufficient accuracy, of the com- ‘merce of Great Britain, arifes from the article of coffee, theim- port of which was formerly little more than fufficient to fup- ply its {mall confumption in this country. But the interrup- tion of the trade of France, the conquelt of their Weft India iflands, and the greatly increafed cultivation of coffee in Jamaica, caufed nearly the whole fupply of the continent with this commodity to depend during the war on Great Britain. In the infpector-general’s book of rates, coffee is valued on importation at 7/., and on exportation, at no lefs than 147 ros. per cwt.; while, during the above period, the real average value was about 5/: per cwt. when imported, and 5/. tos, when exported. ‘he offi- cial account, therefore, from 1794, when coffee fud- denly became a very confiderable article of exportation, re- quires fome correction ; and if the over-ellimated value of this article is deduéted, the exports of the year 1809 will appear to have been 38,120,120 /, and of 1801, 37,780,356 /. * The fhort interval of peace in 1802, produced an imme- diate extenfion of foreign trade; and Mr. Addington thought himfelf juftified “in pronouncing the commerce of the country to be in a flate of unrivalled and unexampled profperity.”” The value of Britifh manufactures exported, confiderably exceeded the preceding year, and the total amount of the exports, according to the official values, was 46,420,962 7, But in this and the fucceeding years, it will be proper to adopt the corre€tion juft mentioned, which We give the amount of the imports and exports as fol- WS: Years. Imports. Exports. 1802 4 331,442,318 £4 41471,966 1803 27992494 315578,495 1804 29,201,490 3454515307 1805 30,344,028 345954845 1806 31,094,089 305528, 132 The account of imports for the laft year is not quite cor- ret ; the imports from the Ealt Indies for that year being incomplete. : Almoft every article being greatly under-valued in thefe accounts (exceptin one ortwo inftances) the total mutt give a very inadequate idea of the real extent of the commerce of Great Britain. Some idea may be formed of the under- valuation of the imports by thofe of the Eaft India com- pany, taking the account of their fales as the importation ; the medium value of which, on an average of three years, was 6,10¢c,000/.; whereas, the medium value by the ac- counts of the infpector-general, for the fame three years, was 4,572,000/. Of the actual value of Britifh produce and manufactures exported, which ufually conftitutes about two-thirds of the total export, we have more correét infor- mation. By an aé& paffed in 1798, and revived in 1802, called the convoy act, the exporters were required to declare the real value of Britifh manufactures exported, in order to afcertain the amount of duty chargeable thereon ; and from thefe declarations, the actual value of Britith produce and manufactures exported has been afcertained as follows: In 1803 £L 49,100,870 1804 4203 49,042 1805 41,065,942 1806 43,242,176 The extent of fhipping employed in commercial inter- courfe at this period, will be feen in the following account of the number af veflels which belonged to the feverak ports of the Britihh empire, on the 30th September 1805. Ships. Tons, Men & Boys. England - - - 14,790 1,799,210 117,663 Jerfey & Guernfey 185 10,528 2,011 Ifleof Man - - 404 9;050 2,330 Scotland - - - 2,584 210,295 15,162 Treland- - = - 1,067 56,806 5,079 ‘The Plantations - 3,024 190,953 15,407 22,051 2,283,442 157,712 The cammerce of Great Britain with Jre/and, has in- creafed with the improvement of that country, particularly fince the year 1780, when a more liberal fy{tem of policy was adopted with refpe&t to the foreign trade of Ireland. The imports from thence confift chiefly of butter, beef, pork, bacon, lard; tallow, cattle, hides, feathers, ftarch, rape-feed, linens, linen-yarn, woolien-yarn, pearl-afhes, cop- per-ore, and a few other articles of lefs importance. The exports are coals, ironmongery aud hardware, hoops for barrels, beer, cyder, dried cod, herrings, chiefly from Scot« land, earthenware, bottles and window-glals, refined fugar, hops, lead, tin-plates, fail-cloth, cabinet-ware, wearing ap- parel, apothecaries-ware, books and ftationary, painters” colours, hats, haberdathery, woollen, cotton, and filk manufac- tures of all kinds; with rum, brandy, geneva, winés, gro« ceries, drugs, dye-ftufis, flax and hemp, raw and thrown filks, and other foreign produce, Years. Imports. Exports. 1798 £ 25735,086 £ 2,974.393. 1799 257791731 4,086,986 1800 2,312,824 397413499 Confiderable endeavours have been made to improve the manufactures of Ireland, but with little fuccefs, except in the linen manufacture, which probably proceeds from the want of fufficient capital, and from. the facility with which Britifh manufa@ures can be procured at a very {mall addi- tional expence; the latter will, therefore, for a long time, continue to conftitute a large proportion of the imports of Ireland. Value of Britifh manufaQures exported from Great Britaiu to Ireland. Int79r £ 1,470,972 In1796 £ 1,781,789 1792 1,511,844 1797 1,310,996 1793 15055,276 1798 16573954 1794 1,281,316 1799 25405,999 1795 1,612,270 1800 1,787,966 The trade between Great Britain and Ru/fa has been con- fidered highly beneficial to both countries ; to Ruffia in point of profit, aad to Great Britain, as fupplying articles eflential to the fupport of its navy. The capital employed mutt be much greater than formerly, from the increafed value of the principal articles ; and the balance of trade, which is Facer a y: COMMERCE. ably in Favour of Ruffia, is paid by means of the commercial tranfaétions between Great Britain and other countries. ‘The articles imported are iron, hemp, flax, tallow, pot-afhes, deals, and lath-wood, coarfe linens, hog’s briftles, &c. The exports are principally broad-cloths and woollen ftuffs, refined {ugar, cotton, lead, tin, iron and fteel ware, earthen ware and glafs, coals, alum, falt, horfes, London porter, with articles of lefs importance. Years. Imports. Exports. ¥800 £ 2,382,098 4% 130251335 1Sor 2,216,877 919,543 o 3 ae 1902 2,152,430 1,379,399 The total number of veffels that entered inwards from Rufia, and that cleared out for that country from Great Bri- yain in three years, ending with 1506, was as follows: Inwards. Outwards. Years. Britith, Fcreign. Britith. Foreign. 1804, 830 29 558 53 1805 O61 I4 927 52 1806 1106 21 677 32 The trade to Denmaré and Norway, though of ancient date, is not of very great extent; the imports confift chiefly ef timber and corn; and the exports, of Weit India produce and other foreign merchandize ; the quantity of Britifh ma- nufactured goods which thofe countries take being of {mall amount. Years. Imports. Exports. 1800 £ 241,563 £ 540,698 18ot 208,794 416,475 1802 1553072 5379517 The total number of veffels which entered inwards from Denmark and Norway, in the year 1806, was 1607, of which 529 were Britihh fhips: the total number which cleared outwards was 1690, of which 790 were Britifh. The trade with Scveden, which is carried on chiefly in fhips of that country, has not varied materially in its extent during the laft twenty years. The imports confift chiefly of iron of a fuperior quality, pitch, tar, deal boards, and fail- cloth. The exports are principally colonial produce. Years. Imports. Exports, 1800 f£, 309,280 f£, 78,840 1S01 295,645 111,254 1802 3275350 108,296 1803 288,651 98,045 The total number of veffels which entered inwards from Sweden, in the year 1806, was 353, of which 187 were Bri- tith fhips: the total number which cleared outwards was 362, of which 142 were Britifh. The imports from Pru/fia, confift of all kinds of grain, hemp, flax, madder, lintfeed, goofe-quills, briftles, pearl- afhes, mill-ftones, and timber of various defcriptions. The ex jorts are chiefly alum, copperas, coals, beer, falt, wrought brafs and iron, lead, tin plates, earthen-ware, glafs, woollen and cotton goods, fome cotton yarn, India goods, raw and refined fugar, drugs, dye-ftuffs, pepper and other f{pices, coffee, rum, tobacco, &c. Years. Imports. Exports. 1800 £, 1:340,904 £, 7941452 1801 1,387,149 660,739 1802 1,057,002 1,071,896 1803 831,225 1,916,502 ‘The total number of veffels which entered inwards from Pruffia in the year 1805 was 1946, of which 837 were Bri- tifh fhips: the total number which cleared outwards was 1627, of which only 482 were Brinth. In 1806 the total numbers were much lefs, in confequence of Pruffia being’ in- volved in the war. The trade with Germany had not experienced any confi- derable variation with refpe& to its extent, from the com- mencement of the laft century, till on the extenfion of the war with France in 1794, it fuddenly became the channel through which the principal part of the continent received the goods they had before obtained dire& from Great Bri- tain. The following account of exports to Germany fhews the rapid increafe of trade with that country during the War. Years. Britih Foreign Manufactures. Merchangize, 1793 4. 738,474 ff 157645221 1794 1,6345530 4,308,695 1795 1,769;133 6,311,870 1796 1,591,810 6,582,179 1797 . 1,964,967 6,419,587 1799 2,042,774 8,646,609 1799 250325507 6,640,729 1800 4,304,120 8,300,470 1Sor 4,928,617 6,186,687 The total number of veffels which entered inwards in the feveral ports of Great Britain from Germany (including Hamburgh) and which cleared outwards for that country, was as follows: Tnwards. Outwards. Years. Britith. Foreign. Britifh, Foreign, 1793 207 54 aoe 77 1794 258 108 443 152 1795 259 een 257 400 1790 347 3.42 $33. 415 1797 237 257 314 372 1795 408 113 047 187 1799 409 126 426 18r 1800 435 459 574 458 The total number of veffels which entered inwards from Germany (including Hamburgh) in the year 1806 was 504 ; the total number which cleared outwards for that coun- try 956. The imports from Holland are butter and cheefe in large quantities, geneva, juniper berries, flax, hemp, oak bark, rags, flower-roots and feeds, books, maps and prints. The exports are raw and refined fugars, train oil, copperas, 2 few cotton goods, fome woollen goods, coffee, rice, and fo- reign merchandize of various kinds: their amount, as fol. lows : Years. Imports, E «ports. 1800 £ 972,600 £ 3,208,613 1801 1,025,958 3,490,744. 1802 9749537 4:957,997 1803 630,403 155659355 The total number of veffels which entered inwards from Holland in the year 1804 was 790, and the number which cleared outwards 521. The number which entered inwards in 1805, was 709; outwards 323; which, from the two countries being at war, were of courfe nearly all neutral vef- fels. France poffeffes fuch natural advantages in the produce o. its foil, and the convenience of its fituation for procuring the commodities of all other countries, that while its manufac- ; , er tures COMMERCE; tures were encouraged, and it retained poffeffions in the Eat and Welt Indies, little inducement remained for com- mercial intercourfe with Great Britain, and even this limited traffic was much impeded by the high duties and prohibi- tions which mutual jealoufy had impofed. In 1786 a more liberal fyftem was adopted by a treaty of commerce, in con- fequence of which the trade between the two countries in- creafed conliderably. In the year 1792, the exports to France amounted to 1,228,166/. 3s. od. of which 743,280/. 12s. 1d. was Britifh manufa@tures, and 484,885 /. 115. Sd. foreign merchandize. In the following year, the trade with France was fufpended by war, on the termination of which, in 1802, commiffioners were appointed for adjufting the conditions of a new commercial treaty, but its completion was prevented by the renewal of hottilitics. The trade with Portugal was formerly a very beneficial branch of our commerce, but has declined very much. The imports confitt chiefly of wine, cotton-wool, and indigo, with confiderable fums in cafh and bullion. The exports are al- molt wholly Britifh produce and manufa€tures. Years, Imports. Exports. 1798 £ 700,383 £ .759:918 1799 1,047,054 1,073,421 1800 916,848 1,011,893 The total number of veffels which entered inwards from Portugal in the year 1800 was 340, of which 270 were Bri- tifh veffels. The number which entered inwards in the year 1806 was 468 ; outwards 332. , The extent of the trade with Spain, previous to the war in 1796, will appear from the ftatement of imports and ex- ports. Years. Imports, Exporte, 1792 £ 897,840 £794,101 1793 485,872 4765726 1794 743,546 634,554 1795 992:853 437,530 1796 809,881 540,126 The year 1806 being a year of war, the trade with Spain was of courfe confined to neutral veflels : the number which entered inwards was 222, and the number which cleared out= wards 126. The Mediterranean trade was fubje& to much interrup- tion during the war which began in 1793, in confequence of which many of the goods ufually imported from Venice and Italy were brought over-land through Switzerland and Ger- many to Hamburgh and Tonningen to be fhipped for Eng- Jand. The Turkey and Levant trade was formerly one of the principal branches of Englifh commerce, but it is now of much lefs importance. ‘The chief articles imported, are cotton-wool, mohair, goats’ hair, opium, fenna, and other drugs, galls, madder, vallonea, and other dye-ftuffs, currants, figs, raifins, goat fkins, and box-wood ; raw filk was formerly a principal article, but very little is now brought from Turkey, that of Italy being much fuperior. ‘The exports confilt of lead, tin-plates, wrought and calt iron, hardware, a confiderable number. of watches, fome cotton goods, and a few woollen goods, India piece goods, coffee, fugar, cin- namon, cloves, pimento and other {pices. ‘The extent of the different branches of the Mediterranean trade will ap- pear from the following ftatements. Vou. IX, Gisrarrar and the Srrricurs. Years, Imports. Exports, Ships Ships inward, — outward.’ 1799 £62,902 £ 358,784 47 56 1800 35,065 2945558 20 43 1801 24,587 362,971 WW 54 1802 21,702 539,537 32 45 1803 23,512 487,699 17 48 1804. 33,860 560,399 27 62 1805 42,919 183,824. 19 59 In the year 1806, the number of veflels which entered in- wards was 24, outwards 83. Iraty. Years, Imports. Exgorts, Ships Ships inward. outward. 1799 £, 224,607 ££ 367,173 69 8x 1500 411,765 587,530 II5 113 1801 165,042 378,007 44 94 1802 804,329 2,048,784 127 248 1803 748,020 656,607 182 74. 1804 268,029 359;854. 70 126 1805 3939517 5973535 106 117 In the year 1806, the number of veflels which entered in- wards was 90, outwards 61. Matra. Years, Imports. Exports. Ships Ships inward, outward, 1801 Ptin4as LL 8 esratn se) 14 1802 16,698 12,023 36 4 1803 8,922 133,629 22 15 1804. 32,913 114,031 20 23 1805 9304 129,515 6 12 In the year 1806, the number of veflels which entered in« wards was 26, outwards 26. Minorca. Years. Imports. Exports. Ships Ships inward.) outward. 1800 £ 13,500 £ 12,246 19 5 1801 6,768 36,130 16 15 1802 22,106 21,478 25 5 In the year 1803, the trade with Minorca ceafed, from its having been reftored to Spain. Turkey and Levant. Years. Imports. Exports, Ships Ships. inward. outward. 1799 £ 33,091 £ 226,078 3 13 1800 1995773 166,804. 19 6 1801 T4.15137 172,198 9 10 1802 182,424 180,000 20 i3 1803 1759427 1553399 27 9 1804. 148,277 $1,625 16 I 1805 1033590 135,411 22 8 In the year 1806, the number of veffels which entered ia- wards was 23, outwards 3. The articles imported from the coaft of Africa into Great Britain are gum arabic, gum fandarach, and fenegal, cam- wood, red-wood, ebony, ivory, a few oftrich feathers, and fome fkins; their amount in the year 1800 was 82,289 /. 8s, 8d. The exports have hitherte been of far greater value, x being COMMERCE, being principafly intended for the purchafe of flaves for the Wett Indies. They confifted of bugles, cownes, {piritous liquors, a great number of guns an id cutlaffes, gunpowder, wrought brafe, copper: and iron, glafs, éarthen ware, rice, groceries, apothecaries’ ware, wocileas cotton, and linen goods, and large quantities of India piece goods. The tctal official value in the year 1800 was 1,017,365 7. 11s. 5d. of which 521,;922/. 19s. 11d. was Britifh merchandize. ‘The abolition of the infamous traffick in human beings, rouft caufe a great revolution in the trade to this part of the world, as it appeared in the year 1759 that about 38,000 of the invhabitants of Africa were annually carried away in Britifh fhips for fupplying the colonies with flaves, which of courfe employed a confiderable number of veffels. The number of fhips that cleared out from Great Britain for Afriea, in the year 1804, was 176. The Loft fndia trade furnifhes. a remarkable:inftance. of an extenfive branch of commerce carried on fucceflively in the.hands of an exclufive company, while mof other com- mercial monopolies have made very {mall profits, and ge- nerally foomexpired. The trade to India, however, fince the immewfe territorial acquifitions of the Englith in that part, anno longer be confidered as a mere commercial adventure, as. it is now in a great meafure a bufinefs of agency, for tran{mitting to Europe the fortunes acquired by Britith qadividuals in the Eaft. The quantity of merchandize brought from thence, confequently greatly, exceeds the value of the exports to India. Vine latter confi'ts chiefly of woollens, metals, and naval and military ftores, the remaining articles being of trifling amount in comparifon, and almolt wholly for the ufe. of Europeans, as the natives are peculiarly attached to the ufe of their own produce and manufzCures. The exports to China include a confiderable amount in bullion, the other articles are woollen cloths and camblets, lead, and tin; the articles exported in private trade are, {ikins and furs, glafs of various defcriptions, jewellery, toys, and watches, cuttings of cloth, avery few woollens, fome cutlery and hard ware, and filver. The amount of the company’s exports to India and China, will appear from the following ftatements. InpIA. Merchandize, Seafon. or Metals, Stores. Manufactare. w781 £ 200,808 f£ 157,614~ £ 163,878 1782 £23,834 183,356 1335773 1783 959251 122,555 775237 1784 2,205 933806 553250 1785 745683 80,152 104,226 ° 1786 122,709 97,899 85,179 19787 108,388 137,194 153,603 1798 119,440 99,028 152,587 1759 80,184 273,104. 100,435 1799 750141 1913944 4205525) 1791 86,680 124,889 108,560 Cuina. Merchandize, Scafon. or Metals. Storese Bullion. Manufacture, 7781, .£ 129,179 £ 10,349 23206, £ 1782 94:992 9,416 1,717 ——- 1783 113.763 45579 137434 1734 146,740 - 27,835 2,904 1785 224,612 37,939 7503 7244317 Merchandize Seafon. or Metals. Stores, Bullion, Manuladure. 1786 202,023 355535 - 6,972 7495833 1787 323,107 33,046 7,289 646,798 ie 3353392 59.205 6,598 489,192 1789 3545717 107;995 73769 787,078 17990 4315385 105,707 4,081 5325705 1791 436,953 99:448 = 4,000 422,098 The imports from the Eft Indies confit of Bengal piece- goods, coatt and Surat piece-goods, Bengal and China raw- filk, tea, pepper, falt petre, nankeen cloth, china, wrought filks, a fall quantity of china-ware, fugar, coffee, indigo, and various drugs. The total amount of the imports, on the company *s account, and in’ private trade, according to the official rates of the infpeétor- general’s office, was as follows: Years. Imports Yeas. Import. 1781 £ 2,526,339 1793 £ 32499,023 1782 626,319 1794 4:4585475 1783 1,301,495 1795 527 60,810 1784 2,996,652 796 3,372,089 1785 2,703,040 1797 35942394 1736 3,156,687 1798 7,626,930 1787 33430,568 1799 4,284,805 1758 3.453897 1800 49425275 1789 333925545 180t 424,441 17g0 3,149,87 1802 55794:9000 17Ql 3,698,713 1893 63483887 1792 257015547 1804 5»214,025 But a more accurate idea of the real value of the ims ports from the Eaft Indies, may be formed from the annual amount of the company’s fales, which was In rS80r £ 7:595,181 In 1803 £ 6,042,526 1892 6,026,347 1804 5,866,073 The Weft India trade is, in {ome refpects, the moft im- portant branch of the commerce of Great Britain; as on the colonial produce which it fupplies, much of the trade with different parts of Europe chiefly depends. The value of the Britifh Weft India produce from the old iflands, imported into Great Britain, on a medium of four years, preceding the 5th of January 1796, according to the cur- rent prices during that period, was eftimated, exclufive of the duties, at about 6,800,c00/. per annum. This fum is not wholly a return for goods exported, a part of it muft be confidered as remittances of the property of perfons who poffefs eftates in the Welt Indies ; but who are wholly or occafionally refident in England; and of perfons who have lent money on mortgage or otherwife in the Weft Indies, and receive their intereft from the fale of the pros duce. Official Value of Imports from the Weft Indies. Britith. Conquered Years, Wett Indies. Iflands. Total. wor £ 6,759,617 £ 4,105,839 £ 10,865,456 1802 72935310 2,099,504 93992;820 1803 5,790,432 362,014 6,148,436 The value of the Britith Weft India iflands, in a com- mercial view, will be very confpicuous from the following ftatement of the total quantities of fugar, mim, coffee, and cotton-wool, exported from them. Yearso CGO M Sugar. Rum. Coffee. Cotton Wool. Years. Cut. Galls. Cwr. Ibs. 1703 2,129,750 4,997,051 92,016 9 1731553 1794 2 141,92F 5,597,520 141,007 834735175 1795 157435939. 45173:734 144800 111.675.4905 1796 1,816,584 5,567,754 94086 8,854.413 1797 1,636,681 4,279,164 114,947 6,918,153 1798 2,015,602 6,224,076 165: 075 73909,532 1799 2,628%.470 6,270,449 132,259 4,529,531 1800 _ 2,413,997) 6.231225: 180,374 (1¢,61T.340 18o1r 2,959,958 8,148,571 199:359 it 261 At 1802, 3,463,366 8,676,381 #305 148 8,799,891 1803 2,886,479 8,781,496 173,883 5,050,615 The total number of veffels which entered inwards from the Weft Indies, in the year 1504, was 721, containing 204,411 tons, and navigated by 12,119 feamen. Tbhenumber of veffcls which cleared outwards was 790. “The value of Britifh produce and manufactures exported to the Britifh plantations in the Weft Indies, exclufive of the Conquered Wands, was 3,408,232 /. The trade with the United States of America, has rapidly advanced to very confiderable importance; and Great Britain now fupplies them with commodities to a far greater amount, than in the moft favourable years pre- vious to their independence, although the number of Britifh fhips employed is confiderably lefs. In the year 1789 the number of Britith veflels which entered inwards in this trade was 253, the number outwards 355; in the year 1799, the number which entered inwards was only 42, the number outwards 57. Years, Imports. Expor's. 1795 £ 1.782.720 £ 5.580.370 1769 1,818 o41 7,056,558 {800 25357922 6,855,507 The total number of veffels which entered inwards from the United States, in the year 1806, was 561, of which 53 were Bricith ; the total number which cleared outwards was 575 of which only 39 were Britifh. The remaining poffeffions of Britain in North America, being countries not very fertile or fully inhabited, the trade with them is not of very great extent. The following {tatement of the exports to thofe parts in the year 1800, will, however, thew that the trade is well worth preferving, independent of the confideration that it is the means of pro- curing articles of much importance in other branches of commerce. To Hudfons bay - £38,061. 0 9 Newfoundland - - 219.458 5 IL Canada - - - = = 460,155 13 3 New Brunfwick - - - 61,230 15 4 Nova Scotia - - - 177,053 17 I0 Total £ 975,989 13.1 With refpe&t to the general balance of trade, or the ultimate profit which Great Britain derives from its com- merce with all other countries, Mr. Irving, the infpector- general of imports and exports, to whom the public have, for many years, been indebted for the judicious arrange- ment and explanation of the official documents relating to foreign trade, has juftly remarked, that there are perhaps few quettions to which the human attention can be directed more,difiicult to form an opinion upon, from the variety of coufideratians, and the vaft {tatements with which it is COM connefted, and alfo from the materials on which conclu- fions are to be formed, being in fome inilarces defective; he has, however, ftated 11 as his opinion, that the balance of trade in fayour of Great Britain, according to the true value of the goods exported and imported, ameunted on a medium of the four years preceding 1796, to upwards of 6, 502,000 /. per annum, exc! lufive of the profic s derived frow the Ea and Welt India trades, which’he eftimated at upwards of 400,000/. per annum; and exclufive of the profits derived from the fifheries. An accurate view of the progrefs and extent of commerce in all the Enropean ftates, would furnifh much information; but with refpect to feveral, no authentic particulars of shis kind have been made public, and the forcign trade of cthers has been fo entirely turned out of its ufval channels fince the commencement of the war cf the French revolution, that any acccunt of its prefent ftate would be very incom- plete and unfatisfaétory. With refpeét to domeltic commerce,’ we may obferve, that the king is the a-biter of it; as it pertains to his prerogative to eftablifh public marts, as markets and fairs, to regulate weights and meafures, and to give money, which is the univerfal medium of commerce, authority and currency. A great part of the foreign commerce of England is now carricd on by colleétive companies: fome incorporated by the king’s charters, with an cxclufive privilege, as the Eatt India company; cthers only Se ivate affociations, as the Turkey and Hamburgh companies. ee Company. Commerce, Chambers fe S:ec:CHAMBER. Commercs, Charaéers in. See CHARACTER. COMMERCY, in Geography, a handlome town of France, and chief place of a diltri€t in the department of Meule, on the weflern fhorecfthat river. E. long. 5° 24% N. lat. 48° 20’, It hasafub prefeét, and counts 3418 inhabitants. The diftri&t contains 181 communes, with a population of 73,103 individuals. There are feveral iroa forges, paper mills, glue, violin, and linen manufactures. COMMERSONA, in Botany. Sonnerat. See Barrinc- TONIA. COMMERSONIA, (fo named by Forflter, in memory of M. Commerfon, the celebrated French naturalift and traveller.) Forft. Gen. 22. Linn. jun. Supp..26. Schreb. 535 Willd. 596. Lam. Ill. 550: Gert. 586. Joli. 428. Vent. 4. 77. Clafs and order, pian pentagynia. Nat. Ord. Undetermined ; Ju ff. Vent. Gen. Ch. Cal. one- leafed five-cleft, bearing the petals be- tween the fegments; fegments egy-fhaped, acute, longer and broader than the petals. Cor. Petals five, dilated at the bafe on each fide, with an inflexed lobe, fpreading. Stam. Filaments very fhort, fituated at the bafe of the petals; anthers roundifh, didymous. Nedary a five-cleft ring, between the petals and the germ, with five filiform villous fmall bodies between the divifions; divilions lanceolate, ereét, fhorter than the petals. Pit. Germ fupeacts globular, villous, with five projections ; ftyles five, filiform, approximating, fhort. Per. Capfule roundifh, hard, echinate with long foft brittle- fhaped hairs, five-celled ; two feeds in each cell. Seeds egg-thaped. Eff. Ch. Calyx one-leafed, bearing the corolla. Petals five. Neary five-cleft. Capfule five-celled, echinate. Sp. C. echinata. Linn. jun. Supp. 26. Mart. Lam. Willd. Gert. tab. 94. Lam. Ill. tab. 218. (Reltiaria; Rumph. Amb. 3. 187. tab. 119.) A middle-fized tree. Trunk rarely the bulk of a man, with a diffufe head and fmooth bark, ealily f{eparable from the wood; young branches woolly, Leaves alternate, petioled, obliquely ego-fhaped, acuminate, ferrated, a little wrinkled, fhining, dark green X2 above cOM above, hoary underneath. F/oqwers very {mail, white, in axillary panicles. Capfule fomewhat globular, with a co- ylaceous echinate rind, five-coccous, five-valved ; cocci in- verfely ege-fhaped, narrowing downwards, femibilocular from the back, two-valved; valves of the contiguous cocci united and forming the proper partitions of the capfule. Seeds twoin each cell, attached to the central angle of the cells, ovate-oblong, a little thicker upwards, fhghtly comprefled, of a red-ferruginous colour, blackifh at the top, incompleatly arilled; aril membranous, very thin, whuitifk, lacerated, fixed to the umbilicus of the feed, covering its whole ventral, but not its dorfal part. Gert. A native of Otahcite, the Friendly Ifles, and the Moluccas. COMMIA, Bofc. Nouv. Dié. Clafs and order, diecia monandriae Gen. Ch. Male catkins. Scales obtufe, each concealing a fingle ftamen. Female catkins. Calyx proper three-leaved; leaves acute, permanent. Cor. none. Pi/f. Germ fuperiors ityles three, fhort;’ ftigma thick. Pertc. Capfule three- lobed, three-celled. Seeds one in each cell. A tree. Leaves alternate, lanceolate, quite entire, fmooth, recurved. Flowers in axillary and terminal catkins. A native of Cochin-china. A white gum exudes abundant- ly from its bark, which is fometimes ufed as a medicine in dropfies and obftruétions, but is too violent in its effects to be taken without great caution. COMMINATORY, a claufe inferted in a law, edi, patent, &c. importing a puniihment wherewith delinquents are menaced; which, however, is not to be executed in its rigour. Thus, in France, when an exile is enjoined not to return on pain of death, it is deemed a comminatory penalty; fince, if he do return, it is not ftriGly executed; but a fecond in- junGion is then laid on him, which is more than commina- tory, and from the day of the date thereof, imports death without remedy. COMMINES, Pnitip pe, in Biography, a celebrated hif- torian, was born of a noble family in Fianders in 1445. He fpent the early part of his life in the court of Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy; but in 1472 he went over to the fervice of Louis XI. king of France, who adopted him as a favourite, and employed him in various important negocia- tions. He married an heirefs of the houfe of Anjou, by whom he acquired confiderable landed property. He ac- companied his fovereign in many of his journies and in fome expeditions of a more ferious nature; and he attended upon his fucceffor Charles VIII. to the conqueft of Naples. Ur- der this prince he was accufed of having efpoufed the caufe of the duke of Orleans, for which he was arrefted, and im- prifoned in an iron cage for eight months. He was after- wards transferred to a prifon at Paris, where he was eighteen months without being able to obtain a trial. Commines was at length honourably acquitted, but it does not appear that, either in the remainder of this reign, or in that of the duke of Orleans who fucceeded, and for whom he had fuffered, he was afterwards publicly employed. Hz died. at his feat of Argenton, in Poitou, of which he had been denominated the Jord. Commines poffeffed various qualities well adapted to render him eminent as a ftatefman. He had a fine perfon, and an excellent underftanding : he was a complete matter of many modern languages, and had fo great a command of his own powers that he could dictate to four fecretaries at once. Asa literary charaGter he is chiefly known for his «« Memoirs,’ which contain an account of the principal events of the reigns of Louis XI. and Charles VIII. during a period of thirty-four years. ‘I’his work 1s highly efteemed on account of the perfonal knowledge and obfervation of the r cOM author, who united a fincere and candid difpofition, with * fimple and unaffected ftyle, By the learned Lipfius, Come mines is regarded as equal to the hiftorians of antiquity 3 his ‘* Memoirs’? he recommends as the vade mecum of princes. They have gone through many editions, which have been illuitrated with notes by different learned men ; but the mot efteemed impreffion is that of the abbé Leng- let du Frefnoy, 1747, in 4 vols, 4to. printed at Paris, with London in the ctle page. Nouv. Dict. Hitt. Du Frefnoi, COMMINGES, in Geography, (in Latin Convena,) was before the French revolution of 1789, a county in the pro- vince of Gafcony, and forms now part of the department of Haute-Garonne in France. COMMINUTION, the aé& of grinding, or breaking any matter into {maller particles. —The effeét of chewing, or matticating our food, is the comminution thereof, COMMIRE, Joun, ia Biography, a Jefuit, was born in 1625 at Amboife, where his father kept a tennis-court. He recetved a good education, and applied himfelf chiefly to claffical literature. He acquired great reputation as a poet, by a colleGion of pieces in Latin which appeared in 1678, but he was, at the fame time, diligent in his profeffion, asa teacher and dire€tor in theology. His poems confilt of pa- raphrafes on various parts of the f{criptures, odes, fables, epigrams, &c. of which the general character is facility, co- piou{nefs, and amenity. He is thought to have fucceeded beft in his odes, but his fables are in high repute. He died at Paris in 1702, leaving behind him the charaéter of an open and upright difpofition, An edition of his poems was publifhed in 2 vols. 12mo.in the year 1754. Nouv. Did, Hitt. COMMIS, Fr. A clerk, deputy, or fubordinate per- fon, who is employed in any of the war-departments of the French. Commis general du parc des vivres; commis-general of the provifion-park. ‘This officer exercifes his funétions under the orders of the director-general of provifions. His em- ployment requires a good deal of capacity and zeal, as well as of probity. His ducies and relations are multifarious and extenfive. He fhould always encamp in the centre of the bageage, to be able to have an eye to the whole, and to be lef. interrupted. Commis General des travaux du parc des vivres, commis- general of labour and work in the provifion-park,. The du- tics of this employment are troublefome, and require much attention. It thould never be beftowed on a man that does not poffefs experience, prudence, and firmnefs, without being too rigorous or fevere, as he has authority over every thing conneéted with the different kinds of work in the park. Commis des entrepreneurs pour la fourniture des lits ; clerks of undertakers for the furnifhing of ‘beds. They have a right to vifit and examine the beds and every thing connected with them, and to refule or rejeét whatever is infuflicient or defective. Commis du treforier de P extraordinaire des guerres, clerks of the treafurer of the wars, or of the paymatter general of the army. They deliver the certificates to the troops who leave lodgings or quarters. ‘Chey were under the jurildic- tion of the high eonltable. COMMISERATION, in Pathelozy and Ethics, is free quently ufed as fynonymous with compa/jion, which fee; but, in its general ufe, it is fomewhat different. It is always pre+ ferred, when we wifh to exprefs our f{ympathy for misfor- tunes, which it is not in our power to remove, or for which there is no apparent remedy. Commiferation, ruminating upon the {tate and fuffering of others, induces a permanent concern. In fuch cafes it may be faid, that we commiferate the cOM the unfortunate fufferer, rather than that we have campaf- fion upon him. But although this is a more helplefs, it is not an ufelefs affe&tion. It fooths the mind of the affliged, and greatly alleviates their forrows, when every other con- folation fails. Condolence is the expreffion of our commifera- tion. Cogan on the Paffions, p. 134. COMMISSAIRE, Fr. Commiffary. This word or term was ufed in the old French fervice, to exprefs a variety of occupations, and was annexed to a good many different ap- pellations, of which the following are the principal, Commissatre General des Guerres cu commiffaire General des Armées, commiflary gereral of the wars. “This charge, office, or appointment, was created for Befangon, im 1637, and did not long exift, being fuppreffed in his perfon, be- caufe it gave too much authcrity, and too many privileges, to the perfon invefted with it. i CommissatRrE Général de la Cavalerie légére. Fr. He was the third general officer of all the regiments of cavalry, and he had a regiment of his own under the name of the ens of the commiffaire général, or commiflary gene- ral. Com missAtae Ordonnateur des Guerres. This appointment was fuperior to that of an ordinary or provincial commif- fary of war. It was commonly a fort of recompence and advancement granted in confideration of fervices rendered by the one or the other commiffarics of war, whether of the armies or in the interior of the ftate. The commiffaire or- donnateur is charged with objeéts of the firlt importance, and with a greater variety of them than the other commif- faries are. CommissarreEs des Guerres, commiflaries of the wars, or muiter-mafters general. They enjoyed peculiar privileges, but were fubordinate to the governors and commandants of towns and garrifons, without whofe permiffion they couid not mufter any regiment. CommissatreEsOrdinaires des Guerres, ordinary commifiaries of the wars, or deputy-mutter mafters. Officers fubordinate to the immediately preceding, who ought to aflift at re- views, who are charged with the condud@, police, and difci- pline of troops, and with making the men obferve the milita- ry decrees. With the army, they have the detail of the hofpi- tals, bread, victuals, &c. &c. They make inventories of provi- fions,and are charged with the management of convoys. Their creation is very ancient: for there 1s mention made of them underthe reign of king Jean Lin 1355. They were called at firlt condudteurs des gens de guerre, (conductors of the people of war, or of military people) a title or appellation which they enjoyed for a long time under Louis XII1., and they are {till called fo in their commiffions. Thofe who were not gentlemen, had the right of taking the rank of fquire, or efquire ; of enjoying all the privileges of the noblelic, and of acquiring noble fieis. Commissaire Provincial des Guerres, provincialcommiflary of the wars. There were no commiffaires provinciaux des guerres before the year 1635. They were afterwards fup- prelled, and were re-eftabiifhed in 1704, under Louis XIV., with the fame privileges, rights, attributions, and authorities for the feryice of cities of war, that the ordinary commiffaries of the wars enjoyed for the fervice of marches, and of the armies. Commissaire General des Vivres, commiflary general of provifions. This officer has under him feveral other commiffaries, who ought to know the number of men,. which each of them will have to fubfift, in order to make choice of a proper place for caufing the pro- vifions to be brought to, as allo to form magazines for the COM duration of the campaign, and of courfe to procure a fuffi- cient number of bakers and workmen. Commissaire d’ Ariillerie, commiffary of artillery. Thereis one {uch officer in each department of the ordnance, who keeps one of the three keys that belong to the artillery-ma- gazine, It is at his requifition that the governor or com~ mandant of a place fends foldicrs to remove, when necef- fary, the pieces of artilicry and {tores of war. He has the fuperintendance and direétion of every thing connected with the clean'inefs and general management of the magazines. ComMIssAIREs provinciaux @’ Artillerie, provincial commif faries of artillery, ‘Thefe were of two forts or defcriptions. The one had the names or utles of the provinces ; the other had merely the title of provincial. But on fervice, they both received the fame pay. Commissairesordinaires @’ Artillerie, ordinary commiflaries of artillery. Tefe were fubordinate to the provincial com- miffaries, and were diltributed among the forts, garrifoned towns, navy, and dockyards. Commussaires extraordinaires d’ Artillerte, extraordinary commiffaries of artiilery. Underthe monarchy of France, thefe formed the third ‘of ordnance-commiflaries, and they were * in like manner diftributed on duty in garrifoned places, and on board fhips of war. ComMissAire provincial en P Arfenal de Paris,au department de T’Ifle de France, provincial commiffary in the arfenal of Paris, in the department of the ifle of France. “This officer received his commiffion from the grand imaiter, in whofe gift it was, and poffeffed the exclufive privilege of being made privy to every alteration or movement that took place in the arfenal. Commissaire General des Poudres et Saltpetres, commiffary general of gun-powder and faltpetre. ‘This appointment was created in 1634, with that of fuperintendant general of gun-powder and faltpetre. It was at laft fuppreffed, and the grand mafter of the ordnance appointed a perfon to ex- ercife its funétions. Commissairt General des Fontes, commiflary general of the founderies. ‘This appointment was the gift of the maf- ter of the ordnance, and was invariably beftowed on thofe who had given convincing proofs of their abilities and {kul in the cafting of cannon, &c. Commissaires des Guerres entretenus-dans I Hotel des Inva- lides, commiffaries of war kept in the hotel des invalides. It was a principal part of their duty to keep a regular roll ow lift of all the names of the different officers, non-commif- fioned officers, and foldiers, that might be detached on gar= rifon duty, &c. from which they made a monthly return to- the fecretary at war. Each commiffary, at every review or infpe@tion of the corps of invalids, had particular directions: to mark and point out thofe men who appeared to be capa~ ble of ferving, of whom a regular return was made to the fecretary at war. Commissatre General des Fortifications, commiflary ge- neral of fortifications. ‘This was an office of great im-. portance, as it was his duty to give the plans for places and: new works; tc approve or condemn thofe that had been or- dered by others ; to vifit the fortified places of the king- dom; to order the reparation of works that had been da-. maged ; to regulate the conduét of the engineers, and to» give them orders for the good of the fervice. Ata fiege, he direéted the tracing out of. the lines of circumvallation and countervallation, and the fecuring of the polts; he decided on attacks which were made accord- ing to his plan; he direGted the making of lodgments, faps). mines, the traverfe of the ditch, the attack of the piel and. GOs and after the place was taken, caufed it to be repaired. In defending a place, he had the fame or equal power. His appointments amounted to about 30,000 livres per an- num. " COMMISSARY, in Military Language of Britain, has va- rious denominations, though he 1s generally a civil oficer ap- pointed to infpe&t the mutters, flores, and provifions for the army, The number of fuck officers is not limited in time of war. Commiflaries general, and commiflaries of accousts, in our fervice, are appointed by warrant under the king’s fizn manual, dire€ting them to obey all inftru€tions giv-n to them for the execution of their duty by the lords com- miffioners of the treafery. Thefe inltruétious are generally prepared by the comptrollers of the army-accounts, under the orders of the treafury, and fubjeé to its fubfequent in- {pection. Commissary General of the IMufbers, or Mufler-mafter general. This officer takes aa account of the ftrength of every regiment as often as he pleafzs; reviews them; fees that the horfe are well mounted, and that all the men are well armed and clothed. He receives and infpeéts the mul. ter-rolls, and-thereby knows exaCtly the ftrength of the army. A new officer has been.appointed under the appel- lation of Jnfpedor-general of . Cavalry, who performs the duties in that re(peet, which ufed to be performed by the mutter-matter general. Commissary General of Stores. A civil officer who has charge of ordnance flores, for which he is accountable to the office of ordnance. He has other commiflaries under him, as well as clerks and conduétors, particularly in time of war. Commissary of the Train-horfes. A civil officer of the ordnance, who has the infpcétion of all horfes belonging to the train of artillery, the hofpital, and the bakery. He has a number of conduétors, drivers, &c. under him. Commissary 9f Accounts. A perfon of refponfidility, who, with a'proper eftablifhment, attends each army, fuffi- ciently Jarge and numerous to render it neceflary for the purpole of taking, examining, and controlling accounts on the fpot. All fech commiffa-ies make returns of their exa- minations, on which, as dacuments, the comptrallers of the army-accounts ground their inquiries into that branch of the public expenditure. Commissary General of Provifions. An officer who is charged with furnifhing the army in the field and on feryice, with all forts of pravilions; forage, &c. generally by con- tract, and fometimes otherwife. He has a variety of com- miffaries, fiore-keepers, clerks, &c. under him. Commissary, in the Eeclefiaflical Law, an officer of the bifhop, who exereifes eccietaltical jur{diGion in thofe parts of the diocefe, which are fo remote from the fee, that the chancellor cannot call the fubjedts thereof to the bifhop’s puiacipal confiliory, without their too great molettation. This officer, called by the canonilts commiffarius, or offi- cialis foraneus, 1s appointed to fupply the bifhop’s office in the out-parts of the diocefe, and in fuch parts as are peculiar to the bifhop, and exempted from the jarifdiion of the archdeacon: for where the archdeacons have jurildiction, as in moft places they have, either by prefcription or compofi- tion, the commiffary is fuperfluous, aod frequently vexatious, and ought not.to be: yet in fuch cafes, a commiliary is fometimes appointed by the bifhap, and takes preftation- money of the archdeacon yearly pro exterioni jurifiidtione, as it is ordinarily called. But this is held to be a wrong to archdeacons and the poorer fort of people. Cowel’s Interp. 4 Init. 338. Commissary Court, in Scots Furifprudence. At the re- formation, all epifcopal jurifdidion exercifed under the au- 5 cOMmM thority of the bifhop of Rome was abolifhed ; and the courfe of juitice in corfiftorial caufes was thus ftopped. Hence queen Mary, befides naming a commiflary for every diocefe, did, by a fpecial grant, eltablith a new commiffary-court’ at Edinburgh, confifting of four judges or commiilaries. This court is vefted with a double junfdi€iion; one diocefan, which 1s exercifed in the fpecial territory contained in the grant, viz. the counties of Edinburgh, Haddington, Lin- lithgow, Peebles, and a great part of Stirlingthire; and an- other univerfal, by which the judges confirm the teftaments ef all who die in foreign parts, and may reduce the decrees of all inferior commiffarics, provided the reduGtion be pur- fued within a yearafter the decree. Bifhops, upon their re- eftabifhment in the reign of James VI., were reftored to the right of naming their feveral commiflaries. The commiffh- ries retain to this day an exclufive power of judging in de- clarations of marriage, and of the nullity of marrage; in a&tions of divorce and of non-adherence, of adultery, baf- tardy, and confirmation of teltaments; becanfe all thefe matters are flil confidered to be properly confiiorial. In- ferior comm‘flaries are not competent to queltions of divorce, under which are comprehended queltions of baitardy and adherence, when they have a connection with the lawfulnefs of marriage, or with adultery. C.ommiffaries have now no power to pronounce decrees in abfence for any {um above 4c/. Ssots, except in caufes purely confiltorial; but they may authenticate tutorial aed curatorial inventories: and all bonds, contraéts, &c. which contain a claufe for regiftration in the books of any judge competent, and protetts on bills, may be regiftered in their books. COMMISSION, in Conmon Law, is the fame with dee legatio among the civilians; and is taken for the warrant, or letters-patent, which ali perfons exerciling jurifdiction, either ordinary or extraordinary, have to authorife them to hear or determine any caufe or action: fuch as the commif- fion of judges, &c. The term, however, 1s fometimes extended farther than to atters of judgment; as in the commiffion of purveyors, which feems to be null by the ftatute for taking away pur- veyance, 12 Car. II. and the hizh commiffion court, which was founded on the ftatute 1 Eliz. and is aifo abolifhed by act of parlament 16 Car. I. The perfons charged with a comm:ffion are hence called commifioners ; fometimes com- mitiees. Commiflions of inquiry fhall be made to the juflices of one bench or the other, &c., and to do lawful things are, grantable in many cafes. Mott of the great officers, judicial) and minifterial, of the realm, are made by commiffion. And by fuch commiffions, treafons, felonies. aod other offences, may be heard and determined; by this method, likewife,, oaths, cognizances of fines, and anfwers, are taken, witnefles examine4, offices found, &c. Bro Ab.12. Rep. 39. See: flat. 42 E. III. c. 4. Moft of thefe commiffions are ap- pointed by the king under the great feal of England; but a> commiffion under the grand feal may be determined by a privy feal; and by granting another new commiffion to do the fame thing, the former comm ffion determines; and on the death or demife of the king, the commiffions of judges and officers generally ceafe. Bro. Commif. 2 Dyer 280. Commission of Anticipation, was anciently a commiffion iven under the great-feal, to collect a tax or fubfidy before the day. 15 Hen. VIII. Commission of Array. See Miciria. Commission of Affociation, is a commiffion under the great feal to aflociate two, or more learned perfons, with the feveral juitices, in the feveral circuits and counties in Wales. Commission of Bankruptcy, a commiffion under the ve ca. cOM feal, direfted to five or more commiffioners, to enquire into the particulais of a man’s circumftances, who hath failed, or broke; and to a& according to certain ftatutes mde in that behalf. See Bankrupt, and Perition of Bank- ruptey. Commissions of Charitable Ufis go out of the chancery to the bifhop and others, where any lands given to charit- able ufes are mifemployed, or there are any fraud or dif- putes concerning them, to enquire of and redrefs the abule, &c. 43 Eliz. cap. 4. Commission of Delegates, a commiffion under the great feal to certain perfons, ulually two or three temporal lords, as many bifhops, and two judges of the law, to fit upon an appeal to the king in the court of chancery, where any fen- tence is given in any ecclefiattical caule by the archbifhop. Stat. 25 Hen. VILT.c.19. Now generally three of the common law judges and two civilians fit as judges. See Courr and Devecares. Commission ¢o enquire of faults againft the law, an an- cient commiffion fet forth on extraordiuary occafions and corruptions. Commission of Lunacy, a commiffion out of charcery to enquire whether a perfon reprefented to be lunatic, be fo or not; that, if lunatic, the king may have the care of his eftate, &c. 17 Edw. II. c. 10. Commission of Peace Sce Justice of Peace. Commission of Rebellion, or lirit of Rebellion, is iflved out when a man, after proclamation made by the fheriff upon a procefs out of the chancery, to prefent himfelf, un- der pain of his allegiance, to the court by a certain day, Goes not appear. See Repeurion. This commiffion is dire&ted by way of command to certain perfons; three, two, or one of them; to apprehend, or caufe to be apprehended, the party as a rcbel; and to bring him to the court on a day affigned. This writ or commiffion goes forth after an attachment re- turned, non eff inventus, &c. Commission of Sewers, is dire&ted to certain perfons to fee drains and ditches well kept, and maintained, in the marfhy and fensy parts of England, for the better convey- ance of water into the fea, and preferving the grafs upon the land. Stat. 23 Hen. VIII. c. 5. 13 Eliz.c.g. The ftat. 3 Jac. 1. c. 14. ordains, that all ditches, water-courfes, &c. within two miles of. London, falling into the Thames, fhall be fubje& to the commiffion of fewers; and the lord- mayor, &c. is to appoint perfons who have this power. 7 Ann. c. To. ComMIssION fo examine witneffes, is fometimes appointed by the court of equity in cafes that require it, as when the caufe arifes in a foreign country, and the witneffes are at home, or when the witnefles are abroad, or foon to leave the kingdom; or again, when they are aged and infirm, This commiffion is empowered to exercife the fame jurifdic- tion as would have been exercifed if the witnefles had at- tended. See Suir. Commission of Treaty with Foreign Princes, is where leagues and treaties are made and tranfaéted, between ttates and kingdoms, by théir ambafladors and minifters, for the mutual advantage of the kingdoms in alliance. Commission to take up Men for War, was a commiffion to prefs or force men into the king’s fervice. * This power of impreffiog has been heretofore doubted ; but the legality of it is now fully eftablifhed. Foft. Rep. 154. Blactt. Com. vr. 419. Cowp. 517. See ImpressinG. Commission, Militaire. A brevet, or power, granted in writing by the minifter of war in the name of the fove- €0/M reign, and fealed with the great feal, by which he, to whom it is given, ciles the military charze entrutted to him, and takes his rank from the day of the date therco'. Commiffionin a military fenfe, in our f-rvic » denetes any fituation or piace, which an individual may hoid in the regular army, milit‘a, or volunteers. All commiffions in the line, guards, or volunteer-corps, mult have the royal fin manual. Commiffions however in the militia do not bear the royal fign manual, except that of the adjutant, who is commonly calied a king’s officer. The lieutenants or deputy-leutenants of counties #ffix their feals ard fiynatures to militia-commiflions after they have been laid before the king for his approbation. Fourteen days corflitute the time allotted for the royal ayprobation or difapprobatior, And if his majefty does rot within that time difapprove of the perfon fo recommended, a notification of his pleafure and acquiefcence is fent by one of the principal fecretaries of Pate to the ford Heutenant or to thofe aCung by com- m'ffion in his abfence. Commission Mfisitaire is alfo a momentary or temporary tribunal appointed or ordered to fir for the trial of military crimes and offences... When judgment is proncunced and the duty is performed, for which it was appointed, its authority, as well as its exittence, ceafes. Commissions of Array. Commiffions iff-ed to expe- rienced officers to draw cut and array the fittelt men ia each county for fervice, and to march them to the fea coalts, or to fuch other parts of the county as were though to be mofl in danger. There were hundreds of {uch com- miffions between the 36th of Henry IIL., and the reign of Edward IV. The form of one is to be feenin “© Rufh- worth’s H:forical Colle@ion,”? publifhed in 1640. Such commiffions were attempted to be revived by Charles I. ; but they were voted illegal and uncosftitutional by the parliament. Non-commiffioned is a term commonly employed to de- note a clafs of men, who ftand between the rank and file of a batralion, and the commifiioned and warrant officers, as ferjeants-major, ferjeants forinftance. ~ Commission-Offcers. See OFFICER. Commissions, Book of. See Boox. Commission, in Commerce. Sce Facrorace. COMMISSIONER, he who has-a commiffion, e.gre a patent, or other legal warrant, to execute any public office: See WArRanT, &c. Such are, commiffioners of hawkers and pedlars, commi/- Jioners of alienation, commiffoners of the {ftamps, &c. Commissioners of Public Accounts.: See Accounrs. Commissioners of the Cuftoms. See Cusrom-hou/e. Commissioners of the Dock-yards. See Docx-yards. Commissioners of Excife. See Excise. Commisstoners of the Navy. See Navy. Commissioners, Lords, of the Treafury. Sec TREASURY, and ExcHEQuer. Commissioners of Trade, &c. See Boarn. COMMISSUM Fidei. See Fines. COMMISSURE, Commnissura, a term ufed by fome authors for the junétures, or for the {mall interltices of bodies ; or the little clefts between the particles; efpeciaily when thofe particles are broadifh or flat, and lie contiguous to one another, like thin plates, or /ameile. The word literally fignifies @ joining, or conne@ing of one thing to another. : Commissurés, in Archite@ure, &c. denotes the joint of two ftones; or the application of the furface of the one to that of the other, COM- ex Crore COMMISSUR-E Cerebri, in Anatomy, are parts of the brain, which join together the right and left fides of this ee are three of thefe commiflures: an anterior one which is dire@tly under the anterior erura of the fornix 5 a polterior, which is behind the optic thalami, and in front of the tubercula quadrigemina; and a middle one, which joins together the oppofed convexities of the thalami ner vorum opticorum. Fora further defcription of thefe parts, fee Be IMITMENT, in Law, the fending of a perfon to prifon by warrant or order, who hath been guilty of an offence not bailable, or for which bail is refuted. It oy ee by the king and privy council. or fecretary of ftate, vs the judges of the law, juftices of peace, and other magi aa who have authority by the laws and itatutes of the realm to do it, which mutt be exadtly purfucd. As to the manner.of commitment, it 1s enacted by 2&3 P. & M.c. 10., that juilices of peace fhall examine pe brought before them for felony, &c. or fufpicion” one before they commit them to priloo, and fhall aang accufers to give evidence again{t them. A juftice : a c peace may detain a prifoner for examination, anc rae {aid that three days are a reafonable time for this purpofe. 2 Hawk. P.C.c. 16.§ 11, 12. Dalt.c..125. 2 Inft. 52, euety commitment muft be in writing, under the hand and feal, and fhew the authority, of him that made it, ane the time and place, and mutt be direéted | to the keeper : the prifon. It may be either in the king 8 name, and only tefted by the juftice, or in the name of the jultice, It ied command the gaoler to keep the party in fafe and ove cuftody, which he is bound by law todo. 2 Hawk. genes c. 16: § 13,14, 15- It ought to fet forth the crime with convenient certainty, whether the commitment be by the privy council, or by any other authority; otherwile the officer is not punifhable by reafon of {uch mittimus, for fuffering the party to efcape 5 aid the court before which he is removed by Habeas-corpus, ought to difcharge or bail him; and this holds not only where no canfe at all is expreffed in the commitment, but alfo where it is fo loofely fet forth, that the court cannot judge whether it were a reafonable ground for commitment or not. | 2 Hawk. P. C. c.16.§ 17- See ARREST and Bai. A commitment for high treafon or felony in general, without exprefling the particular {pecies, has been held good. (2 Hawk. Rac: c. 16. § 16.) But now, fince the Habeas-corpus act, it feems that fuch general commitment is not good. Moreover, it is {afe to fet forth that the party is charged upon oath; but this is not neceflary, for it hath been refolved, that a com- mitment for treafon, or for fufpicion of it, without fetting forth any particular accufation or ground of the fulpicion, is ood. 2 Hawk. PaGresos sun Every fuch mittimus ought to have a lawful conclufion, viz. that the party be kept till he be delivered by law, or by order of law, or by due courfe of law; or that he be kept till further order (which fhail be intended of the order of law) or to the like effe&; and if the party be committed only for want of ail, it feems to be a good conclufion of the commitment, that he be kept tll he can find bail; but a commitment till the perfon who makes it fhall take further order, feems not to be good: and it feems that the party committed by fuch or any other irregular mittimus, may be bailed. 2 Hawk. Pp. C. c. 16. § 18. ; A commitment grounded on an a& of parliament ought to be conformable to the method prteferibed by fuch Cy OM flatute, Where a man is committed as a criminal, the conctufion muft be, “ until he be delivered by due courfe of Jaw ;”? if he be committed for contumacy, it fhould be “¢ until he comply.” Allcommitments mutt be to fome prifon within the realm of England; for by the Habeas-corpus act ({tat. 31 Car. Il. cap. 2.) it is enacted “ that no fubject ofthis realm, being an inhabitant or refiant of this kingdom of England, dominion of Wales, or town of Berwick-upon-T weed, fliall or may be fent prifoner into Scotland, Ireland, Jerfey, Guernfey, Tangier, or into any ports, garrifons, iflands or paces, beyond the feas, which then were, or at any time after fhould be, within or without the dominions of his majefty.”’? By flat. 14 Ed. IIL. c. 10, fheriffs fhall have the cuftody of the gaol as before that time they were wont to have, and they fhall put in fuch under keepers for whom they will anfwer. This is confirmed by flat. 19 Hen. VII. c. 10. It hath alfo been held, that regularly no one can juftify the delivering of a prifoner in cuftody out of the common gaol, unlefs there be fome particular reafon for fo doing, as ficknefs eridangering life, or evident danger of a refcous from rebels, &c.: neverthelefs conftant praétice {cems to authorize a commitment to a meficnger; and it is faid, that it fhall be intended to have been made in order for the carrying of the party to gaol. 2 Hawk. P.C.c. 16, § 8, 9. Andit is faid, that if a conftzble bring a felon to gaol, and the gaoler refufe to receive him, the town where he is conftable ought to keep him till the next gaol delivery. H. P. C. 114. 2 Hawk. P.C. c. 16, § 9: A prifoner in the cultody of the king’s meflenger, on a warrant from the fecretary of ftate, who is brought into K. B. by Habeas. corpus to be bailed, but has not his bail ready, cannot be committed to the fame cutody, under which he came ; but mutt be committed to the cultody of the marfhal, which will prevent the neceffity of fuing out a new Habeas corpus; as he may be brought up from the prifon of thecourt, by a rule of court, whenever he thall be prepared to give bail. 1 Burr. 460. If a perfon*arre(ted in one county for a crime done in it, fly into another county, and be retaken there, he may be committed by a juftice of the firft county to the gaol of {uch county. (H.P.C. 93.) But by the better opinion, if he had, before any arréft, fled into fuch county, he mutt be committed to the gaol thereof by a juttice of fuch county. 2 Hawk. P.C.c.16.48. WDalt.c., 118. It feems alfo to be laid down as arule by fome books, that any offender may be committed to the gaol next to the place where he was taken, whether it be in the fame county or not. 2 Hawk. P.C.c.16, § 8. By ftat. 6 Geo. 1. c. 19. vagrants and other criminals, and perfons charged with {mail offences, may, for fuch offences, or for want of {ureties, be committed either to the common gaol or houfe of correftion, as the juftices fhall think proper. By ttat. 24 Geo. Il.c.55. if a perfon is apprehended, upon a warrant indorfed, in another county, for an offence not bailable, or if he fhall not there find bail, he fhall be carried back into the firft county, and be committed, or if bailable, bailed by the juftices in fuch firft county. With refpeét to the charges of commitment, it is enacted by itat. 3 Jac. I. c. 10, that offenders committed are to bear their, own charges, and the charges of thofe who are appointed to. guard them; and, it the refule to pay, the charges may be levied by fale of their goods. And by ftat.-27 Geo. lI. c. 3. it they have no goods, &c. within the county where they are appre- hended, tie jultices are to grant a warrant on the treafurer of the county for payment of their charges. But in Mid- diefex COM dlefex the fame fhall be paid by the overfeers of the poor of the parifh where the perfon was apprehended. By tat. 3 Hen. Vil. c. 3. the fheriff fhalt certify the names of all pri- foners in his cuftody to the juftices of gaol! delivery. Prifoners, committed at firltto the preper prifon, ought not to be removed thence, except in fome {pecia! cales ; and in peculiar circumitances, fpecified by 31 Car. Il. c.2. A perfon, legaily committed for a crime, which certainly ap- pears to have been done by fome one or other, cannot be lawfully difcharged by any other but the king, till he be acquitted on his trial, or have an ignoramus found by the grand jury, or none to profecute him on a proclamation for that purpofe, by the juttices of gaol-delivery. But if a perfon be committed on a bare fufpicion, without any ap- peal or indi&tment, for a fuppofed crime, when afterwards it appears there was none; as for the murder of a perfon thought to be dead, but afterwards found to be alive, it hath been held that he may be fafely dilmifled without any farther proceeding. 2 Hawk. P.C.c.16.§ 22. But the fafelt way for the gaoler is to have the authority of fome court, or magifrate, for difcharging the prifoner. If the words of a ftatute ave not purfued in a commitment, the party fhall be difcharged by Habeas-corpus. Jacob’s Law Di&. by Tomlins. See Arrest, Daiv, Impaisonment, Mittimus, &c. COMMITTEE, in Law, one or more perfons, to whom the confideration of any matter is referred, either by a court, or by confent of the parties concerned. Committee of Parliament, is a board confifting of a certain number of members, appointed by the whole houfe for the examining of a bill, or making report of an inquiry, or procefs of the houfe, &c. Sometimes the whole houfe is refolved into a committee ; on which occafion each perfon has aright to fpeak, and reply as much, and as often as he pleafes; an expedient they ufually have recourfe to in extraordinary cafes, and where any thing is to be thoroughly canvafled. When the houfe is not in a committee, each gives his opinion regu- larly, and is only allowed to fpeak once, unlefs to explain himfelf. The ftanding committecs, appointed by every new par- liament, are thofe of privileges and eleflions, of religion, of grievances ; of courts of juflice, and of trade, though only the former aét. See Parriamenrt.! Committee of the king, is ufed for a widow of one of the king’s tenants ; thus called, as being by the ancient law of the realm committed to the king’s care and protection. See Wivow. Committee of a Lunatic, Jdeot, &c. denotes the per- fon to whom the care and cultody of fuch lunatic, &c. is committed’by the court of chancery. See Lunatic. Commit7Tees of Corporations, &c. are feleét members who perform the general routine of bulinefs. See Corpo- RATIONS. < COMMODATE, Commoparom, in the Civil Furi/- prudence,’ the loan or free conceffion of any thing moveable 6rimmoveable, fora certain time on condition of refloring again the fame individual after a certain term, The commodate is a kind of loan; there is this differ- ence, however, between a loah and a commodate, that the Jatter-is gratis, and does not transfer the’ proptrty: the thing muift be returned in effence, and without impairment: fo that things which confume by ufe, or time, cannot be objets of a commodate, but of a- loan; in regard they may be returned in kind, though not in identity?” COMMODAVIENSIS, an appellation given by fome authots toa fpecies of /apis' caluminaris found in-Bohemia, » Mot. IX. : . a COM Bat as it yields no zinc, Mr. Marggraff denies it to be true calamine. COMMODITIES, Staple. See Starve. COMMODORE, in the Briti/b Marine, a general of- ficer invefted with the command of a detachment of fhips of war dellined on any particular enterprize; during which time he bears the rank of a brigadier-general in the army, and his fhip is diltinguifhed by a broad red pendant taper- ing towards the outer end, and fometimes forked. Commopore isalfoa name given to a feleét fhipina fleet of merchantmen, which leads the van in time of war, bearing a light in her top to condu& the ref. COMMODUS, Lucius Aursrrivs Antoninus, in Biography, was the only fon of the erperor Marcus Anto-= nisus and Fauftina, and born A.D. 161.. He was edu- cated with the utmolt attention, and he enjoyed very fupe- rior advantages from the precepts and inftruétions of tutors appointed to prefide over his infantile {tudies and purfuits ; but from the firft openings of his mind, he difplayed an untoward difpofition, end a ftrong propenfity for low and unworthy gratifications. He difcovered an averfion from whatever was rational ar ~ ral, and a fond attachment to the {ports of the c> amphitheatre, the combats of gladiators, and whe numung and deftroyise of wild beafts. To wean him from thefe purfuits, and witha view of engaging his mind in ufeful and manly occupations, his father made him a partaker of the fovereizn power in his fifteenth year. This inftance of parental affeGion did not produce the defired efle@ ; it only furnifhed him with better opportunities of indulging every {enfual gratification. Upoa the death of Marcus, in the year 189; he fucceeded to the quiet and undifputed poffeffion of the throne; he faw about him neither competitor to remove nor enemies to punifh, and during the firlt three years of his reign, the influence of his father’s virtuous counfellors reftrained him from any aéts of tyranny towards his fubje&ts. During this period, how- ever, he indulged in every f{pecies of licentioufnefs, and re- velled in all the licence of fovercign and unreftrained power, but his hands were unftained with blood, and occafionally he difplayed a generofity of fentiment worthy of a great mind ; he had in one initance refufed to fee the proofs of a confpiracy formed again{ft him, and it was hoped he might have followed the track of his illu(trious father. A fatal incident decided his flu€tuating chara&ter. An affaffin was employed to deltroy him; in making the attempt he ex- claimed ** the fenate fends you this.” The deed was pre- vented, and Commodus from that hour encouraged a deep- rooted hatred for the whole body of fenators. Spies and informers increafed his fufpicions and excited his jealoufy of power in any other hands than his own, Accufation’ was regarded as proof, and the mockery of a pretended trial led only to certain condemnation. The execution of any con- fiderable fenator was ever attended with the death of all thofe who fhould attempt to revenge, or publicly dare to lament his fate, and when Commodus had tatted of human blood, he became incapable of pity or remorfe. His mi- nilters were one after another the vitims of his fears or of his cruelty. Perennis was condemned to die for a charge of afpiring to the empire, and after his death the conduét of Commodus affumed the appearance of virtue. He re~ pealed the moft odious of his minifter’s aéts, loaded his me~ mory with public execrations, and afcribed to his pernicious counfels, all the errors of inexperienced youth. But his feeming repentance lafted only a fhort month, and then every fentiment of humanity appeared to be obliterated from his breaft. He abandoned the reins of government to the moft unworthy, and he valued nothing in fovereign power, = Y except C' OFM MON: except the uab-undcd licence of indulging his fenfual appe- tites. His hoars were {pent in a ferazlio of beautiful wo- men and boys, felected from all ranks of the people, and from every province of the emoire. The tatervals of Juit were filled up with the bafelt amufements. The fervile crowd, whofe fortune depended on their monarch’s ,vices, applauded thefe vile purfuits. Having by 1 ng practice at- rained creat {kill in the ufe of the bow, he exhibited his ta- lents before the peopie, and animals of the rareft {pecies were colleéted from the remcteft part of his dominions in order to ferve as marks forthe f{ceptered archer. The per- fidious voice of flattery reminded him that by exploits of the fame nature, the Grecian Hercules had acquired a place among the gods, and an immortal memory among m-n. He accordingly affumed the tide and infignia of Hercules; in this charaGter he affembled ali the helplefs and diltrefied of the city, and caufing them to be wrapped up in fantaftical habits, like dragons and montters, and armed with fponges inftead of ftones, he rufhed upon them with his club and laid them all dead at his feet. He exhibited himfelf more than 700 times tn the chara¢ter of a gladiator, and in all his combats he was victorious, but his amulements in this way were frequently fatal to his antago- aifts. It would take more of our work than can be al- lotted to this article to defcribe all the cruelties and aéts of favage barbarity which difgraced the reign of Commodus. At length his deteftable career came to its merited end. Oppefition to his bloody defigns was given by fome of his bofom counfellors, among whom was Marcia, his favourite concubine. He refolved to put them to death, and entered their names in a long lik deftined to the fame fate. Marcia difcovered his intentions, and apprized her friends of their common danger. They refolved to anticipate the blow, and Marcia mixing fome poifon in wine, prefented it to him as he came from the bath. He foon fell afleep, but the dofe not being {ufficiently ftrong, he awoke; while, however, he was labouring under the effects of the poifon, a robuit youth, by profeffion a wreftier, entered his chamber, and ftrangled him without refiltance. The body was fecretly conveyed out of the palace, before a fufpicion was enter- tained either in the city or the court of the emperor’s death. Such was the fate of Commodus, and * fo eafy,”’ fays the hiftorian, “ was itto deftroya tyrant, who, by the artificial powers of government, had oppreffed, during thirteen years, fo many millions of fubjects, each of whom was equal to their mailer in perfonal ftrength and perfonal abilities.” Gibbon. COMMOIGNE, in Law, a word fignifying a fellow- mork, that lives in the fame convent. 3 Intt. 15. COMMON, in Agriculture, an cpen piece of ground, made ufe of equally by different perfons who occupy lands in the parifh to which it belongs or in which it lies. It is remarked by Mr. Marfhall in his *Treatife on Landed Property,” in regard to the origin of commonable lands, ‘that, a very few centuries ago, nearly the whole of the lands of England lay in an open, and more or lefs in a commonable ftate. Tach parifh, or townfhip, (at leaft in the more central and northern diftri€is) comprifed different defcriptions of lands; having been fubjefted, during fue- ceffive ages, to {pecified modes of occupancy, under ancient and ftri& regulations, which time has converted into law, Thefe parochial arrangements, however, varicd fomewhat in different diftri€ts; but, in the more central and greater part of the kingdom, not widely. Under this ingenious mode of organization, each pari/b or town/bip was, he fays, conf- dered as one common farm, though the tenantry were nume- vous. Round the village in which the tenants refided lay a few {mall inclofures or graft yards for rearing calves, and as baiting and nwifery grounds for other farm-ttock. This was the common farmitead or hamefal/, which was generally placed as near the centre of the more culturable lands of the parifh or townfhip as water and thelcer would permit.” And that ‘round the homefall Jay a fuit of arable fields, including the deepeit and foundett of the lower grounds, fituated out of waters’ way, for railing corn and puife: as weil as to produce fodder and litter for cattle and horfes in the winter feafon.’? While in the lowelt lituation, as in the water- formed bafe of a rivered valley, or in {wampy dips, fhooting up among the arable lands, lay am extent of meadow grounds or ings, to afford a fupply of hay for cows and working ftock, in the winter and {pring months. That on the out-ikirts of the arable lands, where the foil is adapted to the palturage of cattle, or on the [pringy flope of hills, lefs adapted to cultivation, or in the fenny leafes of vallies, which were tunnel or gravelly water-formed lands, which were too dry to produce an annual fupply of hay with fufficient certainty, one or more Jfinted paftures, or hams, were laid out, for milking cows, working cattie, or other {tock which requires {uperior paflurage, in fummer. While the b eakeft, worit-foiled, and moft dittact lands of the townthip were left in their native wild ftate, for tinder and fuel, and for a common paflure, or {uit of pafures, for the more ordinary ftock of the townfhip, whether horfes, rearing cattle, fheep or fwine, without any other ftint, or reftriction, than what the arable and meadow lands ‘indi- reCtly gave; every joint tenant, or occupier of the town- fhip, having the nominal privilege of keeping as much live ftock on thefe commons, in fummer, as the appropriated lands he occupied would maintain, in winter. Further, that the appropriated lands of each townthip were laid out with equal good fenfe and propriety. ‘That each occupier might have his proportionate fhare of lands of different qualities, and lying in different fituations, the arable lands more particularly were divided into numerous parcels, of fizes, doubtlefs, according to the fize of the given townfhip, and the number and rank of the occu- piers. And that the whole might be fubjected to the fame plan of management, and be condu&ted as one common farm, the arable lands were moreover divided into compartments, or “ fields,” of nearly equal fize, and generally three in num- ber, to receive, in conitant rotation, the triennial fucceffion of fallow, wheat (or rye), and fpring crops, (as barley, oats, beans, and peas), thus adopting and promoting a fyltem of hafbandry, which, howfoever improper it is become in thefe more enlightened days, was well adapted to the ftate of ig- norance and vaflalage of feudal times, when each parifh or townthip had its fole proprietor; the occupiers being at once his tenants and his foldiers, or meaner vaffals. The lands were in courfe liable to be more or lefs deferted by their oc- cupiers, and left to the feeblenefs of the young, the aged, and the weaker fex. But-the whole townthip being, in this manner, thrown into one fyftem, the care and management of the live ftock at leaft would be eafier and better than they would have been under any other arrangement. And at all times, the manager of the eftate was better enabled to detect bad hufbandry, and enforce that which was prcfitable to the tenants and the eftate, by having the whole {pread under the eye at once, than he would have been had the lands been diftributed in detached jnclofed farmlets, befides avoiding the expence of inclofure. And another advantage, he thinks, arofe from this more focial arrangement: in barbarous times the tenants, by being concentrated in ‘villages, weré not only be& Gtuated to defead each other from predatory as tacks, com tacks, bet were called ont by their lord with greater readi- nefs in cafes of emergency. But it is remark-d, that befide the organized townthips which were inhabited and cultivated in the manner defertbed, _ there were, ard are to the prefent day, in different parts of England, extenfive tra€&ts cf lands, fome of them of a v:lu- able quaity, which lie nearly in a fate of wild nature !— Thefe uninhabited tre@s are flyled forefs, and herctofore mary or moft of them have been attached to the crown; and fome of them are {till under royal patronage. Whether they were orig nally fet out for amufement merely, or whe- ther the timber which ftood on them was of peculfar value, or whether, at the time of laying ont townfhips, thofe tra&ts were impenetrable woods. inhabited by wild beatts, and when thefe were dettroyed, or fufficiently overcome to render them objects of diverfion, wete taken under the proteétion of the crown, is rot perhaps well afcertained. But let the original intention have been either of thefe, it no longerexifls. The timber in moft cafes has fallen a facrifice to age and negle¢t, and the game is no longer an obje&t of regai paftime. But whether or not the forefts (now fo called) originated in wild woodlands, occupied by ferocious animals at the time of laying out townfhips, there were doubrlefs tracks of that de- {cription in different parts of the kingdom, and which now bear no marks of the common field fyitcm; bat which ap- pear evidently to have been inclofed from a {tate of wood- lard or common pafture; though it is pofible they mey have been nominally attached to neghbouring parifhe:. OF this defcription principally are the wealds of Keat and Suf fex, and many other old inclofed lands in different parts of the kingdom, whofe fields or inclofures are of irregular fhapes, and their fences crooked. And it is obfervable, that thefe woodland diltriéts, as the foreft lands, are divided into manors, which have not an intimate cosrection, or corre- fpondence with parifhes or townfhips; a further evidence that they were in a wild ftate, when the feudal organization took place. It is ftated by the author of “ Modern Agriculture,” that ‘*on all the open field parifhes, where the fame ar- rangement continues as was at fitit eftablifned, there is a confiderable extent of common field allotted for the paf- turage of the live ftock belonging to the inhabitants. Thele generally confift of fuch lands as are lefs fit for the plough, or more diltant from the town or village. ‘The parifh commons are for the moft part divided into three fields; one for the pafturage of the horfes, another for the neat cattle, and the third for the fheep. Thefe horfes are generally tended by one of the farmer’s fervants. The whole of the fheep belonging to the parifh are put under the charge of a common fhepherd, who is hired at the general expence; and the cows and young cattle are taken care of nearly in a fimilar manner. Where the inhabitants of feveral adjoining parifhes poffefs rights of common palturage on an extenfive common, as is frequently the cafe, particularly in the cour- ties of Middlefex, Surry, Northampton, and other diftricis in the middle and fouthern parts of the kingdom, all the horfes, cattle, fheep, hogs, &c. which are fent to the commons, are committed to the care of one or more perfons appointed for the purpofe. In fome cafes the right is li- mited ; or, as it is called, /finted. When that is the cafe, fuch a number of cattle only, as the ftraw and hay growing on the farms will maintain in winter, is permitted to palture thefe commons in fummer. And therefore each farmer is, by particular Jaws, prevented from fending above a certain number, which is regulated, partly by the extent of his farm, and in fome cafes by the title on which he claims a right of commonage in the particular in{ftance. MON. But wh-re ‘the e>mmon is unftinted ; or in other words, where the farmers poffefs right of pafluring any number and fpecies of live ftock which they choofe to fend, and without reflrant of any kind, the value of fuch right is confidered by many-farmers fo inconfiderable as not to be worthy of their attention. Such farme-s as poflefs improved breeds of horfes, cattle, and fh-ep, fuldom, indeed, if ever, ferd any of them to be paftured on the commons, whether ftinted or unftinted. They generally difpefe of their right, for a trifle, to fome neighbouring farmers or dealers, who have no objeGtion, in the view of profit, of running the rifk of their cattle meeting with accidents, or being infeQed with difeafe, as mut naturally be expe&ed to happen on thefe ex- tenfive commons, where fo many cattle are promifcuoufly colleéted together. It has been remarked by a late able writer, that “ the commons in Middlcfex, as in moft other places, are three fourths of them covered with heath and furze, from which a little cf the wort fort of firing is obtained by the poor. The trifling quantity of food which cattle confume from thefe fhrubs, does pot, and indeed carnot, improve them, 28 it is barely fuffictent to keep them from flarving. Much of the remainder is occupied by roads, gravel pits, and ponds, yielding nothing. After the moft mature confideration, he 1s inclined to think, that about 5.500 acres of the commons in the above county are employed in the production of grafs fer the feeding of cattle, affording indeed but a miferable patufe, as the greater part is under water during winter 5 and, from being poached and trodden down by cattle while wet, is rendered hard, lumpy, full-of holes, and partakes of the fterility of mortar during fummer. The greffes are moftly of the dwarf kind, and of fcanty produce, with a large proportion of the carnation and other grafies which are known to be rather more dangerous than nourifh‘ng ; fo much fo, as to induce fome of thé mcft obferving farmers in various parts of the kingdom, poflefling extenfive common rights, after a fair trial to refrain altogether from turning their cattle on fuch commons. . 3 On fuch authority it may well, he fays, be queftioned, whether commons are of any more ufe to the community than they would be were they configned to the bottom of the deep. But without attempting the folution of fuch a queftion at prefent, he may be allowed to obferve, that the value of commons, confidered folely as to their power of in- creafing animal food, and as totally unconneéted with the adjoining inclofures, is extremely {mallindeed. But when confidered as affording an opportunity to the neighbouring farmer to turn his ftock out, at certain feafons of the year, they become an obje&t.of fome importance. For in the fpring quarcer of the year, by receiving the ftock during thefe months, the growth of hay is encouraged, they anfwer the purpofe of pafture, and the farmer is thereby enabled to mow ail his grafs land: which muft fenfibly increafe the quantity of hay to be fent to market; as at Finchley and Harrowweald in this county ; or being ap- plied during the winter months to the fupport of a greater quantity of live-ftock in places more diftant from a good hay-market; and in others, for the purpofe of folding on the arable land.” I is further ftated, that ‘on eftimating the value of the com- mons in the fame county, including every advantage that cas be derived from them in pafturage, locality of fituation, and the barbarous cuftom of turbary, it appears, he fays, that they do not produce to the community; in their prefent ftate, more than four fhillings per acre ! On the other hand, they are, in many inttances, of real injury to the public, by holding out a lure to the poor man for procuring the means of materials v2 wherewith COMMON. wherewith to build his cottage, and ground to ere& it upon; together with fring, and the run of his poultry and pigs for nothing. This is of courfe temptation fufficient to induce a great number of poor perfons to fettle upon the borders of fuch commons, But the mifchief does not, he fays, end here: for having gaimed thefe. trifling advantages, through the negle& or connivance-of the lord of the manor, it unfor- tunately gives their minds an improper bias, and inculcates a defire to live from that time forward without labour, or at leaft with as little as poffible. The animals kept by this de- {cription of perfons, it is foon difcovored by their owners, are not likely to afford them much revenue, without better feed than the fcanty herbage of a common. Hence they are tempted to pilfer corn, &c. towards their fupport : and, as they are ftill dependent on fuch a deceptious fupply, to anfwer the demands of their confumption, they are in fome meafure conitrained to refort to various difhoneft means, fo as to make up the deficiency. 4 And there is another very ferious evil which the public fuffers from thefe commons, the fame writer obferves, which is, ‘‘ that they are the conftant rendezvous of gipfies, ftrol- lers, and other loofe perfons, living under tents, which they carry with them from place to place according to their con- veniency. Molt of thefe perfons have affes, many of them horfes, nay, fome of them have even covered carts, whichan- fwer the double purpofe of a caravan for concealing and car- rying off the property they have ftolen, and alfo of a houfe for fleeping in at night. They ufuaily ftay.a week or two ata place; and the cattle which they keep ferve to tranfport their few art*cles of furniture from one commonto another. Thefe, during the flay of their-owners, are turned adrift to procure what food they can find in the neizhbourhoed of their tents, and the deficiency is made up from the adjacent hay-itacks, bars, and granarics. ‘They are known, he fays, never to buy any hay or corn, and yet their cattle are fup- plied with thefe articles of gaod quality. The women and elnldren beg and pilfer, and the men commit greater atts of dithonefty. In fhort, fays he, tle commons of this cofnty are well known to be the conftant refort of footpads and high- waymen, and are literally and proverbially.a public nuifance. find that they are fo in the more diftant counties is evident, from the Gloucefter and Hereford reports-of the fiate of agriculture. There are allo many additional injuries which commons render to fociety, of other kinds to thote which have been noticed above. But that the commons of Middle- fex, fayshe, are capable of being improved, fo as to pro- duce large crops of all the vegetables ufually:cultivated, and to rear and fupport a very highly improved breed of catéle, there canbe no‘fort of doubt. Indeed it is truly lamentable to fee, in every part of thefe kingdoms, fuch extenfive traGts of land lying waite or uncultivated ; producing no revenue to the owners of fuch property, and extremely donbtful if ofany, the fmalleft benefit to the community. But it is particularly difgraceful to this, the firlt and principal county, which, fo farfrom raifing a fufficient fupply of bread for its inhabitants, is under the neceflity of importing corn from evety quarier of the world (Europe, Afia, Africa, and Ame- rica,) while, at the fame time, it has fo many acres of good land lying waite, and locked up from the operation of the plough. By the fingle means of inclofure an abundant quantity of corn might be produced, and 150,000/. a year added to the wealth of the county, which is now abfolutely loft to fociety, with as carelefs an indifference as if the pro- prietors of the foil were afraid of becoming too rich; or, as af hike the dog in the manger they would not permit the com- swunity to fhare in a bleffing of which they themfelves are not inclined to partake, The benefits and advantages that would be derived froma general inclofure of commons, are, he thinks, fo numerous, as far to exceed his powers of defcription or computation. The Opportunity it would afford of feparating dry ground from wet, of well draining the latter, and liming the rotten parts, is of infinite confequence:; as fuch an arrangement would, with the aid of intelligent breeders, be the means of raifing a breed of fheep and neat cattle far fuperior to the prefent race of wretched half-farved animals now feen in fuch fituations. It would have the effeét of {upporting a more numerous ftock upon the fame quantity of food by reftraining the cattle and fheep within due bounds. Their reftlefs and rambling dif- pofition not only treads the grafs off the ground, but alfo tekes the fichh off their bones. This renders the attendance of a fhepherd neceflary, and requires likewife that they may be driven to and from the fold. Further, the live-ftock would by this means be rendered many hundreds per cent. more valuable to individuals and the community than it has hitherto been, or can poflibly be, without inclofure ; and, what is of the laft, the greateft importance, it would tend to preferve fuch improved breeds from that deftru€tive ma; lady, (the rot) which makes fuch terrible havec among our flocks. Add to this, that the markets weuld be more plen- tifully fupplied with beef and mutton, and the price of thefe articles confiderably reduced. 5 It does not, he fays, appear neccflary to ftate with precifion (nor indeed is it capablé of being fo fated) what would be the encreafe or value of the commons of this country on their being inclofed and well and properly cul- tivated. It may, however, with fafety be ftated at upwards of 15 times their prefent value to the proprietors, and 40 times their prefent value to the public. But increafing the rental of fuch land to 15, or perhaps 20 times, its prefent amount, is by no means the greateft advantage that may be expected to refult from an inclofure of commous. The general falubrity and healthinefs of the country would -ne- ceffauily be improved, while indufry would be largely encreafed amoag the mott ufeful clafics of fociety, beggary and robbery much, leflened, and the general ftock, of corn and cattle almof inconcrivably augmented. And where- ever inclofures are made with due attention to the intereit of the poor (as they ought always to be), they will be found to ameliorate their condition, as_much as they increafe the property and the comforts of the rich.”” ; It is further obferved, that ‘* the commons of this king- dom being, with very few exceptions, without ridges, furrows, or drains, havenot the means of difcharging that fuperfluous water from the furface of, them, which is welk. known to be of great detriment to vegetation in ge- neral. md - Many commons in low fituations, and where the foil happens to be of a retentive quality, hold water like a fponge, which being always ftagnant, as well as exceflive in quality, renders the foil of {uch commons much tco wet for the patturage of iheep, and is, no doubt, the caufe of many of the diforders which that animal is fubjc«@ to, par- ticularly that fatal malady, the rot. From the fame caufes, alfo, the neighbourhood of moft commons mult be par- ticularly unfriendly to the health and longevity of man. Only let us, fays be, reverfe the fcene, and fora moment fuppofe thefe commons to be inclofed, the neceflary ditches and drains funk, and the land brought into nllage, and we fhall fee all the fuperabuadant moijture got-rid of ; and the water, being kept in conttant motion, by trickliog- down the fides of the ridges into the furrews, and from thence into the ditches and. rivulets, wiil be found to fertilize the very foil which in its prefent flagnant ftate it ferves to injure 5 COMMON, injure; while, by leaving the land dry, it will be rendered more healthy both for men and-cattle. The effects of fuch a meafure would foon fhew themfelves in many diftriéts of this ifland, which, at prefent, are very unpropitious to the health of man, in the much greater longevity of the in- habitants. It may alfo be further noticed, he fays, that commons are entirely defeCtive iu the great article of labour; but no fooner does an inclofure take place, than the fcene is agreeably changed from a dreary walte, to the more pleafing one of the fame fpot, appearing all animation, activity, and buftie. Every man, capable of performing fuch operations, is furnifhed with pienty of employment, in finking ditches and drains, in making banks and hedges, and in planting quicks and trees. Nor are the wheelwright, carpenter, {mith, and other rural artificers, under the ne- ceflity of being idle {petators of the fcene, fince abundance of work will be found for them, im the creation of farm houfes, and the neceflary appendages thereto; and in the forming and making of roads, bridges, gates, ftilea, imple- ments of hufbandry, &c. Even attcr a few years, when this kind of temporary exertion is over, by the whole being brought into a regular fyftem of hnfbandry, it will ftill con- tinue to provide both food and .employment for a very in- creafed population. “© It is highly probable, he thinks, that if the legiflature fhould pafs an a& for the geueral inclofare of wafte land, it would increafe the quantity of rural labour fo much as to advance its price confiderably, and thereby have the good effeét of drawing a valt number of hands out of the unwholefome confinement of manufaStorics; where, in addition to the life-thortening effe&s of fuch confinement, the morals of the people are expofed to certain con- tamination.” ; With refpe& to the effe& produced by inclofures on the popniation of the country, it. may be obferved, that the inclofing of 1900 acres in any one parifh would probably require [Oo d‘fferent labourers, many of whom would un- doubtedly be drawn from fuch of the adjoining parifhes as had lefs work than workmen: Thus it mutt follow, that the neighbouring towns and villages would diminifh, juft as muchas the parifh in which the inclofure is going forward, would increafe its numbers; yet the amount of the community will evidently be the fame. But although the inelofing of walte land certainly does not immediately either increafe or leflen population, as fome writers feem to have fuppofed, yet, that inclofures ultimately affe& popu- lation, (and that as to its increafe,) infomuch as the diftrict is thereby made more conducive to health, is, he fays, fufficiently evident. Every thing that has a tendency to make a nation more healthy and productive, mult, of ne- eeflity, operate as a flimulus to population. The certainty of a man’s being able, with eafe and comfort, to provide for himfelf and family, by the increafe of rural labour, is at once an inducement to marriage, and a confequent in- creafe of population. The inhabitants wholly fupported by agriculture in England and Wales, appear, the fame writer fays, to be nearly, or perhaps quite, fix millions, (while it fupplies provilions for near two millions more,) or one to every fix acres and a half of cultivated foil, The eflimation is made in this manner. i Estimare. Cultivators of farms, fix perlons to every _ £00 acres, is 2 4s - - = 2,340,000 Ditto of gardens, hop-grounds, nurferies, &c. 300,000 8 Brought over Smiths, wheel-wrights, bricklayers, mafons, 2,640,009 carpenters, painters, plumbers, glaziers, various manufaéturers of furniture, woollen cloth, and making it up, linen, and making it up, leather, and making it into fhoes, boots, &c. horfe, harnefs, and faddlery; as many of each of this defcription of perfons, as are wholly employed by the cultivators of the foil; men, women, and children, about feven. perfons to each farm, of 100 acres, is : - - 4 - = The like of millers, bakers, maifters, brewers, diltillers, ftarch-makers, dealers in corn, and perfons employed in the commerce of corn - The landlords of farms 2 = = 3 Perfons fupported by taxes on the produce of land - - - - - - - 2,800,000 500,009 40,000 120,009 6, 100-000 Not but that the extremes vary much, as there are fome few grazing farms, with only one foul to fifty, and arable farms that are peopled in the proportion of oze perfon to three acres of Jand. In point of produce, the commons, in their prefent ftate, apparently, though, he thinks, not really afford entire fupport to human beings, in the pro- portion of one to an hundred acres. But by being in- clofed, and brought into the prefent ordinary cultivation of the country, every fix acres and a half might do the fame. Shonld agriculture experience a rapid advance towards perfetion, as there is reafon to imagine it will, both from the exertions of the board, and of intelligent individuals, every three or four acres, would, in a few years, be capable of fupporting its inhabitant; and, as from its nature, it might certainly be carried on from one degree of perfec- tion to another; it may even arrive at fuch a pitch of excellence, as that every. acre of land fhall fupport its man.”’ . It has long fince been well obferved by Dr. Anderfon, that while land is in the condition of common, man is debar- red from ever being able to ameltorate the foil, and thus to augment its produ to the ftate; but that he is not pre- vented fo effectually from deteriorating it. While, in the {tate of acommon, the furface of the ground may be broken by him in fuch a way, as not to recover for ages a {ward ‘equal to that which was originally upon it. It may be calt up and funk into pits; it may be converted into wet and rotten marfhes, by cafual obitruétions being thrown in the way of the water, which no one finds it his intereft to re- move ; it may, in fhort, while a common, be abufed in a thoufand ways, by reafon of the obltinacy, indolence, or caprice of individuals, but it never can be benefited by the indultry of man; and not only may this be done, but thefe things aétually are done, in innumerable inftances ; fo that to a perfon who contemplates the lofs that the nation mutt fuftam by thefe deplorable abufes, nothing can afford a more melancholy train of refle€tions, than that which the fre- quent recurrence of thofe difgufting commons fuggeits to his mind, as he travels over the otherwife delightful country of England. When he ftops to inquire more minutely into the effeéts of this kind of property upon the morals and do- mieftic economy of the individuals who claim a right to thele commons, he only finds additional caufes, he fays, of regret. He frequently difcovers that the quiet and induftrious cul- tivator, having a right upon a conimon, is obliged to ao on COMMON. don thatright, becavfe of the harraffments to which he is LubjeGed from turbulent and affuming neighbours, who have obtained a {ma!l footing there, with a predetermined refolution, perhaps, to encroach much farther than their rights would authorife ; becaufe they know that towards the reltraming of thefe exceffes, no obvious and eafy means oc- cur. Thus does the peaceable man often find it better to relinquith his right almolt entirely, than be fubjeéted to the .perpetual contention that would occur in defending it. Such an inquirer frequently finds, that in confequence of this, othe {mall flocks of the poor eottager, who cannot afford to Yook after them continually himfelf, are fo tormented by being chafed from place to place by thefe marauders, that iu(lead of a relicf to the poor cottager, thefe flocks prove ealy a torment to him; his family becomes, in confequence of this, a burthen on the parifh, which is obliged to fup- port them; he finds, that among thofe who are bred up in thefe fituitions, there are many young men who delight more in ative plunder, than in fober indultry ; and who, tempted by the high prices that luxurious inhabitants of towns offer for game, become poachers, and from fuch powerful confederations of determined profligates for their mutual protection, that no one, lefs determined than them- felves, will dare to interfere with them ; which enables them to carry on their depredations with impunity. He further obferves, that the money thefe young men thus acquire, Is ufualiy fquandered in drinking and riotous excrcfles; the young women are contaminated by their converfation, cor- rupted by their exceffes, and debauched; the lat evil at- tending which courfes, is a great number ef iJ’egitimate children, and an extravagant poor rate. But who, fays he, can eltimate the detriment that a nation fuitains, when the morals of the country inhabitants of it become corrupted ? Ic is like, fays he, tainting the fprings of water with poifon, which, inftead of promoting health and vigour, as they na- turally ought to have done, procuce one univerfal mafs of infe&tious difeafe. It is common, he adds, to read in the Hifory of Britain, that the rot became at times fo prevalent in England, as to carry off many millions of fheep at once ; and thefe difeafes were regarded, like the peftilence among the human fpecies, as a terrible vifitation of heaven for the fins of a guilty land. There ts great reafon to believe that thefe frequent mortalities among the flocks were entirely oc- cafioned by the numercus commons, which were in thofe times much more extenfive than at prefent; for it ts flill known, that in neglected fpots, where water is allowed to ftapnate and generate marfhes, as is often the cafe with commons when the feafon proves wet, the fheep paftured upon them are, to this day, fo much fubjeGted to the rot, as to induce many perfons, as has been obferved, rather to give up their right, than to allow their flocks to enter upon thefe unhealthy paflures. Confidered under every poflible point of view, then, fays he, it appears to be undeniable, that the prevalence of commons is a great national grievance, which ought, if poffible, to be removed; and that the Board of Agriculture cannot be more beneficially employed, than by granting all the aid chat their wifdom can devile, for removing thefe bars that at prefent tend to prevent the equitable divifion of this kind of property. It is evident from every one of the agricultural furveys which have been yet made, he fays, that in every county in England and Wales, there are extenfive tracts of land of this defcription (for commons and waftes may be confidered as nearly fynonymous terms, although it be a truth that many of thefe commons confift of land naturally as good as any in the kingdom). Of the extent of thefe lands, were it neceflary, a tolerably accurate knowledge, he thinks, 6 @ might be obtained ; but as te the amount of improvement, it is impoffible for any perfon to form at prefent an idea of it, fhould the profperity of this country be permitted to go forward for a confiderable length of time in that accelerat- ing ratio into which it would naturally fall, if the general tranquillity of the pation were preferved, and the obftructions which have hitherto reprefled exertions in agriculture remov- ed. Ht is enough here to fay, he thinks, that it would be an obje& of immenfe magnitude. He has had occafion to obferve, that in fome favourable fituations, it is well known that land, in the courfe of a very few years, has been made a thoufand times at leaft more productive than ia its original ftate. Many commons are at prefent lying watte in fituas tions equally favourable as thefe ; and many other fituations nay become equally favourable by an extenfion of thofe modes of facilitating intercourfe, which are now in contem- plation, and are only prevented from being carried into ef= fect by barriers that judicious laws may ealily remove. See Waste Lanp. In regard to the appropriation of commonable lands, it has been obferved by Mr. Marfhall, that the fpecies of un- appropriated lands in this country are, at pre‘ent, rit. * Foreft lands, and other extenfive waltcs, on which feveral manors, or adjacent townfhips, have a right of com- mon patturage. : zd. «* Commonable lands of diftin@ townfhips, or maners, whofe appropriated lands are wholly inclofed, and in a-ftate of mixed cultivation. 3. ‘¢ Commonable lands of townships, whofe arable fields, &c. are partially inclofed ;”? and 4th. ‘* Commonable lands of townfhips, whofe arable ficlds remain wholly open.’ And in refpeét to the principles on which the appropri« ation of fuch lands requires to be conducted, it may be ob- ferved, that as, by an eltabliihed principie of the general law or conftitution of the country, immemorial cuftom eftablifhes right, neithersthe original rights and regulations, refpe€ting fuch lands, nor the changes which may have taken place during a fucceffion of centuries, from the origin of forelts and townfhips, to the lateft periods of time, are ob« jets of inveftigation or inquiry ; but many acquired rights which exift in any certain cafe at the time of appropriation, and which would continue to exilt were it not to take place. ‘ The poffeffor of a cottage,” fays the fame writer, “« which has enjoyed, time immemorial and without inter- ruption, the liberty of palturage, though fuch cottage were orginally an encroachment of a freebooter or an outlaw, has indifputably as legal a claim to a proportionate fhare of the commonable lands, as the poffeffor of the demefne lands of” the manor has (merely as fuch), although they may have defcended from tather to fon from the time of their feve- rality. For it is evidently on the eftimated values of the refpective rights ahich exiff, and which can be rightfully exercifed in “me to come, and on thefe alone, that a juft and equitable diftribution can be effeled.” It is, however, fiated, that before the diftribution of com- monable Jands among the owners of common palturage can take place, the more ab/raé rights which belong to com- mons require to be eftimated, and the jult claims of their ‘poffeffors to be fatisfied. Thefe are, he fays, principally manorial rights, and the rights of tithes, The manorial claims are to be regulated by the particular advantages which the lord of a given manor enjoys, and which he will continue to enjoy, while the commons remain open and unappropriated ; whether they arife from mines, quarries, water, timber, alien tenants, fuel, eftover, pannage, or game? And that ‘ his claim, as guardian of the foil, as productive COMMON. produdive of paflurage only, is in mot cafes only honorary; he cannot as fuch (unlefs through ancient cuftom) profit by the Aerbage or the brow/e tat the foil produces.” But that *« the claim of the lord of the manor, in right of the foil on which ¢hriving timber is ftanding, is fubltantial. For out of this, he has, in effeét, a real yearly income, equal to the an- nually increafing value of the timber: a {pecies of advantage which, if the commons remain open and unappropriated, he -will in courfe continue to enjoy, fo long as the timber con- tinues to increafe in its value. THis claim, therefore, in this refpeét, depends on the quantity of timber, and its ftate of growth taken jointly. Young thriving timber not only affords an annual increafe of value at prefent, but will continue its benefits for many years to come, if it be fuffered to remain undilturbed on the foil which fupports it, during the eltimated period of its future increafe ; whereas, dotards, and ftinted trees which afford no increafe of value, do not entitle their owner to any fhare of the foi! they ftand upon. The trees themfelves, or their intrinfic value, are ail the lord of the manor can have a right to claim.”’ And further, in like manner, the claims of the crown, or of hereditary rangers (if any), on the foreft lands, ought, he conceives, to be fatished, But the claims of tithe ocuners, aggregately confider- ed, are more complex and obdfcure. In a cafe where the great and {mall tithes are united, where the tithe of wool and lamb, and that of grain, roots, and herbage, belong to the {ame owner, and where no modus exilts, it may feem to be reafonable that he fhould have the option of receiving land of equal value to the exifting valye of the whole of the tithes, or of taking the chance of their value, in tne ftate of cultivation. But feeing the evil tendency of corn tithes, and the impropriety of laying on fo harmfal a burthen, as » they are now become, upon lands that have never borne it, there can be little rifk in faying that it would be at leaft po- litic in parliament to prevent it. Befide, it ftands part of tie ftatute law, he believes, that the lands which have never been under tillage, fhall not pay tithes during the fir& feven years of their cultivation; during which time, the incum bent’s income might, by leaving the tithe to take its courfe, be materially abridged, and his circumftances thereby be rendered diltrefling. It is therefore concluded, that, on the whole, it appears to be proper in this cafe, that the law fhould inftru€@ com- mflioners to fet out lands equal to the exifling value of the tithes at the time of appropriation ; and, where much corn Jand (land fit for corn) fhall be appropriated, to fet out a farther quantity, equal to the reverfion of the extra value of the tithes to arife from fuch corn lands, feven years after the appropriation fhall have taken place, above the value of the tithes that exilt, provided any fuch extra value fhall appear by the eftimates. And further ‘ in cafes in which the tithe of lamb and wool, and the tithe of corn, &c. belong to feparate ewners, the line of rectitude and ftriét jultice to all parties, appears, he fays, to be {till more difficult to draw. The former is clearly entitled to land, or a money payment equal to his lofs of tithe; bur the right of the other is lefs ob- vious. ‘Fo cut him off entirely from any fhare of the lands, and likewife from any fhare of tithes to arife from them after they fhall be appropriated, may feem unjuft; he may be a lay reCtor, and may have lately purchafed the tithes, or a clerical reStor who has recently bought the advowfon’ under the expectation of an inclofure. On the other hand, it ap- pears to be hard that the proprietors of the parifh fhould frit give up land for the tithe of wool and lamb which will no longer exift, and then be liable to a corn ti@he on she fame lands, after they fhall have beftowed on them great exe pence in clearing and cultivation. Indeed the injuftice of fuch a meafure is evident. A middle way, therefore, he thinks, requires to be fought; aud it will be difficult, perhaps, to find one which has more juftice in it than that which is pro- poled for the firft cafe.” It may, however, fays he, be urged that, admitting the foregoing regulation to be the true ground on which a remuneration in lieu of tithes of commonable lands ought to be eltimated, the difficulties of cultivation would in fome cafes be great, and might be the caule of difpute and delay in the general work of appropriation ; and a more praétical. method, though lefs reconcileable to theory, prefents itfelf. Thus, let a certam proportion in value, of the lands to be appropriated as one, be affigned in lieu of the whole of the uthes of the townfhip or manor, fuppofing the whole be payable in kind ; and if there are more than one tithe owner in-the manor or townfhip, Jet the commiffioners divide,fuch ageregate allotment among the feveral owners and claimants, as the rector, the vicar, &c.; and the owners of land, &c. who pay tithe by ancient modus not in kind: fuch owners being entitled to a fhare of the fame as the tithe owners, in proportion to the advantage they receive, by fuch ancient privilege. And if any other abftra& claim on the Jands to be appropriated be fairly made out, or any alien right, as that of a non-parifhioner, or extra manoral occupier who has acquired by ancient grant, or by prefeription, the privilege of depalturing them, be fully proved, its value requires to be accurately eftimated, and land to be affizned in lieu of it.” When this has been done, the remainder of the un/Jinted commons of a given townthip or manor belongs to the owners of its common right lands and houfes; but in what propor- tion may be difficult to determine with mathematical preci- fion. Neverthelefs, by adhering firiGly to the general prin« ciple, on which alone he conceives an equitable appropriz- ‘tion can be conducted, viz. that of determining each man’s fhare by the benefit which he has a right to receive at the time of appropriation, and which he might continue to re- ceive, were it not, to take place, truth and juttice may be fufficiently near approached. He confiders that one of the firlt Reps towards an equit- able diltribution of unftinted commons, is to afcertain the common right houfes, and to diftinguifh them from thofe which have no right of commonage, and which therefore can have no claim to any fhare of the lands of the unftinted commons, further than the right-of the lands they ftand upon, By ancient, and, he believes, pretty generally received, though fomewhat vague idea, ref{pecting the rights of com- monage, the occupier of every common right houfe has the privilege of depalturing as many cattle, fheep, or other live {tock, on the common in fummer (provided, it mult be un- derftood, that it is lage enough to permit every occupier to exercife this right), as the grounds he occupies within the townfhip or manor can properly maintain in winter; and no one.can exceed that proportion, for the furplus of the paflurage (if any) belongs to the lord of the foil, according to Fitzherbert and Blackltone. Under this regulation, the appropriated lands of a common field townfhip, which are not occupied jointly with a common right houfe, may be faid to be deprived, during the time they are fo occupied, of their right of commonage. And in fome of the private bills of inclofure, which have been fuffered to pafs through parliament, the jands which happened to be im this flate of occupancy at the time of pafling COMMON. pffing the bills, were deprived of their intereft in the com- mon lands, forever: Notwithftanding, perhaps, they had a few years preceding this accidental circumftance, an un- doubted right to their portion of them; a right which, a few weeks or a few days afterward, might have reverted to them, without the fmalleft flint, by the temporary aliena- tion. If any of the appropriated lands of a townfhip or manor Have been eftranged from its commons, during time immemorial, have never been occupied jointly with a com- mon right houfe, or in any way enjoyed of right the com- mon pafturage, within memory, they may, with fome reafon, -be faid to have loft their right, and be-excluded from a parti- cipation. It is ftated, that by this ancient, and in a degree effential, ufage, common right houfes have a clear right to the land of the commons, fuperior to the ground they fland upon; e(peciaily if they rightfully enjoy'a privilege of partaking of the fuel and pannage they afford; for thefe properly belong to the houfes, not to the lands; and ftill efpecially if they are not conveniently fituated for enjoying the feveral bencfits which the commons afford in their wild fate.~ And what- ever a. common right houfe is worth, merely as fuch, that is to fay, whatever it will let or fell for, over and above a non- common right houfe of the fame intrinfic value, it certauly ought to participate, in the diltribution, according to fuch extra value. «©The true proportionate fhares of the common right lands are to be afcertdined on the fam> principle. For al- though the ancient regulation refpecting common right may continue in force while the commons remain open and unap- propriated, it would be found troublefome, or unmanageable, as_a rule to their juft appropriation. There are few, if any, commons (of common-field townfhips at leaft) that now af- ford pafturage in fummer for all the ftock which the appro- priated lands are capable of maintaining in winter; fo that their feveral proportions only could be ufed: and thefe pro- portions may be calculated with much greater certainty and cifpatch, on the refpective rental values of the lands, than on the more vague and troublefome eftimation of the quantities of ftock they would winter, which indeed would be beft calculated by the rental value of the land. Confequently, in adopting this as the bafis of calculation, the ancient rule is in effet complied with. Bat ftill there is another circumftance, he fays, of fome importance, which’ requires attention, before an equitable diftribution can be made. For although each common right occupier may have a right to ftock in proportion to the pro- duGtivenefs or rental value of his appropriated lands, every one could not do this with equal profit, and of courfe could not receive equal benefit. Lands fituated on the fide of a common, are much more beneficial in this refpeci, than lands which lie a mile or two from it, with bad roads be- tween them. And it is the real advantage which an occu- pier can freely receive that is the true guide in the partition; which confequentiy ought to be condued, not on the rental value of the land, abftraGily confidered, but oa this and its fituation with re{pe& to the commonable lands, jointly. In other words, it is the rental values of the common right lands while the commons remain open, not what they will become after the commons are inclofed, whicl: he conceives to be the proper ground-work of appropriation. And that in cafes where commonable lands are wholly attached to manors, and not common to the parifh or townfhip in which they are fituated, as in forefts and woodland diftriéts, the felf-faine. principle of diftribution is applicable. The re- mainder of the commons (after the owners of abftra& rights Have been fatisfied) belong to the common right lands and , houfes, no mattey whether fuch lands and houfes belona’ ta copyhold tenants exclufively, or to copyholders and free- holders jointly, provided the immemorial cuftem-of the ma- nor make no diftinG@ion in their refpeCiive rights; the well eftablifhed cuftoms of manors being in all cafes rules of cons du& and unerring guides to comm:fioners.”” With thefe, be {uppofes, end the great difficultes as to the principles of appropriation ; the reft he confiders as merely technical; the works of admeafurement, eftimation, and calculation: operations that are familiar to profeffional men in every diftri&t, and which require nothing but appli- cation and integrity to render them fufficiently accurate. It is however a matter of vaft importance to have perfons fully converfant with the fubje€: as commiffioners in all fuch cafes. Through the uncertainty and expence attending private a&ts, a great portion of thefe unftinted common lands re= main nearly as nature left them;—appearing in the prefent ftate of civilization and {cience, as blotches on the face of the country, efpecially when feen under the threatening clouds of famine, which have now repeatedly over{pread it. Common-Field Land, figniffes a defeription of land of a fomewhat fimilar kind to that of commons, only lying in extenfive fields. There is a large portion of this fort of land in almoft every county of the king= dom. ft has been obferved by Mr. Middleton, that the common arablé fields in the county of Middlefex are about 20,009 acres; and in that, as weil as in molt other coun- ties, are divided into too {mall properties to be advantage- oufly cultivated. He fays he has known thirty landlords on a field of 200 acres; and the property of each fo divided as to lie in ten or twenty places, containing from an acre or two downwards to fifteen perches; and in a field of 300 acres he has met with patches of arable land, contaimng eight perches each. In this inftance the average fize of all the pieces in the field was under an acre. In all cafes, he ob- ferves, they lie in long, narrow, winding, or worm-like flips. Land fo diftributed occafions great lofs of time to the far= mer, in removing his teams and labourers ; and what is of equal importance, he can neither crofs-plough nor har- row and clean fuch land in a workmanlike manner. And another great inconvenience attending common-field land is, the farmer cannot crop with that which belt fuits his foil, but is confined to fow fuch grain as muft be cut with his neighbour’s. An a& to inclofe common-field land would be advantageous to the farmer, and make the eftates compaét, and of more value to the owners. Neither can he fow any green or meliorating crops, vary the ufual impove- rifhing fucceffion, or even deltroy the vermin. In fhort, the cultivator of thefe lands finds his expences double, and his crops only half of what they might be, if the land were laid together and well-fenced.” By incloting the common-fields, fays he, which confift of a turnip and barley foil, both the landlord and the farmer are freed from the fhackles of an exhaufting and obfolete rotation of crops, and placed at liberty to diftribute for cul- tivation the foil in the moit improved manner, keeping it clean, in becter heart, railing fuch roots and green crops as are in the greateft demand at market, and only growing a crop of corn for the fake of renewing the courfe of green and root crops. In this manner intelligent men, after inclo- fure, can double the produce of their land. ; It is added that the invariable rotation of crops in all the common-fields is, firt year a‘fallow, fecdnd year wheat, third year peafe or oats, then begin again with a fallow. This, he fays, is the deitruétive fyftem of arable manage- ment that moftly prevails in this kind of land, and by. which : ye ee fome COMMON. fome of the bef land in the kingdom is condemned to be unemployed every third year; and the farmer who occupies it 1s compelled to pay three years rent in taxes, for two years ufe of it, and of courfe to maintain his family, fer- vants, cattle, and implements of hufbandry, every third year, without having any return from the land. It is, therefore, impoffible that Jands of this fort can ever be cul- tivated to the greateft advantage, while they remain in their prefent ftate. See Inctosinc. It is obferved by Mr. Marthall that ‘“ abfurd as the common field fyftem is, in almo{t every particular, at this day, it was admirably fuited to the circumftances of the times in which it originated, the plan having been conceived in wifdom and executed with accuracy as appears in number- lefs inftances, even at this diftance of time.’’ It is remarked that in the weftern extreme of the ifland the common field fyftem has never, perhaps, been adopted ; has certainly never been prevalent, as in the more central parts of England. There, a very different ufage would feem to have been early eftablifhed, and to have continued to the prefent time ; when lords of manors have the privi- lege of letting off the lands of common paftures, to be broken up for cern, the fenant being reftriGed to two crops; after which the land is thrown open again to paftur- age. And it is at leaft probable, that the lands of that country have been cleared from wood and brought into a {tate of cultivation through fimilar means. At prefent they are judicioufly laid out, in farms of different fizes, with fquare ftraight-lined inclofures, and with detached farm iteads fituated within their areas; the villages being gene- rally {mall and mean; the mere refidence of labourers. Thefe are circumftances which ftrongly evince that the com- mon field fyftem never took place in this part of the ifland, as it did in the more central parts. But during the two laft centuries, more particularly within the lait, the feudal organization, having loft its origi- nal bafis, has itfelf been mouldering away. A great ma- jority of the appropriated common field lands and commons have been partially or wholly inclofed, either by piecemeal, each proprietor inclofing his own flip (a very inconvenient mode of inclofure); or by general confent: the whole of the proprietors agreeing to commit their lands to the care and judgment of arbiters or commiffioners ; who, reftoring the fields to their original intirety, reparcelled them out, in a manner more convenient to the feveral proprietors, and laid each man’s portion, which had contifted of numberlefs narrow flips, in one or more well-fhaped grounds, or by ads of parliament, whereby not only common fields, common meadows, and {tinted paftures, but unftinted com- mons alfo, have been appropriated, by commiflioners named in, or chofen in purfuance of, each refpective at, who, throwing back the entire townfhip to its original ftate, laid it out afrefh, according to the directions of the a&t and their own judgment. Common Field Hufbandry, that fort of cultivation which is practifed in common fields. See Hussanpry. It has been obferved in the ‘* Agricultural Report of Wiltthire,”’ that the introduétion of the common field hufbandry feems to have been very flow and progreffive ; and that the dif- erfed fituation and {mallnefs of the pieces, of the common field lands now in cultivation, evidently thew that the oc- cupiers began with tilling a fingle acre, as one day’s work for a plough, or perhaps only balf an acre each ; and that, as a want of corn increafed, this cultivation was augmented until they had cultivated all that was mott proper for that purpofe, ftill leaving thofe parts which were lels fit for the plough, or more dillant from home, in a conttant Rate of Vou. 1X. commonage, but by mutual agreement keeping the cattle out of the cultivated parts till after harveft. ‘Chis was, probably, the origin of common fields. It does not feem probable, that auy impreved methods of cultivation can be adopted on common field lands, uatil the fyftem of com- mon ficld hufbandry is aboufhed. Sce Common and Com- mon Lield Lands. Comuon Meadows and Paflures, are fuch meadows and paltures as are held in a ftate of commonage. It is remarked, by the author of the ‘ Agricultural Survey of Wiltthire,” that, by the fame kind of mutual agree- ment, as is {tated in fpeaking of common field lands, thofe who have rights fhut up, and in fome cafes inclofed, fuch parts of their common paftures as were moft proper to mow for hay, dividing then into certain fpecific quantities, either by land-marks, or by lot, for mowing, and fuffering the common herd of cattle to feed there again as foon as the hay was carried off, till it was time to lay them up for a new crop: and that this was the origin of common mez- dows. And that the mutual agreements, originally founded in neceflity, became, when approved by the lords, and ob- ferved for alength of time by the tenants, what are called * cuftom of manors,” conttituting the very effence of the court baron, or manorial court, by which both lord and tenants were and are ftill bound; and of which, though the Jord or his fteward is the judge, the tenants are the jury, the cuftom of the manor equally binding both. Common, Communis, ina general fenfe, fomething that belongs to all alike; is owned or allowed by all; and is not confined to this more than that. In which fenfe, common ftands oppofed to proper, peculiar, &c. Thus, the earth is faid to be our common mother; in the firft, or golden age, all things were in common, as weil as the fun and elements; the name animal is common to man and beaft; that of fubftance to bedy and fpirit. Phi- lofophers difpute whether there be any fuch thing as common notions, innate, or imprefled on the mind by na- ture herfelf ; or whether our ideas are all adventitious. See Ipea. Common, Comminia; (i. e. quod ad omnes pertinet)in Law, fignifies that foil, the ufe whereof is common to a particular town or lordfhip: or it isa profit that a man hath in the land of another perioa, ufually incommon with others; ora right cr privilege, which one or more perfons claim to take or ufe, in fome part or portion of that which another man’s lands, waters, woods, &c. do naturally produce; without having an abfolute property in fuch land, waters, wood, &c. It is called an ¢incorporeal right,’? which lies in * grant,’? as if originally commencing on fome agreement between lards and tenants, for fome valuable purpoles; which by age being formed into a prefcription, continues, although there be no deed or inftrument in writing which proves the original contra& or agreement. 4Co. 37. 2 Inft. 65. 1 Vent. 387- And there is not only common of Pasture, which the word “common,” in its moft ufual acceptation, fignifies ; but alfo common of piscary, common of ESTOVERS, ‘common of rursBary, &c. And in ali cafes of common, the law doth much refpeét the cuftom of the place: for there the rule is, confuetudo loci eft obfervanda. 7 Rep. 5. Common of pajlure, is a right of feeding one’s beafts on another’s land; for in thofe waite grounds, ufually called commons, the property of the foil is generally in the lord. of the manor; as in ‘common fields,” it is in the parti- cular tenants. This kind of common is divided into common in grofs, common appendant, common appurtenant, and com mon per caufe de vicinage. Common in gro/s, isa liberty to have common alone, thas Z. as COMMON, is without any Jand or tenement in another man’s land, granted either to a perfon for life or to him and his heirs. This is commonly pafled by deed, or f{pecialty, and claimed by prefcriptive right. Common appendant, and Common appurtenant, are ufually confounded; both being defined to be a liberty of common appertaining to, er depending on, fuch or fuch a freehold ; which common muft be taken with bealts commonable: as horfes, oxen, &c. being accounted fittelt for the plowman ; and not with goats, gecfe, and hogs. Others diftinguifh between the two, thus; common appurtenant may be fevered from the land whereto it appertains; and is where the owner of land has a right to put in other beafts not commonable; as hogs, goats, &c. which neither plough nor manure the land. Whereas common appendant, according to lord Coke, had its original in the following manner: “ When alord enfeoffed another in arable lands to hold ef him in foccage; the feoffee, to maintain the fervice of his plough, had at firft, by courtely of his landlord, common in his waites, for neceflary beafts to eat and compoft his lands; and that for two caufes; 1°. Becaufe it was tacitly implied in the feoffment; by reafon the feoffee could not till, or compoft his patture : by confequence, therefore, the feoffee had, as a thing neceflary, or incident, common in the wattes, or lands of the lord. 2°. For the maintenance and advance- ment of tillage.”’ Common appendant belongs only to ancient arable land, and not toa houfe, meadow, patture, &c; and it is of common right. But it is not common apperdant, unlefs it hath been appendant time out of mind. 1 Danv. 746. It may be upon condition; for all the year, or for a certain time, or fora certain number of bealts, &c. by ufages though it ought to be for fuch cattle as plough and compott the land to which it is appendant. 1 Dany. 797. Common ap- pendant may be to common in a field after the corn is fe- vered, till the ground is refown, and it may be to have common in a meadow after the hay is carried off, till Can- dlemas, &c. Yelv. 185. This common, which in its nature is not reftrited by number, may be limited by cuftom as to the bealls; whereas common appurtenant ought always to be for thofe levant and couchant, and may be /ans number. Plowd. 161. A man may prefcribe to have common appur- tenant for all manner of cattle, at every feafon in the year. 25 Afl.8. He who hath common appendant or appurte- nant can keep but a number of cattle proportionable to his land; for he can common with no more than the lands to which his common belongs is able to maintain. 3 Saik. 93: ; Common pur caufe de vicinage, i.e. by reafon of neigh- bourhood, is the liberty that the tenants of one lord in one town, have to common with the tenants of another lord in another town. , But it is to be obferved, that thofe who claim this kind of common, (which is ufually called intercommoning) may not put their cattle into the common of the other lerd, for then they are diftrainable; but, turning them into their own fields, if they ftray into their neighbour’s common, they mult be fuffered. The inhabitants of one town or lordfhip may not put in as many beafts as they will, but with regard to the freehold of the inhabitants of the other; for otherwife it were no good neighbourhood, upon which all this depends. Terms de Ley. If one lord enclofes the common, the other town eannot then common; but though the common of vicinage is gone, common appendant remains. 4 Rep. 38. 7 Rep. 5. Every common pur caufe de vicinage is acommon appendant. «Dany. Abr. 799. This is indeed only a permiffive right, intended to exeufe what in ftriftnefs Is a trefpafs in both, and to prevent a multiplicity of fuits. And therefore either townfhip may enclofe and bar out the other, though they have intercommoned time out of mind. Blackft.Com.it, The property of the foil in the ‘ common” is entirely in the lord; and the ufe of it jointly in him and the com» moners. Lords of manors may depafture in commons where their tenants put in cattle: anda prefcription to exclude the lord is again law. 1 Inft. 122. The lord may agilt the cattle of a ftranger in the common by prefcription; and he may licenfe a {tranger to put in his cattle, if he leaves fufli- cient room for the commoners. 1 Danv. 795. 2 Mod. 6. The lord may alfo furcharge, &c. an overplus of the com- mon; and if, where there is not-an overplus, the lord fur- charge the commen, the commoners are not to diltrain his beafts; but mult commence an ation -againft the lord. F.N. B. 125. The lord may diftrain when the common is furcharged, and bring ation of trefpafs for any trefpafs done in the common. 9 Rep.113.- A lord may make a poud on the common, though he cannot dig pits for gravel or coal; the ftatutes of approvement extending only to inclofure. 3 Anft. 204. g Rep. 112. 1 Sid. 106. If the lord makes a warren on the common, the commoners may not kill the conies; but are to bring their aGlion, for they may not be their own judges. 1 Rol. go.405. By ftatute of Merton (20 H.IIL.c. 4.) lords may ‘approve’’ againtt their te- nants, viz. inclofe part of the waite, &c. and thereby dif- charge it from being common, leaving common foffictent ; and neighbours as well as tenants, claiming common of paf- ture, fhall be bound by it. If the lord inclofes on the com- mon, and leaves not common fuaflicient, the commoners may not only break down the inclotures, but may put in their cattle, althouch the lord plouzhs and fows the land. 2 Inft. 88. 1 Rol. Abr. 406. By ftat. 29 Geo. II. c. 36. Owners of commons, with the confent of the mzjority, in number and value, of the commoners; the majority of the com- moners, with confent of the owners, o° any perfons, with the confent of both, may inclofe any part of a common for the growth of wood. If the wood be deftroyed, the of- fender may be punifhed according to ftat. 1 Geo. t.c. 48.3 if not conviéted in fix months, the owner fhall have [atisfac- tion from the adjoining parifhes, .&c. as for fences over- thrown by ftat. Weltm. 2. Perfons cutting wood on com- mons fhall incur the fame penalty. And by ‘tat. 31 Geo 2. c. 41, the recompence is to be paid to perfons interefted, in proportion to their intereft. A commoner hath only a {pe- cial and limited intereft in the foil, but yet he fhall have fuck remedies as are commenfurate to his right; and therefore he may diftrain beafts damage-fcafant, bring an a@icn on the cafe, &c.; but not being abfolute owner of the foil, he can- not bring a general action of trefpafs for a trefpafs done upon the common. A commoner cannot do any thing on the foil which tends to the melioration or improvement of the common, as cutting down of buihes, fern, &c. 3 Sid, 251. 12 Hen. VIII. 2. 13 Hen. VIlI.15. Therefore, if a common every year in a flood is {urrounded with water, the commoner cannot make a trench in the foil to avoid the water, becaufe he has nothing to do with the foil, but only to take the grafs with the mouth of the cattle. 1 Rol. Abr. 405. 2 Bullt.116. Every commoner may break the com mon if it be inclofed; and although he does not put his cattle in at the time, yet his right of commonage fhall ex- cufe him from being a trefpaffer. Lit. Rep. 38. 1 Rol. Abr. 406. Ifatenant of the freehold ploughs it, and fows it with corn, the commoner may put in his cattle, and with them, eat the corn growing upon the land: fo if he lets his corn COMMON. corn lic in the field, ‘beyond the ufual time, the other com- moners may, notwithitanding, put in their beafts. 2 Leon. 202, 203. The commorer cannot ufe common except with his own proper cattle; but if he hath not cattle to ma- nure the land, he may common other cattle to manure it, and ufe the common with them; for, by the loan, they are in a manner made his own cattle. 1 Danv.798. A com- moner may diltrain bealts put into the common by a ftranger, or every commoner may bring aétion of the cafe, where damage is received. 9g Rep. rr. But one commoner cannot diftrain the cattle of another commoner, though he may thofe of a ftranger, who hath no right to the common. 2 Lutw. 1238. See Surcuarce of Common, and Drs- TURBANCE of Common. Upon agreement between two commoners to inclofe a common, a party having intereft, not privy to the agree- ment, will not be bound; but one or two wilful perfons fhall not hinder the public good. Chan. Rep. 48. Commons muft be driven yearly at Michaelmas, or within 15 days after; infected heifers and ftone-horfes under fize, &c. are not to be put into commons. under forfeiture, by ftat. 32 Hen. VIII. c. 13. New ere&ted cottzg-s, though they have four acres of ground laid to them, ought not to have com- mon in the walte. 2 Inft. 740. In Jaw-proceedings, where there are two diftiné& commons, the two titles muft be fhewn: cattle are to be alleged commonable; and common ought to be in lands commonable; and the place is to be fet forth where the mefluage and lands lie, &c. to which the common belongs. 1 Nelf. 462,463. By ftat. 13 Geo. IIT. c. 81. in every parifh where there are ‘* common field-lands,”’ all the arable lands lying in fuch fields fhall be cultivated by the occupiers, under fuch rules as three-fourths of them in number and value (with the confent of the land and tithe- owners) fhall appoint, by writing under their hands; the ex- ence to be borne proportionably, under the management of @ field-mafter, or field-reeve, to be appointed annually in May. For other particulars, fee Jacob’s Law Di&. by Tomlins. Common, in Geometry, is applied to an angle, line or the like, which belongs equally to two figures, or makes a ne- ceffary part of both. Common, in Grammar, denotes the gender of nouns which is equally applicable to both fexes, male and female. Such is that of parens, parent; which is either mafcu- line, or feminine, as it is ufled to fiznify either father, or mother. The Latin grammarians, befides this, which they call the comnron of two, alfo make a common of three; which ex- tends to maiculine, feminine, and neuter. Common, Communis, in Ancient Mufic, was an appella- tion given to the feventh {pecies of the diapafon. See Dia- PASON. Common Bail. See Batu. Common BSarretor. See BAratry. Common Bench. 'The court of Common Pleas was an- ciently called Common Bench, becaufe the pleas of contro- verfies between common perfons were there tried and deter- mined. In law books and references, the court of Common Pleas is written C. B. from communi banco, or C. P.: and the jultices of that court are ftyled ju/liciarit de banco. See Court and Common PLEAS. See CenTER Common Centre of Gravity, in Mechanics. of Gravity. , Common Chord, in Mujfic, is fometimes ufed to denote the third, fifth, and o@ave of any note, confidered as a bafs. It will afford fome light into the compofition of chords, to exhibit all the poffible variations in the order or arrange ment of the concord, major ¢hird (III), minor third (3d), and minor fourth (4th), conftituting the common chord in the following manner, viz. < Ci, Bsr 1€ ie € the common chord. the common chord minor, 6 the chord of fixth, or 3° pate Ve » Cou JE mG sk C Vie 615 —— 3 Cc m Zth Vat btd Gi gC 3rd BE 2H BA. ae by En Ged on me OAD go © Gt s CLA Fa tA By a comparifon of the feveral chords in the firft arrange- ment above, it will appear, that when tle four notes, C, bi 6 or 06 lm Be the chord of bf or bz. v 6 the chord of 4, b6 the chord of 4 Vv vei ae we ‘ ded E, G, and C, conftituting the common chord, are foun paler all of the ie concords, viz. 34, III; . COMM ON. VY, 6th, VI and VIII are in reality heard between the different notes, except the VI: and this circumftance, combined with the ILI being above the bafs or loweft note, feem effential to a full or.common chord. In the fecond arrangement, or C, b E, GandC, it will be perceived, that ail the concords are heard except the 6th; and this, combined with the third above the bals note, corftitutes the common chord of the minor mode. In the third ar- rangement, it will be feen, that there is no V produced, while a IIT occupies the place immediately above the bafs note, being the chord of fixth. The fourth arrangement will alfo be found without a V, but with the gd next the bafs, conftituting the chord b6, he fifth arrangement will be found without a 6th, and with no third (but a 4th), next to the bafs, and this conftitutes the chord © And laftly, the fixth arrangement will be found without a vi, er a third above the bafs, which conftitutes the chord bo In performances by voices and perfe& inftruments, as violins, violinceilos, &c. thefe feverat chords will be ail heard perfed ; and in each of the fix cafes, a union or blend- ing of tne fix concords, almoft fimilar to a fingle found, awill be perceived, bat much more delightful to the ears the chara@teriftic differences of which conftitute the charaCter of the common chord and its five inverfions, as above. But upon the common keyed inftruments, fuch as organs, piano- fortes, harpfichords, &c. which contain but twelve founds withia the otave, it is impoffible that thefe fingle or com- pound chords can all be heard perfe@t, but the greater part of the whole of them mult be tempered or flightly altered from the true chord (fee Temperament). If, for in- ftance, the ILI C E above, were fharpened feven {chifmas, or 7 =, which is very nearly the cafe in Equal Temper- ament (which fee), the 3d E G flattened S %, and the 4th G C tharpened =; the common chord, or firlt arrange- ment wpon fuch an inftrument, would produce the following tempered concords, wiz. 3d — 8s, I1l+72; 442, V—», and 6th—75, combined with VIII; which chords, combined and blended, imprefs upon the ear the peculiar fenfation of the common chord in this temperament. In the fecond arrangement, or common chord minor, the efrect produced will depend upon the union of the following tem- pered chords, viz. 3d—82z, III+72, 4th+2, V+2, VI+S82 and-VIII. Acommon chordC EGC, upon an inflrument tuned according to earl Stanhope’s temperament, {jee Philefophical Magazine, vol. XXviii. p.141) will be found 40 confilt of the following perfe&i chords, viz. 3d; UT, ath, V, 6th, and VIII; whence his lordship denominates His key of C major to be perfe&t (fee SrannoPe TEmMBER- AMENT) 3 but if we coufider the fecond arrangement, or commen chord of C minor, upon one of his lordship’s inftru- ments, we fhall find 3d —104¥, 111+ 1042, 4th, V,VI-+ 1052, andVIIL to conftitute this chord, nearly, the very {mail in- terval minute (m) only, being in any cafe omitted. Thus it wili be eafy to compare the effet of any inverfions of the common chord, in this, or any other temperament of the f{eale which may be propofed. Common Clerk. See Town Clerk. Common Crier. See Crise. Common Council. Sce Mayor's Courts, Common Day, in plea of land, fignifies an ordinary day in.court, as e@abis Hilarii, quindena Pafche, Ke. It is men- . Lg . ~ 7 - 6 alee 33 Rich, IL ftat. 1. cap. 17. and in the ftatute gt Hen III. concerning general days in bank, Blount and Cawel. Common, Diflurbance of. See DisturBance of Common. Common Dud, in Anatomy. See Ductus Communis. Common, Lffatein. Sce Estate. Common of Effovers. See Estovers. Common Field-land. See Common /upra. Conmon Fine, in Law, a certain fum of money, which the refiants within the liberty of fume leets pay to the lord thereof ; called in fome places, head-filver ; in others, certs money, OY Cerium lete, and head-pence. It -was firft granted to the lord towards the charge of his purchafe of the court-leet; whereby the refiants have now the conveniency of doing their fut within their own manors, without being compelled to go to the fhenf’s turn. Common in Grofs. See Common /ufra. Common Aunt, the chief buntfman belonging to the lord mayor and aldermen of London. Common Informer: See InrorMER. Common Jntendment, in Law, the commox underftanding, meaning, or conftru€tuion of any thing : without ftraining it to any foreign, remote, or particular fenfe: and Bsr to Common Intendment, is an ordinary, or general bar, which is commonly an anfwer to the declaration of the plaintiff. See Bar and INvTENDMENT. ‘ i Common Fury. See Jury. Common Law, that body of rules generally received, and held as Jaw in this nation, im contradiftin@ion to the ftlatute, or written law, and including not only general cuftoms, or the common law properly fo called; but alfo the particular cuitoms of certain parts of the kingdom, and likewife thofe particular laws, that are by cuftom obferved only in certain courts and jurifdictions. The common law is grounded upon the general cuftoms of the realm, and comprehends the law of nature, the law of God, and the principles and maxims of the law: it is founded upon reafon, and it is faid to be the perfection of ~ reafon, acquired by long ftudy, obfervation, and experience, andrefined by learned men in all ages. It is joltiy regarded as the common birth-right, which the fubjeét has for the {.f2-guard and defence, not only of his goods, lands, and revenues, but of his wife and children, body, fame, and even life. Co. Litt. 97, 142. Treatife of Laws, p. 2. According to Hale, the common law of England is the common rule for adminiitering juftice within this kingdom, and afferts the king’s roya! prerogatives, and likewife the rights and liberties of the fubject. It is, in general, that law by which the determinations in the king’s ‘* Ordinary courts” are guided; and this dire&ts the courfe of defcents of lands; the nature, extent, and qualifications of eftates, together with the manner and ceremonies of conveying them from one to another; the forms, folemnities, and obligations of contracts ; the rules and direGtions for the expofition of deeds, and aéts of parliament; the procefs, proceedings, judgments, and executions of our courts of jultice ; alfo the limits and bounds of courts, and jurifdic- tions; the feveral kinds of temporal offences and penifh- ments, and their application, &c. Hale’s Hift. of the Common Law, p. 24—44, 45. As to the origin of the common law, which, adopting the expreffion of lord chief-juitice Hale, is as undifcoverable as the head of the Nile; our ancient iawyers, and parti- cularly Fortefcue, warmly infilt, that the cuftoms, which conititute our.common law, are as old as the primitive Britons, and that they have been continued down, through the COMMON. the feveral mutations of government and inhabitants, to the prefent time, unchanged and unadulterated. This, fays judge Blackftone, may be the cafe as to fome; but, in general, as Mr. Selden obferves, this affertion muft be un- derftood with many grains of allowance ; and ought only to fignify, as the truth feems to be, that there never was any formal exchange of one fyftem of laws for another; though, doubtlefs, by the intermixture of adventitious nations, the Romans, the Piéts, the Saxons, the Danes, and the Normans, they muit have infenfibly introduced and incorporated many of their own cuftoms with thofe that were before eftablifhed; thereby in all probability im- proving the texture and wifdom of the whole, by the ac- cumulated wifdom of divers particular countries. Accord- ingly, lord Bacon obferves, that our laws are as mixed as our language ; and, as our language is fo much the richer, the laws are the more complete. And, indeed, our anti- quaries and early hiftorians do ail pofitively affure us, that our body of laws is of this compounded nature. After the decay of the Roman empire, it has been faid, Britain became invaded by three kinds of German people, viz. the Saxons, Angles, and Jutes. From the Jutes defcended the men of Kent, and thofe of the [fle of Wight ; from the Saxons came the people called the Eaft, South, and Weit Saxons; and from the Angles came the Eait Angles, Mercians, and Northumbrians. Now, as each people had its peculiar cuftoms, fo each inclined to different laws; whereof, thofe of the Weft Saxons and Mercians, who inhabited the midland coun- ties, were, upon the diffolution of the heptarchy, and eftablifhment of a monarchy, preferred to the reft, and acquired the common appellation of us Anglorum. Their particular names were Wef? Saxon-lage, and Merchen- lage. “The firft Saxon laws publifhed in England were thofe of king Ethelbert, in the fixth century. Three hundred years after, king Alfred, whom our hiftorians call magnus ports Anglicani conditor, having united the heptarchy, and rendered himfelf mafter of the whole nation, made a collec- tion from among the numerous laws and cuftoms of the feveral provinces of his domains, which were grown fo va- rious ; and commanded them to be obferved throughout his kingdom. This colle€&tion was denominated folk-right, and foon after the common Jaw as being common to the whole nation. This was written in Alfred’s dome-book, or liber judicialis, which was defigned for the general ufe of the whole kingdom. This book is faid to have been extant in the reign of king Edward IV.; but has fince been unfortunately left. It contained, as we may reafonably imagine, the principal maxims of the common law, the penalties for mif- demefnors, and the forms of judicial proceedings. By thefe laws the nation was governed for a confiderable time, tll, being at length fubdued by the Danes, the cuftoms of thofe people were introduced, and incorporated with the reft. Hence the code of Alfred in many provinces fellinto difufe, or, at leaft, was mixed and debafed with other laws of a coarfer alloy : and thusa new form of common law arofe, called Dane-lage. The three fy{ftems of law above recited, viz. the Dane- Jage, principally maintained in feveral of the midland counties and alfo on the eaftern coalt; the We Saxon-lage, which was much the fame with the code compiled by Altred, and which obtained in the counties to the fouth and welt of the Wland, from Kent. to Devonfhire, being the municipal law of the far moft conftderable part of Alfred’s dominions, and particularly of Berkfhire, the feat of his peculiar refidence ; and the Merchen-lage, obferved in many of the midland counties, and thofe bordering on the principality of Wales, the retreat of the ancient Britons, and therefore probably intermixed with the Britith or Druidical cuftoms ; were in ufe about the beginning of the eleventh centyry. The northern provinces were at this time under a diftin@ government. In procefs of time king Edgar begun what his grandfon Ed- ward the Confeflor, on this account called /egum Anglica- narum reflitutor, completed ; viz. to form one digelt or body of laws to be oblerved throughout the whole kingdom. This feems to have been only a new edition, or frefh promulga- tion of Alfred’s dome-book, with fuch additions and im- provements as the experience of a century and a haif had fuggefted. The Danes being afterwards, in their turn, overcome by the Normans; the Conqueror, on a review of the feveral Jaws and cuftoms that then obtained, abrogated fome, and abolifhed others; adding fome of his own country Jaws. His fon, William Rufus, broke through the ancient laws and cuftoms which his father had eftablifhed; but his next fon, Henry I. excluded the civil cuftoms which his brother had introduced, and reftored the laws of Edward the Confeflor, with thofe amendments made by his father, under the advice of his barons.. Thefe were afterwards con- firmed in fucceeding reigns. Hence is derived that fyftem of maxims and unwritten cuftoms, now known by the name of the common law, which is of Saxon parentage; though the cultoms and maxims themfelves are of higher antiquity than memory or hiftory reach 3. many of them being as old as the primitive Britons, The name of common law was given to it; either in contradiftinGion to ether laws, as the ftatute*law, the- civil law, the law merchant, and the lke; or, more pro- bably, as a law common to all the realm, the jus commune or folk-right mentioned by king Edward the Elder, after the abolition of feveral provincial cultoms and particular laws. The common. law of England is, properly, the common cuftoms of this kingdom ; which, by length of time, have obtained the force of laws. The goodnefs of a cultom depends upon its having been ufed time out of mind; or, in the folemnity of our legal phrafe, time whereof the memory of man runneth not to the contrary. This gives it its weight and authority-; and of this nature are the maxims and cuftems which compofe the common law, or /ex non /cripta, of this kingdom. This unwritten, or common law, is properly diltinguifhed into three kinds; 1. General cuftoms, which are the wniverfal rule of the whole kingdom, and form the common law, in its ftri&ter and more ufual fignification. 2. Particular cul- toms, which for the moft part affect only the inhabitants of particular diftri@s. 3. Certain particular laws; which by cuftom are adopted and ufed, by fome particular courts, of pretty general and extenfive jurifdiiion. See Custom. Some have divided the common law into two principal grounds or foundations; viz. 1. Eftablifhed cuftoms ; fuch as that, where there are three brothers, the cldeft brother fhall be heir to the fecond, in exclufion of the youngeft ; and, 2, Eftablifhed rules and maxims ; as, that the king can do no wrong; that no man fhall be bound to accufe himfelf ; and the like. But judge Blackftone obferves, that thefe are one andthe fame thing. For the authority of thefe maxims refts entirely. upon general reception and ufage ; and the only method of proving, COMMON. proving, that this or that maxim is a rule of the common law, is by fhewing that it hath been always the cuftom to oblerve it. See Custom. It is called kx non fcripta, the unwritten laa: not but that we have moft of it written in the old Norman diale&, and the monuments and evidences of our legal cultoms are contained in the records of the feveral courts of juttice, in books of reports’ and judicial decifions, and in the trea- tifes of learned fages of the prof-flion, preferved and tran{- mitted from times of the higheft antiquity ; but becaufe it does not appear to be made by charter, or parliament ; for thoie are always matters of record. Its original inftitution and authority are not fet down in writing; but it receives its binding power and the force of law, by long and immemo- rial ufage, and by univerfal reception through the kingdom. See Auruorities and Reports. Befide the common law of England in general, there are in divers parts of the nation particular cuftoms, and com- mon ufages, which have the force of common law among thofe people, who have retained them: fuch as the Bo- rough-Englifh, Gavel-kind, &c.—Where the common law is filent, there.the SratruteE-/aw fpeaks. See SraTure. All iriais at common law are by a jury of twelve men. Among the ancient and moft eminent writers on common Jaw we may fele& and enumerate the following. Britten wrote his learned book of the common law of this realm by the king’s command, and it runs in his name, corref- ponding to the inftitutions of the civil law, which Juftinian affumes to himfelf, though compofed by others under his direG@ion. This Britton is mentioned by Gwin to have been bifhop of Hereford. Bra€ton, a great lawyer in the time of Henry ILL, wrote a very learned treatife of the common law of England, held in great eftimation ; and he was faid to be lord chief-juftice of the kingdom. The famous and learned Glanvil, lord chief-juftice in the reign of Henry IT., wrote a book of the common law, which ts {aid to be the moft ancient compofition extant on that fubject. Befides thefe, in the time of Edward IV. the renowned lawyer Littleton wrote his excellent book of “ Englifh Tenures.” In the reign of king James I., the great oracle of the law, fir Edward Coke publifhed his learned and laborious ‘© Inftirutes” of our law, and commentary on Littleton. About the fame time likewife Dr. Cowel, a civilian, wrote a fhort inftitute of ourlaws. In the reign of king George {., Dr. Tho. Wood, a civilian and common lawyer, and at laft a divine, wrote an inflitute of the laws of England, fomewhat after the manner of the Iaftitutes of the civil law. And to mention no others, the late learned judge Blackftone, in the reign of George III., publifhed his *¢ Commentaries” on the laws of England, the beit analytic and moft methodical fyftem of our laws, which was ever publifhed ; and equally adapted for the ufe of ftudents, and of thofe gentlemen who wifh to acqu're that knowledge of our laws, which is, in fa&, effentially neceffary for every one. See biographical articles Brirron, Bracton, &c. &c. Common meafure divifor, in Arithmetic, a number that exaGtly meafures two other numbers, without a remainder. And the greateft number that can meafure any two other numbers, is called their greateft common meafure; thus 4 is the greateft common meafure of 8 and 12. To find the greateft common meafure of two numbers ; divide the greater by the lefs, and if there be no remainder, the lefs number is the meafure required. If there be a re- mainder, divide the laft divifor by it, and thus proceed, til there be no remainder left, and the laft diyifor is the greateft eommon meafure. : E.G. To find the greatefl common meafure of 216 and 1488. §16)1488(« 816 144)672(4 579 Common meafure - For algebraic quantities, the remainders are to be di- vided by their fimple divifors, and the quotients will be the quantities required. E.G. Let the quantities be a2 + 2464+ anda + 2fb+2abh+ b. Divide the latter of thefe by the former in the following manner: . f a+ 2a64+-BP)e+4+2a)b+4+20a8 + Ba @tre@btaPh Theremainderis - - - + a6? + 43, which being divided by 2*, its greateft fimple divifor, given a + 5; and by this divide 2? + 2 a5 + 6°, and the quotient will be a + 4, exaGtly, which is the common meafure required. And if fra€tions are divided by their greateft common meafure, they will thus be reduced to their loweft terms. 816 E.G. Let the fraGion be or > then divide the numera- tor and denominator by 48, the greateft common meafure, : : TA. « and the fraction will be reduced to = its loweft terms. @+2ab+FP @+t2@b+2aFP 483; then, dividing the numerator and denominator by a + é the greateft common meafure; and it will be reduced to até @iab+FP Thefe operations are founded on this.principle, viz. that whatever quantity meafures the whole and one part of ano- ther, muft aifo meafure the remaining part. For that quantity (whatever it is) which meafures both the divifor and dividend, mutt evidently meafure a? + 2 a6 + 3%, being a multiple of the former; whence, by the above-cited prir- ciple, the fame quantity, as it increales the whole dividend, mult alfo meafure the remaining part of it, 22 + #8: but the divifor, which we are feeking, being a compound one, we may caft off the fimple divifor 4*, as not anfwering our purpofe ; whence a + J appears to be the only com- pound divifor which the cafe admits of ; and this muft be the common meafure required, if the propofed example ad- mits of any fuch. Common, Month, Motion, Nuifance, and Olea. the SuBsTaNTIVEs. Common of Pafure. See Pasture and Common. Common of Pifcary. See Piscary. Common Pract Book, Adverfaria, among the learned, denotes a regifter, or orderly colleétion of things which occur worthy to be noted, and retained in the courfe. of a man’s Let the algebraic fraction be , its loweft terms. See COMMON. ynan’s reading, or itudy ; fo difpofed, as that among a mul- tiplicity of fubjes, any one may be eafily found. Common-place-books are of great fervice: they are a kind of promptuartes or ftorehoufes, wherein to repofit the moft valuable parts of authors, to be reedy at hand when wanted. Several perfons have their feveral methods of or- dering them: but that which comes beft recommended, is the method of that great mafter of order Mr. Locke. He has thought fit to publifh it in aletter to M. Toifnard ; de- termined thereto, by the great conveniency and advantage he had found from it in twenty years experience ; as well as by the recommendations and intreaties of many of his friends, who had likewife proved it. The fubftance of this method we fhall here give the reader ; whereby he will be ealily enabled to execute it him- felf. The firft page of the book you intend to take down the common: places in, is to ferve as a kind of index to the whole; and to contain references to every place, or matter there- in: in the commodious contrivance of which index, fo that it may admit of a fufficient copia, or variety of ma- terials, without any confufion, the whole fecret of the me- thod confilts. In order to this the firft page, as already mentioned, or for more room, the two firft pages that front eath other, are to be divided by parallel lines, into twenty-five equal parts ; whcrecf every fifth line is to be diftinguilhed, by its colour, or fome other circumftance. Thefe lines are to be cut per- pendicularly by others, drawn from top to bottom; and in the feveral fpaces thereof the feveral letters of the alpha- ber, both capital and minufcule, are to be duly written. The form of the lines and divifions, beth horizontal and perpendicular, with the manner of writing the letters therein, will be conceived from the following fpecimen ; whercin what is to be done in the book for all the letters of the alphabet, is here fhewn in the firft four, A, B, C, and D. The index of the common-place book being thus formed, matters are ready for the infertion of any thing in it. Tn order to this, confider to what head, the thing you would enter is moft naturally referred; in this head, or word, regard is had to the initial letter, and the firft vowel that follows it ; which are the chara¢teriftic letters on which the whole ufe of the index depends. Suppofe, ¢. gr. I would enter down a paflage that refers to the head éeauty ; B, I confider, is the initial letter, and ¢ the firft vowel; then looking upon the index for the par- tition B, and therein the line ¢ (which is the place for all words whofe firft letter is B, and firft vowel e; as Beauty, Beneficence, Bread, Bleeding, Blemifhes, &c.), and finding no numbers down already to direét_ me to any page of the book where words of this charaéteriftic have been entered, I turn forward to the firft blank page I find, which ina frefh book, as: this is fuppofed to be, will be page 2, and here I now write what 1 have occafion for on the head beauty ; beginning the head in the margin, and indenting all the other fubfervient lines, that the head may ftand out, and fhew itfelf; this done, I enter the page where it is written. w/z. 2, in the index, in the fpace B e, from which time, the clafs B e becomes wholly in the poffeflion of the ad and 3d pages, which are configned to letters of this cha- raéteriftic. Had I found any page or number already entered in the fpace Be, I muft have turned to the page, and have writ- ten my matter in what room was left therein: fo, if after entering the paflage on beauty, I fhould have occafion for benevolence, or the like, finding the number 2 already pof- feffed of the fpace of this charaéteriftic, I begin the paf- fage on benevoience in the remainder of the page ; which not containing the whole, I carry it on to page 3, which is alfo for B ¢, and add the number 3 in the index. When 3 the two pages deltined for one clafs are full, look forward for the next backfide that is blank; if it be that which im- mediately follows, write at,the bottom of the margin of the page filled, the letter yv for verte, tura over; and the fame at the top of the next page: and continue from this new page as before. If the pages immediately following be already filled with other claffes, then write at the bottom of the page lait filled, the letter v, with the number of the next blank page; and at the top of that page, the number of the page laft filled ; then entering that head in this new page, proceed as before. By thefe two numbers of refer- ence, the one at the top, and the other at the bottom of the page, the difcontinued matters are again connected. It may not be amifs, every time you put a number at the bot- tom of a page, to put it likewife inthe index. Now, if the head be a monofyllable beginning with a vowel, the vowel is at the fame time both’ the initial letter, and the charaéteriftic vowel: thus the word art is to be wrote in Aa. Mr. Locke omits three letters of the alphabet in his index, viz. K, Y, and W; which are fupplied by C, I, U, equivalent to them: and as for Q, fince it is always followed by an u, he puts it in the fifth place of Z; and fo has no Z u, which ts a charateriftic that very rarely occurs. By thus making Q the laft in the index, its regularity is preferved, without diminifhing its extent. Others choofe to retain the clafs Z wu, and aflign a place for Q u below the index. If any imagine, that.thofe hundred claffes are not fuffi- cient to comprehend all kinds of fubje&s without confufion, he may follow the fame method, and yet augment the nume ber to five hundred, by taking in one more characteriltic to them. But the inventor affures us, that in all his colleGions, for a long feries of years, he never found any deficiency in us index com index as above laid down. Other contrivances for common- place books have been propofed; but they are fuch as will naturally occur to perfons converfant with the fubje&t, and accuftomed to orderly arrangement : and it is, therefore, need- lefs to extend this article. Common Places, in Rhetoric. Topics. Common Press. See Court of Common Pleas. Common Prayer, is the liturgy of the church of England. Clergymen are obliged to ufe this liturgy in the fervice of the church; and refufing to do fo, or ufing any other public prayers, is punifhable by 1 Eliz. cap. 2. and every incumbent refiding on his living and keeping a curate, is obliged, once every month at leaft, to read the common prayer in his parith church, in his own perfon, under a forfeiture of s/. for every failure, by the a& of uniformity, 13 and 14 Car. Ll. cap. 4.3 and by the fame ftat. every church is to be provided with a book of common prayer, under the penalty of 3/. a month, and the common prayer is to be read before every leGture. Every minifier who {peaks any thing in de- rogation of this book fhall, if not beneficed, be imprifoned one year for the firft offence, and for life for the fecond ; and, if he be beneficed, he is liable to fix months imprifon- ment, and the forfeiture ofa year’s value of his benefice ; for the fecond offence to deprivation and one year’s imprifon- ment; and forthe third offence to deprivation ard imprifon- ment for life: and any perfon convicted of reviling it in plays, fongs, or other open words, or of forcibly prevent- ing its being read, or of cauling any other fervice to be read in its ftead, fhall forfeit for the firft offence an hundred marks; four hundred for the fecond; and for the third offence all his goods and chattels, and fuffer imprifonment for life. Stat. 1 Eliz. cap. 2. See Lirurey. Common Receptacle. See Recerracutum. Comi#ion Recovery. See Recovery. Common, Right of. See Common. Common Scold. See Scouds Common Seal. See Seat. Common Senfe. See Sense. Common Senfory. See SENSORY. Common Serjeant. See SERJEANT. Common, Surcharge of. See SuRCHARGE. Common, Tenants in. See TENANT. Common Time. See Time. Common Voucher. See VOUCHER. Common /Vays, See Way. Common Weal denotes ‘bonem publicum,’” or the public good, and is much favoured in our laws; and therefore many things are legally tolerated, with a view to the public good, which otherwife might not be done. Hence it is that monopolies are void in law, and that bonds and covenants to reftrain free trade, tillage, and the like, are adjudged void. 11 Co. Rep. 50. Plowd.25. Shep. Epit. 270. Common Year. See YEAR. COMMONABLE Lanps, in Agriculture, are {uch lands as are generally in fome meafure arable, and which belong, in property, to individuals who are known, and the limits of whofe property are afcertained: but which, in re- gard to their culture and mode of cropping, are fubje&t to certain regulations, which cultom, for time immemorial, has eftablifhed, fo as gradually to have acquired the force of law, to which rules every individual occupying fuch property muft adhere, until thefe old cuftoms fhall be abrogated, either by the unanimous coofent of all the individuals having a night to fuch commonable lands, or by an exprefs ftatute, ob- +ained with their confent, for the purpofe of annulling them. See ArcumENtTs and COM Tn fome countries, Dr. Anderfon fays, it appears that not much lefs than one half of the whole arable lands are in this ftate; although it is evident, by the concurring teftimony of all the agricultural reports, that taking all thefe lanés at an average, they do not afford half the produce the fame lands would do, if they were put under the ordi- nary management that appropriated farmers are fubje@- ed to in their refpe€tive diftméts: and not perhaps one tenth part of what they might ezfily be made to afford within a very fhort period of time, fhould all other obftruc. tions to improvement be removed. It would be tirefome, he fays, to enumerate all the facts that occur in the dif- ferent agricultural furveys, tending to point out the perni- cious tendency of this mode of tenure: but a few of them may be mentioned. In one place it is fated, that a few in- clofures had been made, feemingly with the concurrence of all the parties concerned ; but when the hedges had ad- vanced nearly to become a fence, one of the commonable tenants went deliberately and pulled them up by the roots and eradicated them entirely. In another cafe the parith- ioners having come to an agreement to fow clover, after that practice had been univerlally acquiefced in for the {pace of eighteen years, one of the farmers, occupying fixteen acres of land, bought a large flock cf lean fheep in the month of May, and turned them on the clover crops, whch were nearly in bloom, and no one‘could hinder him. In another cafe, where cuftom had eftablifhed the pradtice of having one corn crop, ard one fallow, alternately, the occupiers of the diftri@ came to an agreement to have two crops and a fal- low alternately ; but before the expiration of ten years, one of the farmers broke through the agreement, and turned his cattle upon the crops of beans, oats, and barley: in which plan he was followed by the reft of his neighbours; and the crops were, in confequence, totally deftroyed on that part of the field, which, agreeable to the ancient cuftom, fhould have been that year in fallow. hefe notices, while they tend to illuflrate the nature of this particular kind of tenure, at the fame time, he fays, clearly demonftrate its pernicious tendency to the public. No one, who has confidered the fubje& for a moment, but will readily admit, that it were much for the intereft of Britain that no fuch praGtice exilted in it: and that, of courfe, ne time fhonid be loft in endeavouring to eradicate it ; for, were this effec- tually done, it muft appear evident from the facts ftated, that the total produce of the kingdom would be greatly aug- mented and improved. See Common. COMMONALTY, comprehends one diftin@ion of the civil {tate ; the nobility being the other; and like the nobi- lity, includes feveral degrees of rank and condition. In Art. fuper Chartas, 28 Ed. r.c. 1., the words ** Tout le commune de l’Engleterre,”’ fignify all the people of Eng- land. 2 Inft. 539. But the term is generally ufed for the middle rank of the king’s fubjeéts, {uch of the commons as are raifed above the ordinary fort, and having the manage- ment of offices, are by that means one degree below burs gefles, who are fuperior to them in order and authority :— and companies incorporated are faid to confilt of matters, wardens, and commonalty, the firft two being the chief, and the others fuch as are ufually called of the livery. The ordinary people, and freeholders, or at beft knights and gen- tlemen, under the degree of baron, have been, of late years, called ** communitas regni,”’ or ‘tota terre communitas ;’? yet anciently, if we credit Brady, the barons and tenants in capite, or military men, were the community of the king- dom, and thofe only were reputed as fuch in our moft ancient ae and records. Brady’s Gloff. to his Introd. to Eng. ift. COMMONTE, in Ancient Geography, the name of an ifland 5 in cCOM ,: the Mediterranean, plaeed by Pliny on the coat of onia. COMMONER, is ufed fora ftudent in fome univerfities, entered in a particular rank. The word is alfo applied to a member of the houfe of commons, in contradiftinétion to a peer. COMMONI, in Ancient Geagraphy, a denomination given by Ptolemy to a people of Gallia Narbonnenfis, who inha- bited the country, including the town of Tauroentium, the promontory of Cithariltes, the town of Olbia, that of Forum Juli, &c. COMMONS, ina general fenfe, confit of all fuch men of property in the kingdom, as have not feats in the houfe of lords; every one of whom has a voice in parliament, either perfonally, or by his reprefentatives. In a free ftate, fays judge Blackftone, every man, who is fuppofed a free agent, ought to be in fome meafure his own governor ; and, therefore, a branch at leaft of the legiflative power fhould refide in the whole body of the people. And this power, when the territories of the ftate are {mall, and its citi- zens eafily known, fhould be exercifed by the people in their aggregate or collective capacity ; as was wifely ordained in the petty republics of Greece, and the firft rudiments of the Roman ftate. But this will be highly inconvenient, when the public tervitory is extended to any confiderable degree, and the number of citizens is increafed. ‘Thus when, after the Social war, all the burghers of Italy were admitted free citizens of Rome, and each had a vote in the public affemblies, it became impoflible to diftinguifh the {fpurious from the real voter, and from that time all eleCtions and popular delibera- tions grew tumultuous and diforderly ; which paved the way for Marius and Sylla, Pompey and Cefar, to trample onthe liberties of their country, and at laft to diffolve the common- wealth. In fo large a ftate as ours, it is therefore wifely contrived, that the people fhould do that by their reprefenta- tives, which it is impracticable to perform in perfon; repre- fentatives chofen by a number of minute and. feparate dif- tricts, wherein all the voters are, or eafily may be, diftin- guifhed. Commons, in parliament, are the lower houfe, confifting of knights elected by the counties, and of citizens and bur- gefles by the cities and borough-towns. See Boroucu, Burcess, and Knicur. In thefe eleGions, anciently, all the people had votes ; but in the 8th and roth of king Henry VI. for avoiding tu- mults, laws were enaéted, that none fhould vote for knights but fuch as were freeholders, did refide in the county, and had forty fhillings yearly revenue ; equivalent to near 20/. a year of our prefent money : the perfons elected for counties to be milites notabiles, at leaft efquires, or gentlemen fit for knighthood; native Englifhmen, at leaft naturalized ; and twenty-one years of age: no judge, fheriff, or ecclefiaftical perfon, to fit in the houfe for county, city, or borough. The houje of commons, in Fortefcue’s time, who wrote dur- ing the reign of Henry V1. confifted of upwards of 300 - members : in fir Edward Coke’s time their number amounted to 493. At the time of the union with Scotland, in 1707, there were 513 members for England and Wales, to which 45 reprefentatives for Scotland were added; fo that the whole number of members amounted to 558. In confequence of the union with Ireland, in 1801, 100 members were added for that country ; and the whole houfe of commons now confills of 655 members: viz. 80 knights for 40 counties in England; 50 citizens for 25 cities (Ely fending none, and London four) ; 334 burgeffes for 167 boroughs, and 5 burgeffes for 5 boroughs, viz. Abingdon, Banbury, Bewdley, Higham lerrers, and Monmouth; 4 Vor. IX. : COM burgeffes for the two univerfities of Oxford and Cambridge ; 16 barons for the 8 cinque-ports, viz. Haltings, Dover, Sandwich, Romney, Hythe, and their three branches, Rye, Winchelfea, and Seaford; 12 knights for 12 countics in Wales ; 12 burgefles for 12 boroughs in that country; 30 knights for the fhires of Scoriand, and 15 burgefles for its boroughs ; 64 kaights and 36 burgeffes for Ireland. For an account ef the privileges of members of the houfe of commons,.and other particulars, fee Paruramenr. Commons is allo ufed in oppofition to nobles or peers, viz. for all forts of perfons under the degree of a baron ; irclud- ing the orders of knights, ef{quires, gentlemen, the fons of the nobility, and yeomen. Sce each under its proper article, Esquire, Gentireman, YEOMAN, &c. Commons, Doitors. See Correce of Civilians. Commons, Prodor of the. See Proctor. Commons is alfo ufed tor the {tated and ordinary diet. or eating, of a college, inn of court, or other fociety. See Inn, &c. COMMONWEALTH. See Repusric. Commonwearru of England, in Hiffory, a form of govern- ment introduced after the diflolution of the monarchy by the death of CharlesI., in 1649. The change of govern- ment jeems ‘to have been fuggelted in the preceding year by a council of officers, who took into confideration a fcheme called “ The Agreement of the People ;”’ being the plan of a republic to be fubitituted in the place of that government which they were demolifhing ; but the commonwealth was not eftablifhed till after the tragical event of the king’s'death. Soon after this event, the boufe of commons publithed an act to forbid the proclamation of Charles Stewart, eldeft fon of the late king, or any other perfon, on pain of high treafon. On the fame day the lords defired a conference with the commons about fettling the government and the adminittra- tion of juftice, the commiffions of the judges having been determined by the king’s death. The commons, without an{wering the meflage, voted the houfe of lords to be ufelefs and dangerous, and therefore to be abolifhed. ‘hey only left the lords the privilege of being eleAcd members of par- liament, in common with other fubjeéts. Thus, the parlia- ment, which at firft was compofed of the king, 120 lords, and 513 commoners, was reduced to a houfe of commons, confilting of about So members, few of whom at the begin- ning had 5o00/. yearly income. Neverthelefs, thefe few and inconfiderable members affumed the name of a parliament, and aéted as if their body had been invefted with the autho- rity, which had before refided in the king, lords, and com- mons, But they were previoufly difpofed and prepared for the bufinefs which they undertook to execute, and they were awed and fupported by an army of near 50,000 men, formidable from its difcipline and courage, as well as its num- ber, and actuated by a fpirit that rendered it dangerous to the aflembly, which had aflumed the commend over it. It mult be confefled, however, that in this parliament there were fome menof diftinguifhed capacity and integrity, and that if they adopted erroneous principles, or purfued thofe that were juft and reafonable to an unwarrantable extent, they were deftitute neither of talents nor of influence to defend and fupport them. The fovereign authority, as they maintained, refided originally in the people, by whom a part of it was committed to the kings, chofen to govern them according to law ; and they alleged, that the king’s abufe of this tru{t had broken the original contraét between king and people, and that, in confequence of this violation, the contract fub- fitted no longer, but the fovereign power reverted to the people, as to its original fource. Confidering themfelves as the reprefentatives of the people, they conceived that they Aa had COMMONWEALTH. had a right to chanze the form of the government, withont any regard to the original contraét annulled by the king in his violation of the laws. Upon thefe principles, the com- mons, afluming the name of parliament, voted, and afterwards enaéed, that the kingly office fhould be abolifhed as unne- ary, burdenfome, and dangerous, and that the ftate fhould be gov j reprefentatives of the people in a hovfe of commons without king or lords, and under the form of a commenwealth. The former oaths of allegiance and fupre- racy were abolifhed, and a new oath was prepared, called «The Engagement,” by which every man fwore, that he would be e and faithful to the government eftablifhed, without king cf peers. Juftice was no longer to be admi- niflered in the king’s name, but the name, ftyle, and teft of were to be, * cuitodes libertatis Angliz, authori- tate parliamenti.’”? a new great feal was to be made; new money to be coined; and, in a word, every thing was to be fet afide and abolifhed, that bore any marks of royalty. A {eal was therefore made, on one fide of which was feen the parliament fitting, with thisinfcription: “ the great feal of the parliament of the commonwealth of England ;”” and on the other fide, the erms of England and Ireland, with thefe words, “ the firft year of freedom by God’s bleffing refored? This feal was committed to a certain number of perfons, who were flyled ‘* keepers of the liberties of Eng- land’? And it was ordained, that, for the future, all public orders fhonid be difpatched in the name of thefe keepers, under the direétion of the parliament. The parliament alfo Je choice of 39 perfons to form a council of ftate for the a iftration of public affairs under the parliament ; to this council al] addrefles were made; they gave orders to all generals and admirals, executed the laws, and digetted all bufinefs before it was brought into parliament. They pro- fefled to employ themfelves entirely ia adjuiting the laws, forms, ard plan of a new reprefentation ; and as foon as they fhould have fettled the nation, they avowed their intention of reftoring the power to the people, from whom, they ac- knowledgzed, they had wholly derived it. The parlia- ment alio ereGied a high court of juftice, confifting of Go members, to try fome perfons of diltin@tion, who were in their power. The commonwealth, thus formed and eftablifhed, found England compofed into a feeming tranquillity by the terror of its arms. Foreign powers, occupied in wars among themfelves, had no letlure ner in- elination to interpofe in the domeftic diffenfions of this ifland. The young king, poor and neglected, living fome- times in Hoiland, fometimes in France, fometimes in Jer- fey, indulged the hope, among his prefent diftreffes, of bet- ter fortune at fome future period. The fituation alone of _ Scotland. and Ireland occafioned any immediate inquietude to-the new republic. As to the Scots, they were allowed for the prefent to take their own meafures in fettling their government; but Ireland demanded more immediately their efforts for fubduing it. Cromwell, having obtained the ap- pointment of lieutenant in that country by his intereft in the council of ftate, loft no time in pafling thither; and he proceeded with fuch uninterrupted fuccefs, that in the {pace of nine months he had almoft entirely fubdued it. After- wards, leaving the command of Ireland to Ireton, who go- verned that kingdom in the character of deputy, he haften- ed home, and was declared captain-general of all the forces in England. Having received this honourable appointment, he immediately marched his forces and entered Scotland ; where Charles, who had been invited thither, was making eonfiderable progrefs, with an army of 16,000 men. Cromwell having gained a decifive vi€tory over the Scots in the battle of Dunbar, ayd having taken poffeffion of Edin- the writs ; i ma burgh and Leith, followed the young prince in his march into England, and fallinzin withan army of about 30,0c0 mer in the city of Worcelter, he either killed ortook prifoners the whole Scottifh army, and obliged the king to fly; and at length to make his efcape from Shoreham in Suffex, to Fefcamp in Normandy. The ruling members of the com- monwealth were dettitute of thole comprehenfive views which might qualify them for ating the part of legiflators. They made flow progrefs in the work to which they profeffed themfelves devoted, that of fettling a new model of repre- fentation and fixing a plan of government. The nation therefore bezan to apprehend, that they intended to efta- blifh themfelves as a perpetual legiflature, and to confine the whole power to 6o or 70 perfons, who called themfelves the parliament of the commonwealth of England. However, the republicans, by the tura of their difpofttion, and by the nature, of the inftruments which they employed, fhewed themfelves better qualified for a&s of force and vigour than for the flow and deliberate work of legiflation. Notwithftand= ing the diltreffced ftate of the kingdom, occafioned by con- tending faGions and by the devaftation of civil wara, the power of England had never, in any period, appeared fo formidable to the neighbouring kingdoms as it did at this time, in the hands of the commonwealth. A numerous army ferved equally to retain every one in implicit fubjeCtion to eltablifhed authority, and-to ftrike a terror into foreign nations. The power of peace and war was lodged in the fame hands with that of impofing taxes. The military ge- nius of the people had, by the civil contcft, becn rouzed from its former lethargy ; and excellent officers were formed in every branch of fervice. The confufion into which alt things had been thrown, had given opportunity to men of low ftations to work through their obfcurity, and to raife themfelves by their courage to commands which they were well qualified to exercife, but to which their birth could never have entitled them. And while fo great a power was todged in fuch aGtive hands, it is no wonder that the repub- lic was fuccefsful in all its enterprizes. Notwithftanding all the fucceffes that attended the mili-- tary operations of the commonwealth, both by fea and land, “fome circumftances occurred which widened the breach that had fubfifted for a confiderable time between: the parliament and the army. Cromwell alfo faw that the zealous republicans in the government entertained a jealoufy of his power and ambition, and were refolved to bring him to a fubordination under their authority. He, therefore, with-- out {cruple or delay, determined to prevent them. Accord- ingly he called a council of officers, under the pretence of expediting the eftablifhment of that free and equal govern- ment which parliament had fo long promifed to the people. . In this council Cromwell had many friends, and alfo fome opponents. The meafure which he propofed was debated’ by the officers ; and during the debate, Cromwell received information, that the parliament was ftill fitting, and had ° come to a refolution not to diffolve themfelves, but to fill. up the houfe by new eleGtions ; and that at this very time- it was engaged in deliberations with regard to this expedient. Cromwell in a rage, haftened to the houfe, taking with him. a body of 300 foldiers, whom he arranged about the houfe. . After waiting for fome time in feeming fufpence, and pro- fefling his relu€tance in adopting the meafure which he had previoufly determined to execute; that of diffolving the parliament, he carried it into effect in the moit rude and violent manner ; and, without the leaft oppofition or mur-- mur, though he loaded the parliament with the vileft re- proaches, for their tyranny, ambition, cppreffion, and rob- bery of the public, he annihilated that famous affembly, _ which CcCOMMO which had filled all Europe with the renown of its actions, and with aftonifhment at its crimes, and the commencement of which was not more ardently defired by the people then its final diffolution. Parliament having been thus diffolved, Cromwell might have afflumed the adminiftration of the go- vernment by en authority fimilar to that with which he had Gifmiffed the parliament. Buthechofeto proceed in his aflump- tion of the fovercign power by more cautious fteps, and with fome appearance of refoeG& for the popular opinion. Accord- ingly, by the advice of his council of officers, he fent fum- monfes to 12S perfons of different towns and conzties of Eng- land, to five of Sectland, and fix of Ireland; and he pretended by his fole a&t and deed to devolve upon thefe the whole au- thority of the fiate. This legiflative power they were to exercife durigg 15 months; and they were afterwards to choofe the fame number of perfons, who might fucceed them in that high and important office. They immediately voted themfelves a parliament, called by way of derifion from Barebone, a leather-feiler, one of their number, Barcbone’s parliament;”? and having their own confent, as well as that of Oliver Cromwell, for their leeiMitiv thority, they now proceeded very gravely to the exercife of ir, The members of this legiflative © © 700 terated. 7 Merchant Taylors Threadneedle-ftreet 8 Haberdafhers Maiden-lane Swithin’s-lane Fenchurch-{treet 9 Salters 10 Ironmongers Thames-flreeg MincingsJane | yr Vintners a2 Clothworkere Edward IV. Henry VI. Q. Elizabeth Edward IV. Henry VI. Edward IV. 2000 They were once ftyled taylors and linen armourers. 3500 Were anciently. ftyled Milaners, becaufe they dealt in moft that 500 came from Milan. 1900 In 1724, Mr Betton, a Turkey merchant, left 26,o00/. in truft; one moiety of the profits of it to be always applied to the ranfom of British captives from Moorihh flavery ; the other for the poor of the company, and 6ca0 to the charity-fchools in its city 1490 and its liberty, Bbe 13 1464 31 10 0 1437 31 13 4 1482 | 48 49 50 Companies Dyers Brewers Leatherfellers * Pewterers t Barber-furgeons > COMP AN Y.. Incorporated A.D. Livery Charitable Gifts, paid yearly, and Pri- Halls. Elbow-lane _ Addle ftreet Little St. Helens Lime-ftreet Monkwell-ftreet by fines vileges, &c. Ibe Ge eae f Edward IV. 1472 15 oO 0 Henry VI. 1438 6 13 4 Henry VI. 1442 20 0 o * Hen. VII. made their wardcns in- {pe€tors of fheep, lamb, and calves leather throughout the kingdom. Edward IV. 1474 20 0 o ¢ By a&tof Parl. 25 Hen. VIII. their wardens had the infpection of pewter through- out England. Edward IV. 1461 10 © o + Inthe reign of Hen. VIII. the fur- geons of thiscompany, then but 19, were exempted by: parliament from ward and parifh offices, and from military fervice. their houfe is in Lincoln’s Inn fields. They were incorporated feparately by 18 Geo. Il. cap. 15. and the company of furgeons had an elegant hall in the Old Bailey, with a theatre forthe diffe€tion of human bodies. They now form a royal college, and Cutlers Bakers Wax-chandlers Tallow-chandlers Armourers § Girdlers |] Butchers $ Sadlers Carpenters Cordwainera Painter-{tainers Curriers Mafons Piumbers Innholders Founders ** Poulrers Cooks Coopers Tylers and bricklayers Bowyers Fletchers ¢ Black{miths Joyners and ciclers Weavers Woolmen Scriveners Fruite-ers Plaifterers Stationers Ff Cloak-lane Harp-lane Maiden-lane Dowgate-bill Coleman-t{treet Bafinghall-ftreet Pudding-lane Cheapfide Londonewall Dittaff-lane Little Trinity-lane Near Cripplegate Bafinghall-itreet Near Dowgate-hill Elbow-lane Lothbu No alll Hail burnt Bafinghail-ftreet Leadenhall-ftreet No hall St. Mary Axe Lambeth-hill Thames-ftreet Bafinghall-ftreet No hall No hall No hall Addle ftreet Ludgate-ftreet Henry V. 1407 Edward If. 1307 Richard III. 1483 Edward IV. 1463 Henry VI. 1423 Henry VI. 1449 James I. 1615 Edward I. Edward IIL. 1344 Henry IV. 1410 - Elizabeth 1582 Sane Te EGor Charles II. 1677 James I. 1641 Henry VIII. 1515 James I. 1654 Henry VII. 1504 Edward IV. 1480 Henry VII. 1501 Q. Elizabeth 3568 James I. 1620 No charter Q. Elizabeth 1577 Q.Ehzabeth 1569 Henry II. No charter James I. 1616 James I. 1605 Henry VII. i501 Philip & Mary 1557 10 00 I0 00 5 00 15 00 15 © o § The braiiers are united to this com- pany. 5 © oO || Q. Elizabeth incorporated the pin- ners and wire-drawers with them. ir 11 0 + This is an ancient fraternity ; of 10 00. which we have an account in the 8 oo reign of Henry IL. A.D, 1180, 10 00 lf 00 913 4 eto 10 00 10 00 8 oo ** All brafs weights made in London, 10 ©O -orthree miles from it, muft be fize 10 0 O- ed with the company’s ftandard, 15 © 0 and have their mark ; the averdu- I2 00 _ pois to be fealed at Guildhall, and oo the troy at goid{mith’s hall. And the company are empowered by charter, to view and fearch ail brafs weights, and bra{s and copper wares made within the faid diftri@. 10 © 0 Itis only a company by prefcription, 8 o0 S 00 6 00 No livery ; but they have a matter, 2 wardens, and 11 affiftants. They are only a company by prefcription, yet fuppofed to have com. menced with the wool-trade. oo oo CoWare) 20 0 o Ft Thiscompany, which alfo includes On bookfeliers, letter-founders, printers, and book-binders, have a {tock which is employed in printing almanacks, primers, plalters, {chool-books, &c. of which they have the fole privilege, by virtue of a grant from the crown. This ftock confifts of fhares, which are citributed in different proportions among thofe who have fined for, or ferved the office of renter-wardens : whofe fhares, if they die married, devolve to their widows. They pay above 2col. a year in penfions and other charities. They are likewife truftees for the difpofal of the confi jerable legacies of Mr. William Bowyer, a learned printer, (who died Nov. 18, 1778) confitting of 30/.a year to the moft learned journeyman that can be met with; and 150/. a year in annuities of 20/. each to nine neceffitous printers of fixty- three years of age or upwards ; befides other charities. Broderers Upholdersa Molicians Gutter-lane No hall No hall Q. Ehizabeth 1591 Charles I, 1627 James I. 1604 5 OO 4400 10 80 5t COMPANY. Companies. Halls. Incorporated A.D. Livery Charitable Gifts, paid’yearly, and Pri- by fines. vileges, &c, fis. Z. 51 Turners College-hill James I. 1604 8 090 52 Batket-makers No hall No charter No livery ; yet a company by prefcription, go« verned by 2 wardens and 48 afliftante, with this motto to its arms, Let us love one ano- ther. 53 Glafiers |f No hall Charles I. 1637 3 00 ]| The glafs painters are incorporated with them. 54 Horners No hall Charles I. 1638 No livery ; yet they have a mafter, 2 wardens; and g affiftants, with a warehoufe in Spitalfields; where they divide in lots, among themfelves, fuch horns as are bought up by their members in Leadenhall and other markets: And in.1465, they obtained an act of parliament that none fhould be exvorted, but fuch as they refufed. 55 Farriers No hall Charles II" ° 1673" 5 ‘0-0 56 Paviours No bail No charter No livery ; yet it is a fellowfhip by prefcrip- ; tion, with 3 wardens, and 25 afliflants. 57 Loriners London-wall Q. Anne 1712'1I0 OO 58 Apothecaries Blackfryars James I. 1617 16 oo'They are exempt from ward and pa- rifh-offices, and have a {pacious phyfic-garden at Chelfea; which in 1721 was granted to the company for ever by Sir Hans Sloane, tart. the lord of the manor, o1 condition of their paying a quit-rent of 5 /. and contiauing it al- ways as a phyfic-garden, and of prefenting every year to the Royal Society fi'ty famples of different forts of plants, there grown, tiil they amount to two thoufand.— The latter of thefe conditions hath been long fince. more than completed. This is what may be called a trading company. 59 Shipwrighta No hall James I. 1605 No livery; yet they have a mafler, 2 wardens, and 16 affittants, 60 SpeCtacle-makers No hall Charles I. No livery ; yet have a mafter, 2 wardens, and 15 afliftants. 61 Clock-makers No hall Charles I. 1632" 10 00 62 Glovers No hall Charles I. 1638 = 5) 0704. 63 Comb-makers No hail Charles I. 1636 No livery ; yet they have a mafter, 2 wardcns, and 13 affiltants. 64 Felt-makers No hall James I. 1604" 5 oe 65 Framework-knitters Red crofs-freet Charles IT. 1663 10 00 60 Silk-throwers No hall Charles I. 1630 No livery ; yet have a mafter, 2 wardens, and 20 afitarks, 67 Silkmen No hall Charles I. 1631 No livery ; yet have a governor, and 20 afiift- ants. 68 Carmen, have no hall, nor charter, nor livery ; but are a fellowfhip by act of common council, with the title of Free Carmen of the city of London, and have a mafter, 2 wardens, and 41 affiitants, under the dire¢tion of the lord mayor and aldermen. The carts that belong to this fellowfhip, which are betwixt 4 and 500, are, by an aét of common council, fubjeéted to the rule of the prefident and governors of Chrift’s Hofpital; to whom the owner of every cart pays 175. 4d. a year fora licence to work it, and every cart is brought to the hofpital to have a number in brafs put upon it. 69 Pin-makers No hall Charles I, 1636 No livery; yet have a maller, 2 wardens, and 18 affittants. 70 Needle-makers No ha!l O. Cromwell 1656 5 50 71 Gardeners No hall James I. 1616 No livery ; yet have a mafter, 2 wardens, and 18 affittants. 72 Soap makers No hall Charles I, 1630 No livery ; yet have a mafter, 2 wardens, and 18 affittants. 73 Tin-plate-workers No hall Charles II, 1670 10 00 74 Wheelwrights No hall Charles II. 1670 15 15 0 75 D.ftillers No hall Charles I, 1638 13 68 f 76 Hatband-makers No hall Charles I. 1638 seo rose with the company of reedle- makers. 77 Patten-makers No hall Charles II. 1670 6 Ov Rig Glafs-fellers and Jook- } No hall Charles If. 1664 5 0,0 ing-glafs-makers 49 Tobacco-pipe-makers No hall Charles 11 1663 No livery ; yet have a mafter, 2 wardens, 7nd 18 afiiftants.. 80 Coach and harnefs-makersNoble-ftreet Charles II. 1677 19 00 81 Gunfmiths - No hall Charles I, 1638: To o0O 82 Goldand filver wire-drawersNo hall James I. 1623 No ce ; yet have a mafter, 2 wardens, amd 18 affiflants, 83 Long-bow-ftring-makers No hall No charter No livery ; yt a company by frefcription, and have 2 wardens, and 19 affiliants, 6 R4 COMPAN Y. : Companies. Halls. by 84 Card-makers No hall Charles L. 85 Fan-makers No hall Q. Anne Inorporated A. D. Livery .Gharitable Gifts paid yearly, and Prie fines, vileges, &c. 1629 No livery; yet have a mafter, 2 wardens, and cS affiltants. No livery ; yet have a mater, 2 wardens, and 20 affiftants. ToS 6 Woodmongers were a company incorporated with the carmen by K. James I. 1605, but furrendered their charter in 1668 ; by an aé&t of common council in 1694, they obtained a privilege of keeping 120 carts, exclufive of the number kept by the carmen, exiind. 87 Starch-makers, extin@ No hail James I. 1622 88 Fifhermen, extind No hall James IT. 1687 89. Parifh-clerks Wood-ftreet Henry II1. 1233 By a decree of the Star chamber court in 1625, they obtained a privilege to keep a prefs in their hall, for printing the weekly bills of mortality, by a perfon appointed by the archbifhop of Canterbury. They are, by their charter, to make a report of all the weekly chriftenings and burials in their feveral parifhes every Tuefday, and they have a mafter, 2 wardens, and 17 affittants. go Porters, are another fellowfhip, without hall, or livery ; confifting of tackle and ticket-porters. They were confti- tuted a fraternity by aét of common council in 1646, with a power of annually chufing among themfelves twelve rulers, being fix of each denomination. However, the court of lord mayor and aldermen have referved to themfelves a power of appointing one of their own body, as the chief judge.in ail controverfies. One very laud- able cuftom of the mafter tackle-porters is, that fuch of their brethren as happen to be difabled from working, receive their fhare of all profits, asif a@ually in bufinefs, during hfe. 91 The watermen, wherrymen, and lightermen of this city and neighbouring places, were by a& of K. William Ii. conftituted a fociety, or company, under the dire€tion of the lord mayor and aldermen. tooo men for the navy, upon demand by the admiralty. They are to furnifh They have a hall at Coal Harbour, near the Thames 5 and pay to their poor abouc 8oo/. a year; chiefly raifed by ferries over the Thames on Sunday. N.B. The company of Surgeons, Parifh-clerks, Porters and Watermen, have not the privilege of making their members freemen of the city of Londen. From the foregoing lift, it appears on the whole, that there are ninety-one companies, forty-eight halls, and that the number of liverymen, according to the moit exat account that could be procured, in 1779, was 8954, but this number is variable. The fums of money yearly diitributed in charity by only twenty-three of the companies, amounts to more than 23,655/.; andif but fortypounds each be annually given by the remaining fixty-eight companies, the whole will much exceed 26,3757. per annum. Company feems more peculiarly appropriated to thofe grand affociations, fet on foot for the commerce of the remote parts of the world; as the Englifh and Dutch Eatt ‘India company, South Sea company, Miffiflippi company, &c.; the nfe and eftabluhment of which, we fhall here fet ‘before the reader. However injurious companies with joint-{tock, and in- corporated with exclufive privileges, may, at this time, be reckoned to the nation in general; it is yet certain that they were the general parent of all our foreign commeree : private traders being difcouraged from hazarding their fortunes in foreign commerce, until the method of traffic had been firft fcttled by joint-flock companies. From this principle it is, that we find feveral nations that are now endeavouring to improve their trade, and to eftablifh or in- ereafe marine power, by the. means of joint-flock com- panies. But fince the trade of this kingdom, and the number of traders have increafed, and the methods of affurance of fhipping and merchandife, and the navigation to all parts of the known world have become familiar to us; thefe companies, in the opinions of molt men, have been looked upon in the light of monopolies: their privileges have therefore been leffened from time to time, in order to fa- your a free and general trade; and experience has fhewn, that the trade of the nation has advanced, in proportion as monopolies have been difcouraged. When. companies do not trade upon a joint-ftock, but are obliged to admit any erfon properly qualified, upon paying a certain fine, and agreeing to fubmit to the regulations of the company, each member trading upon his own ftock, and at his own rifk, they are called regulated companies. When they trade upon a joint-ftock, each member fharing in the common profit or lois in proportion to his fhare in this ftock, they are called joint-ftock companies. Such companies, whether regulated or joint-ftock, fometimes have, and fometimes have not, ex- clufive privileges. Regulated companies refemble, in every re{pe@, the corporations of trades, fo common in the cities and towns of all the different countrics of Europe; and are a fort of enlarged monopolies of the fame kind. As no inhabitant of a town can exercife an incorporated trade, without firft obtaining his freedom in the corporation; fo in moft cafes no fubject of the ftate can lawfully carry on any branch of foreign trade, for which a regulated com- pany is eftablifhed, without fir becoming a member of that company. Of companies of this kind we have had, or ftill have, in Great Britain, the Hamburgh company, the Ruffia company, the Eaftland company, the Turkey company, and the African company. Regulated companies, as fir Jofhua Child has obferved, though they had frequently fupported public minifters, had never maintained any forts or garrifons in the countries to which they traded ; whereas joint-ftock companies frequently had. And in reality, fays Dr. Smith, (Wealth of Nations, vol. ili. p. 116.) the former feem to be much more unfit,for this fort of fervice than the latter ; partly, becaufe the direétors of a regulated company have no particular intereft in the profperity of the general trade of the country, for the fake of which fuch forts and gare rifons are maintained; whereas the private intereft of the direGtors of a joint-ftock company, is conneéted with the profperity of the general trade of the company, and with the maintenance of the forts and garrifons which are neceflary for its defence; and partly, bécaufe the direGtors of the latter company have always the management of a large capital, the joint-ftock of the company, a part of which they may frequently employ, with propriety, in building, repairing, and maintaining fuch neceflary forts and garrifons ; ve the COMPANY. the dire&tors of a regulated’ company, having the manage- ment of no common capital, have no other fund to employ in this way, but the cafua] revenue ariling from the admif- fion fines, and from the corporation duties impofed upon the trade of the eompany. Joint-ftock companies, eftablifhed either by royal charter or by a&t of parliament, differ, in feveral refpeéts, not only from regulated companies, but from private copartneries. rft. In a private copartnery, uo partner, without the con- fent of the company, can transfer his fhare to another per- fon, or introduce a new member into the company. Each member, however, may, upon proper warning, withdraw from the copartnery, and demand payment of his thare of the common ftock. In a joint-{tock company, on the con- trary, no member can demand payment of his fhare from the company ; but each member can, without their con- fent, transfer his fhare to another perfon, and thereby in- troduce anew member. 2dly. Ina private copartnery, each partner is bound for the debts contraéted by the company to the whole extent of his fortune; whereas, in a joint- flock company, each partner is bound only to the extent of his fhare. The trade of a joint-ftock company is always managed by a court of direétors, which is frequently fubject, in a variety of refpe¢ts, to the controul of a general court of proprietors; but thefe proprietors, being for the moft part totally exempted from trouble and from rifk, beyond a limited fum, receive contentedly fuch half-yearly or yearly dividends, as the directors think proper to affign; and many perfons are encouraged to. become adventurers in joint-ftock companies, who would, upon no account, hazard their fortunes in any private copartnery. The direGtors of fuch companies being the managers rather of other people’s money than of their own, it cannot well be expected, that they fhould watch over it with the fame anxious vigilance with which the partners in a private co- partnery frequently watch over their own. Negligence and profufion mult always prevail, more or lefs, in the manage- ment of the affairs of {uch a company. It is upon this ac- count that joint-ftock companies for foreign trade have feldom been able to maintain the competition again{t private adventurers. They have, accordingly, very feldom fuc- ceeded without an exclufive privilege, and frequently have not fucceeded with one. Without an exclufive privilege, they have commonly mifmanaged the trade; with an ex- clufive privilege, they have both mifmanaged and confined jt. For other appropriate and juft obfervations on this {nbjeét, in its reference to the African company, the Hudfon’s bay company, the South Sea company, and the Eaft India com- pany, fee Smith’s Wealth of Nations, vol. iii. chap. 1. When a company of merchants undertake, at their own rifk and expence, to eftablifh a new trade with fome remote and barbarous nation, it may not be unreafonable to incor- porate them into a joint-{tock company, and to grant them, in cafe of their fuccefs, a monopoly of the trade for a cer- tain number of years. It is the ancient aud molt natural way in which the {tate can recompenfe chem for hazarding a dangerous and expenfive experiment, of which the pub- lic is afterwards to reap the benefit. A temporary mono- poly of this kind may be vindicated upon the fame principles upon which a like monopoly of a new machine is granted to its inventor, and that of a new book to its author. But upon the expiration of this term, the monopoly ought cer- tainly to terminate; the forts and garrifons, if it was found neceffary to eftablifh any, to be taken into the hands of go- vernment, their value to be paid to the company, and the trade to be laid open to all the fubjets of the ftate. With- outa monopoly, however, i joint Rock company, as expe- rience has fhewn, cannot carry on any branch of foreign trade. An eminent French author, of great knowledge in matters of political economy, the abbé Morellet, gives a lift of 55 joint-ftock companies for foreign trade; which have been eftablifhed in different parts of Europe fince the year 1600, and which, according to him, have all failed from mifmanagement, notwithftanding they had exclufive privileges. Although he has been mifinformed with regard to the hiftory of two or three of them, which were not joint-ftock companies, and which have not failed; yet there have been feveral joint-ftock companies, which have failed, and which he has omitted. The only trades which it feems poffible for a joint-ftock company to carry on fuccefsfully without au exclufive pri- vilege, are thofe, of which all the operations are capable of being reduced to what is called a routine, or to fuch an uni- formity of method as admits of little or no variation. OF this kind is, firft, the banking trade; fecondly, the trade of infurance from fire, and from fea-rifk and capture in time of war; thirdly, the trade of making and maintaining a navi. gable cut or’canal; and fourthly, the fimilar trade of bring- ing water for the fupply of a great city. To render the eftablifhment of a joint-ftock company perfe@ly reafonable, with the circumftance of being reducible to ftri& rule and method, two other circumftances ought to concur. Firft, it ought to appear with the cleareft evidence, that the under- taking is of greater and more general utility than the greater part of common trades; and, fecondly, that it requires a greater capital than can eafily be collected into a private co- partnery. Inthe four trades above-mentioned both thefe circumftances concur. The joint-ftock companies, fays this judicious writer, which are eftablifhed for the public {pirited purpofe of pre- moting fome particular manutacture, over and above manag- ing their own affairs ill, to the diminution of the general ftock of the fociety, can, in other refpeéts, fearce ever fail . to do more harm than good. Notwith{tandiag the mot upright intentions, the unavoidable partiality of their di- rectors to particular branches of the manufacture, of which the undertakers miflead and impofe upon them, is a real difcouragement to the reft, and neceffarily breaks, more or lefs, that natural proportion which would otherwife efta- blith itfelf between judicious induftry and profit, and which, to the general induftry of the country, is of allen- couragements, the greateft and the moft cffectual. Company, African; fometimes called “ Royal African Company,”’ the name of the original inftitution. The firft commercial voyage from England to the coaft of Guinea was in 1536, but nothing like a company was formed till the year 1588, when-queen Elizabeth grantel a patent for ten years to come, to fome merchants of Exeter, and other perfons for an exclufive trade to the rivers Senegal and Gambia. In 1618, king James I, granted a charter for eitablifhing a joint-ftock company; but feparate traders cons tinuing to refort to the coaft, the company was foon dif- folved. Another company was erected by charter in 1631, which met with little fuccefs; and in 1651, the parliament granted a charter for five years to the Ealt India company, for trading to the Gold coalt in their way to India. The demand for negroes in the Welt India and American planta+ tions increafing confiderably, another exclufive African or Guinea company was incorporated in 1662, at the head of which was the duke of York, joined with many perions of rank and diltin@tion. This company, like thofe that had preceded it, was unfuccefsful, and its charter was foon atter revoked by confent of the parties affociated in the enrere prize; in confequence of which another exclufive sompany was COMPANY. -was incorporated by letters patent in 1672. They raifed a capical of rv1,o00/. and improved the trade confiderably ; but at the revolution, the Welt India planters joined the feparate traders in aflerting that they were always belt ferved with flaves when the trade was free to all perfons; and ex- clufive companies, whofe privileyes had not been fanctioned by parliament, being confidered inconfittent with the declara- tion of rights, the trade became open again; but all private traders were to pay 10 ‘per cent. to. the company, towards maintaining the forts and faétories on the coait, This con- tribution was however found infufficient, and in 1730 par- lament granted 10,000. for the purpofe, which was conti- nued annually till 1744, when, in confequence of the war, 20,000/, was granted, and in almoft every year fince, a {um has been appropriated by parliament to this purpofe. As all the jaint-itock companies which had beea efta- blthed for this trade had appeared incompetent to carry it on with .advantage, it was in 1750 (23 Geo. Il. c. 3r.) transferred to a regulated company, the members of which are deemed a body corporate and politic, under the title of The Company of Merchants trading to Africa, but are pro- hibited from trading in their corporate capacity, from hav- ing any joint or transferable ftock, and from borrowing money under their common feal. Any perfon intending to trade to Africa, may become free-of this company on pay- ment of forty fhillings; and ont of the monies thus received, a fum not exceeding Soo/, is allowed for the falaries of clerks and agents at London, Briftol, and Liverpool, the houfe-rent of their office at London, and all other expences of management, commiffion, and agency in England. What remains of this fum, after defraying thele different expences, they may divideamong themfelves, as compenfation for thetr trouble, in what manner they think proper.. The forts, factories, &c. pofi-fled by the old company on the coatt of Africa, are vefted in the prefent company, w!o continue to receive an annual fum from parliament (generally about 13,000/.) for the fupport of thefe eftablifhments: the fum granted in the year 1806 was 18,coo/. For the proper ap- plication of this fum, the committee is obbged to account annuaily to the curfitor baron of the exchequer, which ac- count is afterwards to be laid before parliament. The company is under the management of a committee of nine perfons, three being chofen for London, three for Brif- tol, and three for Liverpool, annually. ‘The committee are enjoined to lay an annual account of the application of the money granted to them before parliament. Although by the 4th of Geo. III. c. 20. the fort of Se- negal, with all its dependencies, had been vefted in this company, yet in the year following (by the 5th of Geo. III. c. 44.) not only Senegal and its dependencies, but the whole coatt from the port of Sallee, in South Barbary, to cape Rouge, was exempted from the jurifdiion of that company, and vefted in the crown; the trade to it being declared free to all his majefty’s fubjects. Before the eftablifhment of the Royal African company, there had been three other joint-ftock companies fucceflively ereGted one after another, for the African trade. They were all equally unfuccefsful. They all, however, had ex- clufive charters, which, though not confirmed by aét of parliament, were in thofe days fuppofed to convey a real exclufive privilege. Companiss, Englifh. The Eaf India Company was elta- blifhed by charter dated Dec. 31, 1600, by which the ear! of Cumberland and 215 other perfons were authorized to carry on an exclufive trade to all parts of the Eait Indies, for 15 years; under the title of “ The Governor and Company of Merchante of London trading to the Ealt Indies.” They raifed 72,000). in fhares of go/ each, and fitted out five fhips, which accomplifhed their firft voyage very fuccefsfully, in two years and feven months. Having carried on the trade for about ten years, with different degrees of fuccefs, they obtained another charter dated May 31, 1610, by which the company was made perpetual, They had not yet adopted the mode of trading under one joint flock, but carmed it on in feveral co- partnerfhips and leffer flocks. In 1613 the proprietors of the feveral feparate ftocks, united them into one general joint-cepital ; and notwithftanding fome oppofition to their trade, both at home, and abroad, they preferved and ex- tended it, having at this time eftablifhed faGtories at about twenty different places in India. Ina vindication of the Halt India Company before the privy council, at a fub- fequent period, among other remarks for fhewing the great difficulties attending an Eaft India trade, it was afferted, that although they had a ftock of 1,500,coo/, yet in fifteen years time, viz. from 1617 to 1632, their whole profit was no more than 12 and one-half per cent. In 1637, Charles -1. eftablifhed a new company to trade to China and Japan, but it was foon ruined. The old com- pany Irkewife from its differences with the Dutch Eaft India company, the encroachments of private adventurers, and other caufes, fell into decay, and in 1655 it was diffolved by Cromwell, and the trade laid open. The mifchiefs which followed obliged him to re-eftablifh the company about three years after; their joint-ftock was now 739,782/., of which only one half, or 369,891/. was paid in, and was properly their'capital. The total exports of the company in three years, ending with 1660, was 227,820/. in bullion, and 23,763 /, in merchandize. ~After the reftoration, they ob- tamed a new charter from Charles II. dated April 3,-1661. By this charter it appears that the company had not then one fole transferable joint-ftock ; but that every one, who was free of this company paid a certain fum of money to the company on the fitting out of their fleet, for which he had credit in the company’s books, and received his proportionate dividend onthe profits of the refpective voyage. The whole invellments were made by the company in their corporate capacity; but they were not eftablifhed as an irrevocable corporation, as they might be difiolved on three years, notice. In 1664, the company’s ftock fold at only 70 per cent., but in confequence of an inquiry iato the ftate of their affairs, the retult of which was very favourable, the flock foon got up confiderably. New charters were granted in 1669 and 1676, confirming all their privileges. In the latter year, the company having made a confiderable proft by their trade, agreed, inftead of making a dividend thereof, to add it to their capital ftock, fo as juft to double the fame, by which their capital became 739,782 /. 10s, In confequence of the extenfion and fuccefs of their trade, which enabled them to make large dividends, their flock in 1680 fold from 280 to 3co per cent; but thefe great profits, andthe doubtful authority on which they held their exclufive privileges, (not having the fanétion of parliament) being a great temptation to individual adventurers, interlopers, who had often given them much trouble, became again very numerous, and attempts were made to get the trade laid open, orto have it veltedin a regulated company fimilar to thofe by which the trade with Turkey and with fome other countries was then carriedon. ‘The company, however, in 1683 found means to obtain anew charter, by which all their former privileges were confirmed, and they were empowered to feize the fhips and merchandize of all interlopers, to raife and maintain military forces, to exercife martial law, ; and COMPANY. and to eftablifh a court of judicature for determining all raercantile caufes, within their limits. In 1686 they obtained another charter granting them {till greater powers and privileges. Soon after the revolution much popular clamour was raifed zgainit the Eaft India company; and in 1691 the houfe of commons addreffled the king to diffolve the company and incorporate anew one; an opportunity for which foon oc- curred, asin 1693, the charter of the company became void, from their not paying the duty which had been impofed on their flock within the time limited by the at; butanew charter was granted them, on condition of fubmitting to {uch regulations as fhould be ordained before the 2gth of September 1694 and which were contained in two charters foon afterwards executed. In 1698 the complaints of the weavers of London againft the importation of India wrought filks, and the company having been prevented by lofles from making any dividends for feveral years, brought it into much dilrepute, and the houfe of commons thought it neceflary to take the ftate of their affairs into confideration. The company thought it prudent to offerto advance 700,000 /.-for the public fervice at 4 per cent. intereft, provided the exciufive trade was legally f{ettled on them; but a number of merchants, coun- tenanced by the chancellor of the exchequer, propofed to advance 2,090,0co/. at § per cent. intereit, for fimilar pri- vileges. ‘The latter propofal was approved, and an aét pafled by which a new company was eltablifhed; many difficulties however appeared, with refpect to their engaging in the trade, till the expiration of the three years notice for determining the old company. During this unfettled ftate ef the Eaft India trade, the old company’s ftock had in about nine or ten years flu€tuated from 300 per cent. to only 37 per cent. The great contentions which enfued between the old and new companies, foon rendered it obvious that little benefit would be dtrived from the trade, unlefs a coalition between the two rival corporations was effected. This was accom- plied in 1702, by an agreement that the old company fhould purchafe an equal proportion of ftock in the new company, and that the feparate traders, who had fubfcribed to the new company, but not to their joint-{tock, fhould be included in the union. The old company was to keep their ftock in the new company, in their corporate capacity for feven years, then to transfer it to their refpective members, and refign their charter to the crown,from which time the new company comprehending the proprictors of both, aflumed their prefent title of ‘* The united Company of Merchants -of England trading to the aft Indies.” In 1708 the term of their exclufive trade to India, which was determinable upon three years notice after 1711, and repayment of the fum they had advanced, was prolonged to three years notice after Lady-day 1726; for which they advanced to govern- ment 1,200,000 without any additional intereft. In 1712 they obtained an. act for continuing the trade and cor- poration capacity of the company, although the fums they had advanced to government fhould be repaid ; which repayment or redemption of their annual fund, was not to be made till the expiration of three years notice after Lady- day 1733. The aét of parliament being liable to a different con- {truction from what was probably intended, and the term granted being wear its expiration, a very powerful oppo- fition to its renewal, was raifed in 1730, and fpecious pro- poials were made to parliament for redeeming the fund of tne company, and transferring the trade to a regulated Vou. IX, company, with fimilar privileses. After a very full cifcuffion of the fubject, a new agreement was entered into with the company, who agreed to pay 209,000/. towards the fervice ofthe current year, and to have the intereft payable to them by government reduced from 5 to 4 per cent.; in coali- deration of which all their exclufive privileges were con- tinued till the expiration of three years notice, to be given after Lady-day 1766, when upon re-payment of their entire capital of 3,200,000/, their exclufive privileges .were to eeafe, but the company to continue a corporation for ever, to enjoy the Eaft India trade in common with all other fubjecis. In confequence of this reduction of the intereft received from government, they thought proper to reduce the dividend payable to their proprictors from 5 to 7 per cent. and foon after to 6 per cent. In 1743 the company propofed to advance 1,c09,000 /. for the fervice of the year 1744, at 3 per cent. intereit, on having the term of their exclulive trade enlarged for four- teen years, and being permitted to borrow a million on bonds. This propofal being accepted, the debr from the public to the company became 4,200,000/., and the ex« clufive trade was now extended to three years notice, to be given by parliamentafter Lady-day 1780, with the former provifion, that, after fuch determination, the company fhould continue to have a common right with other fubjects in the trade to India. The company not fubfcribing to the redu@tion of intereft propofed in 1749, the {peaker of the houfe of commons waa ordered to give them notice that the fum due from govern- ment would be paid off, unlefs they fubfcribed before May 3. 1750: with this it was deemed prudent to comply, but a condition was made, that in order to enable the company to reduce their bond debt, they fhould be empowered to raife money by the fale of 3 per cent. annuitics, to the amount of the debt of government to the company. The annuities thus fold were known by the title of 3 per cent. India annuities, and were for many years payable at the India houfe, but are now confolidated with the 3 per cent. reduced bank annuities. Hitherto the company had not afpired beyond their ori- ginal charaéter of merchants, and merely pofleffed faCtories at the principal ports to which they traded; thefe factories were, for the fafety of their merchandize and the prote¢tion of their fervants, converted into forts, which rendered it ne- ceflary to maintain a military eftablifhment. Thus poffeflcd of the means of offence as well as defence, they made con- fiderable exertions to oppofe ihe progrefs of the French in thofe parts ; and as the two companies each endeavoured to procure the afliltance of the neighbouring uative princes, the field of intereft and ambition became much enlarged. In 1751, the company fent a confiderable military force inta the province of Arcot to fupport the nabob againt{t his rival, who was powerfully affilted by the French; in which conteft they were enzaged with ttle intermiffion for feveral years. In Bengal, the company had carried on their com - mercial intercourfe without any connexion with territorial authority, till the death of the fubah Alt Verdi-Khan, in 1756. ‘This prince had viewed their increaling opulence and power with great jealoufy, and a fhort time before his death gave a remarkabie charge to his fucceffor, in which he cautioned him to keep in view the power of the Euro- pean nations in his country, and ‘to free himfelf from their influence as foon as poffible. ‘ The power of the Englith is great; reduce them firft; the others will chen give you little trouble. Sufler them not to have forts or foldiers ; if you do, the country is not yours.’ In attempting to put Ce this COMPANY, this advice into execution, Sou-Rajah-Dowla was completely defeated by the company’s forces, and the new fubah of their appsintment, befides paying to the company a very large fum for their loffes and expences, ceded to them a confiderable territory in the vicinity of Calcutta. On the coalt of Coromandel, hoftilities were carried on againft the French fettlements with unequal fuccefs, but ultimately to the advantage of the Englifh, upon which the fubah of the Decan concluded a treaty with the company, and ceded to them the entire circar of Mafulipatam. In 1760, the com- pany’s forces completely defeated thofe of France, and in the following year captured Pondicherry, the chief of the French fettlements in India; fince which events the power of France in India has been very infignificant. Such was the commencement of the company’s acquifi- tions of territory, which they have feized every fubfequent opportunity of extending, till the fovereigns of India, whofe prote@tion they formerly courted, have funk into the fitu- ation of their dependents, and hold the:r precarious dig- nities at the will and pleafure of a fociety of foreign traders. The annual fales of the imports of the company for fix- teen years preceding 1757, amounted on an average to about 2,055,000/.; and for the fame period, the exported goods and {tores amounted annually, at their prime coft, to 238,0co/.; the bullion exported to 6g0,000/. per annum, and they paid in difcharge of bills of exchange 199,000/. per annum. Early in 1764, on the receipt of fome unpleafant news from Bengal, India flock fell 14 per cent. The general admi- nitration of the company’s affairs, both at home and abroad, became foon after the fubjeét of much difcuffion; and on 2gth Auguft 1766, the court of direétors received a notice from the fecretaries of ftate, that an invc{tigation would take place in the next feffion of parliament. The admini- {tration laid claim to the territories which the company had acquired in India, with the revenue arifing from them, as of right belonging to the crown; but as the company were very unwilling to have this new fource of wealth taken out of their hands, a temporary agreement was made for two years, by which the company, in compenfation for this claim, agreed to pay to government 400,o00/. a year. In 1769, the agreement was renewed for five years, and the territorial acquifitions and revenues in India fecured to the company for that term, with a ftipulation that the company fhould be allowed to increafe their dividend to 123 per cent., but not to increafe it more than one per cent. in one year. They now became involved in a war with the famons Hyder Ally, in confequence of which, and of the mifcon- dué of their fervants in India, the concerns of the company, from the molt flourifhing fituation, were brought into the greateft embarraflments. Select and fecret committees of the houfe of commons were appointed to invelligate the ftate of their affairs; and in 1773, it appeared, not only that they were unable to make the ftipulated annual pays ment to government, but that it was neceflary to affit them with a loan of 1,400,c00. ‘Till this fum fhould be repaid, the dividend to their proprietors was not to exceed 6 per cent., and afterward not to exceed 7 per cent. til their bond debt was reduced to 1,500,000/. From thefe circum- ftances, the price of the company’s ftock fell confiderably from the latter part of 1772 till February 1774, when their affairs began to wear a brighter afpe&. In 1776, the loan from government had been repaid, and their ftuation being otherwife improved, the dividend on their ftock was raifed to 5 per cent. i ; Statement of the.Company’s Revenues, at their different Settlements in India, in the Year ending April 1777. To expences in Bengal, civil, military, and fortifications - - - - £1,350,008 To ditto at Fort St. Georg - - 560,000 To ditto at Bombay - - - 360,000 25270,009 Nett balance of the year’s revenues 1,770,000 £ 4,040,009 On an average of ten years, ending with 1777, the com- pany’s exports in goods were about 490,060/.; in builion, y10,000/.3 and the fum paid in difcharge of bills of ex- change, 458,000/. per annum. By the aid afforded from the revenues, their inveftments were increafed, fo as to pro- duce about 3,330,000/. perannum. Thos In £779, an act was paffed for continuing the territories and revenues in Indiain the pofleffion of the company for one year, which in 1780 was continued for another year. In June 1781, it was agreed to offer to pay into the ex- chequer 400,000/., in full difcharge of all claims of the public upon the company up to the 1ft of March ; and as, in the preceding year, they had received netice that the 4,200,000. due to them from goverament would be paid offon the roth of April, 1783, it became neceflary to enter into a new agreement, the conditions of which were, that the company fhould continue to enjoy their exclufive privileges to the rit of March, 1794, then to ceafe and deter- mance, upon the former conditions of three years previous By nett revenues in Bengal - Benares tribute —- - & Oude fubfidy - - £ 2,500,000 - 290,000 - - - 370,000 By revenues of Fort St. George and the Circars - - - - 560,000 Tanjore fubfidy - - - - 160,000 By revenues of Bombay, &c. - - 160,000 £4,040,000 notice, and the repayment of all fums due to them. The furplus of their nett profits, after paying their dividends, were appropriated, three fourths for the fervice of govern- ment, and one fourth to be retained by the company; and they were reftri€ted not to increafe the dividend of S per cent. more than £ per cent. in any year. This reftriction was, however, foon found unneceflary ; for the nett profits of the company for the yearending iftof March, 1782, did not amount to fo much as a dividend of 8 per cent. on their ftock by 22,023/.; in confequence of which, it became ne- ceflary for government to allow a farther time for the pay- ment of 396,466/. 2s. 6d., which was due from the com- pany for cultoms, befides a part of the fum which they had agreed to pay in 1751; and they were at the fame time empowered, notwithitanding the above deficiency, to conti- nue their dividends at 8 per cent. In the following year, the war in India, and other cireumftances, increafed the em- barraffment of the company’s affairs; and, by a ftatement of their accounts to the sft of March, 1783, it appeared that the COMPANY. the nett profits of that year did not amount to a dividend of 8 per cent. by 255,813/., which dividend they were ne- verthelefs authorized by parliament to continue; and, to enable them fo to do, government iffued exchequer bills to the amount of 300,000/., which the bank undertock to lend money upon to the company. The long and expenfive war in which the company had been engaged in India, terminated in March 1784, by the ratification of peace with the Myforean government; but the confequence of this war, in addition to the war in Eu- rope, was the general derangement of the company’s affai-s both at home and abroad. In December 1753, February and May 1754, the dire€tors laid before parliament. fuch accounts as they then poffeffed, refpe€ting the general ftate of their finances. But the impoffibility of drawing any fa- tisfa€tory information from flatements made up in fuch a fitvation of their affairs, with the apprehenfions which the meafures then in agitation, relative to the future govern- ment of India, had excited in the public mind, reduced the credit of the company to the loweft ebb. Their ftock fold as low as 1184; their bonds at home, bearing 5 per cent. interelt, were negeciated from 24 to 4 per cent. difcount; their bonds and certificates, at Bengal and Madras, bore from 18 to 4o per cent. difcount ; at Bombay 50 per cent. and orders on the treafury there fold at 65, and upwards, per cent, difcount. It now became a general conviGtion, that the company was incompetent to the political government of the exten- five territories which they had acquired, A Board of Cone troul was therefore eftablifhed, compofed of a certain num- ber of commiffioners to be appointed by the king, and removeable at his pleafure. This board was authorized to check, fuperintend, and controul, the civil and military go- vernment and revenues of the company. The difpatches tranfmitted by the dire€tors to the different prelidencies were to be previoufly fubjeéted to the infpection of the Board. The appointment of governor-general, prefident, or counfellor in the different prefidencies, was made fubje& to the approbation and recall of his majefty; and fuch other regulations adopted, as in a great meafure deprived the company of that political and civil authority which they had fuffered to be fo grofsly abufed. In 1786 fome further regulations were made refpecting the government of India; and, as the company’s trade was increafinz, particularly in the article of tea, their import of which had been greatly augmented by the arrangemert of the commutation a&, they were faid to require a greater capital, and were authorized to create 8c0,000/. new ftock, on which they raifed 1,249,000/ at the rate of 155 per eent. I[n 1789 they obtained another a&, enabling them to add 1,000,000/. te their capital, which thus became 53090,0C0/, In tie beginning of 1793, the term of the company’s exciufive privileges being nearly expired, the {ubje@ cf lay- ing open the trade to Ludia was avain difcuffed, and though it was not thought proper to rifk the lofs and confufion which mult unavoidably attend any attempt to take fuch an immenfe concern out of the hands in which it has fo long continued, a ftipulation was made in the agreement for the renewal of the charter, that fuch regulations fhould be adopted as to admit of a free exportation by private perfons on ther own account, of any goods of the growth, pro- duce, or manufa&ture of Great Britain or Ireland; and of a free importation of fuch forts of the raw materials of the Fatt Indies as are ufed in the mannfatures of Great Britain or Ireland; that the company fhould be obliged to provide fhipping for the carriage of the private trade, at as low a freight as it could be furnified by private merchants; and that they fhould licenfe a proper number of agents to refide at the company’s fettlements, under their prote@tion, for the management of the private trade. On thefe conditions the company’s term in the exclufive trade was enlarged for 20 years, or tothe rft of March, r814, with the former pro- vifo, that if, after the expiration of that term, their right to the fole trade thall ceafe, in confequence of three years previous notice being given by parliament, and the repaymert.of fuch fums as may be then due from the public, they fhall continue a corporation, with power to carry on a free trade in com- mon with other perfons, On this occaficn, the total income of the company, arifing both from their territorial revenues and their commercial concerns, was ftated as follows: The nett annual income in rents and profits of trade, taken in the moft unfavourable light to the company, and fuppofed to be confidera- bly under the mark, was rated at - - - Subje& to the following payments, viz. Intereft of 3,200,000/. on bond, at 4 per cent. - = s Ditto of 6,669,082/. debt in India, at various rates of intereft, on a medium about 83 percent. = - Dividend of S per cent. on their ca- pital of 5,000,000/, - - + - = 400,000 £2,329) 164 £128,000 - 561,923 1,089,923 Leaving a nett annual furplusof - - - - £15239,241 a Of this furplus it wes propofed to appropriate 500,000/. per ann. to the reduétion of the debt in India, to pay 500,000/, per annum to government in half-yearly paymentsy and to pay an increafed dividend of 10 per cent. to their proprietors on 6,c00,000/. to which fum their capital was now raifed, This annual furplus, if it really exifted at the time to which the above account refers, was of very fhort duration. In 1795 the company fcund themfelves unable to continue the propofed contribution to government; and the intrigues of Tippoo Saib with the French, and with fome of the na- tive powers, which obliged the company to keep up a large military eitablifhment, and foon after to engage in another expenfive war, not only reduced the furplus of their revenues, but occafioned a confiderable increafe of debt in India, which has fince been further augmented in confequence of hofhlities with Dowlut Rao Scindia and Jefwuut Rao Holkar. In order to furnifh fome idea of the extent of the com- pany’s commercial and financial concerns, the following ac- counts are fubjoined, The amount of all goods fold at the Eaft India Company’s fales, from the 1ft of March 1805 to the 1ftof March 1806, Wate! Io . fey Com pany’s goeds; viz. Teas- - = - = - = = - £3;,620,904 Jengal piece goods - - - = = 621,562 Coatt and Surat piece goods Peers 614,317 Raw and organzine filk - - = = 274,459 INagkeere. fea a) ie mihind Cmte san 65,240 Pepper! v= 5" = /e.g= =) ro) sue TOL Ran Saltpetre - = = = - 2 = =. 217,769 Spiees = eine elie ew, nde Drugs, fugar, coffee, &c. = - - 348,350 ———_ $900,298 Private- C/OMEPEAANY * Private Trade gocds, viz. Teas 16 hank = min} cotinls = Le 2BQsoT Piece poodsiieeje-1 Secon =) ohi k= Dee Raw filk Oo or Cun ino 445228 Wankernsite sing Sth oi i=: bint cw, eile ‘21,489 Pepper - - - 2 2:5 2 = - 10,633 Saltpethe “Vik. "= Gaim) liebestl yay ave 144 Drugs, fugar, indigo, &e. - - ~ 1,693,926 — 2,782,152 Total - - - £8,781,442 ain Eft'mate of the revenues and charges in India, for the year 1306-7. Revenues. Bengal 5 3 2 ee = oe a) LO, TAG TIES Madrafg =" 2) < Wa Fo fe 8S re a w= ORT BZ, Bombay se: ce sey wen ey eae teers 677,203 Total - - £14,847,239 Charges. Bengal, civil and military expences - - - £6,944,607 Madrals © <7 te. i-dont "eta sim a rae bea. Bombay - - - dog = = + == = -- 7,826,516 Commercial charges not added to invoices - - 192,769 Hncereit ion debtsc, sya si hate tee ei Supplies to Prince of Wales’ ifland, &. - - 2,275,300 185,600 Total - - - £16,804,010 DeduG eftimated revenues - - 14,847,239 £ 139561771 Account of the a€tual receipts and payments of the Ealt India Company, in Great Britam, for one year, ending the it of March 1807. Deficiency - - Receipts. sed. €afh in the Treafury rf March 1806 - 669,794 6 2 For company’s goods fold - - - - 5,294,354 13 8 OF the board of ordnance for faltpetre 160,000 0 O Private trade goods fold - - - - = 2,114,269 8 I0 Charges and profit on privatetrade - 163,462 19 2 Cuitomsondo. - - - - - = = 73380 19 5 Freight on do. - - - - = © = 119,784 18 10 Intereit on red. 3 per cent. annuities - 30,266 15 10 OF govérnment, on account of a fum due tothe company - - = = - - 1,600,000 © © Alms-houfes at Poplar - + - - - 2,416 18 2 Perfons returned from India - - =~ 17,516 0 0 Bondsiiiued y=) Se Ym mw ahee l= 517,600 © .0 Duty on tea received + + = © = 3,120,290 12 3 Total < = £13,288,527 12 4 Payments. Cuftoms - - - = = = - = = 161,736 14 0 Freight and demorage - + - - + 1,689,040 9 4 Goods and ftores exported - - = - 2,270,793 7 & Indiadebt - - - - - - - - = 50,223 19 5 Bills of exchange from Isdia - = = 342,885 1 8 Ditto from Chinaweten on) lee ee 641,994 16 8 Bullion exported - - - = = = = 514,432 16 8 Charges of merchandize, including fupra cargoes, commiffion, intereft on loans, rl Ceci aa a a Po Pu ad 2 1 @ Dividends on ftock and intereft on bonds bis oh Too = Bonds paid off and paid in on fales - - 216,600 0 © Proprietors of private trade - - - - 2,169,021 15 © Pay to marine and military officers on fur- lough, and retired from fervice - + 141,319 15 @ Duty on tea paid - + - - + + - 3,184,417 6 7 Cafh in the treafury 1{t March 1807 - 511,978 16 4 £435;2583527 12 4 The vaft concerns of this company are under the manage- meut of twenty-four directors, who are formed inte different committees; each committee having the fuperintendence of a particular department of the company’s bufinefs. At the general courts of proprietors, perfons poffefling rooo/. ftock have one vote; 3000/. two votes; 600o0/. three votes; and 10,0c0/. four votes. The number of proprietors entitled to vote, on the 8th of April 1800, was 2163, and the number of votes 2832. Company, Hamburgh, isthe oldeft trading eftablifhment in the kingdom; though not always known by that name, nor reftrained to thofe narrow bounds under which it was af= terwards confined. It was firft called, the Company of Merchants trading to Calais, Holiand, Zealand, Brabant, and Flanders: then it acquired the gereral title of Mer- chant-adventurers of England; as being compofed of all the Englifh merchants who traded to the-Low Countries, the Baltic, and the German ocean. Laitly, it was called the Company of Merchant-adventurers of England trading to Hambergh. This company was not a fociety of dealers, each fur- nifhing a part of the fum to conititute the capital ftock of the company; but a mere aflociation, or body of mer- chants, who had nothing in common, but the grant and privilege of trading to Hamburgh, and fome other cities of Germany ; each managing his own commerce, and trading on his own foundation ; only obferving a certain difeipline, and fome regulations, which none but the company could eftablifh or change. This company was firft incorporated by Ed. 1. in 3296; and eftablifhed again, by charter, in 1406, under the reignof Henry IV. It was afterwards confirmed and aug- mented with divers privileges, by many of his fucceffors 5 among the reft, by Henry V. in 1413; Henry VI. in 1422; Henry VII. in 1493, 1505, and 1506; Henry VIII. in 1509, 1517, and 1536; Edward VI. in 5547; queen Mary, in 1553; Elizabeth, in 1564, and 1586; James I. in 1605; and Charles II. in 1661. But of all thefe char- ters, none but thole of Henry IV. Henry VII. Eliza- beth, James, and Charles, were of any importance, or gave the company any thing new; the reft being only confirma- tions. Before the charter of Henry IV. all the Englifh merchants, who trafficked out of the realm, were left to their own difcretion, and managed their affairs with fo- reigners as might be moi for their refpeétive interefts ; without any regard to the general commerce of the nation. Henry obferving this diforder, endeavoured to remedy it, by uniting all the merchants in his dominions into one body $ wherein, without lofing the hberty of trading each for him- felf; they might be governed by a company ; and be fubje& to regulations, which fhould feeure the general intereft of the national commerce, without prejudice to the intereft of particulars. With this view, he granted all the merchants, of his ftates, particularly thofe of Calais, then in his hands, a power of aflociating themfelves inte a body politic, with directors COMPANY. direCtors and governors, both in England and abroad; to hold affemblies both for the direétion of bufinefs. and the deciding of controverfies among merchants; make laws, punifh delinquents ; and impofe moderate duties and taxes on merchandizes and merchants to be employed in the fervice of the corporation. Thefe few articles of the charter of Henry IV. were afterwards much augmented by Henry VII. who firlt gave them the title of Merchant-adventurers to Calais, Holland, &c. gave them a power of proclaiming and continuing free fairs at Calais ; and ordered, that to be reputed a member of the fociety, each perfon fhould pay twenty marks tterling ; and that the feveral members thould attend the general meetings, or courts, appointed by the directors, whether at London, Calais; or elfewhere. The inexecution of this laft article and contempt of fome of the reft, occafioning great inconveniences to the company’s affairs, another charter was procured, whereby the pain of imprifonment was menaced, for thofe who fhould ablent themfelves fromthe meetings without lawful caufe, or fhould difobey the laws. A petition being made to queen Eiiza- beth, in 1564, for an explanation of certain articles in the charter of Henry VII. and a confirmation of the reft granted by other kings; that princefs, by a charter of the fame year, declares, that to end all difputes, they fhould be incorporated anew under the title of the “ Company of Merchant-adventurers of England;’’ that all who are mem- bers of the former company fhould, if they defire it, be admitted members of this; that they fhould have a common feal; that they fhould admit into their fociety what other perfons, and on what terms, they pleafe; and expel them again on mifbehaviour; that the city of Hamburgh, and neighbouring cities, fhould be reputed within their grant, together with thofe of the Low Countries, &c. in that of the former company ; that no member fhould marry out of the kingdom, nor purchafe lands, &c. in any city beyond fea; and that thofe who do, fhall be ip/o fado excluded for ever. Twenty-two years after this firll charter, queen Elizabeth granted them a fecond; confirming the former, and further granting them a privilege of exclufion, with a power of erecting in each city within their grant, a flanding council, The woollen manufacture being the principal obje& of their application, they met with great oppofition ; firlt, from the Hanfe, who forced them frequently to change their mart, or ftaple ; and afterwards under king Jamas [. who having ereéted a corporation in 1616, in favour of fome private perfons, who offered to fet up a manufacture for dyeing and prefling cloths, &c. under pretence thereof the com- pany of merchant-adventurers were j prohibited dealing therein. But that project not fucceeding, and the charter being revoked two years afterwards, the merchant adven- turers, whofe company had been diffolved two years before, were reitored in 1617, to their ancient privileges, and a new charter was given them, confirming their exclufive nights ; and allowing them to have officers in the feveral cuftom- houfes, to have an eye that they were not prejudiced in their woollens, under pretence of the like merchandizes, which others were allowed to fend to other parts. ‘This charter of king James, is the laft of thofe confirmed by Charles IT. in the grand charter of 1661. d The revolutions which had happened in the Low Coun- tries towards the end of the fixteenth century, and which jaid the foundation of the republic of Holland, having hin- dered the company from continuing their commerce with their ancient freedom; it was obliged to turn it almolt wholly to the fide of Hamburgh, and the cities on the German ocean; from which chanze fome peopte task oc- cafion to change its name to that of the Hamburgh com- pany, though the ancient title of Merchant-adventurers i {till retained in all their writings. This fociety was greatly reduced, when its trade was laid open by William III. and the company is now extin4. Company of Merchants of the Staple wasvincorporated by Edward IIL. Their factory was at Middleburgh, in Zealand; but the ftaple being removed, in 1389, to Calais, it was foon after, viz. in 1399, removed from thence to England. i Company, Ruffia. This was firtt projected towards the end of the reign of king Edward VI! executed in the firit and fecond years of Philip and Mary ; but had not its perfection, till its charter was confirmed by aét of parliament, under queen Elizabeth, in 1566. It had its rife from cer- tain adventurers, who were fent in three veffels on the difco- very of new countries; ard to find out a north-eaft paflage to China; thefe, falling into the White fea, and making up to the port of Archangel, were exceedingly well received by the Mufcovites; and at their return, folicited letters patent to fecure to themfelves the commerce of Rofiia, for which they had formed an affociation. ‘The charter was promifed them by Edward VI. but he dying, was firft difpatched by queen Mary, in 1555- By this charter, the affociation was declared a body politic, under the name of the ‘Company of Merchant-adventurers of England, for the difcovery of lands, territories, iflands, &c. unknown or unfrequented.”? Their privileges were, to» have a governor, four confuls, and twenty-four affiftants, for their commerce ; for their policy, to make laws, infli& penaities, fend out fhips to make difcoveries, take poffeffion of them in the king’s name, fet up the banner royal of England, plant them; and lafliy, the exclufive privilege of trading to Archangel, and other ports of Mufcovy, not yet frequented by the Englith. This charter, not being fufficiently guarded, was cons firmed by parliament in the eighth year of queen Elizabeth ; wherein it was enacted, that in regard the former name was too long, they fhould now be called “Company of Eoglifh Merehants for difcovering new trades ;?? under which name, they fhould be capable of acquiring and holding all kinds of lands, manors, rents, &c. not exceeding a hundred marks per ann. and not held of her majelty ; that no part of the continent, ifland, harbour, &c. not known nor frequented before the firft enterprize of the merchants of their company, fituate to the north, or north-welt, or north-ealt of Lon« don; nor any part of the continents, iflands, &c. under the obedience of the emperor of Ruflia, or in the countries of Armenia, Media, Hyrcania, Pertia, or the Cafpian fea, fhould be vifited by any fubjects of England, to exercife any commerce without the confent of the faid company, on pain of confifcation, The faid company fhall ufe no fhips in her new commerce, but thofe of the nation; nor tranf- port any cloths, ferges, or other woollen ituffs, till they have been dyed and prefled. That in cafe the company dii- continue of itfelf to unload commodities in the road of the abbey of St. Nicolas, in Ruffia, or fome other port, on the north coalts of Ruflia, for the {pace of three years, the other fubjects of England fhall be aliowed to traffic to Nar- va, while the faid company difcontinues its commerce into Ruflia, only ufing Englith veffels. This company fubliited with reputation almott a whole century, till the time of the civil wars. It is faid, the ezar then retgning, hearing of the murder of king Charles I. ordered all the Enghith in his itates to be expelled ; which the Dutch taking the advaatage of, fettled in their ras sMfter, COMPANY. A‘ter the reftoration, the yemains of the company re-cfta- blifhed part of their commerce at Archangel, but never with the fame fuccefs as before: the Ruflians being now well accuftomed tothe Dutch merchants, and merechandize. This company fubfits fill, nearly on the foot of that of Hamburgh, and the northern and Turkey companies; i.e. each member thereof trafficks for himfelf, and on his own foundation; only paying an acknowledgement as fine for ad- miffion, which was reduced by so andsr W. III. c. 6, to- five pounds; befides fome other dues impofed, from time to time, for the occafions of the company, and the commerce in general. It is under the direction of a governor, four confuls, and affiftants. Company, Ea/fiand, 1s eftablifhed on fimilar ground with that of Hamburgh; from whence it appears to have been cifmembered. Its charter is dated in the year 1579. By the firft arti- cle the company is ereéted into a body politic, under the title of the * Company of Merchants of the Eaft ;”’ to confift of Englifhmen, all real merchants, who have exercifed the bufinefs thereof, and trafficked through the Sound, before the year 1568, into Norway, Sweden, Poland, Livonia, Proffia, Pomerania, &c. as allo Revel, Koningfberz, Dant- zick, Copenhagen, &c. excepting Narva, Mufcovy, and its dependencies. Moft of the foliowing articles grant them the ufual prerogatives, of fuch companies; as a feal, gover- nor, courts, laws, &c. The privileges psculiar to this company are, that none fhall be a 'mitted a member who is already a member of any other company ; nor any retail dealer at all. That no mer- chant qualified, be admitted without paying 6/. 135. 6d. By 29 C. If. c. 7. the fee of admiffion into this company was reduced to 27, That a member of another company, defiring to renounce the privileges thereof, and to be re- ceived into that of the Eatt, fhall be admitted gratis ; pro- vided he procures the fame favour for a merchant of the Ealt, willing to fill his place. That the merchant adven- turers who never dealt in the Eaft, in the places exprefictd in the charters, may be received as members of the company on paying forty marks; that, notwithttanding this union of the adventurers of Englanc with the company of the Eaft, each fhall retain its rights and privileges. That they fhall export no cloths but what are dyed and preffed, except a hundred pieces per annum, which are aliowed them gratis. This charter was confirmed by Charles I. in 1629, with this addition ; that-no perfon of what quality foever, living in London, fhould be admitted a member, unlefs he were free of the city. ; This company was complained of as a monopoly, and firft curtailed by Jegal authority in 16723; and fince the decla- ration of rights in 1689, exilts only in name; but they {hill continue to ele& their annual officers, who are a governor, deputy, and twenty-four effitants. Company, Turkey, or Levant. This once ftourifhing body had its nic under queen Elizabeth, who, in 1581, in- corporated a {mall number of merchants, with the privilege of an exclufive trade to Turkey for feven -years.. James I. in 1605, confirmed their charter, with the addition of fome new privileges. During the civil wars fome innovations were made in the government of the company; many per- fons having been admitted members, not qualified accord- ing to the charter, or who did not conform to the regula- tions prefcribed, in confequence of which Charles II., up- on his reftoration, endeavoured to place it upon its ancient bafis, for which purpefe he gave them a new charter, con- taining a confirmation of the old one with fome additional 3 articles. Dy this charter the company was declared to bea body politic, capabie of making laws, &c. under the title of “The Company of Merchants of England trading to the Scas of the Levant.2? The number of members was not limited, butno perfon refiding within twenty miles of London, except- ing noblemen and gentlemen of quality, was to be admitted into the company, unlefs firft made free of the city of Lon- don: thofe under 26 years of aye were to pay 25/. for their admiffion, and thofe above that age 50/. Thele fines were reduced by an aé& paficd in 1753, (26 Geo. Il. c. 18.) by which it 1s direéted that every fubject of Great Britaia defiring admiffion into the Turkey company, fhall be ad- mitted within thirty days after fuch requeft, and fhall en- joy all the liberties aud privileges of the company, on paying tor fuch admiffion the fum of 20 /. ‘All perfons free of the company may, feparately or jointly, export any goods or merchandize (not probibited) from any place in Great Britain, to any place within the limits of the company’s charter, in Britifh or plantation built fhips, na- vigated according to law, at any time, and to any perfons whomfoever, being freé of thé company, or to the fons or apprentices of freemen. {fo long as they fhail remain under, and fubmit to, the dire@tion of the Britifh ambaffador and con- fuls for the time being; and may elfo import, in hke manner, any commodities purchafed within the company’s limits, on payment of the government duties, and fuch impofitions as fha!l be affeff-d upon all merchandize fo exported or import- ed, or upon fhips laden therewith, for defraying the neceflary expences of the company. The company is under the management of a governor, a deputy governor, and fifteen direCtors; they have alfo a deputy governor in every city and port where there are any members of the company. They prefent the ambaffador which the king is to keep at the Porte, and eleét two con- fuls for Smyrna and Conftantinople ; allowing a fixed falary or penfion to the ambaffador and confuls, and even to their chief cfficers, as fecretary, chaplain, interpreters, and jani- zaries, that they may not have any pretence for raifing any fum whatever on the merchants or merchandize. For de- fraying: thefe charges the company have power to levy duties on the merchandize imported or exported by their members 3 but of late years they have frequently found it neceflary to apply to parliament for pecuniary affittance. The commerce of this company was formerly very confider- able, hating been eltimated nearly equal to that of the Eait Indiacompanyin extent,and much more advantageousto Great Britain; but the convenient fituation of the French ports in the Mediterranean for the Levant trade, gives that country fuch a decided advantage, that the commerce of Great Bri- tain with Turkey has long been on the decline. In 1797, in order to avoid the hazard to which Britiih veffels in the Levant trade were expofed in confequence of the war, an a& was paffed giving permiffion to the members of the Turkey company to import the goods ufvally brought from Turkey, Egypt, or other parts of the Turkifh dominions in the Levant feas, from any port whatfoever, either in Bri- tifh veffels or veffels belonging to any friendly nation, on paving, if in Bnitifh veffels, the fame duties which wou!d have been payable if the goods had been imported direGtly from the place of their growth, an¢, if in foreign veffels, the duties to which they were befar ; liable; but no entry of fuch goods was to be made at the cuftom houfe till the importer produced a certificate of his being a member of the Turkey company, and that he had paid the company’s duties, and in all refpets conformed to the company’s regu- lations, ComPanyy COMPANY. Company, South Sea, originated in a project for reliev- ing the government from the embarraflment of a large amount of unfunded debts, and confiderable deficiencies in the funds appropriated for the payment of others ; the pro- prictors of thefe debts being incorporated for the oftenfible purpofe of eftablifhing a trade to the fouth feas and the N.W. coaft of America. The capital of the company was 9,177,967/. 155. 44.3; but this being fubferibed wholly in government fecurities, they iffued bonds in 1712, for railing 200,000 /, in cafh in order to fit out their firft mer- cantile adventure. In the following year, they obtained the Affiento contraé, by which they agreed to import into the Spanifh Welt Indies 144,000 negroes, within the term of 30 years. atthe rate-of 4800 in each year, and were al- lowed to fend a fhip of 500 tons yearly to trade with the Spanifh fettlements, on condition that the king of Spain fhould have a fourth part of the gain by fuch thip, and receive five per cent. on the nett gain of the other three arts. See AssIENTO. The firft voyage of their annual fhip was in 1717, and the company were again empowered to borrow money under their common feal, for carrying on their trade, or to enable them to fulfil an engagement with government to advance two millions towards carrying into execution a propofed re- duCtion of intereft on the public debts. On the war break- ing out in the following year, a ftop was put to their trade with the Spanifh Weft Indies, by the feizure of their effects, by whic's they fultained a very confiderable lofs. Soon after this interruption of their commercial concerns, they engaged ina (cheme for converting fome of the govern- ment terminable annuities into redeemable debts. They had, in 1715, for the accommodation of government, agreed to increafe their capital to 10,000,000/, which, by the annuities now purchafed, and an advance to government, became 11,740,844 7. 8s. 10d.; andalthough the fcheme did not completely fucceed, it prepared the way for the much more extenfive project of taking in all the public debts, and thus reducing ail the public funds which then exited into one. The mere rumour of this mercantile projet raifed the price of the company’s ftock to 126 per cent. ; and, in the beginning of 1720, while the bill fer carrying it into exe- cation was depending in parliament, their ftock got up from 137 to 319 percent. As the tranfaétion confited merely in taking the public debts at a fixed price, and giving the proprietors, in exchange, a certain quantity of the com- pany’s capital ftock, at prices agreed upon between the company and the fubfcribers, it is evident that the great gain which the company expected to make, could arife only from the current price of their ftock being confiderably above its real value. By a variety of artifices, and a gene- ral ftock-jobbing infatuation, it was carried up to the enor- mous price of rooo per cent.: the rapidity of its fall, how- ever, exceeded that by which it rofe, as it was ina few weeks down to 130 per cent.; involving’ in ruin perfons of all defcriptions who were engaged in the wild {peculations of the time. (See Bunnie.) Had the tranfaction com- pletely fucceeded, the capital of the company would have amounted to 43.411,399/. 6s. 113.d., but from fome of the debts remaining un{ub{cribed, itbecame 37,502,483/. 34s.03d. ef which four millions were purchafed in 1722 by the bank, and in the following year the remainder was divided into two equal parts, one of which was to be called the trading capi- tal of the company, and the other to be diltinguifhed by the title of ‘* ‘lhe jomt-ttock of South Sea annuities, ” fince called old South Sea annnities. In 1724, tie company undertook the Greenland whale fifhery, which turned ont very unprofitable: after eight voyages, they fold their fhips, ttores, and utenfi!s, and found that their whole lofs upon this bufinefs, capital and intereit included, amounted to 237,142/. 6s. 2d. In 1753, three fourths of their trading capital, which had been reduced by fuins paid off in 1727, 1729, and 1732, to 14,651,103 /. 8s. 1d., was converted into an annuity {tock called ** New South Sea Annuities,”? only one fourth remaining as their trading ftock; and, in the followings year, they petitioned the king to be allowed to difpofle of the trade and tonnage of their annual fhip under the Af- fiento contract, on account of the little profic they made by it, and to accept_of fuch equivalent as they could ob- tain from the king of Spain, who at length, to put an end to the many difputes which had arifen from this contraét, agreed, in 1750, to pay 100,000/. to the company, as a compenfation for ail claims under the Affiento contract, and from that period they have not carried on any trade waatever. Tne whole bufineis of the company, therefore, now confiits in the manazement of the following public funds. Their capital ftock - - £ 3,662,784 8 6 Old South Sea annuities - 11,907,470 2 7 New South Sea annuities - - 8,494,830 2 10 Three per cents., 1751 = - 1,919,609 0 o The intereft received from government on all thefe funds, is 3 per cent., but the dividend paid to the proprietors of the company’s ftock, is 34 per cent.; on the old and new annuities, 3 per cent. The company is under the management of three govern- ors, and 2i directors; the qualification required for go- vernor, is the poffeflion of 5000/7. inthe company’s ftock $ _ for fub-governor, 4000 /.; for deputy-governor, 3000/. ; and for adireftor, 2000/. Five hundred pounds ftock, gives aright to one vote at the general courts; 2000/7. to twe votes; 3000/. to three votes; and 5000/. to four votes. Company, Scotch Darien. This was eftablifhed with good profpect at Edinburgh, in 1695, for the commerce of South America. In 1698, they fent an armament and a colony. which they endeavoured to eftablifh in the ilthmus of Darien, which parts North and South America; but the Englifh miniftry not thinking proper to avow and fupport the firft fucceffes of the company, which had alarmed Spain, ever jealous of this part of her territories, the Scotch colo- ny was difperfed by the Spaniards in 1699, and thus va- nifhed the bett proje&t that ever was formed for difputing with that nation the poffeflion of thofe countries, from which fhe pretends to exclude all other nations, Company, Hudfon’s Bay, was incorporated by charter, dated the zd of May, 1670, under the title of ** The Governor and Company of Adventurers of England, trading into Hud- fon’s Bay,”’ with the exclufive privilege of trading to all parts within the entrance of the ftreight commonly called Hudfon’s ftreights. The charter, however, not being con- firmed by aét of parliament, the company poffefs no exclufive rights whatever, any Britifh fubje& being at liberty to fail into Hudfon’s Bay, to fith or traflickwith the Indians as freely as the company ; all the advantage the company have over other adventurers thither is merely the benefit or their own forts, fuch as they are, by which their agents can refide in fo in- hofpitable a country during the winter, preparatory to their trading with the Indians againft the arrival of their fhips in the fummer. According to the evidence given before a committee of the houfe of commons in 1749, the company then pofleffed four fmall faftories, erefted at the mouths of the principal rivers, in which they employed about 130 3 ons COMPANY. fors, and two {mall houfes with only cight men in each; thefe buildings are neceflarily ftrang, as well to guard again{t the climate as azain{t other daugers, and are furnifhed with artillery to command refpe&t from the Indians 3 they have therefore been generally called forts, although no military force is kept for defending them : their inwility in refifting any ferious attack, was obvious in 1782, when the Trench, who at former periods had done the company much injury, deftroyed, their fettlernents, forts, merchandize, &c. to the eftimatcd amount of near 500,0c0 /. The capital of the company, it is faid, does not exceed ¥10,000/. which is divided among a very {mall number of proprietors. “he commerce carried on by them is notof great extent, as it feldom employs above four or five fhips of about 300 tons each. ‘Fhe articles exp ated by them are eoarfe dufle cloth or blanketing, guns, piftols, {word blades, hatchets, powder and fhot, {pirits, tobacco, brafs kettles, buttons, Sth hooks, looking glaff:s, &c.; the imports con- fit of large quantities of beaver fxins, and peltry of all kinds, bed feathers, quills, catoreum, whalcfins, oil, and a few {mailer articles. The company is under the management of a governor, deputy governor, and a committee of {even members. Company, Sierra Leone, was fet on foot in the year “y7gt, witb the philanthropic view of introducing civilization into Africa. The principal means propoled for eficAing this end was the eftablifhment of a fecure faétory for carry- ing on an extenfive commercial intercourfe with the juterior; put before the arrangements for this purpofe were com- pleted, the reception into the fettlement of near 1200 blacks, who had taken part with Great Britain in the American war, and had petitioned the government to be removed from Nova Scotia on account of the coldnefs of the climate, involved the company in co: fiderable difficulties, and gave a new character to the undertaking. ‘Dheir ex- pences, from various caufes, became much greater than could have been forefeen, amounting in the firft two years and ahalf to 111,500/. and were {till further increafed in 1793 by the war, which at the fame time greatly interrupted their trade, and fubjected them to depredations. In OCtober 3794, the colony was attacked bya French fquadron, and allthe moveable property of the company was either carried off or deftroyed, every building belonging to them burnt, and feveral fhips captured. The company’s lois on this occafion has been eftimated at 52,c00/. This calamity, combined with their previous expences, fo greatly dimi- nifhed the company’s funds, as to lay them under a neceflity of contraGing their trade, and reducing confider- ably the [cale of their eftablifhment, which had been at all times fo limited as fcarcely to afford fufficient means of traniaéting the bufinefs and attending to the various wants of an infant fettlement. In the year 1798 the colony had made confiderable pro- grefs;, notwithftanding the many ebitacles to its advance- ment. The town confilted of about three hundred houfes, with the neceflary public buildings, and had become a place of confiderable refort. It was cftimated that from one to two hundred natives vifited the fettlement every day, many of them coming from a diftance of eighty or a hundred miles, for the purpofe of exchanging articles of African produce, for Britith manufactures. The total number of inhabitants of the colony at this time was about 1200. In 1800 the company obtained a charter, creating their fettlement an independent colony, and authorizing the direStors to frame laws for its government, to appoint a governor and council, and to make other arrangements far the adminiftration of juXice; a {mall military force was at the fame time fent for the defence of thecolony. “he fum of 7ooo/. being part of the fum granted by parliament for the maintenance of African forts, was paid to the company for the eretion ofa fort; 10,000/. was about the fame time received from government as a partial indemnifi- cation for the expence to which the company had beea put in fettling the Nova Scotians; 400c/. was alfo granted for the fupport of the civil government of the colony. About this time the company agreed to receive in their colony the Maroon Indians, and foon after their arrival, employed them to quell an infurreétion among the Nova Scotians, who had endeavoured to poflcfs themfelves of the government. A more ferious attack on the colony was afterward made by fome of the native chiefs in the neigh- bourhood, which rendered it necefflary to adopt additional means of defence. The fums fince granted by parliament for defraying the charges of the civil ellablifhment of the company, and for the ereétion of fortifications, have been as follow: For the year 1801 £ 4,000 1802 10,c00 1803 I4,C0O 1804 54,000 1805 14.000 1506 18,009 The trade of the company appears to have been fuc- cefsful, fuppofing it to have been burthened only with thofe charges which are ftri@ly commercial, and to have been exempt from the extraordinary lofics by fire, and the de- ftruGtion of the fettlement which it has had to fuftain. The abolition of the flave trade will remove fome great obftacles to the fuccefs of this laudable undertaking, and probably enable it to improve and extend its commercial intercourfe with the ratives very confiderably. Company, for the Manufacture of Flour, Meal, and Bread. During the diftrefs occafioned by the great {carcity of corn, in the year 1800, a number of perfons formed themfelves into a company, for the purpofe of eitablithing in London a manufaory of flour, meal, and bread, to be fold out at reafonable prices. ‘hey were incorporated by parliament, and empowered to fubferibe a joint capital, not exceeding 120,000/, in fhares of 25/7, each; their profits being limited to 10 per cent., and the furplus, if any, to be at the difpofal of pariiament. They were limited to fell only 120,000 facks of flour, or meal in a year, to make only 200 facks into bread in a week, and to fell not more than 1000 quarters of wheat in any one week. The managers of the company were prohibited from dealing in cora, flour, or bread, for their own private account; and were required to lay before parliament an annual ftatement of their receipts and payments, of the quantities of grain purchafed, with the prices paid for the fame, of the quantitics of grain and flour in itore, of the quantities of flour and bread manufa@tured by the company, and of the debts and credits of the company, with the names of all the members of it, and the number of fharesa held by cach, By thefe regulations fufficient publicity is given to the concerns of the company to prevent it from ever being perverted from the original principle of the eftablifhment, and made {ubfervient to fchemes of mono- poly or {peculation; and though upon the fcarcity ceafing, they difcontinued makmg bread, they have carried on the manufacture of flour and meal, and probably contnbuted to prevent thefe effential articles from being unneceffarily enhanced in price, The CyO MuP) AcNcyY. Whe total quantity of wheat purchafed by the company in the year 1806, was 9182 quarters, for which they pard g2.655/. 19s.; the quantity of flour manufaétured was 10,536 facks. "The number of proprietors of the company was 330. The king by an order in council may diffolve this com- pany on fix months previous notice being given. Company, Dock. See Dock. Company, Dutch Eaft-India, had its rife in the midft of the ftruggle which that people had for their liberty ; for the Spaniards baving forbid all commerce with them, and fhut up all their ports, neceflity infpired fome Zealanders to feek a new north-caft paflage to China. This enterprize proving unfuccefsful to three feveral armaments in 1594, 1595, and 1596, a fecond company was formed'under the name of the ‘*‘ Company of remote Parts ;”” which, in 1595, took the ordinary route of the Portuguefe to the Indies, and returned in two years and a half’s time, with little gain, but good hopes. This company, and a new one juft eftablithed at Am- flerdam, being united, equipped other fleets; and thefe occafioned other companies at Amfterdam, Rotterdam, in Zealand, &c, infomuch that the ftates foon began to appre- ~ hend they might be prejudicial to each other. Under this concern they called all the diretors of the feveral companies together, who all confented to the union, the treaty whereof was confirmed by the flatesin 1602, a very remarkable epocha, as being that of the molt folid and celebrated eftablifhment of commerce that cver was in the world, At this time they obtained a charter from the ftates ; and prevailed upon that body, by adminiftering to its exigencies in the Spanifh war, to grant them the exclufive privilege of trading to the fouthern parts of Africa, for a fhort term of years. ‘The company’s capital of 6,500,000 florins (about 541,8332. fterling) was divided into trans- ferable fhares, or adfions, as they are called on the con- tinent, of 3000 florins (about 250/. fterling each), which were all {peedily bought up. The fuperiority of their trading capital, together with their greater fkillin commerce and navigation, enabled them to underfell all other nations, even in the foreign markets of Europe. As they alfo fixed the prices of their merchandize to all confumers, their profits for fome years were enormous. The annual dividends for the 6 years ending in 1610 were as high as 36 per cent.; and ina fhort time, the aGtions rofe from 3000 tu 15,000, andat one time ftood as high as 24,000 florins, 8 times the amount of their prime colt. ‘The charter, firft granted in 1602, and fince renewed from time to time, conferred upon them, befides the exclufive right of trading to the Katt, the fovereignty (under the fuperintendence of the ftates- general) of all the territories which they might acquire in that part of the world, by purchafe, treaty, or conquett, with the full power of appointing their own fervants ; of raifing whatever force they might deem neceflary for the defence of their territories; and of enacting laws for the internal adminiftration of theirdominions. In confequence of this charter, the moft extenfive that was ever granted to any trading corporation, the company proceeded to arrange their eftablifhment, both in Europe and the Eaft Indies, Their affairs were under the management of fixty directors, divided into feveral chambers; twenty in that of Am{terdam, twelve in that of Zealand, fourteen in that of Delft and Rotterdam, and a like number in thofe at Sluysand Horn. As each grant expired the company was obliged to procure a new one, Which it has already done, four times fince the Vou, IX, fit; viz. one in 1623, for forty-one years, like the firll ; another for twenty-one years, commencing in 1643; and a third in 1665, for forty years; a fourth in advance, com- mencing in 1698, to end in 1740. ach grant coft the company a contiderable fum; that of 1647 coft 1,6c0,000 guilders,and the two following ones more; that of 1698 was comfirmed by a placard of the ftates-general, granted them an exclufive privilege, which was prolonged in 1761, for thirty years more. The average premium paid for thefe renewals was about 270,000 /. fterling, or three millions of florins. Their faGtories, refidences; &c. in the Eaft Indies, were very numerous ; reaching from the Perfian gulf to the coa{t of China: the principal was that of Batavia, the centre of their commerce: here refided the general, with the ftate and fplendor of a fovereign prince ; making war and peace with the ealtern kings and emperors at pleafure. They had alfo feveral other confiderable fatories on the coaft ot China, in Japan, Malacca, Surat, Amboyna, Banda, Siam, Moluccas, &c. feveralon the coaft of Coromandel, and at Ifpahan, Cape of Good Hope, &c. in all, they numbered forty fa€tories, and twenty-five fortreffes. They engrofied the whole trade of the fpicery in their own hands, At fo early a period as the year 1616, this company had no lefs than 45 large veflels engaged in war and trade, with 10,000 foldiers and failors in their fervice, and 4,000 pieces of artillery. However, the flourifhing ftate of their affairs was of fhort duration, The mifmanagement and plunder of the company’s fervants, and the difputes in which their cruelties, avarice, and imprudence involved them with the native powers during the 17th century, and the diffenfions which arofe among the different chambers of the general dire€tion at home, greatly reduced the trade, wealth, and power of the inftitution, The expence of the military ettablifhment alfo increafed; fo that at the end of the 18th century, it amounted to 80 veflels, carrying from 30 to 6o guns, and 25,000 men, foldiers included, while the whole dominions in Java, and its dependencies, were farmed for 361,260 dollars. The dire€tors acknowledged that, in 1780, their lofs in the war had exceeded ro millions of florins, nearly twice the amount of their original capital. In the 18th century the Oftend Eaft India company excited the jealoufy of the Dutch company. In 1721, a law was pafled by the ftater, prohibiting their {ubje€ts from failing under the Offend colours, upon pain of death: and in 1731, this un- fortunate aflociation was diffolved in confequence of repre« fentations from the different European {lates interefted in the Eaft Indian trade; among which Holland, that is the Dutch company, took the lead. Various precautions have been ufed to fupport the credit of this company, fome of which were oppreflive to the country; neverthelefs, its fhares have continued to fall with augmented rapidity. In the period from 1605 to 1779, the dividends have varied from 75 to 10 per cent.; and in many years no dividend at all was iffued. From 1605 to 1610 (both inclufive), the dividend was, at an average, 36 percent. From 1610 to 1648, the average was only 21; and from 1771 to 1750, it was no more than 124 percent. The price of the aétions, which had at firft rifen to 500, and even 800 per cent. of the prime colt, fell, in the period from 1770 to 17580, to about 340 per cent., and during that time continued re- gularly to fall. he laft dividend this once flourifhing com- pany made to their proprietors was in the year 17907 but it was not paid till 1790, as their commerce, which had been rapidly declining for the laft 30 years, was entirely fuf- pended. D a Co Me COMPANY. Company, Dutch Wefl India, was eftablifhed in 1621, with an exclufive privilege to trade twenty-four years along the coalts of Africa, between the tropic of Cancer and Cape of Good Hope; and in America, from the fouth point of Newfoundland, through the {traits of Magellan, that of Le Maire, or others, to the ftraits of Anian, both in the north and fouth Sea. Befides thefe commercial privileges, the flates conferred vpon the corporation the right of governing and defending any new colonies which it might acquire; and made it a prefent of feveral large veffels, well manned. They reta:ned to themfelves, however, the nomination of the company’s governor-generel abroad. The original capital of this aflo- ciation amounted to 72,000 florins, in transferable fhares, or ations, of 60co flcrins each. ; The 74 directors were divided into five chambers (as in the Eat India company), out of which, eighteen, with a deputy appointed by the ftates, were chofen for the general direGtion of affairs. In 1647, the company renewed its grant for twenty-five years; but it was fcarce able to hold out the term, on account of its great loffes and expences in teking the bay of Todos los Santos, Fernambuc, and the greatelt part of Brafil, from the Portuguefe. The weaknefs of this company, which had feveral times in vain attempted to be joined to that of the Eaft Indies, occafioned its diffo- lution at the expiration of its grant. ; In 1674, a new company, compofed of the ancient pro- prictors and their creditors, was fettled in the fame rights and eftablifhment with the former. It-was to undertake the burden of the old company’s debt, amounting to fix mil- lions, but reduced to 30 per cent.; and was to accredit in its books the proprietors of the old company’s flock, at the rate of 15 percent. The creditors, on their part, were to advance an addition of § per cent. on their loans; and the ftockholders were to advance 4 per cent. on their fhares. The new capital, thus fcraped together, amounted only to 30,000 florins. ‘The exclufive commerce of the company was limited to a certain part of the African coalt, befides the conquefts they fhould make; and its principal eftablith- ments were at Cape Verd, on the Gold Coalt, at Tobago, Curaffoa, &c. in America. The reit of the trade monopo- lized by the former company was now thrown open to all the fubjects of the republic. In 1730, when the charter was renewed, the African flave-trade was made free, on con- dition of a certain laftage being paid to the company ; and in 1734, the whole African trace was laid open upon the fame terms. As the uniced privileges of the company were not fufficient to counte:balance the various diladvantages under which all frefh inftitutions labour, they obtained, in 3682, the exclufive. management of the colony of Surinam, for the trifling fum of 260,000 florins paid to the ftates-ye- neral. This grant was accompanied by certain conditions, framed with the manifeft view of preventing the abufes com- mon to trading corporations. Under thefe reftrictions, the company was not able to defray the expence of the original purchafe-money paid for the charter; and, therefore, in the next year, oue-third {hare was fold tothe city of Amfter- dam, and another to the rich family of Somimelfdyk, referv- ing the remaining -third to themfelves. ‘Thefe three co- proprietors have fince continued to form a fociety or part- nerfhip, under the name of the ‘* Surinam Company,” reswiated by the charter originally granted to the Weft India company. Except in the government of Surinam, this affociation hes had no conneétion with the Weit India company, which, of courfe, continued to furnifh negroes to the fettlement, in its capacity of African company, until the year 1730. } i3 3 The progrefs of the dividends and prices of We India ftock will enable us to judge concerning the profperity, not only of the Surinam fociety, but alfo of the concerns of the Weit India company. The average dividend in ten years, ending 1690, was 2% per cent.; and from 1773 to 1779 in- clufive, nothing at all was divided. The ations have never been at par; their price has varied from 923 to 15 per cent. fince the year 1723. The average price during ten years, ending 1732, was about 813 percent. During ten years, ending 1779, it had fallen to 32¢ per cent. The fettle- ments of Effequibo and Demerary have been always under the charter of the Weft India company, as well as Surinam, and governed in the fame manner, Berbice, though within the company’s charter, owed its origin to the {peculations of the family of Van Peere; and all the cultivated part of the colony belonged to them. In 1678 they obtained a perpetual grant of it from the company, which was con- firmed in 1703 ; and when the French attacked it in 1712, the colony bought them off with a confiderable compofition. The money was paid by their great mercantile houfes, and one fourth of it by the Van Feeres, who thus transferred three-fourth fhares of the colony to the other merchants as co-proprietors; and the four houfes together formed a co- partnery or company at Berbice, adminiltered exactly in the fame manner with the Surinam fociety. The proprietary governments of North America differed from the company adminiftrations of Guiana in many important particulars. They were the confequence of large and theughtlefs grants, made by the court to favourites, of wafte and uninhabited lands. As the Britifh colonies were fubfervient to the le- giflature of the mother-country, the Dutch colonies owed the fame allegiance, net to the ftates-general, but to the proprictors. ‘The ill fuccefs of the Weft India company furnifhes an ufeful example of the manifold evils of company government. This company mutt of late have been annihi+ lated by the capture of all their fettlements. Company, Dutch North, has no exclufive privileze; the - advantage of its patent being of another kind, and very confiderable. There are alfo, in Holiasd, companies for the Baltic fea, the fifhery of Nova Zembla, Davis’s Streights, and Green- land: yet none of their fifheries are interdi€ied to private traders; all the difference between thefe and the companies confifting in this, that the former may not go afhore to cut their fifh in pieces, and meit their lard: but muft bring their luggage to Holland. Company, Dutch Levant. In ftri€inefs, there is no Le- vant company in Hol.and: but the commerce of the private traders is fo confiderable, that the ftate has taken the regu- lation thereof on itfelf. To this end, they have eftablifhed a chamber of dire&tion at Amiterdam, compoled of tix deputies, and a regilter ; who, under the burgomafters, take care of every thing re- lating to the commerce of the Mediterranean; efpecially that of Smyrna and Conftantinople. This company names the confuls, appoints the number and ftrenzth of convoys, terminates differences among the traders, and has alfo a right, on occafion, to add new regulations to the old ones; though thofe be of no force, till confirmed by the ftates. general. Company, Lrench Eaft India, was eftablifhed in 1664, with an exclufive privilere to trade for fifty years in all the feas of the Eaft Indies and South Sea; no adventurer to be admitted without a thoufand livres in ftock; and foreigners, who have twenty thoufand livres in flock, to, be reputed régnicoles. The patent grants them the ifland of Madagafcar; and the , €°O M P AWEY. the king to be at one fifth of the expence of the three firft armaments, without intereft; the principal to be refunded in ten years; or, if the company finds it lofes on the whole, the lofs to fall on the king’s fide. \The capital fund of the company, which was mottly fur- nifhed by the king, was {even or eight millions of livres, but was to have been fifteen millions. In effet, thouzh no means were wanting to fupport the company, yet it ftill drooped, and ftill ftruggled; tll, hav- ing fubfifted ten years without any change in its form, and being no lorger able to difcharge its engagements, there were new regulations concerted, but to little purpofe. At length, things not being difpofed for a new Eat India company, nor much good to be expected from the old one, in 1708, the miniltry allowed the directors to treat with the rich traders of St. Malo, and refign to them their privilege under certain conditions. In the hands of thefe lait, the company began to fourifh, Its chief fatory was at Pondicherry, on the coaft of Co- romandel; this was the refidence of the direCtor-general ; the other faGtories were inconfiderabie. The merchandizes which the company brought into France were, filks, cottons, {pices, coffee, rice, falt-petre; feveral kinds of gums and drugs, wood, wax, printed calicoes, muflins, &c. The trade was laid open in 1769, which foon reduced the com- pany to a fet of mere holders of the government funds. A new company was eftablifhed in 1785 with the privilege of an extenfive trade to all parts of the Eaft Indies, except the Ifle of France and its dependencies. ‘This exception muft have prevented the company from fucceeding; but the ex- periment had fcarcely been made when the trade was again Jaid open by the national aff:mbly in 1790. As for the other French companies, fuch has been the ftate of the country, they are all, we prefume, extinét; and it is need- lefs to give any account of them. Such were the Prench Weft India company, eftablifhed in 1664, and poflcfling by their charter the property and feigniority of Canada, Aca- dia, the Antilles ifland, the ifle of Cayenne, and the Terra Firma of America, from the river of the Amazons to that of Oroonoko; with an exclufive privilege for the commerce of thefe places, as alfo of Senegal, and the coafts of Guinea, for 40 years, on condition of paying half the duties; but in 1674 the grant was revoked, partly on account of the poverty of the company, and partly becavfe it had anfwered the purpofe of its eftablifhment by recovering the commerce of the Weft Indies from the Dutch:—the French Miffiffippi company, firlt eftablifhed in 1684, in favour of the chevalier de la Salle, who failed in fearch of the Miffiffippi, but mif- carried with his colony, and came to.an untimely death. He was fucceeded by M. Hiberville. who found the Mif- fiffippi and fettled a colony there; but this adventurer being poifoned, M. Crozat obtained in 1712 the fole pri- vilege of trading to the French territories called Louifiana, granted to him for 15 years:—Company of the Weft, formed in 1717, when M. Crozat furrendered his grant before men- tioned; and obtaining befides every thing granted to the former company the commerce of beaver, enjoyed by the Canada company from the year 1706, but expiring in 1717: —ZIndia company, formed by a junction of the former com- pany with that of Canada and with that of Senegal in 1718, and alfo by an union with the Ealt India company, and with thofe of China and St. Domingo, with the two firl in 1719, and with the third in 1720;—the Baffion company, arifing from the affociation of two merchants of Marteilles in the 15th century for fifhing of coral in the gulf of Stora- Courcoury on the coaft of Barbary, onthe frontiers of Al- giers and Tunis; fo called from a fmall fort called the ‘¢ Baftion of France; built in 1561, but it funk in 1633 ;— and feyeral other companies, which either fell of themfclves, or upon the expiration of their grants, and which it is there- fore needlefs to mention. Company, Danifh North, was eftablifhed at Covenhagen in 1647. Its eftablifhments are very confiderable in Nos- way; befiles which, it fends veffels to Waranger, whence they convey their merchandizes by land into the Danith Lapland; and by fledzes drawn by rein-deer into the Muf- covite Lapland. It alfo fends others for Borandai and Si- beria; where its azent takes them up, and conveys them, in like manner, on fledges, to Panigorod, the capital of this part of the Mufcovite empire. The commodities it fends thither are rix-dollars, tobacco, and linens; it returns nothing but furs and flcins. Company, Dani/h Iceland, eltablifhed in the fame year with the North Company, its chief factory is at Kirkebar, a large town in that ifland. Company, Danifh Eft India, efablifhed in the year 1616, and invelted not only with the exclufive privilege of trading to the Eaft, but with the powers of civil and mihtary adminiftration; their chief factory was at Tranguebar. In 1634 this corporation was diffolved, and another, with fimilar privileges, fubltituted in its place. This alfo rapidly declined ; and in 1686, a third inftitution was tried for the fame pur- poles; but this too failed in about 23 years; and the pro- je&t was tried for the fourth time in 1732.. The new com. pany was provided with ample privileges and powers; and the poffeffion of thefe preferved its exiftence, and increafed the Frofits of the ftock-holder, at the expence of the country, and of the Indian fettlements. In 1772 the charter ex- pired, and was renewed under reftri¢tions which proved ruinous to the profperity of the company. In 1777, the king purchafed the rights of the company, and the private trade began to flourifh. When the charter was renewed in 1792 for 20 years, the private trade was rendered {till more free; all Danifh fubjeGts, and all foreiyners were permitted to trade with the Indian fettlements, upon receiving pafs- ports, either from Copenhagen or the Afiatic feats of go- vernment, and upon condition of returning with the cargoes to Copenhagen. Comeany, Levant, of the Genoefe, eftablifhed in 166.4, and confirmed by the Porte; notwithitanding the oppofition of the French. From 1670 this company has languifhed and funk, For a more particular account of the rife and progrefs of mott of the above mentioned and other companies, fee ‘ An- derfon’s Hift. of Commerce.’’ 1 Company, New River. This corporation eonfilts of a governor, deputv governor, treafurer, and twenty-fix di- rectors, who hold a weekly board for appointing officers, granting leafes, and redrefling grievances. The projeGor of this canal for bringing water to London, with the af- filtance of king James I. and the corporation of London, is f{uppofed to have expended 50,000/. upon it: the profits, which are divided into feventy-two fhares, for the firft thirty years admitted of little more than five pounds to éach fhare; but their value is much increafed, and its original fhares of 1oo/. are now eftimated at upwards of twelve thoufand pounds each. Company, in French compagnie. A certain number of people of war under the infpection and command of a chief called captain. ‘The number, however, is never fixed, but varies. In the guards, as in the artillery, acompany con- fits of 120 men. Inthe Auftrian fervice a company con- fifts of 200 men. A compagnie d’ordonnance was originally compofed of fifteen companies of gens d’armes of a hundred : Dd2z hommes cOM Fommes d'armes cach. In former times the word en/cigne de- noted the company of infantry, and the word cornette the company of cavalry. A company feldom confifts of fewer than so men. It generally has three or four ferjeants, three or four corporals, and two drums. Company, Artillery. See ARTILLERY. Company of Muficians, in the city of Weftminfter. See CHARTER. Company, in Sea Language, denotes the whole crew of a hip, including her officers. Company of Ships, is ufed for a fleet of merchant veffels, who make a kind of charter-party among themfelves; whereby, under feveral claufes and conditions tending to their common fafety, they engage not to quit one an- other, but to defend each other reciprocally, during their voyage. s Thefe affociates, in the Mediterranean, are called con- ferves. The chief conditions of the charter-party are, that fuch ard fuch fhall be owned admiral, vice admiral, and rear-admiral; and thofe that bear no guns, fhall pay fo much percent, of their cargo, for the expences of the ad- miral; that fuch and iuch fignals fhall be obferved ; that if they be attacked, the damages fhall be reimburfed by the company in general, &c. : Company, Rule of, or Fellow/fhip, in Arithmetic, is a rule whereby we difcover or afcertain the fhare of the pro- fits, or lofles, belonging to the feveral partners, or aflo- ciates, in any, enterprize, in proportion to the ftock each contributed thereto, and the time that ftock was in bank. See FELLowsuP. COMPARATES, Comparara, in Logic, the t2rms or fubjeGs of a comparifon; or the two things compared to each other. COMPARATIONE—Pundum ex See Puncrum. COMPARATIONIS Homogeneum. NEUM. COMPARATIVE Anatomy. See Anatomy. . Comparative Degree, in Grammar, is au inflexion be- tween pofitive and fuperlative degrees; whofe effect is, to fet a thine above or beneath the level of another. The Latins expreffed their comparative degree by a parti- cular termination of their adjeCtives, and particles ; wherein they are followed by the Englith, though by few others of the modern languages. The French form molt of their comparatives by adding the particles plus, moins, and aufi; the Italians, by piu, meno, &c. as the thing is to be raifed, lowered, or equailed to another. ; COMPARE, Vat v1, -in Geography, an ifland in the Jonian fea, anctently called Ithaca, noted for having been the country and kingdom of Ulyffes. COMPARISON, the relation of two perfonsor things, confidered es oppofed, or fet againft each other, in order to find wherein they agree or differ ; or wherein one has the advantage of the other. Comparison of Ideas, an a& of the mind, whereby it compares its ideas one with another, in refpe& of extent, degree, time, place, or any other circumftances. This ope- ration of the mind is the ground of relations. Brutes feem not to have this faculty in any great degree : they-have, probably, feveral ideas diftin& enough ; but can- not compare them tarther than as to fome fentible circum- flances an: exed to the objects themlelves: the power of com- panng general ideas, which we obferve in men, they have not, as we may probably conjeture. Comparison, in Rheforic, is a figure, or rather place, in CoMPARATIONE. See Homoce- cOM {peech, whereby two things are confidered with regard te fome third, which is common to them both. Thus, Cicer. Topic. ‘¢ Catoni licnit fequi bellum civile, igitur et Ciceroni licebit.”? ‘It was allowed Cato to engage in the civil wars, therefore it may be allowed Cicero:”? where, to engage in the civil wars iscommon to both. : There are three kinds of comparifon ; the firft a majo: i, i.e. from the major to the minor; as that of Cicero againit Anthony, ‘ Quid feceris domi tue, cum alien tam fis in- folens??? Or that of Terence, “ Quem feret, fi parentem non fert fuum?’? From the fame place, Ovid endeavours to ap- peafe Cefar. “ Cur ego poffe negem leniri Czfaris iram Cum videam mites hoftibus effe Deos?”” The fecond, @ minori, i. e. from the minor to the major.: thus Cicero, ‘* Majoris noftri fepe mercatoribus, ac navicu- latoribus injuriofius tra€tatis, bella gefferunt ; vos tot civium Romanorum millibus uno nuntio atque uno tempore necatis, quo tandem animo effe debetis ?” The third @ pari ; as when we contend, that what obtains in one thing, ought to obtain in another of the fame kind: “© Tt was a jaw that he who killed his father fhould be fewed up in a fack, ‘and thrown into a river; therefore, he who Kkilleth his mother deferves the fame punifhment.” “ Capto tuam, pudet heu, fed capto, Maxime, cenam : Tu capis alterius ; jam fumus ergo pares. Mane falutatum venio, tu diceris efle, Ante falutatum: jam fumus ergo pares,” &c. Mart. lib, ii. COMPARTIMENT, or Compartment, a defign com- pofed of feveral different figures, difpofed with fymmetry, to adorn a parterre, a cieling, pannel of joinery, or the lke. The term of compartiment is alfo ufed in painting. The Turkifh and Moorifh paintings are only compartiments ; the fine bindings of books are in compartiments, &c. COMPARTITION, in Architedure, the ufeful and graceful diftribution of the whole ground plot of an edifice, into rooms of office, and of reception, or entertainment. Compartition makes one of the great divifions of the art of building. COMPARTMENTS, in Gardening, are beds, plate, borders, and walks, Jaid out according to the form of the ground, and depend more on a good fancy, than on any fet of rules, for their conftru€tion. hey are alfo fometimes merely diverfities or knots of flower-gardens or parterres, of which there is an infinite variety, according to the fancy of the defigner. Plain compartments are pieces of ground di- vided into equal fquares and flower-beds, marked out b lines, and‘made of regularly equal length and breadth, Some allow to thefe fquares borders of two feet broad, if the plot of ground be {mall, andif larger of three feet, and edge the borders with box, or with upright hardy thyme; the alleys up between are to be laid with fand or gravel, and kept clean weeded. ComparTMENTOftiles, is an arrangement of white and red tiles varnifhed, forthe decoration of the covering of a roof. ComparTMENT, alley of. See AtLey. CompakTMenrT, in Heraldry, is the term for a partition in coat armour, when the arms of feveral families are borne by one, either on account of intermarriages or otherwife. COMPASS, the Mariner’s or Nautical. A period of about 500 years is now elapfed, fince an admirable property of a natural production was either difcovered by, or wig / luced COMPASS. ' duced among, the nations of Europe. To the fimple ap- plication of this remarkable property, mankind is indebted principally for the difcovery of a new continent nearly equal to the old one, for an extenfive commerce between the molt diffant nations, and for an accurate knowledge of the fhape and fize of the world we inhabit. The magnet or /oadffone is the natural production, and its direétive property forms the active part of that wonderful guide, the mariner’s com- pajs, or as it is more commonly called, fimply the com- pas, probably from its moving in a circle, or from its compailing the whole horizon. Whatever relates to the hiflory, the conftruétion, the ufe, and the defects, of this fingular machine, is rendered extremely important by the curiofity, the interefts, the fecurity, and the wants of the humana fpecies. The time when the attraCtive property of the magnet was firt difcovered, is by no means known. The opinions are various, but they are not eftablifhed upon hiftorical docu- ments of fufficient accuracy and authenticity. Certain how- ever it is, that mankind was acquainted with it at a very early period. Father Kircher, in his work, De Magnete, 1, i. cap: v., endeavours to prove that the Hebrews were ac- quainted with the magnet’s fingular property of attracting iron; and from Plutarch it appears, that the Egyptians were not ignorant of it. Pythagoras, Ptolemy, Hippocrates, Empedocles, Democritus, Leucippus, Epicurus, and feveral other ancient philofophers, knew and admired this wonder+ ful property of the magnet. Thales and Anaxagoras were fo ftruck with it, as to imagine that the magnet had a foul; and Plato faid that the caufe of its attraction was divine. Ariftotle, Theophraftus, Diofcorides, Galen, and others, were likewife acquainted with this property of the magnet. But its dire€tive property (viz. that property by which, if placed upon a piece of cork, or wood, &c. to {wim on the furface of water, or if it be fufpended by a very flexible thread, fo as to have fufficient freedom of motion, it will conttantly place itfelf in a certain fituation with refpeét to the cardinal points of the world) does not appear to have been known to the ancients; and though the time of the difcovery of this property is of a much more recent date, yet this too is involved in much doubt and obfcurity. It feems, however, that the ufe of this property, or (what amounts to the fame thing) the ufe of the magnetic needle, was not known in Europe before the thirteenth century. The honour of its difcovery has been much contefted. The Spanifh Jefuit Pineda, and Kircher, affirm that Solomon knew the ufe of the compafs, and that his fubjeéts actually ufed it in their navigations. Plautus in Mercatore, a v. {cene ii., has the following remarkable paflage, Huc /ecundus ventus eff, cape modo vorforiam. Now {ome authors are of opinion, that by the word vorforiam or verforiam, 1s meant the mariner’s compafs; but fome learned critics affirm that verforiam or verforium, meant a particular rope. And Dr. Lorimer is inclined to believe that it only meant the helm. By the confent of moft writers, it feems that a certain Flavio, or Johs, de Gioja, or Giova, or Gira, a Neapolitan, who lived in the 13th century, has the bett title to the dif- covery. Flavius Blond affirms that about the year 1302, the above-mentioned John de Gioja, a noble citizen of Amal- phi, a town of Principato, in the kingdom of Naples, firft difcovered the mariner’s compaf{s;.and he quotes the follow- ing verfe from Antony of Palermo, recorded by the Neapo- litan hiftorians, viz. ’ Primo dedit nautis ufum magnetis Amalphi. The arms of the territory of Principato have, it appears, éver fince been a mariner’s compafs. See Collinas, et Frome bellus de acus magnetite inventore, Ink, Acad. Bonon. tom. 1. p. Be Pe 372 E Dr. Gilbert, an Englifh writer of the 16th century, ia his book De Magnete, affirms that Paulus Venetus (the Ve- netian Marco Paulo) brought the invention of the compafs to Italy inthe year 1260; having learned it of the Chinefe. But this cannot be true; for Marco Paulo did not fet out for China before the year 1269, ror did-he return before the year 1295 (fee Purchas’s Pilgrim, vol, iii.) ; whereas the directive property of the magnet, and the communication of that property to ftee!l, was known in Europe before that time; though in all probability it was not ufed in navigation till fome time after, which may very reafonably be attributed to the clumfy mode of fufpending the magnetic needle, which muft at firft have been pra@tifed. Ludi Vertoman- nus afferts, that when he was in the Eaft Indies, abcut the year 1500, he faw a pilot dire& his courfe by a magnetic needle, fattened and formed like thofe now in ule. And Mr. Barlow, in his Navigator’s Supply, anno 1597, relates, that in a perfonal conference with two Eaft Indians, they affirmed that, inftead of our compafs, they ufed a magactic necdle of about fix inches in Tength, fufpended upon a pin in a dith of white China earth filled with water, im the bottom of which there were marked two crofs lines to indicate the principal winds; the reft of the divilions being left to the fkill of their pilots. But thefe two la!t obfervations, being of a date much pofterior to the ufe of the magnetic needle in Europe, conclude nothing with refpe& to its original difcovery ; fince the ufe of that magnetic property might have been introduced into Afia by fome European. P. Duhalde, in his “* General Hiftory of China,”’ vol. i. jn the annals of the Chinefe monarchy, fpeaking of the empe- ror Hoangti, when he gave battle to Tchi Yeou, fays,.** He perceiving that thick fogs faved the enemy from his pur- fuit, and that the foldiers rambled out. of the way, and loft the courfe of the wind, made a carr, which fhewed them the four cardinal points. By this method he overtook Tchi Yeou, made him prifoner, and put him to death. Some fay there were engraven in this carr, on a plate, the characters of a rat and a horfe, and underneath was placed a needle to determine the four parts of the world. This would amcunt to the ufe of the compafs, or fomething very near it, being of great antiquity and well attefted.”” And in another part of the fame book, {peaking of certain ambafladors, he fays, *¢ After they had their audience of leave in order to return to their own country, Tcheou Kong gave them an initru- ment, which on one fide pointed towards the north, and: on the oppofite fide towards the fouth, to direct them better on their way home, than they had been: directed in coming to China. This inftrument was called Tchi Nan, which is the fame name as the Chinefe now call the fea-compafs by : this has given occafion to think that Tcheou Kong was the inventor of the compafs.’? This happened in the 22d cycle, above 1040 before Chrift. Renaudot adduces ftrong rea- fons again{t the knowledge of the mariner’s compais among the ancient people of China, and of Arabia. See Kirchery De Magnete, lib. i. cap. v. In the works of Claude Fauchet, entitled, Recueil de Porigine de la Langue et Poefie Francois, fol. 555, there isa quotation from an old French poem, called /a Bible Guiot, in which the mariner’s compafs is evidently mentioned. This fame paflage is likewife quoted by Mufchenbroeck, in his Difertatio de Magnete. The paflage in which the com- pafs is mentioned forms part of the abovementioned poem, contained in a curious quarto manufcript of the 13th cen- tury, on vellum, belonging to the royal library at Paris, which was never publithed, The poem entitled /a Bible Guiots COMPASS. Gutct, forms the fir article of the volumes the author of which. viz. Guivt de Provins; as mentioned in the poem it- felf, was at the court of the emperor Frederic Barbarofla, heid at Mentz in the year rrSr, when the emperor’s two fons were knighted. See Chron. Abbot. Ufperg. p. 311. Here follows this remarkable paflage in its antiquated language, to which ts fubjoined a literal tranflation made by a native of Provence. Extrad from la Bible Guict. Tcelle eftoile ne fe muet, Une arts font qui mentir ne puet, Par Ja virtu de la manete Une piere laide et brunete, Ou il fers volenters fe joint. Ont regardent lor droit point Puez c’une aguile lont touchie, Et en un feftu lont fifhie, En longue la mette fens plus, Et il feftui Ja tient defus ; Puis fe torne la point toute Contre leftoile fans doute, Quant i] nuis eft tenebre et brune Con ne voit eftoile ne lune, Lor font a laguille alumer; Puiz ne puent ils afforer, Contre leftoile vers le pointe ; Par ce font il mariner coiute, De la droite voie tenir ; C’elt uns ars qui ne puet mentir. Literal Tranflation of the preceding. This fame (the pole) ftar does not move, (and) They (the mariners) have an art which cannot deceive, By the virtue of the magnet An ugly brownifh flone To which iron adheres of its own accord. Then they look for the right point, And when they have touched a needle (or it) And fixed it on a bit of ftraw Lengthwife in the middle, without more, And the ftraw keeps it above ; Then the point turns juft Againft the flar undoubtedly, When the night is dark and gloomy, That you can fee neither {tar nor moon, Then they bring a light to the needle ; Can they not then affure themfelves OF the fituation of the ftar towards the point (of the needle ?) By this the mariner is enabled ‘To keep the proper courfe ; This an art which cannot deceive. Francis Cabeus, a jefuit of Ferrara, fays, that the firft thing he knows profeffedly written refpeGting the direétive property of the magnet, was an epiftle of Petrus Peregrinus Gallus, about the latter end of the 13th century. A few years after, this epiftle was difguifed by one John Tafnier, who publifhed it in his own name, under the title of Opu/- culum perpetua memoria digniffimum de natura et effectibus maguetis. Some years ago, Mr, Sencbier of Geneva ient the following memorandum concerning this letter to Dr. Lorimer in London. “© Epiftola Petri Peregrini de Marcourt, Ad Sigerium de Foucancourt, Militem. De Magnete.” “ The work contains a defcription of that ftone, the means of finding the poles, its property of attracting irom, and proves that the part of the magnet which is turned to the north, attraéts that which is turned tothe fouth. Ic then teaches the manner of employing the magnet in aftro- nomy, and of playing tricks like thofe of Comus. It de- ferves to be remarked, that the author knew not that the magnet could be employed in navigation; for though he frequently {peaks de flella nautica, he never fpeaks of the ufe that might be made of the magnetic needle in fea voyages. Vide Bibliotheca Bibliothecarum, fol. 11. P. F400. Cata- logue of the manufcripts in the library of Geneva, by Se- nebier, p. 207.” Amongit the manufcripts of the univerfity of Leyden, there is a volume containing feveral {cientific traéts, one of which is a Latin letter of Peter Adfiger, on the properties of the magnet. It is, in faét, a little methodical treatife, divided into two parts, the firft of which is fubdivided into ten, and the fecond into three chapters. This letter, which feems intended for the inftruétion of fome particular friend, is dated in the year 1269. A few years ago, Mr, Cavallo obtained an exa@ copy of this curious letter, of which he inferted very ample extraéts, both in the original Latin and in Enghifh, in the fupplement to the fecond and third editions of his treatife on magnetifin, from which it appears that the writer, at that early time, was acquainted with all the principal properties of the magnet. The following is the tranflation of the moft remarkable part of the above= mentioned letter, which defcribes the compafs, and men- ' tions the declination of the magnetic needle. «Part Il. Chap. 2. On the conftrudion of a better ine Srrument to anfwer the fame purpofe, viz. to find out the Axis muth of the Sun, the Moon, or any Star upon ihe Horizon. ‘¢ Ta the prefent chapter, you will be informed of the conftruction of another inftrument of more certain effect: A veflel muft be made of wood, copper, or any other ma+ terial, and let it be turned like a box of {mall depth, and competently wide. Let a cover of fome tranfparent fub= ftance, as glafs or cryital, be adapted to it; and if the whole were made of fome tranfparent matter, it would be ftill better. A flender axis of copper or filver muft be adapted to the middle of this veflel, applying its extremities to the upper and lower parts of the box, viz. to the cover and to the box; the axis, however, muft not be fo firmly faltened, as not to be capable of moving very freely. Two holes muit be perforated in the middle of the axis, at right angles to each other, and an iron ftyle, like a needle, mult pals through one of thofe holes, whilit another ityle of fil- ver or copper pafles through the other hole in a direétion crofling the ironone. ‘The cover mutt firlt be divided into four parts, and each of thefe into ninety parts, agreeably to the inftru€tions given concerning the other inftrument in the preceding chapter, and upon it mark the north and the fouth, the eaft and the weft, points ; and let aruler of fome tranfparent fubftance, with fights on its extremities, be adapted to it. Then place whichever part of the magnet you pleafe, viz. the north or the fouth, near the glafs, un- til the needle be moved towards the faid magnet, and acs quires the virtue from it; after which, the magnet being removed, the extremity of the needle will turn itfelf towards the pole. This being done, turn the box until one extre- mity of the needle remains direGed towards the north part of the inftrument, or the north part of the heaven; then turn the ruler towards the fun in the day time, and towards the ftars in the night time, after the manner mentioned in the preceding chapter. By means of this inftrument, you may dire&t your courfe towards cities, and iflands, ee other COMPASS. other parts of the world, either on land or at fea, provided you areacquainted with the longitudes and latitudes of thofe places; for, if the town or ifland to which I intend to go is in a lower latitude than the place in’ which I am, I fhall go ftraight before me, towards that end of the ruler which 3s direG@ed to the fun or ftar; but if the latitude of the place be greater, I fhall proceed in the oppofite way, viz. in the direétion of the other extremity of the ruler. Ob- ferve, that the fouth part of the ncedle, which is to be ufed as a guide, muft be made to decline towards the welt by one point ; and this muft be done by the declination of the north part towards the eaft, becaufe the fouth part of the inftrument is deftitute of divifions.”” «‘ Take notice that the magnet, as well as the needle that has been touched by it, does not point exaéily to the poles, but that part of it which is reckoned to point to the fouth, declines a little to the weft ; and that part which looks towards the north, inclines as much to the eaft. The exact quantity of this declination L have found, after nu- merous experiments, to be five degrees. However, this declination is no obftacle to our guidance, becaufe we make the needle itfelf decline from the true fouth by nearly one point and a half towards the weft.” To this letter, Mr. Cavallo, in his treatife, fubjoins the following obfervation. ‘ It appears that the fufpenfion of the needle in the above defcription, is a very clumfy one; and that the beautiful fufpenfion by a cap upon a pin, which is now univerfally ufed, was unknown to the author. It is likely, therefore, that for want of this fufpenfion, the needles at that time not moving fufficientiy eafy, were not aCtually ufed in navigation, at lealt in Europe, though the fufpenfion by means of acap upon a pin, feems not to have remained long unknown after the date of this letter.” Sir G. Wheeler fays, that he had feen a book of altro- nomy older than the year 1502, which mentions the ufe of the needle in aflronomy, but not ia navigation. Gafleadus adduces, as an argument of the French hav- ing been the inventors of the mariner’s compafs, that the north point of it is always marked with a flower-de-luce. Lib. x. Diog. Laert. t. 1. p. 139, As for Goropius’s pre- tence, that the compafs muft have been invented by the Danes, Dutch, or Germans, becazufe the 32 points on it are written and pronounced in the Dutch, or Teutonic lan- guage, it is harely deferving of a reply. Dr. Wallis attri- bates it to the Englith, forno other reafon, but for its being called compafs. Vincentius Bellaucenfis, and Albertus Magnus, who lived about the year 1245, allo Lavinius Lemnilis, make mention of the diregtion of the poles of the magnet, as from a traét de Lapidibus, which had been attributed to Ariftotle; but 1s, with more probability, fup- pofed to have been written by fome Arabian author, not Jong before their own time. This tract has been fiace loft. Notwithfanding the foregoing remarks, it is fill very donbtful whether the ufe of the c:mpafs in navigation, or even the dire€tive property of the magnet, was known by any people before the Europeans, in or about the 13th century ; and it appears, that in the fame century, or foon after, the above-mentioned Neapolitan, Flavio, or John de Gioja, if not the ofginal difcoverer, was at leaft the firtt who ufed the mariner’s compafs, or conftructed it for the ule of veflels in the Mediterranean. The principle of the conttruftion of the compafs is ex- tremely fimple. A magnet, or a piece of fteel that has been rendered magnetical by means of natural or artificial magnets, mult be freely fufpended, fo as to be able to move without ob{truction ; for fuch magnet or piece of {teel will, in that cafe, dire& itfelf to certain parts of the world, which will of courfe indicate to the obferver the dire@tion of any other place, provided its fituation on the furface of the earthbe known. Suppofe, for inftance, that you are at fea near Portfmouth, and wifh to go towards Newfoundland, which lies to the weft. _By looking at the magnetic pisce of fteel or magnet, one extremity of which looks nearly to- wards the north, and turning your face to that part of the world, you proceed towards your left hand, at right angles to the direG@tion of the needle; fot in that direétion New- foundland is to be found. And after the fame maaner, you may proceed in any other direétion. Such is the fimplicity of the principle; but the practical application of it, efpe- cially in the prefent accurate mode of conftru€ting inftru- ments, and of making obfervations, requires a great degree of mechanical nicety, and a confiderable degree of attention to a variety of circumftances, upon which the accuracy of the inftrument, and its various applications, abfolutely de- pend. On account of thofe particulars, and in confequence of various contrivances made at different times, the compals or magnetic heedle has undergone innumerable alterations, both in fhape and fize ; and every kind of conttrudiion is attended with peculiar advantages, as well as defects; the molt effential of which we fhall endeavour to point out in the fequel. From its various ufes, the compafs has obtain- ed defferent names and different forms. Thefe are reducible to the four following fpecies, viz. 1. The land compa/s, which is ufed either for the pocket, or is adapted to the- odolites, to celeftial and terreftrial globes, &c.; 2. The fleering compafs for the ufe of veflels at fea. 3. The azimuth compafs, which ferves to find the fun’s or ttar’s azimuth, whence the aétual or true direction of the magnetic needle may be afcertained (this feidom being due north and f uth); and, 4. The wariation compafs, which, being fitnated ina proper place on land, fhews the daily variation of the mags. netic needle from its ordinary dire€lion. See MaGnetican Declination, and MaGreticat Variation. A common fewing needle rendered magnetical, and fimp!'y laid upon water, or faftened to a cork, or ftraw, &c. and fo laid upon water, in a glafs, or earthen or wooden cup; or elfe fufpended by a very flexible thread, which mutt be faflened to its middle, formsafimple but imperfe& compafs; and fuch, inal probability, was one of the firft modes of confruéting the compafs, whence the magnetized {tee!, wire, or bar, has, ever fince, been called the magnetic needle. The defeGts of the laft-mentioned conitruétion are too evi- dent to need any particular remarks. The n-edle laid upon water is continually running to the fides of the cup, the water is liable to be fpilt, or if a thread be ufed, the ftiff- nefs of it will always influence the aétion of the needle. To avoid thefe inconveniences, an excellent contrivance was fubftituted. It is a conical cavity made in the middle of the needle or fteel bar, as thewn in Plate, Magnetifn, fig. v. the open of which refts upon a pointed wire a, which en- ables the needle to move with the greatelt freedom imagi- nable, The open of this cavity fhould come as near as poflible to the upper furface of the needle, orrather a little above it,. as in fig. 2. in which cafe the upper furface of the.middle part. of the needle is Jeft a ttle more elevated than the reit.. Bute in order to avoid any irregularity in the {hape of the needle, - as well as any difficulty in the mechanical formation, the needles are moltly pierced quite through, with a pretty large hole ; a piece of hammered brafs is rivetted into this hole, and the conical cavity is- made into the brafs, fo that the open of it may iland even with, or very lictle above, the upper furface of the needle. The upper part of the wire upon which the needle retts, is generally made of hard feel, whilit: COMPASS. whilft the lower part is made of brafs. This conftruétion anfwers very well for a confiderable length of time; yet, by continual rubbing, a {mall prolonzation or irregularity of the cavity, is at length produced, which will in fome degree obftru& the free motion of the needle; hence, in the beft needles, the upper part of the above-mentioned ca- vity is formed in a piece of agate, which is not in the brafs picce, as fhewn in fig. 3. where AB is the needle, cd the brafs piece rivetted in a hole in the middle of it, and e is the piece of agate. The needles thus conftrudted are faid to have an agate cap. The defect. to which thofe agate cepsare fubjet, ts, that on account of the hardnefs of the {tone, the cavity in it feldom runs to a point ; the con- fequence of which is, that the pin which fupports the needle is apt co fhift from one part of the agate cap to another, and of courfe the centre of the needle cannot always coin- cide with the point of fufpenfion. The forms of the needles have likewife been very nu- merous. Some are flender and Jong, others broad and thort; feveral needles of the common fort are made broad towards the end, but tapering towards the middle, or they terminate in two very fharp points. Sometimes that ex- tremity of the needle, which points towards the north, is formed like a crofs; but the moit objectionable of all, are thofe which confit of two wires, and may be frequently met with on board of merchant fhips. Two picces of fteel wire, each bent in the middle fo.as to form an obtufe angle, and when fixed under the card, in the centre of which a brafs cap is faltened, form a lozenge. All thofe fhapes may, in great meafure, anfwer for common purpofes; but they are far from being accurate or regular in their per- formance, the reafon of which is, that a piece of fteel of irregular form generally has more than two magnetic poles; almoft every corner or protuberarce being a fouth or north magnetic pole; in confequence of which the asis of the needle never coincides with its magnetic axis, the latter of which changes its fituation in proportion as fome of the above-mentioned poles become ftronger or weaker than the yelt; and this is continually the cafe. In order to avoid every irregularity of fhape, and even the perforation, needles, for certain purpofes, have been fof. pended in the following manner: A B (fg. 4.) is the mag netic needle of a parallclopipedal form, which is faftened to a piece of brafs CED. ‘In the middle of this piece of brafs at g, there is a {mall conical cavity, wherein an agate cap is fet. In order to fufpend this needle, a bar F H (fig. 5-) of brafs, or copper, or wood, 1s made faft to the box K L.; in the middle of this bar a fhort pointed wire 18 fixed, which, when the bar is made to pafs through the brafs piece CED of fg. 4. viz. through g, enters the agate cap, and fupports the needle. Jig. 5. reprefents the whole together, where F H is the bar faltened to the box, A1B is the brafs piece, feen lergthways, or in the direc- tion of the needle, which pafles through the hole A B, and moves below the bar FH. It is evident that in this con- {truGion the needle cannot turn quite round, confequently this fort of fufpenfion is not ufeful for navigation. The Chinefe method of fufpending the magnetic needle is. exceedingly ingenious (fee fig.6 and 7.), the fir of which reprefents a fe€tion of this fufpenfion as viewed in the dire@ion of the needle; and the fecond exhibits a lateral view of the fame.- The letters refer to the fame parts in both figures. 1 isa brafs cap very thin and light, and to- wards the edge of it there are two holes, oppolite to each other. BB isa very flender flip of brafs, the upper part of which A, is fhaped like 4 ring, through which the needle CD paffes. The extremities of this {lip of brafs go through € J the holes in the lowér part of the cap, and are faftened to it by being turned over its edge. The magnetic needle C D confilts of a cylindrical fteel wire about an inch long, and not above a fortieth part of an inch in diameter; having its northern extremity only painted red by way of diftinétion. All this is f{upported by the pin E, which is faltened to the bottom of the box, and upon which it moves very freely. In this con{truétion the needle is above the point of fufpen- fion; yet the centre of gravity of all the three pieces (viz. cap, needle, and flip of brafs) taken tegether, is below the point of fufpenfion, which prevents the cap, &c. falling off from the pin when the compafs is fixed in an horizontal po- fition; but to prevent the cap with the needle being fhook off by any fudden jerks, or by inverting the inftroment, there is a very thin brafs plate fixed to the box, a fection of which is indicated by FG. It has a hole through the middle, which, being {maller than the diameter of the aper- ture of the brafs cap, prevents its falling off. It appears, from a variety of experiments, that the perforation through the magnetic needle is not attended with any bad confe- quences. The external fhape of the needle requires to be formed with greater attention, this being more apt to pro- duce a multiplicity of poles. A very broad needle feldom has its magnetic axis coinciding with the axis of its figure. A very flender and long needle almoft always has more than two magnetic poles. ‘There is a certain breadth, propor tionate to the length of a needle, which is lefs fubject to an irregular difp:fition of the magnetical virtue; this pro- portion, however, cannot be accurately determined. The little {welling generally left about the middle of the magnetic needles in order to give them {trength, where the perforation — for the cap would otherwife weaken them, has not been found to produce multiplicity of poles, provided it be made {mocth and free from corners. The lengths of the needles com- monly ufed at fea are from three to fix inches, but thofe that are ufed as variation needles are generally made !onger, though they need not, however, exceed eight or at molt nine inches. With refpect to the fubitance of the needle, it mutt be obferved that certain kinds of fteel are more apt to ac~ quire the magnetic virtue than others; but this mult be de- termined by“aétual trial. The common fort of magnetic’ needles are brought down to what is called by the workmen a blue temper, becaufe in that flate they are eafily mag- netized; but it mult be obferved that if in ‘that flate they are eafily magnetized, they are at the fame time liable to lofe that power very eafily; therefore the magnetic needles ought to be made quite hard; for in that cafe when they are once rendered magnetic, which is eafily done, they will retain that power almoft for ever after. The magnetic needles, though perfe€tly balanced before they are mag- netized, will, after that operation, incline one of their ex- tremities towards the horizon, which is in confequence of the dipping property .of the magnet. See MacGnetism, and Diprrinc WNeedle, Therefore ‘after the communica- tion of the magnetifm, it becomes neceffary to balance the needle again; but this maft not be done either by grinding off part of that extremity of the needle, or by adding a fixed weight to the oppofite extremity'of it, becaufe the quantity of that dipping varies according to the change of fituation on the furface of the earth.’ The beft way of adding this weight is by placing a {mall piece of brafs on one arm of the needle, capable of being flid nearer to, or farther from, the centre of the needle, by which means the balance of the needle when loft may be eafily reftored.' Upon all thefe confiderations, a needle of the belt form and fize is exhibited at fe. 8. and 9.; the former of which re- prefents a vertical, and the latter a lateral, view of it. AD . 18 is COMPASS. is the needle of hard fteel, C is the agate cap fet in a piece of brafs, B a mark made on that extremity which points to- wards the north, in order to diftinguith it from the other, and E is the piece of brafs which may be fli] upon the arm C D, for the purpofe of balancing the needle. The fhapes and fizes of the compaffes ufed upon land are very numerous; fome being of the ufual fize of a watch feal, and they are a€tually fixed in fuch feals; others are of the fize, and externally in the form of a pocket watch; others again are made in a wooden box, fquare on the outfide, but circular within; fome are of a larger fize, in a brafs box. Sometimes a little fun-dial is affixed to fome compafs boxes, and fo forth. But though the shape be different, the prin- ciple of the conftruction 1s the fame in them all. The box, whether of wood, or brafs, or filver, or other fubftance, mutt have no particle of iron or fteel in its conftrudtion ; and even the brafs, when that metallic fubflance is uled, mutt be tried by prefenting the extremity of a very delicate magnetic needie to every part of it; for if any attraction be obferved, that brafs mult be rejeéted, otherwife the needle would not move with fufficient freedom. Brafs is frequently macnetical, efpecially after being hammered, which is ge- nerally done by the workmen, for the purpofe of rendering it hard. A pin of hard fteel is fixed in the centre of the box, upon the point of which the needle refts; and a glafs plate covers the cavity. This glafs plate refts upon a fhoul- der, and ftands very little above the piece C (fig. 9.), fo as not to touch that piece, whillt at the fame time it prevents the needle’s falling from over the pin. In feveral of the compafies a little piece of wire with a button is affixed to the box, which is formed fo as to ftop the motion of the needle when the compafs is not intended to be in a@tion, as when it is carried in the pocket, &c. The fri¢tion which muft naturally take place in cleaning the glafs cover of a compafs, frequently excites its eleGtri- city, in which cafe the needle is attraéted more or lefs by the glafs, and its free motion is thereby partly or entirely obftru&ed. Phil. Tranf. N°. 480. p. 243. This inconvenience may be removed by pafling a wet finger in various direCiions over the furface of the glafs. Few needles of land com- pafles are furnifhed with cards like thofe which are ufed at fea. In general the principal points of the horizon are marked in the bottom of the box, and a divided circle is added to the box, fo that the edge of it may be even with, and fo near as almoft to touch, the extremities of the needle. The compaffes ufed at fea for afcertaining and dire&ing the courfe of veffels, differ from the former principally by their having a circular card, whofe diameter is equal to the length of the needle, fixed upon the needle, fo as to turn with it, and by the box being fet in a mechanifm on four crofs centres, called gimbals, the office of which is to keep the compafs box always in an horizontal pofition, whilft the external box moves with the fhip, as the latter rolls and pitches. This conftruction will be eafily underftood, by obferving jig. 10, which exhibits a fteering compafs as viewed by an eye placed perpendicularly over it. ABCD is the external wooden box, which is faftened to and moves with the fhip, EF is a brafs circle having two pivots or axes, G, H, which turn in two holes in the oppolite fides of the wooden box; ie, in the compafs box, which is like- wife furnifhed with two pivots or axes, r, u, and thefe turn in two holes made in the brafs ring I’ E. Now as the di- rection of thefe lalt pivots, 7, u, 1s at right angles to the di- rection of the pivots, G, H, it will be eafily underftood, that in whatever direétion the vefiel, and the box ABCD, which is fixed to it, mey incline, the compals box, io, re- Vou. IX. : mains always in an horizontal pofition, for it will turn either upon the pivots, *,u, or upon the pivots, G, H. Kis the card which is fixed to the magnetic needle and moves with it, under the glafs cover, through which it may be diflin@ly feen. The outer edge of this card is divided into 360 de- grees, and within the circle of thofe divifions it is again Gi- vided into 32 equal parts or arches, called the points of the compafs, or rhumbs. 'Thefe rhumbs are ufually divided into quarters. [heir names, beginning from the north point, and going all round, are as foliow: the letters ftanding N, fer north; E, for eaft; S, for fouth; and W, for welt. N. Sa byt. W.S. W. N, by E Spas W.by S. N.N. E. 5. E. by 8. Ww. IN Deals a Nigh MuSBNSem os W. by N. N. E. S. by E. W.N. W. INLD eh al pe WSs N. W. by W. Ero aks. S. by W. N.W. =. by N. S.S. W. N. W. by N. E. S.W.byS. N.N.W. E. by S. 5. W. N. by W. ES. E. S. W. by W. The conftru@tion which has been more generally ufed in the royal navy, is an improvement of the late Dr. Knight, a gentleman of very extenfive knowledge in maguetifm, In this conftruGtion the weight of needle, card, &c. is ree moved confiderably below the point of fufpenfion or centre of motion, by the adsition of a brafs circle, whofe diameter isequal to that of the card, which is made very thin. This ring being fixed below the card, and the needle above it, the centre of gravity of the whole comes low enough to admit of the cap being fituated below the needle; hence the needle needs not be perforated. This needle is a perfeét parallelopiped. The jigs. 11 and 12 reprefent the lower and upper parts of this (Dr. Knight’s) card, needle, &c. about one half of the real fize. AB is the needle, and C reprefents the upper part of its cap, fituated below it. The under part of the cap is feen at G; ADDB is the eard. The brafs edge, or circle, is reprefented by FE O, and is faftened to the extremities of the needle, (the card being interpofed) by means of two fcrews. H, I, are two fliding weights to balance the card. A few years ago another fort of conftru@tion was-con- trived by Mr.. K. M‘Culloch, for which he obtained a patent. The fgs. 13 and 14 reprefent this compafs, the former being a fection, and the latter a perfpective view of it. In this compafs, both the compafs-box and the needle, with the card, are fufpended upon points, the extremities of which come very near to each other; which conftruction keeps them horizontal without any gimbals, as will be eafily manifefted by the following defcription. Fig. 13, A aaaa, is the common wooden box, with its hd; 44 the brafs compafs box; cc the glafs cover to it; dd the hollow conical bottom ; e the prop, upon which the com- pafs is fupported inftead of gimbals; the {pherical top of which is finely polifhed, and the apex of the hollow cone is fitted to receive it ; ff isa quantity of lead run round the bottom and cone of the compafs box, to balance and to keep it fteadily horizontal ; ¢ gis the card, and the magnetic needle, bent in fuch a manner it to bring the point of the conical pivot, on which it moves and is fupported, very near to the centre of gravity, as well as to the centre of motion ; 4h are two guards, which, by means of the two pins j,i, affixed to the compa(s-box, prevent its turning round, and deceiving the fteerfman. In fig. 14, both the lid and Ee the COMPASS, the front ofthe box are removed; 4A are the guards; & the compafs-bcx, and e isthe prop which fupports fhe box. The greateft inconvenience that attends the ufe of the com- pafs at fea is the irregularity of motion induced by fhocks of fudden impulfes. In thofe cafes the veflel is fuddenly of its direQion, and the card of the compals is fet 2 vibrating for a confiderable time, during which the fieerfman is unable to regain his courfe. Several methods have been tried for the purpofe of removing this inconveni- ence, and the above defcribed compafs of Mr. M‘Culloch’s contrivance was fuppofed to accomplifh this end in a con- fiderable degree} but the experience’ of fome years fhews that thisis not the cafe. The leaft flcilled feamen do not >the needles of their compafles too powerfully mag- netized, becaufe, they fay, then the needles are not fteady. Lhe fat is, that when the needle is not ftrongly magnetic, it-follows the irregularities of the fhip’s motion in a great cegree 3 which renders it apparently more fteady ; but the very fame caufe which enables it to follow the irregular motion of the fhip, prevents at the fame time its placing itfelf in the magnetic ‘meridian. With the fame degree of impropriety, fome perfons have endeaveured to prevent the irregular fhocks or vibrations of the magnetic needle by incréafing the fri€tion between the cap of the needle and the pointed wire which fupports it. Sometimzs pieces of papers like wings, have been ftuck to the lower furface of the card, which, by offering a refiltance againft the air in the box, check in fome meafure the irregular movements of the card. In the year 1779, Dr. Ingenhoufz prefented a paper to the Royal Society, which is publifhed in the 6gth vol. of the Philofophical 'TranfaGions, and in which he deferibés fome experiments, made by magnetic need!es in water, where he found that a ftrong magnetical needle placed itfelf in the magnetic meridian, nearly as well under water asinthe open air, and that by the refiftance of the medium, much of its too great verfatility was taken away. In confequence of thofe experiments the Dr. propofed to enclofe the magnetic needle in fome fluid for the ufe of veffels. ‘¢ Common water,” he fays, ‘* would be, perhaps, the beft medium for thefe different contrivances, if fteel was not fo eafily rufted by it, and if in cold weather water was not fo apt to freeze; therefore, I think, that fome of the thinnelt expreffed oils would an{wer the purpofe better. The glafs bafon containing fuch a compafs fhould be full of the liquid to the cover, to obftrué& undulating motions.”? But though this propofal appeared at firlt very promiling, and fome eminent philofophical inftrument-makers were much ftruck with it; yet it does not appear that it was ever adopted. The ufe of the compafs in general is to direét a perfon along any required track, which makes a known angle with the direétion of the magnetic needle; and this renders thecom- pafs applicable to a variety of purpofes; thus it guides tra- vellers in deferts, as in Arabia, in the woods of America, &c.; it ‘enables the navigator to proceed in any required track ; it is highly ufeful to the miner, by fhewing the direGtion of fubterranean places; it ferves for meafuring horizontal angles ; hence it is ufefulin land-furveying, taking plots, finding bearings in dialling, &c. And laftly it ferves to fet fun-dials, and other aftronomical inftruments when no great accuracy is required. he application of the compafs to tlrofe purpofes is lo very obvious, as not to require any farther illuftration. But for fome of thefe purpofes, fights mutt be applied toit, asin the azimuth compafs. The azimuth compa/s i3'a fteering compa{s of any of the above-mentioned conitructions, to which two fights are adapt- ed, through which the fun is to be feen, in order to find its amplitude or its azimuth, whence the declination of the moved out magnetic meridian from the true or afbronomical meridian may be determined ; thofe two meridians {eldam coinciding. At prefent (1807) in London, the declination of the mage netic needle isabout 24° 9’ welt; that is, the northern extree mity of the magnetic needle, points to a part of the heavens, which makes an angle of about 24° g! withthe true North, But this declination is various at different times in the fame place,as well as at different places at the fame time. The more ufual fort of azimuth compafles is reprefeuted in jig. 15, where I, G, are the fights, or fight vancs, in one of which, G, there is an oblong aperture, with a perpendi- cular thread or wire through its middle; and intheotherfight, I’, there is a narrow perpendicular flit. Athreador wire, H lie is {tretched from one fide of the edge of the box to the other. The ring A B of the gimbals refts with its pivots on the femicircle CD, the foot, E, of which turns ina focket, fo that whilft the bex, KLM, remains fleady, the com- pafs may be turned round, in order to place the fights, F,G, in the dire€tion of the fun, or other celeftial obje@. The pivots of the gimbals of this, as well as of the fteering compafs in general, fhould lie in the fame plane with the point of fufpenfion of the needle or card, for the pur- pole of avoiding the irregularity of its vibrations as muck as poffible. In the infide of the box there are two lines drawn on its fides perpendicularly down, from the points where the thread, Hi I, touches the edge of the box. Thefe lines ferve to fhew how many degrees the north or fouth pole of the needle is diftant from the azimuth of the fun 5 on which account the middle of the apertures in. the fight vanes, and G, the thread H I, and the above-mentioned. two lines mut ftand exaétly in the fame vertical plane. The ufe of the thread HI, which is fometimes omitted in compaffes of this fort, 1s to fhew the degrees between the magnetic meridian and the azimuth, &c. when the eye of the — obferver ftands perpendicularly over it. On one fide of the box of the azimuth compafs, there generally is a nut or flop, which, when pufhed in, bears againft the card and ftops it; and this is done for the purpofe of reading that degree, half degree, &c. of the card, which coincides with one of the perpendicular lines in the infide of the box. Mr. M‘Culloch’s azimuth compafs is reprefented in fc. 16, where 4 is the compais-box, 4 one of the guards, e the prop, which ftands in a brafs focket, and may be turned round at pleafure, r is a brafs bar upon which the fight vanes are fixed; 2,adark glafs, which moves up or down on the fight vane 3; 4 is a magnifying-glafs, which is alfo moveable on the other fight vane; 5 is the nonius’or ver- nicer; 6 a flide for moving the vernier fo as to flop the card in taking the azimuth; and 7 a double convex glafs,. through which the divifions on the vernier may be read. with accuracy. : In order to obferve at fea the magnetic amplitude of a celeftial obje& (viz. its bearing by the compafs when in the horizon) with the azimuth compafs, place the inftrunent on a fteady place, whence the horizon may be clearly feen ;. and looking through the fight vanes of the compafs, turn: the inftrument round, until the centre of the fun’s difk, or other celeftial obje&, may be feen through the narrow flit in one of the fight vanes, exaétly on the thread which bifects the other fight vane; and at the inftamt that the centre of the celeftial objeA, whether rifing or fetting, isin the horizon, puth the ftop in the fide of the box, fo as to ftop the card, then read the degree, half degree, &c. of the card, which ftands againft one of the perpendicular lines in the infideof the box, and thiis is the magnetical amplitude fought.—In this ebfervation, fome allowance muft be made forthe height of the obferver’s eye, above the level of the . fea, COMPASS. fea. The true amplitude of the celeftial objeét is an arch of the horizon contained between the eaft or weft points of the horizon, and that point of the horizon which the centre of that celeftial objeét cuts in its rifing or fetting. In order to find the true amplitude of the celeftial objec, the latitude ofthe place of obfervation, and the adtual declination of that objeét, mutt be known; then fay, as the cofine of the latitude is to radius, fo is the fine of the declination to the cofine of the amplitude fought. To obferve at fea the magnetic azimuth of a celeftial ob- je&, (viz. its bearing by the compafs when above the ho- rizon), fituate the inftrumentin a fteady place, and looking through the narrow flitin one of the fight vanes, turn the box round until the centre of that objet appears to coincide with the thread in the flit of the other fight vane, or till the fhadow of that thread, when the fun is obferved, fails ex- + aGly along the line on the furface of the compafs-box, and at that mnitant flop the card; then read the degree, &c. as above directed with re{pe&t to the amplitude, and thus you have the magnetic azimuth of that object —The true azi- muth of that objet is an arch of the horizon intercepted between the north or fouth point, and that peint in which a plane pafling through the zenith andthe ccleftial object, cuts the horizon. Inorderto find this azimuth, the lati- tude of the piace of obfervation, the declination of the ce- leftial objeét and its altitude muft be known; and fince to determine the declination of the magnetical needle, this true azimuth of a celeftial objet muft be taken at the fame time that its magnetic azimuth is taken; therefore the altitude of that object muft be taken with a fextabt, at the very inftant that its magnetic azimuth is taken ; ‘wiz. at the time the ‘card is topped ; then proceed in the following manner: Ifthe de- clination and latitude be both north or both fouth, call the co- declination A ; but if they be one fouth ard the other north, add go® to the declination, and call the fum A. Call the difference betweén the co-latitude and co-altitude B. Let the half of the fum cf A and B be called D; and the half of their difference be called C; then add together the four following logarithms, viz. the arithmetical complement of the logarithmic fine of the co-latitude, the arithme- tical complement of the logarithmic fine of the co-altitude, the logarithmic. fine of D, and the logarithmic fine of C. Half the fum of chofe: four logarithms is the logarithmic fine of half the azimuth fought. Now, having fhewn how to find the true and the mag- netical amplitudes as weil as azimuths, we fhall bricfly add the method of determining from them, the declination of the magnetic needle for the time and place when and where the oblervations are made. Let the amplitudes, as well as the azimuths, be all reckoned from the north point, which is effeGted by fubtracting the amplitude from go° when it is on the northward of the ealt or welt points; or by add- ing it to go° when it is fouthward of the faid points. Then the magnetic amplitude is either imaller or greater than the trueamplitude. When the magnetic amplitude is lefs than the true, and they are both on the fame tide of the north point, their difference is the declination of the magnetic needle towards the contrary fide of the north po‘nt. But if they be on different fides of the north point, then their fum is the declination towards the fame fide with the true amplitude. When the magnetic amplitude is greater than the true, and they are on the fame fide of the north point, their difference fhews the declination towards the fame fide. But if they be on different fides, then their-fum is the de- clination towards the fame fide with the true amplitude. Thus, for example, if the magnetic amplitude is 80° eatt- waid of the north point, aud the true amplitude is 82° to- wards the fame fide; them the declination is 2° weft. And if the magnetic amplitude be 76° ealtward of north, whilft the true amplitude is 5° weftward of north, then the decli- nation is 81° weft. ‘he fame direfions, mutatis mutardis, are to be followed for finding the declination from the mag~ netical and true azimuths. Ever fince the difcovery of the declination of the mag- netic needle from the true meridian, which appears to have been firft obferved by Columbus in his firit voyage to- wards the continent of America, in the year 1492, the caufe of that phenomenon has been earneftly fought after by inquifitive perfons in the fcientific world ; and efpecially when it was found that this declination varies continually, ‘in a manner, which has not, as yet, been reconciled to any theory. The moft promifing method of inveltizating the fubjeét appeared to be that of obferving attentively the daily, and even the hourly, variation of the declination, -ia order to difcover, if poffible, any period in it, orayy de- pendance of it upon other natural phenomens.. And in faét, the late ingenious Mr. Canton, who made numerous obfervations relative to the fubje&, found a periodical in- creafe and decreafe of the magnetical variation, in great meafure correfponding with the temperature of the different parts of a natural day. For this purpofe accurate compafles were fixed in various obfervatories, and the variation of the magnetic needle has been obferved, at lealt once every day, for a great many years; fuch obfervations having frequently been inferted in meteorological jsurnals, and elfewhere. The variation compa{s being intended to fhew the daily variation of the ‘magnetic needle upon land, is generally made longer than thofe that are ufed at fea; and, as it ts not neceflary to turn it round, the box generally is of an oblong form, fo that the angular motion ot the needle in it may amount to ahout 40° or 50°. ‘The divided arches are either within the-Box, concentric with the point of fufpen- fion of theneedle; or ont of it, on a frame, the particular conitruétion of which will appear from the defcription of the variation compals of the Royal Society of London, which will be given prefently. When the divided arches are within the box, in which cafe a nonius is often placed on one extremity of the needle, the variation is known by obferving the divifion which coincides with the axis of the needle. In cither conftrudtion, it is evident that the begin- ming of the divifions of the arch or arches muft be placed exactly in the meridian of the place; or elfe its deviation from the mertdian mufk be accurately known and allowed for in reading the degrees of magnetical-variation.” And it is almoft fuperfluous to add that fuch compaffes muit be fituated in very fleady places, out of the influence of iron;~fo much fo thatit will be proper for the obferver, when he examines the compals, &c. to take out of his pockets, Keys, knives, or any other article of itee! and iron; for otherwife thefe will fenfibly alter the dire@tion of the needle. We thall now fubjoin the pardcelar defcriptions of two variation- compzfles of the belt conftru&tion, wiz. of that which is vfed ct the Royal Society, and is deferibed by the hononr- able Henry Cavendith, in the 66th vol. of the Phijofophical ‘TranlaGtions; and of that which was contrived by Mr. Cavallo, and is deferibed in his “ Treatife on Magnetifm;”” the former of which, being much larger, is well calculated for a fixed obfervatory, whilit the latter is {maller, more compact, and may be eafily fixed in any place. fig, 17, isa plan of the Royal Society’s variation-com- pals. ‘In thisinttrument, the box which holds the needle is not fixed, but tarns horizontally on a centre, and has-an index tattened co it, poinsing to a divided arch on the brafs frame on which it turns; and the method of obfeiving is to Kea move COMPASS. move the box, till a line drawn on it points exactly to the end of the needle; which being done, the angle that the needle makes with the fide of the frame is fhewn by the in- dex. ABéda is the brafs frame, the fides AB and ad being parallel: Ee isa circular plate faftened thereto, on which CDdc, the box which holds the needle, turns as on acentre; Nx is the needle, the pin on which it vibrates being fixed in the centre of the plate Ee; Bd is the divifion on the brafs frame; and G the index faftened to the box, CDdce, furnifhed with a vernier divifion ; the divifion and vernier being conftru@ted fo as to fhew the angle which the line, Ff makes with AB, or ad. The inftrument is placed in the meridian by the telefcope, Mm, the line of collima- tion of which is parallel to AB, and is pointed to a mark fixed due north of it. Fig. 18, isa vertical feGtion of the inftrument paffing along the line Ff; AB is the brafs frame; CDdc is the box which bolds the needle; Ee the circular plate on which it turns; Nz is the needle ; Pandp are {mall plates of brafs fixed to the ends of it, on each of which is drawn a line ferving by way of index. Thefe pieces of brafs are raifed to {uch a height that their tops are on a level with the point of the pin on which the needle turns. The ufe of them is, that itis much eafier obferving this way, than when the lines, ferving by way of index, sre drawn on the needle itfelf, as by this means the inconve- nience proceeding from one kind of vibration in the necdle is avoided. §, ands, are two brafs plates, on each fide of which is drawn a line, to which the index at the end of the needle is to point; there is alfo a line parallel to thefe, drawn on the bottom of the box; thefe three lines form the line, Ff in fg-17. R is a double microfcope intended to aflit usin judging when the index, P, points exactly to the line, F, that is, to the line drawn on the plate S. It is placed fo that a wire, W that by which an expanfion-rim is guided, with one of its ends at liberty ; and the manner alfo in which the effective length of the {pring is limited, allows along fcale of lengths, in a correfponding fhort feale of diflances between the fcrew head ard pin; the latter of which laws is evidently difadvantageous to the nicety of the adjuftment for temperature ; befides, when the brafs arch and the fteel bar are found on trial not to bein their due pro- portions to each other, the remedy cannot be applied with- out varying the original proportions, by lengthening or fhortening the verfed fine, as the cafe may be, which altera- tion will require the mechanifm to be difplaced. Improvement on the laft Compenfation. Berthoud, having difeovered the inconvenience and ob- jetions'to the laft deferibed compenfation curb, propoles another in hts * Hittoire du Temps,” tom. ii. p. 101 and 102, thus: A, fig. 6, Plate XXVILI, is the principal cock, mounted as ufual on the pillar p!ate behind ; B is again the balance of one metal; C, the ufual f{piral fpring; Dd/,a rack moveable on a focket concentric with the balance verge, with {ome additional apparatus carried by it ; E is a fecond cock ; and F a third, bearing the fiton, or fliding ftud, with its frame and fecuring {pring asin jig. 3 of the fame plate already defcribed ; G is a pinion with an arbor {quared at the projecting end, to receive a key, which pinion has its teeth formed fuitable to impel the teeth of the rack Dd; a and dare two compound bars of brafs and fteel, foldered together with hard folder, inferted at dinto a bearing piece, and kept faft by a preffing ferew e¢, urging them together with the loofe piece, d, interpofed, and kept parallel by a clamping piece cs the rack has a circular perforated groove, which allows it to pafs backward and forward by the a&tion of the pinion, while the heads of the two fcrews, fand g, confine it to the fame plane on the back of the plate; and, laftly, the compound bars, a and 4, have each a pin at their free extremities, which contain between them the lait coil of the fpiral fpring, the action of which is limited precifely in the manner defer:bed in our la{t compenfation mechani{m ; here, however, the law of flexure is again the fame as in Harrifon’s, though the law of limitation in the effeGive length of the {pring is different ; the latter, as we have feen, depends on the quantum of play between the pins, whereas, in the former, there was no piay at all, and the curb itfelf was the limit; feeing the effeGtive length of the {pring di- ninifhes as the pins approach each other, the exterior Ja- minz of the compound bars, @ and 6, mutt neceffarily be brafs, and the interior ones fteel, to fhorten the fpring in high temperatures, and the contrary; when the effeé& pro- duced 1s too great, the clamping piece, ¢, is carried outwards towards the pins, in order to fhorten the bars, which have their lengths meafured from this clamp ; but when oe ite COMPENSATION. fe& produced is too little, the faid clamp muft be brought inwards towards d, to lengthen the bars; fo that the fcale of adjaftments here runs along the length of the two paral- le] compound bars, as it relates to the variations of temper- ature ; while the adjuftment for a mean rate is made by the index 4, which fhews the quantum on the contiguous por- tion of a divided circle. Still, we think, that while a {mall variation in the play, between the curbing pins, produces a great variation in the effective length of the fpring; this contrivance can have no pretenfions to rank in utility with fome of the more recent inventions, that place the compen- fating parts on the balance itfelf. Compenfation by Breguet. A compenfation fimilar in effet to the two foregoing ones by Berthoud, but more fimple than the latter, is that which Breguet of Paris has applied with fuccefs to his com- mon watches ; this compenfation is fhewn in fg. 7 of Plate XXVIII. where the bounding circle denotes the back plate of the frame; A the principal cock; B the balance of one metal; C the common fpiral fpring ; Dde a three armed piece, called by the French a rateau, to which is attached the mechani{m of compenfation thus: the curvi- linear fork, ab, is compofed of two metals: each prong con- filting of a flip of fteelanda flip of brafs, fo attached together, that the fteel 1s the exterior, and the brafs the interior part in each; the end a is {crewed to the lever D, and the end 3 is loofe, confequently at liberty to approach or recede from the fpiral fpring, as the changes of temperature affe& the fork ; the interior end, a, of the fork bears a pin near the letter 4, not feen by reafon of the lever D, which lies over it, and a fecond pin fimilar to the other is carried by the lever D, between the two largeit coils of the fpiral: thefe two pins limit the cfi-Give length of the {pring exa&ly in the way that the two preceding compenfating contrivances have been explained to do, for which reafon we do not re- peat what we have already faid on this part of the fubje&; the alternate inward and ovtward motions of the pin, 4, re- gulate the difance between the two pins, on which the play depends, and confequently the length of the {pring alfo, as it has regard to the action; the prong a has a tendency to become firaight by heat, in confequence of the concave part being brafs, but the prong, J, has a tendency to be- come {till more convex in confequence of the brafs being the convex part 3 the joint effet of which alterations of fhape and pefition wiil be, that, as the balance and its {pring be- come enlarged, the {pace between the curbing pins will be- come diminifhed, and the contrary. The watch is regu- lated for mean time by the index part d of the three-armed rateau,and the third arm, c, contains a pin about the middle of the fpiral f{pring, which we conceive to be the banking pin, though no mention is made of it in the original de- fcription. ‘* Hiftoire de la Mefure du Temps, by Berthoud.” Compenfation by Mr, Fames Scott. In May of the year1805, Mr. James Scott, of Grafton Street, Dublin, publifhed an account in Mr. Nicholfon’s Journal, (vol. XI. p. 19—21., 8vo. feries) of a compenfation curb which acts in a manner fomewhat analogous to that which we have defcribed as the invention of Cumming ; but it is evident he had not previoufly feen the one alluded to, nor yet Ber- thoud’s, otherwife he would not have faid in his letter to Mr. Nicholfon, that ‘ artifts have not been able to invent a compenfation-curb adjuftable to the exaét expanfion re- quired.”? The cqntrivance now before us is ingenious, and we prefume might be applied to an ordinary watch with con- fiderable advantage ; though we cannot perfuade ourfe!ves that any method of curbing the regulating fpring, after it has been adjulted for ifochronifm, affords fo good a com- penfation, as the mechanifm of compenfation now ufusily applied tothe balance itfelf. Fig. 2, of Plate XXX of Ho- rology, fhews all the parts of Mr. Scott’s compenfation-curb, as given by himfelf in the original account; but as his de- fcription did not feem very intelligible to usat the firft read- ing, we hope to be excufed the liberty we take of giving our own account of the contrivance: A A is an index of fteel, with a circular part embracing a dove-tailed groove that furrounds the balance verge in the upper plate of the frame ; to this fteel index is attached, by a {crew and iteady pin, one end of a compound circular bar, BB, fo formed, that the fteel part is the exterior, and the brafs part the in- terior ; to this compound bar is faftened a fecond compound bar CC, alfo circular, by means of a clamping piece and fcrew at D; a loofe piece of metal, interpofed between the two circular bars, be:ng preffed by the fcrew, the outer one keeps the inner one clofe to the fhoulder of the clamping piece, which cannot be feen in the figure; but it is eafy to conceive that fuch a clamping piece will apply at any part of the circular bars; the bar, CC, has the brafs part exte- rior, and the fteel part interior; E is the ftud in the plate, that holds the outward end of the fprral regulating fpring, intended to be curbed ; ard the interior compound bar, € C, paffes between two fteady pins, inferted in the plate at a, a fhort diftance from 6, where the curbing pins are fixed, that embrace the laft coil of the fpring: whenever the in- dex, A A, is moved, in regulating for mean time, it carries with it the two concentric compound bars, and the curbing pins flide along the coil of the fpring, fo as to Jengthen or fhorten it as the cafe may be; fuppofe, tow, that the re- gulation for rate be made, and that the balance has its tem- perature elevated, the tendency of the outer circular bar will be to open, or enlarge its radius of curvature, which aGion will bring the interior compound bar and its curbing pins nearer to the index, and fhorten the balance fpring a little ; but this aétion is not fufficient to produce the whole requifite effet ; the tendency of the interior circular bar CC, on the contrary, is to clofe, that is, to approach the index, in confequence of its radius of curvature becoming fhorter, while its end at D is clamped to the free end of BB; and it is the amount of thefe two contemporary mo- tions, produced in the interior compound bar, CC, that conftitutes the motion of the curbing pins at 4, along the {piral {pring, in a,direGtion towards the index AA. Ina low temperature, juit the reverfe takes place ; the outer com- pound bar, B B, has its radius of curvature fhortened, and the inner one, C C, has its radius of curvature, on the con- trary, lengthened in this cafe, fo that the joint effe& is to make the curbing pins retire from the index to lengthen the regulating fpring ; which a'ternate lengthening and fhortening of the balance-f{pring’s effective length in heat and cold, form the compenfation for the corr-fpondi»g va- riations in the momentum of the balance and force of the fpring. The excellence of the prefent contrivance confitls in its affording a fcale of adjuftments; for moving the clamping piece, D, forwards, towards the middle of the concentric circular bars of compenfation, leffzns the ef- fe&, and removing them back, towards the open- ends, in- creafes the effe@& to be produced on the balance-fpring, by giving a greater or {maller range of motion to the curbing pins. The inventor’s rule for the thicknefs of the com- pound bars is, that each lamina be of the thicknefs of an ordinary main {pring of a common watch, fo that the com- pound pieces may be cach of twice the faid thicknefs. ComPENnsaTions - COMPENSATION. Compensations on the Balance.—-Thermometer of Peter le Roy. We have faid under our’article Curonometer, that Har- rifon was the frit perfon who fuggelted the idea of the ba- lance carrying its own compenfation, and Peter le Roy was the fi-ft who in 1766 fucceeded in fuch a conftru€ton ; in our notice of this invention, however, there 1s a typogra- phical omiffion which we beg leave to corre& here before we proceed to our defcription; it is faid under the article jut referred to, that the compenfation was effected “by means of two thermometers, one of mercury and the other of alcohol, attached to, and carried by, the balance itfelf ;” inftead of’|* one end of-each bearing mercury, and the other end alcohol, &c.”? as will now be more clearly underftood, Figs. .« and 2:ef Plate XUX. af Horelegy, exbibit fo much of the balance of Peter le Roy as is neceflary for explaining its conftruGtion; AA, in jig..41, is a.portion of the arbor or verge to which the balance B is attached by ferews; C is a fmall ring attached to the inferior part of the verge which holds the two {crews of regulation for mean time, and which alfo clamps the horizontal parts of the two glafs thermome- trical bent tubes, D and E, placed diametrically oppo- fite to each other, one of which is feen in a detached {tate in fig. 23; thefe tubes are alfo held faft by two other clamps, to the middle of the verge, as may be feen in fig--1 ; the fu- perior end of the itraight vertical part of each tube is open to admit the preffure of the atmoiphere on the mercury, which is now feen ftanding at the fame level in both the up- right portions of each thermometer, after the inferior or horizontal conneGing part is filled; but the bulbs and parts above the letters D, and E, are filled at a mean temperature with alcohol, refpeétively reiting on the columns of mercury: when the balance and balance-{pring are enlarged by heat, the alcohal has alfo its bu!k increafed, and defcerds below the letters D and E, for inftance, in very high temperatures as low as the horizontal conneéting part, in which cafe the mercury preffed upon by it defcends under the alcohol, but afcends in the fame proportion at the other end, til it reaches nearly the open fuperior end of the vertical ftraight part of the tubes refpeCtively ; the mercury which was be- tore ina column parallel to the verge, but at a diftance from it, is now alfo parallel but contiguous, and, as it is a ponderous fluid, the momentum of the balance is confider- ably diminifhed by the approach of the mercury to the cen- tre of motion, which change of pofition of the mercury con- flitutes the compenfation required to balance the effect of an enlargement of the balance itfelf, and of an elongation of ats regulating {pring taken jointly : in alow temperature the contrary change takes place in the fituation of the mercury, for as the bulk of the alcohol contraéts and retires round the acute angular point into the bulb, the exterior vertical branch becomes filled by the mercury. Peter le Roy, we have be- fore faid, was difpofed to prefer this balance to the balances he made entirely of metal, but the frangibility of the bent tubes, and the liability of the fluids to be agitated, if not to be mixed, fometimes conftituted objections to its porta- bility, that prevented its being copied by other chronometer makers. ‘The adjuftment for the extremes of temperature mult have been made by varying the quantity of mercury in a given tube; and probably tubes of various dimenfions were tried fucceffively before the exa&t effet was produced, both at the extremes, and at all the intermediate degrees of tem- perature. The balance being heavy, was fufpended by a thread above the fuperior end, A, and the flender cylindrical part, underneath the fame A, rotated ina triangular hole, made by three furrounding fri@ion rollers, not fhewn in our figure ; talUy, two regulating {prings, wound in contrary directions, were placed under the ring, C, near the lower’ pivot of tha verge, which fprings are purpofely left out, that the reader may not have to view more parts than are neceflary for ex. plaining the compenfation balance itfelf. Compound metallic Balance of P. le Roy. Peter le Roy, however, was not contert with trying his thermometrical tubes, only to effet a compenfation on the balance, but he fo far adopted Harrifon’s idea on the re- quifite conitruétion of a balance, carrying its own compenfa- tion in motion, that he tried moreover his compound bars of fteel and brafs, not, indeed, as curbs, applied to the {prings according to Harrifon’s method, but as rims to the balance itfelt: fig. 3 of Plate XXIX. thews a balance of this con- trivance, where A is the diametrical bar fixed to the verge, and BB and CC two feparate femicircular portions of the compound rim, which were each compofed of laminz of ftecl and brafs refpe4tively rivetted together in different places, in fuch a way that the brafs pieces were the exterior or con- cave ones, and the ftecl pieces the interior or convex ones ; the loads are not given in the drawing, but the inventor {ays ** Memoire fur la meillure maniere, &c.’’ that his con- trivance made a confiderable portion of the circumference ta approach the centre of the balance in a high temperature ; fo that either he mult have had loads on the ends of the femicircular parts of the rim, or otherwife thefe parts them- fulves mu‘t have been thick, which would prevent their due obedience to the variations of temperature. Pig. 4 is a kind of regiter contrived to examine the law by which the flexure of a compound bar was guided, as com- pared with a mercurial thermometer, thus; A is the croffes and rim of a balance of one metal, ftecl, we will fup- pofe, and the compound piece B, ferewed at the end a, to the plane of the rim, has its end, 2, at liberty to obey the changes of temperature; near J is a fmall cock into which a rolle-, bearing the index C, is pivoted above, againft which roller the free end, J, of the compound bar, B, atts, whilft the interior end of the index points at the divilions made on the portion of a circle, D, near the centre of the balance: the experiments that were made with this inftru- ment, according to P. Je Rey’s account, fhewed that the rim of the index, fo circumftanced, correfponded very well with the rim of a mercurial thermometer, in all the different parts of the fcale; and if his was found to be really the cafe, we cannot help thinking it extraordinary that the con- triver of the compound metallic balance, which has {lability and portability to recommend it, did not prefer it, in actual practice, to the mercurial balance, which was lable to the objections we have jlated. Arnold’s Balances. Some pains have been taken to prove that Mr. Arnold, fenior, did not invent his compenfation balances himfclf, but borrowed them from Peter Je Roy; we confefs that we have not met with any conclufive argument in favour of fuch a fuppofition, but, on the contrary, have afferted under ourarticle CHronomerer, that, ‘‘a variety of different fhapes were given by Arnold to his balances, and actually . tried in practice, before he adopted the one in prefent ufe, fome of which balances are yet in exiltence ;’? and we have it now in our power to fay further, that many of the balances here alluded to are yet in ufe, as ourfelves have witneffed very lately ; which balances have been proved to be excellent regulators, and-fome of which have public tef- timonies in their favour. We propofe therefore now to defcribe them in fucceffion, or at leait fuch of them as have fallen in our way. No. COMPENSATION, No.1. In his preface to his printed certificates, Mr, Amiol!d, fenior, fays, that his firft attempt to improve clocks and watches commenced in the year 1764; but we find it was not till the year 1767, that he turned his mind ferioufly to the conftruion of chronometers ; the firft compenfation balance that he agtually brought into ufe, was the one re- prefented in fig. 5. of Plate X XIX. which was taken from one of the original balances while in our poff eo echy COME OSE ON, fe&ly {mooth, which muft be particularly attended to; then lay on the plafter about one eighth of an inch thick all over the part where the wood or bark-has been fo cut away, firiifhing off the edges as thin as poffible: then take a quan- tity of dry powder of wood afhes mixed with a fixth part of the fame quantity of the afhes of burnt bones, put it into a tin box with holes in the top, and fhake the powder on'the furface of the plafter, till the whole is covered over with it, letting it remain for half.an hour to abforb the moifture; then apply more powder, rubbing it on gently with the hand, and repeating the application of the pow- der till the whole plaiter becomes a dry {mooth furface.”” And he adds the following directions. J *« Ail trees cut down near the ground fhould have the furface made quite fmooth, rounding it off ina {mall degree as before-mentioned; and the dry powder direéted to be ufed afterwards, fhould have an equal quantity of powder of alabafter mixed with it, in order the better to refilt the drip- ping of trees and heavy rains.”? Such parts or portions of the compofition as may be left for a future ufe ‘ fhould be kept in a tub or other veffel, and urine of any kind poured on them, fo as to cover the furface ; otherwife the atmofphere will greatly hurt the effi- eacy of the application.” And “ where lime-rubbifh of old buildings cannot be eafily got, take pounded chalk, or commonime, after having been flaked a month at leaft.”’ It is further remarked by the author, that ‘ as the growth of the tree will gradually affe& the platter, by raifing up its edges next the bark, care fhould be. taken, when that happens, to rub it over with the finger when occafion may require (which is beft done when moiftened by rain), that the plafter may be kept whole, to prevent the air and wet from penetrating into the wood.” But “as the beft way of ufing the compofition is found, by experience, to be in a liquid ftate,’’? Mr. Forfyth advifes that it fhould “ be reduced to the confiftence of pretty thick paint, by mixing it up with a fufficient quantity of urine and foapfuds, and be laid on with a painter’s bruth. The pow- der of wood-afhes and burnt bones is to be applied as before direéted, patting it down with the hand.” Tt is alfo further advifed, that ‘* when trees are become hollow, to {coop out all the rotten, loofe, and dead parts of the trunk to the felid wood, leaving the furface {mooth ; then to cover the hollow, and every part where the canker has been cut out, or branches lopped off, with the compo- fition ; and as the edges grow, to take care not to let the new wood come in conta& with the dead, part of which it may be fometimes neceflary to leave; but to cut out the old dead wood as the new advances, keeping a hollow between them, to allow the new wood room to extend itfelf, and thereby fill up the cavity, which it will do in time, fo as to make it as it were a new tree.’’ ' And if the cavity be large, to cut away as much at one operation as will be fufficient for three years. But in this to “‘ be guided by the fize of the wound, and other circum- ftances. When the new wood, advancing from, both fides of the wound, has almoft met, to cut off the bark from both the edges, that the folid wood may join, which, if properly managed, it will do, leaving only a flight feam in the bark. If the tree be very much decayed, not to cut away all the dead wood at once, which wou!d weaken the tree too much, if a ftandard, and endanger its being blown down by the wind. It will confequently be neceffary to leave part of the dead wood at firft, to ftrengthen the tree, and to cut it out by degrees as the new wood is formed. If there be any ceaker, or gum oozing out, the infected parts mult be pared off, or, cut out with a proper infrument. When the ftem is very much decayed and hollow, it will be neceffary to open the ground aad examine the roots.” See Dressinc of Trees. Various interefting fa&s and obfervations on the advan- tage and utility of this compofition in the removal of. the difeafes of different forts of trees, may be feen below, as taken from Mr. Forfyth’s valuable “ Treatife on the Culture and Management of Fruit and Foreft 'T'rees.’’ It is ftated by Mr. Forfyth as being ** the received opi- nion and common praétice of moft profeflional men, to prune or lop their trees, from the month of Oéober, when the juices have been exhaulted by the fummer foliage, au- tumnal fruit, and general nourifhment of the body of the tree, until the month of March, when the fap or juices, re-invigorated by nature during the winter’s repofe, begin to re-afcend and perform the anoual funGion of clothing it with frefh foliage, bloffoms, and fruit. ‘The reafon of this practice is, he fays, that the fap being fallen at that feafon of the year, it has been confidered as the moft proper pe- riod to lop off all fuperfluous growths, and the efforts of nature to heal the wounds thus neceffarily given (before the rifing of the fap in the following fpring), have been judged beft for the fafety and health of the tree. The danger of performing this fervice when the juices are in a more vigor- ous flow, as in the months of May, June, and July, has been dreaded, from a fear of its occafioning a wafte of the nutritive juices, difcharging themfelves through the wound, to the impoverifhment and injury, if not the ruin of the tree.’ And it is added, that ‘‘ the pruning of fruit-trees, and the lopping off large branches from foret-trees dering the winter feafon, has alfo been frequently attended with great hurt and impediment to their health and vegetation ; the wounds being expofed to all the rigours of an inclement feafon, aod thereby contraGting thofe difeafes which contain the principles of decay. Hence it is, that {uch numbers of foreft-trees are continually injured in their value for public ufes, either by unfkilful management, or purpofed depreda- tion, or by the violence of boifterous winds, when their limbs and branches being torn off, the trees are left in that unprotected ftate to imbibe the feeds of decay and rotten- nets, which will in time pervade their very heart, and render them unfit for any of thofe valuable purpofes for which na- ture, by their frame and texture, appears to have defigned them.”” And “it may alfo be obferved, that where branches have been cut off from the body of the tree, even at the diftance of two cr more feet from the trunk, with a view to prevent injury to the timber, even that method has not been found effe€tual to fave the tree from very material detriment ; as the remaining ftem of the branch fo cut away, dying foon after, becomes a ready conduit for con- veying pernicious moilture and difeafe to that part of the tree with which it is conne€ted ; and fo on, in time, to the whole.’” But he fuppofes * the praGtice of others in lopping their trees clofe to the trunk, and drefling the part {mooth and even, has lefs objections than the former; neverthelefs, even according to this method, the tree is liable to injury. The effort of nature to heal the wounds thus given, difcovers it- felf by encircling the wound with a kind of callus or lip, which increafing in fize, and {welling out from the annual flow of the juices, forms a hollow or cavity of the central part, where the rain or fnow is very apt to lodge; and pe- netrating between the bark and wood, dried and cracked by ahard froit, or a warm fen, promotes that fermentation with the natural juices, which is the certain fource of difeafe and decay.” It is fuggefted that ‘* young, healthful, and vi- gorous COMPOSITION. gorous trees, when they have been injured by being wan- tonly cut through the bark, or from other caufes, will fome- times recover themfelves, and, to all outward appearance, be reftored to their original foundnefs; but when cut into planks and boards, internal blemifhes and faults are difco- vered in them, which appear to have been occafioned by the early injuries which the tree had received; the texture of the wood not uniting where the wound was originally given; though, from the youthful viffour of nature, the bark has clofed, and an external cure been evidently per- formed on fuch trees. The compofition is a moft efficacious remedy to prevent thefe evils with all their deflruGtive confequences, and to reftore found timber where the fymptoms of decay are al- teady apparent, which being applied in the manner directed, *to the wound or injured part, will infallibly prevent the bleeding of trees, or the oozing of juices through the wounds of limbs or branches that have been-cut off in the middle of fummer, when they are in their highelt vigour, and moft rapid flow of vegetation; by which means, any watteful difcharge of the juices is prevented, and they are duly confined to their natural operations of giving nourith- ment, growth, and fertility, to their refpective bodies. By employing this remedy, trees of all kinds, whether in gar- dens or orchards, in parks or forefts, may, he fays, with greater fafety and advantage be pruned or lopped in the {pring, or early in the fummer, than in the winter feafon ; as the compofition, when properly applied, repels the flow of the juices through the wound, caufes a more active vege- tation, and affilts nature more powerfully in healing the wound at the time the fap 1s in full vigour, than when it is on the decline, as in autumn and winter feafons.’”? The writer confilers it alfo neceflary to remark, further, “ that both fruit and forelt-trees (particularly thofe which grow in the fhade) are very liable to be affected with dif- orders proceeding from the growth of liverwort, and various kinds of mofs, that adhere to the outer bark of the tree, and frequently gain a confiderable thicknefs, that not only prevents the natural flow of the juices, but caufes a ftagna- tion in the circulation and brings on decay; which, after deftroying the outer bark, penetrates by degrees deeper into the wood. Where this circumftance 1s obferved, care fhould be taken to clear the whole bark of the tree from thefe growths; and where it is infected, to f{crape or pare i* away. When the body of the tree is thus cleanfed from infection, the compolition may be applied to the parts fo cleanfed, to clofe the pores of the wood; when the tree will {oon acquire a frefh bark, and improved health and veyetation.”’ The author is “ confirmed in thefe opinions by the many experiments and various trials that he has made, to afcer- tain, by the moft pofitive proofs, the properties of this com- polition, before he ventured to offer it,to the public atten- tion.” ‘Indeed, every year’s experience has increafed his conviétion of its general utility, when properly applied to the purpofes for which it is recommended.” In order to give a more complete illuftration of its virtues, and to place the advantages arifing from it in a ftronger light, he ftates a few of the very numerous experiments that he has made on the foreft-trees in his majelty’s gardens at Kenfington, where the falutary effects of it are extremely evident. It is remarked that ‘ the firft trials of its efficacy were made on fome very large and ancient elms, many of which were in a molt decayed ftate, having all their upper parts broken, by high winds, from their trunks, which were withal fo hollow and decayed, that a {mall portion alone of the biurk remained alive and found. Of thefe trees he cut away at firlt a part only of the rotten {luff from the hollow of the tree, and then applied the platter to the place where the operation had been performed, by way of an in- ternal coat. In a fhort time, however, the efforts of nature, with a renovated flow of the juices, were clearly difcernible in ‘their formation of new wood, uniting with and {welling as it were from the old, till it became a {trong {upport to that part of the tree where the compofition had been applied. He then cut away more of the rotten wood from the infide, applying the platter in the fame manner, with the fame good effets, and continued to ufe the knife in proportion to the acquifition of new wood; fo that from the tops of the decayed and naked trunks, {tems have, he fays, actually grown of about thirty feet in height, in the courfe of fix or feven years from the firft application of the compofition ; an incontrovertible proof of its good effects in reftoring decay- ed vegetation in fuch cafes.”” And he adds, that ‘¢ many other elm trees, which, had received hurts from bruifes and other caufes, and where dif- eafe and decay were already evident, after cutting away all the infeed part, and duly applying the plaiter, were fo completely healed, that the outline of the wound is fcarcely difcernible on the bark, and the new wood is as perfeétly united to the old, as if it had been originally formed with the tree.”’ It is ftated that ‘* of oak trees alfo, which had received very confiderab& damage from various accidents, as blows, bruifes, and cutting of deep letters, the rubbing off of the bark by the ends of rollers, or wheels of carts, and muti- lated branches, a perfect cure has been made, and found timber produced. The acidity, guporrotive quality of the juice of oak-trees, when obftruGed in their circulation from any of the caufes already mentioned, and fermenting with the wet and moifture imbibed by the wounds from the atmo- {phere, will bring on difeafe, and promote decay ; for, not- withftanding the hard texture of the oak, when once the principles of decay begin to operate, the acrimonious juices feed the difeafe, and accelerate its progrefs, as much, per- haps, as in trees of a fofter quality and texture, but when the difeafed or injured part is entirely cut away to the frefh found wood, and the compolition properly laid on, as perfect a cure has been made as he has already related in the recovery of elm trees.’? The writer likewife further fates, that ‘‘ various experi- ments have alfo been made on other forcft trees, as afh, limes, chefnuts, and fycamores, that had received the feve- ral injuries to which they are expofed; as well as many of the refinous kinds, fuch as the cedar of Lebanon, and others of the pine tribe: in all of which he has experienced a degree of fuccefs that exceeded his moft fanguine expeCta- tions. And as he feels a {trong folicitude to render his ex- periments of the moft extenfive advantage to the community, and in particular to the proprietors of landed eftates through- out the kingdom, he begs leave to recommend to their par- ticular attention, that all foreft trees, whether felled with a faw or an axe, may be cut near to the ground; at the fame time carefully preferving the ftump and roots from any fur- ther injury. The furface may then be made quite fmooth, and the compofition be {pread over the whole, according to diregtions already given. But in thefe cafes the compolivion fhould have an equal quantity of the powder of aiabalter mixed with the dry powder generally direéted to be ufed after it is laid on, in order to render the furface harder, and of courfe better able to refift the bad effets of the dripping of trees, of rain, froft, and {now ; an addition which is by no means neceflary in the ufual application to the fides of trees.” Heconcludes that, ‘in confequence of this pro- ecfa, COMPOSITION. cefs, the vigour of the roots will operate fo powerfully in the courfe of the fucceeding {pring, that a confiderable number of buds or branches will fhoot forth round the ftusap, which, with proper care and attention, may be trained to many valuable purpoles, either {traizht cr crooked, for knee timber, or other ufes; and, by retaining only fo many of thefe fhoots as are defigned to grow for any parti- cular intention, more than one half will be faved, in point of time, according to the proportions of common growth 5 for, if a young tree be planted in a foil equal in quality to the ftate of the old ftump, the roots growing from the lat- ter will, in eight or ten years, attain to a fize which the fingle plant will hardly acquire in twice that period. There are alfo many ufeful purpofes of hufbandry, as hop-poles aud other poles ufed on various oceafions, for which a num- ber of fhoots may be trained from one ftump, whofe fertile juices will fhortly rear a healthy and numerous offspring around it. ‘Very particular attention, however, fhould, he fays, be paid to regulate the number, according to the fize and vigour of the ftump. It would certainly be proper to leave more of them at fir than are intended to be referved for final ufe, in order to draw up the fap; if too few are left, they will be liable to burft, from the fuperabundant flow of the juices from the old ftock ; to prevent which in- convenience they fhould be cut away by degrees, always applying the compofition as they are cut, and leaving the fineft flem to produce the new tree, and wiff, in time, cover the old ffump, and leave nothing but a faint kind of cica- trix at the jundtion of the old and new part of the’tree.”’ He thinks it “ needlefs for him toinfift on the great ad- vantages which land proprietors and farmers will derive from this method of managing their woods and coppice- grounds, wherever they may be. In many counties of England, coppice, or underwood, is an article in very great demand for-charcoal, common fuel, or the purpofes of par- ticular manufaétories, as well as to furnifh a variety of arti- cles for hufbandry and domettic conveniences.’ And its advantages in a national as weli as ornamental point of wicw, are {till more obvious. See Canker. Composition, in Grammar, denotes the joining of two words together; or prefixing a particle to another word, to augment, diminifh, or change its fignification. See Worn, &c. Composition, in Law, an agreement or contra& made between the owner of lands and the parfon or vicar, with the confent of the ordinary and the patron, that fuch lands fhall for the future be difcharged from payment of tithes, by reafon of fome land or other real recompence, given to the parfon, in lieu and fatisfaétion thereof. uand may be exempted from the payment of tithes, where compofi- tions have been made; and real compofitions for tithes are to be made by the concurrent confent of the parfon, patron, and ordinary. Real compofitions are diftinguifhed from perfonal contraéts ; for a compofition called a perfonal con- traét is only an agreement between the parfon and the pa- rifhioners, to pay fo much inftead of tithes: and though fuch agreement is confirmed by the ordinary, yet (if the par- fon be not a party) that doth not make it a real compofi- tion, becaufe he ought to bea party to the deed of compo- fition. (Marfh’s Rep. 87.) This kind of compofition was permitted by Jaw, becaufe it was fuppofed that the clergy would be no lofers by fuch compofition; fince the confent of the ordinary, whofe duty it is to take care of the church in general, and of the patron, whofe intereit it is to protect that particular church, were both made neceffary to render the compofition effectual ; and hence have arifen all {uch compofitions as exift wees day by force of common ~ law. But, experience fhewing that-even this caution wag incfteGual, and the poffeflions of the church being, by this and other means, every day diminifhed, the difabling ftatute 13 Eliz.c. 10, was made, which prevents, among other {piritual perfons, all parfons and vicars from making any con- veyances of the eltates of their churches, other than for three'lives or twenty-one years, Sothat now, by virtue of this ftatute, no real compofition made fince the 13th Eliz. is good for any longer term than three lives, or twen- ty-one years, though made by confent of the patron and ordinary ; which has, indeed, effectually demolifhed this kind of traflic ; {uch compofitions being now rarely heard of, unlefs by authority of parliament. See Mopus. Compofition is fometimes ufed for ‘* decifio litis.”? Ac. cordingly compolitions were anciently allowed for crimes ard offences, even for murder. By this expedient it was pro- pofed to reftrain the violence of private revenge. The cvf- tom may be traced back to the ancient Germans (fee Tacit. de Mor. German. c. 21.) and prevailed in other uncivilized nations. ‘lhe nature of crimes and offences was eftimated by the magiftrate, and the fum due to the perfon offended was afcertained with a minute, and often a whimfical, accu- racy. Rotharts, the legiflator of the Lombards, who reigned about the middle of the 7th century, difcovers his intention both in afcertaining the compofition to be paid by the offend. er, and in increafing its value: it is, fays he, that the en- mity may be extinguifhed, the perfecution may ceafe, and peace may be reftored. About the beginning of the oth century, Charlemagne ftruck at the root of the evil, ard enaéted, ‘* that when any perfon had besn guilty of a crime, or had committed an outrage, he fhould immediately fub- mit to-the penance which the church impofed, and offer to pay the compofition which the law prefcribed, and if the injured perfon or his kindred fhould refufe to accept of this, and prefume to avenge themfelves by force of arms, their lands and properties fhould be forfe‘ted, Tavernier relates, that in Perfia, 2 murderer is fttil delivered to the relations of the perfon whony he has flain, who put him to death with their own hands; and if they refufe a fum of money as a compeniation, the fovereign cannot pardon the murder er. Montefq. Sp. of Laws, vol. ii. p. 382. Robertfon’s Hitt. of Ch. V. vol. i. p. 334; &c. . Comrosition, in Logic, is a method of reafoning, wherein we proceed from fome general {elf-evident truth, to other particular and fingular ones. The method of compotition, called alfo fyuthefs, is jut the reverfe of that of refolution, or analy/is. Refolution is the method whereby we ordinarily fearch after truth ; compofition, that whereby a truth found, is dife covered and demorf{trated. to others; refotution is the me- thod of inveltigation; compofition, of demonftration. ‘The method of compolition is that ufed by Euclid, and other geometricians ; refolution, that ufed by algebraifts and philofophers. ‘The two methods differ, juft as the methods of fearching a genealogy ; which are either by defcending from the anceftors to the pofterity, or by afcending from the pofterity to their anceftors : each have this in common, that their progreffion is from a thing known, to another un- known. The method of compofition is beft obferved by the ma- thematicians: the rules which are, 1. To offer nothing but what is couched in clear and exprefs terms; and to that end, to begia with definition. 2. To build only on evident and clear principles ; to that end, to proceed from axioms or maxims. 3- To prove demonftratively all the conclufions that are drawn hence; and to this purpofe, to make ule of no arguments or proofs, but definitions already lzid down, axioms ' — ‘axioms already granted, and propofitions already proved ; which ferve as principles to things that follow. Comrostrion of ideas, is an operation of the mind, avhereby it combines feveral of its fimple ideas into complex ones. Under the fame operation may likewife be reckoned that of enlarging; whereby’we put feveral ideas together of the fame kind, as feveral units'to make a dozen. Tn this, as in others, brutes come far fhort of men; for though they take in and retain feveral combinations of fim- ple ideas ; as poffibly, a dog does the fhape, fmel!, and voice of his mafter; yet thefe are rather fo many diftinét marks whereby he knows him, than one complex idea, made out of thofe fimple ones. An ingenious writer has fuggefted the impropricty of the phrafe “ compofition of ideas,” adopted by Mr. Locke, al- leging it is merely a contrivance of language, and that the only compofition is inthe terms; and that it is as improper to {peak of a complex idea, as it would be to call aconttella- tion a complex ftar. He further adds, that they are not ideas, but merely terms, which are general and abftract. Whatever, he fays, the immortal author of the ‘* Effay oa Underftanding,”’ has juftly concluded in his reafoning on this febje& will hold equally true and clear, if we fubftitute the compofition, &c. of terms, wherever he has fuppofed a compofition, &c. of ideas. If upon ftriti examination this fhould appear to be the cafe, we thall need no other argu- ment againft the compolition of ideas: it being exaétly fimi- lar to that unanfwerable one which Mr. Locke himfeif de- clares to be fufficient agairft their being innate. For the f{uppofition is unneceffary : every purpofe for which the compofition of ideas was imagined being more eafily and maturally anfwered by the compofition of terms; whil% at the fame time it likewife clears up many difficulties, in which the fuppof:d compofition of ideas nec¢ffarily invoives us. This writer further adds, that it is an eafy matter, up- on Mr. Locke’s own principles, and a phyfical confideration of the fenfes and the mind, to prove the impoffibility of the compofition of idcas. Tooke’s Diverfions of Purley, pt. 1. P+ 379 &c. Composition, in Mathematics, is the taking of a given number of quantities, out of as many equal rows of different quantities, one out of every row;‘and combining them together. Here no regard is had to their places ; and it differs from combination, in which there is but one row of things. “T. “The number of compofitions of n things taken out of n rows, each row conlifting of m things, is m”, or the n” power of m.”” Let there be any number of rows, fuch eit thofe annexed. It is plain the number of fin- gle things as a, b, & d, is m or m'. t, ky "Then the number of combinations of every 2 is had by joining each quantity in the fecond row to all the quantities in the firft, which will make as many times m as there are things in the fecond row, or m times m, that is m*, for all the two’s. Again, taking in the third row; there will beas many times m”, as there are things in the third row, that is, m times mm, or m}, for the compolition of three things. A fter the fame manner, if a fourth row wastaken in; allthe combinations of every four would be ai*, and fo on: and, there~ fore, univerfally, when rows are taken in, the number of combinations will bem", which is the number of compolitions. Hence it follows, 1. That the number of compofitions-of nn all the one’s, two’s, three’s, &c. to n, is = For Vou. IX. s a, b, ¢, d, ao fi gh, im. mm, COMPOSITION. m+ — I mi— f —— = nw+mtm+e,. m=-~ I j ps : m3 -- m™ + m, as will appear by divifion, or, in general, m= m+ + And i — nn - — mam" + m™", &c. tom = the one’s, two’s, three’s, &c. to n. 2. Hence may be found the compofition of n things out of m, as follows: Involve m to the 2" power for the anfwer. ? E.G. 1. How many compofitions may be had, of 3 letters out of 20? Anf. 20} = coo. different alphabets. : £. G. 2. How many changes are there on throwing four dice? Anf. 6+ = 1296. II: “ If there be m rows of quiantitics given, having the fame quantities, and the fame number of them, as a, b, ¢, a, &c. to find the number of compvfitions of m things taken out of the m rows ; for any given form of thefe quantitics, as a BP c’ d*, &e. Rule. Put V = variations of the things af 1° c¥ d*5 and A = variations or alternations of the indexes, ft, v, W, x. (See Cxances and Permutation.) Then wil AV = the number of compofitions required. compofitions of all In this cafe there fhould be three For let the different rows in the laft pro-) a, 4, ¢ d, pofition be made all alike, or the firft row| a, 4, ¢, d, m times repeated, as here. Andletthenum-| a, 4, ¢; d, ber of things propofed be a’ 4” c, and firft let $ a, b, c, a; the index 3 be fixed to a and z to b, &c.| a, b, c, a, Now, fince a? may. be taken out of any three | a, b, ¢, ds rows, and 3? ont of any two remaining rows a}hla; cheer. and c out of the laft remaining row; therefore, there will be fo many ways of taking thefe letters, as each of them can be placed in different rows, that is, in different places or fituations; for the varying of the rows is the fame thing as the varying of the places of the letters; and, confequently, the different ways of taking them out of the feveral rows is equal to the number of variations or permutations of thefe letters ; which number is = V. And this will hold as long as the indexes are fixed to thefe particular letters, end to none elfe. But fince, in any one form, as a? 5° c, that form will comprehend as many cafes as there can be variations in fhifting the indexes from one letter to another ; therefore, there will be fo many times V, as is the number of thefe variations, Therefore, if A be = the number of varia- tions, or alternations, of the indexes, 3, 2, 15 or, in ge- neral, of t, v, w, x3 then AV will be the whole number of compofitions, which that particular form will admit of. Hence, 1. In any a’ d° c d*, where the. indexes are fixed invariably to their particular letters ; the number of compofi- EX 2X 3X 4+.tom V2 eh se BEX VSS eoghee TOM XK Cs 2. Ifn = the number of different letters in any forms a & ce dt, &c.; then the whole number of compoli- Foes. tOy 2 Rc. tions V will be = tions for that form will be = 1.263 ve to m Tiny Bitasds pet hiah Dries 5) ae &c. according as any index is twice or thrice, Kc. repeated 5 and the like for S, and fo on. E. G. 1. How many compofitions are in the form a’ bc ? Herren = 3,m=6,t= 30=2,Ww= 1; and in this cafe there is no repetition of indexes, ln us Mnf. where R= 1.2, or 1.2.3; COMPOSITION. Hifcig Sea S ied aul : £.G.%. low many compcelitions are in the form a? 5? Oly MIS Morera ents ey Gi oy tin Sas TUNE index 2 is twice repeated. vp 122-3 ive dotrorto Gg a! ae LG, mh Aan oe alee E.G. 3. To find th Herex=2,m=>6,t,0=>2,w=0. twice repeated ; and the letters a, 4 thrice. = 6 x 60 = 360, 30 ==" 90. e compofitions in the form a? 23. The index 3 is ere. 2; Tra io rrd REO CA pi aaa oe a EE Ee a = et ere, eslee erin, ; £.G. 4. To find the number of compofitions of the form @bctd?. Heren = 4, m= 10, t,v = 3, wx = 2. The index 3 is twice repeated, and alfo the index 2. The letters a, 5 are thrice repeated ; and c, d twice. iAP ob ag. MA uaue Nn Bate Oley hacwts) Cikey qd Ke) Anf. 3 Bike 3+4-5:0-7 9 A NUP AS Laey SeinNG ys =6x 1.2% 1.2 25200 = 151200, £.G. 5. How many compofitions in the form a’ 33 3 def? tere =e Ow Ud blo) 650, cb) ay ao ae index 3 is twice repeated, and the index 1 thrice: the letter a five times repeated ; and 4 and ¢ thrice. Anf, Ta2.3.4.5-0 x 1.2.3.4-5.6.7.8.9.10,11-32.13.14. egies ye TOR, WTA interac cue ee = 60 x 20180160 = 1210809600. So prodigioufly do the numbers increafe in thefe operations. See ComBina- Tron and ComposirE numbers. ComposiT10N of motion, in Mechanics, is an aflemblage of feveral direGtions of motion, refulting from powers act- ing in different, though not oppofite lines. If a point move or flow according to one and the fame direGion, whether that motion be equable or not, yet it will {till keep the fame right line; the celerity alone being changed, i.e. increafed, or diminifhed, according to the forces with which it is impelled. If the directions be op- pofite, as one, ¢. gr. directly downward, the other upward, &c. yet ftil the line of motion will be the fame. But if the compounding motions be not according to the fame line of direétion, the compound motion will not be according to the line of direGtion of any of them, but in a different one from them all; and this either ftraight or crooked, according as the direétion cr celerities fhall re- uire. + If two compounding motions be each of them equable, the line of the compound motion will {till be a ftraight line ; and this, though the motions be neither at right angles one to another, nor equally fwift, nor (each to itfelf) equable ; provided that they be but fimilar; that is, both accelerated and retarded alike. Thus, if the point a (P/. XV. Mechanics. fig. 1.) be impel- Jed equally with two forces ; viz. upwards, towards 4, and forwards, towards d; it is plain, that when it is gone for- wards as faras ac, it muft of neceflity be gone upwards as far as ce; fo that were the motions both equable, it would always go on in the diagonal cee. Nay, fuppofe the motions unequal as to celerity, fo, v. gr. as that the body move twice as faft upwards as forwards, &c. yet ftill it muft go on in the diagonal ac; becaufe the triangles aec, aec, &c. and aed will ftill be fimilar, being as the motions are: and it will have defcribed the diagonal in the fame time which it would have required to defcribe either of the fides fingly. But, if the motions be diffimilar, then the compound mo- tion muft be a curve. And, if a body, as 4 (fig. 2.) be impelled or drawn by three different forces, in the three different directions 4 a, by and 4d, fo that it vields to none of them, but continues in aquilibrio then will thofe three powers or forces be to one another, as three right lines drawn parallel to thof€e lines, exprefling the three different dire€tions, and terminated by their mutual concourfes. Let de reprefent the force by which the body 4 is impel- led from 5 to a; then will the fame right line Je repre- fent alfo the contrary equal force, by which it is impelled from J to e; but by what hath been faid before, the force be is refolvable into the two forces aGting according to the two direGions 2d and éc, to which the other im- pelling from 4 toe, isas de to bd, and be or de, refpece tively, So likewife two forces, a€ting without the directions b d, be, and being equipollent to the force ating without the direGtion be, from 4 toe; will be to the force ating according to the direétion de, from & to e, as bd, bc, to ée: and therefore, the forces acting in the direétions } d,. 2c, and equipollent to the force a¢ting in the dire€tion de, are to the force aéting in the direction de, as bd, 4c, or de, to ‘bes that is, if a body be urged by three different equipollent powers in the direGions 6a, bd, and dc; thefe three forces fhall be to one another as be, bd, and de, ree {fpectively. This theorem, with its corollaries, Dr. Keill obferves, is the foundation of all the new mechanics of M. Varignon: by help of which may the force of the mufcles be comput- ed, and moft of the mechanic theorems in Borelli, De Motu Animalium, be immediately deduced. See Mo- TION. Composition of proportion.—If there be two ratios, wherein the antecedent of the firit is to its confequent, as the antecedent of the other is to its confequent ; then, by compofition of proportion, as the fum of the antecedent and confequent of the firftratio, is to the antecedent, or the confequent, of the fir; fo is the fum of the antece- dent and confequent of the fecond ratio, to the antecedent, or the confequent, of the fecond. E.gr.IfA:B::C:D; then by compofition, A+B:A or (B)::C+D:Cor(D). See Proportion. Composition of ratios, in Arithmetic and Algebra, is performed by multiplying the quantities or exponents of two-or more ratios together; the product is then faid to be compounded of the ratios whofe components were multiplied. Thus, if the quantities or exponents of the ratios a to b, cto d, e to f, be multiplied, we shall have +x